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Epidemiology and the Social Sciences

Epidemiology and the Social Sciences

Think back to the last time you had a cold. How did you catch that cold? You may not know exactly when or where you made contact with the germs that infected your body, but you can probably come up with a short list of probable times, places, and people.

Understanding how the common cold spreads, and how it can be avoided, is an example of information that has come out of the field of epidemiology.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), epidemiology uses scientific methods to examine the causes of health outcomes and diseases.

Epidemiology is the systematic study of the patterns, frequencies, and causes of health-related events in specific communities. While epidemiology is rooted in biology, it is also intrinsically tied to the social sciences.

The spread of communicable (or transmittable) diseases involves interactions among humans and populations and the cultural factors that influence those interactions.

For example, some diseases are passed from one person to the next via sexual activity. The beliefs and values governing regular sexual behavior in that culture might influence how quickly the disease can spread from one person to another.

For example, some diseases are passed from one person to the next via sexual activity. The beliefs and values governing regular sexual behavior in that culture might influence how quickly the disease can spread from one person to another.

However, that culture's openness about discussing sexual behavior and the associated risks might influence whether people use condoms, get tested for diseases regularly, and ask their partners about their sexual histories — steps that ultimately help prevent the spread of certain diseases.

In a similar way, social norms that dictate how closely people stand to one another when talking may influence how quickly a contagious, airborne disease can spread from one person to another.

Epidemiologists may study whether covering the mouth when coughing or sneezing are normal behaviors. They may study social norms related to preventing the spread of disease, such as hand washing.

Epidemiologists are also concerned with the social institutions that shape the likelihood that the population would come in contact with disease on a regular basis.

Are people traveling individually by walking, biking, or driving, or are they in close contact in mass transit systems? Is medical care affordable and available to those who need it? Are measures taken to ensure water quality and sanitation?

Geography and interaction with the environment are also important factors affecting the spread of some diseases.

For example, countries with environments that are ideal for mosquitoes are often at risk for the spread of diseases that mosquitoes can transmit, especially if mass treatment or prevention measures cannot be quickly provided.

In the case of non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes or malnourishment, epidemiologists are concerned with the availability of resources.

Is food available? If so, what kinds? What might prevent the availability of good quality foods to certain populations?

Finally, epidemiologists must understand how to apply their research to influence changes in behavior that could have positive health effects.

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Tip

Think back to when you were first researching the issue. What information did you need to fully understand the complexity of your social science issue? What concepts did you need explained? If the concept was very complex, how was it explained so that it became clear to you?

This goes much beyond simply providing people information; epidemiologists are concerned with influencing the psychology of individual people.

This might include encouraging people to wash their hands more frequently, or reminding them to get a flu shot. In areas where quality food is available, how can people be influenced to cut down on processed, sugary foods? How can people be influenced to use condoms?

One of the greatest challenges facing epidemiology is the rapid communication of accurate information to prevent negative health outcomes.

This can be seen in the recent outbreak of the Zika virus in South and Central America, as well as the Ebola outbreak in certain areas of Africa. For this reason, it is vital that a social scientist know how to communicate clearly and directly to a target audience, supporting his or her message with research.

Employing good communication tactics will not only ensure that the audience hears your message, but that they understand the message and grasp the importance.

In this module, we will use epidemiology to explore methods and best practices for communicating information related to the social sciences.

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Tailoring the Message

Tailoring the Message

For the purposes of your presentation, you will only choose one group of people to present to as your audience. Choosing the audience is incredibly important for communicating a message effectively, because a good presenter will tailor his or her message to the audience. How might the presenter do this?

Explanation of Concepts

An audience that works in a social science field will likely have a solid understanding of the concepts and terminology that are specific to your issue. In contrast, people who may simply have a need for, or may be influenced by, the applications of your research, might not have this knowledge. Neither group may have a complex understanding of the political history of a specific population of people, if that's what your research concerns. When explaining your research, it is important to identify what information the audience may need so that the explanation is clear but not oversimplified or too difficult.

Drawing Personal Connections

A very helpful tip for fostering audience engagement is drawing personal connections between the audience and the

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Tip

In some cases, connection to the issue will be very obvious to the audience, in which case your focus can shift to explaining the benefits of answering the research question. In other cases, your audience might need extra help understanding how they are impacted. Step into the shoes of your audience for a moment to understand how much explanation you'll need to give them.

Tip

This doesn't mean you'll need to find new resources, and it also doesn't mean that multiple audiences can't find the same information compelling. It does mean that you'll need to be wise about what data you choose to highlight and present to your audience. Ask yourself, what statistics might resonate with them? What facts will be persuasive?

issue. Your presentation should explain how the issue relates to them and why the research question concerns them. Answer these questions — then it's just a matter of explaining that connection to the audience.

Incorporation of Resources

The resources that you have researched are used not only to bolster your own understanding of the social science issue but also to demonstrate to the audience that the issue is important. You can use your evidence to show the audience's connection to the issue.

If the "why should I care?" argument changes from audience to audience, naturally, the evidence you'll need to support that explanation will change as well.

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Tools for Presenting

Tools for Presenting Ideas

The tools outlined below engage the audience's interest, help break down difficult topics, and provide enough context to give them a well-rounded understanding of your issue and research question.

Analogy

Analogies are a type of comparison. When used fairly and effectively, they help readers by linking a complicated idea or concept with something readers already understand. For example, physicians have long compared the human heart to a pump as a means of helping patients understand that the heart pushes blood through the body the way a pump pushes water out of a faucet.

Example: Currently, medicine in the United States approaches diagnosis and treatment too narrowly. A person can't understand a book by reading a single page. Sure, that person will get a feel for the book, but they can't possibly know how the story started or how it's going to end. Holistic medicine attempts to read the whole book. It approaches not only the body but also the mind, the spirit, and the person's context — past and present.

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Anecdote

An anecdote is a short, true story. There are many reasons a person might tell an anecdote. Many times anecdotes are used as the "hook" to get the audience interested right away, especially when the anecdote is amazing, funny, or emotional. In this way, anecdotes can also be used to set the tone or to jump-start the rest of the narrative by providing context for the higher-level information. Finally, anecdotes can tell a bit about the presenter. By relating one's own personal experiences, the audience may empathize with the speaker and care more about what he or she says next.

Example: ...So then she hands me one of the ducks that is hanging there. Now I'm standing in front of this street vendor holding a dead duck in one hand and a dead chicken in the other, gesturing — with either bird — toward what I actually need, which happens to be the rubber chicken that has been nailed to her kiosk. I have no way of explaining to her why I need that rubber chicken, I'm realizing, in either her language or mine. And I stop and look at my own hands waving these dead birds around in the air, and just start laughing. Then, so does she. We can't stop laughing. We laugh so hard that we cry, and other people walking by start chuckling too. Finally we're able to stop, and she takes the birds back from me, and takes me around the back of her kiosk and offers me some water to wash my hands with, still smiling. It's moments like that, moments that you couldn't have ever imaged experiencing... that's why I love travel. That's why travel is valuable for so many people. You don't know what you'll find, and that's exactly why it's important to go.

Defining and Simplifying

We've all had that experience. We may have been in school, speaking to a friend or acquaintance, or listening to someone on television — the topic is too technical, and we can't follow what the person is saying. Once lost, it's very hard to pick up the threads of the concept again.

When presenting, keep in mind that you have been researching this topic for weeks. Your audience, on the other hand, will be learning about your entire research project within a matter of minutes. If they are not professionals in the field, they could be hearing this information for the first time. Consider the terminology that might need to be defined. If there are technical concepts, theories, or ideas that you plan to explain, consider how you might simplify them.

In contrast, if your chosen audience is made up of professionals working in the social science field, be careful not to oversimplify your explanations, as this may come across as patronizing. Considering your audience carefully will help you strike the right tone.

Example: A lot of people believe that a bureaucracy is a bad thing. They think of it as an organization that has overgrown itself and can no longer function well, associated with phrases like "red tape." Certainly, that can happen; but it doesn't always. In the world of sociology, bureaucracy simply describes a sophisticated type of organization with specific characteristics, like levels of responsibility, and written rules. This distinction is important because in this context, bureaucracy isn't inherently a bad thing. In fact, it's necessary for organizations that grow past a certain size to structure themselves as bureaucracies in order to function.

History

In some cases, a brief history of the issue will be necessary for the audience to understand why things are the way they are now. For example, in Modules One and Two we discuss the social institutions in India. It was necessary to explain the historical forces that shaped these institutions in order to explain how and why they have come to be the way they are, and also to understand how and why they are changing. If your social science issue requires some historical context, remember to keep it brief and relevant to the issue.

Example: Most people associate high heels with women's fashion; in fact, this style has its origins in men's clothing. Heels were adapted to keep horse-riders' feet steady in stirrups. Heels then became a symbol of status, worn by both men and women. Later on, heels were thought to be too impractical for men but appropriate for women.

Visuals

In many cases, visual information can be incredibly impactful during a presentation. These may contain photographs of people, statistics and figures, or simply key terms and takeaway points featured while you explain them. We will discuss creating effective visuals in Module Six.

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