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Cao Fangjun

Modernization Theory and China’s Road to Modernization

Abstract: Research into modernization in the West can be traced back to over 200 years ago. In the 1960s, theories under the umbrella of “modernization theory” took shape and developed. Modernization theory addresses countries’ transforma- tion from traditional to modern forms through looking into the various paths taken by these countries and the characteristics manifested during the process. In the meantime, the theory itself has been undergoing adjustment and evolution amidst the theoretical clashes of many theories of social development. In exploring its road to modernization and learning from modernization theory, China has adopted an approach of drawing on the useful and discarding the unfit elements found in modernization theory. As a result, China has formed its own ideas on development with Chinese characteristics. At present, the task that China faces is to properly handle all kinds of social contradictions, build a harmonious society, and strive to realize China’s development by leaps and bounds.

Modernization is a process of modern transformations in social, economic, and political systems. Historically, it is an ongoing worldwide migration that has been changing and continues to reshape global structures and systems. In the West, the study of modernization can be traced back to over 200 years ago, and the 1960s saw a big wave of modernization theory studies. In the East, China has been making unremitting efforts in exploring its road to modernization. By doing so, China is putting the theory of modernization into practice, as well as enriching the theory itself. As China modernizes, one of the most important research issues it faces is where China’s modernization is going. In other words, how should China learn from the achievements of modernization theory that evolved in the West while upholding the guiding ideology of building socialism with Chinese characteristics?

Cao Fangjun is a research fellow at the Confucius Academy, Qufu, Shandong province.

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Modernization Theory in the West and Its Evolution

Modernization is a worldwide social movement, and its practice and theory have always been closely linked. In the 1960s, “development studies” evolved into an interdisciplinary field. By then, the post-industrialization path of modernization taken by the West had not only gained global recognition, but also propelled the development of modernization studies. It was during this period that moderniza- tion theory experienced vigorous growth, and that the fundamental concepts of modernization theory were laid out.

The core concepts of modernization theory are “tradition” and “modernity.” The “modernization” of society, in a nutshell, is a process of transformation from “traditional” society to “modern” society. Many early modernization theorists have produced their perspectives as to what is modern society, shedding light on the topic from their respective fields. Their interpretation of what modern society is can be summarized as follows.

First, in an economy, the manufacturing and service sectors have an absolute advantage over other sectors, and the ratio of reliance upon inanimate energy is much higher relative to animate energy. One of the notable features of modernized society is the rapid advancement of science and technology, whose achievements are quickly and substantively transformed into direct productive forces, leading to a rapid increase in industrialization and automation. In terms of modernity, the dominant pattern of modern production is the Fordist model, which was established to meet the needs of mass production. Anchored on the automatic production line, the production mode is characterized by standardized, continuous, and highly intense labor, which leads to the simplification of man and fixation in the division of labor. The basic form of organization is strictly hierarchical.

Second, in politics, the modern governmental system exhibits a high level of differentiation and functional specialization, and adopts a rational and secularized procedure in decision making. People take great interest in participating in political activities, and various regulations are established based on law. As societies mod- ernize, the centralized bureaucratic systems and political powers in many countries see a highly visible change, and their political systems become more open, leading to an increase in democratic consciousness among the people.

Third, modern societies are highly stratified in social structure. Various organiza- tions are greatly specialized and interdependent. Populations concentrate in cities, with a high rate of social flow. People’s roles and social status are largely defined by their abilities and achievements. As the criteria that regulate interpersonal relation- ships are standardized and widely held, and the bureaucratic system is developed, the function and status of the family diminishes. In this new form of society, the increasingly shrinking size of economic activities makes it possible for all kinds of dispersed small economic organizations to thrive. The traditional bureaucratic registration system will gradually move out of the stage, and the division of social

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classes will be more diversified. People rely on modern means of communication to obtain all sorts of resources.

Fourth, modern culture is characterized by its separation from such realms as the economy, politics, and society, and by the independence of its inner sectors. During this process of separation, modern culture manifests a tendency to become more formalized and programmed. As a result, all cultural forms and activities become clearer than ever before, to such an extent that the diversity of culture is nearly lost. Concepts that are in the core of modern culture include rationalism, individual freedom, competitive spirit, and emphases on efficiency and functionality.1

Fifth, in individual personality and behavior, members of modern society have a strong motive for success, exhibiting a high level of rationality and initiative in dealing with relevant affairs. They are open to new things, have a strong sense of participation in public affairs, and have a relatively high trust in the world in which they live.

At the end of the 1960s, the core concepts and many views of modernization theory encountered furious criticism from social scientists in the third world and activists from developed countries. They pointed out that the division of “tradition” and “mo- dernity” was oversimplified and did not sufficiently capture the true characteristics of Western nations on their road of development. What is more, modernization theory took modernization in the West as the criterion for modernization worldwide. That is to say the specific was generalized, leaving the transformation of many developing countries unexplained. Taking these criticisms into consideration, modernization theorists revisited the theory, fleshed out a new full-fledged modernization theory, and gave the theory momentum for its second rise in the 1980s.

The new modernization theory shows revisions made to the traditional theory and maintains a certain level of continuity with respect to the old one. The revised theory is more forceful and persuasive. While continuity is seen in inherited con- cepts like “modern” and “modernization” and in its basic features, the effective revisions are found in the following.

1. Instead of assuming that both tradition and modernity are invariable, homogeneous entities, the new modernization theory holds that both tradition and modernity are composed of diversified elements. In contrast to the previous practice of putting tradition and modernity at opposite ends, the new theory believes they can coexist and supplement each other. Instead of the hasty generalization of tradition as an obstacle to the drive for modernization, it points out that many traditional elements could well be used to exert positive effects on the drive toward modernization.

2. Realizing that the Western pattern of development is not the only possible road to modernization, the new theory no longer lingers in the “single-track- evolution” mode. It is understood that the Western road may not be suitable for other countries, and that there should be different roads and models of

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modernization. Seeing these possibilities of roads to modernization, the theorists are no longer satisfied with the abstract description and analysis of the modernization process. Instead, they focus more on concrete and historic case studies, adopting a comparative approach.

3. Also, theorists have started to notice the significance of the external environment. While internal factors remain the central focus, theorists have become well aware of the role played by the external environment in shaping the patterns of development in non-Western countries. This change is evident in a new trend of examining the process of modernization from the interaction between the interior and the exterior factors.

China’s Road to Modernization and Its Theory

Over the past century and a half, since the end of the Opium Wars in the 1860s, many people, driven by lofty ideals, have devoted themselves to China’s modernization. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, three generations of central collective leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), together with the Chinese people, have been carrying out tireless explorations in moderniza- tion. Their unremitting efforts have brought China on to a road of modernization with Chinese characteristics. Shortly after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the first generation of leadership represented by Mao Zedong asserted that we should find our own way to industrialization, a way suited to China’s conditions, by proceeding from the fact that China is an agricultural country, taking agriculture as the foundation of the economy, correctly handling the relationship between heavy industry on the one hand and agriculture and light industry on the other, and attach- ing due importance to the development of the latter. Since 1978, we have come to the understanding that the Four Modernizations are only the fundamental aspects of China’s industrialization, and are insufficient to convey the rich content pertaining to modernization. A new goal was set in response to this understanding, that is, to build an all-around and harmonious socialist modernization. Based on the bitter lessons of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping stressed that we should proceed from the national condition that China is at the primary stage of socialism while pursuing development. We should take economic development as the central task and rejuvenate the country through science and education. The third generation of central collective leadership of the party further points out that we should not only address people’s material and cultural needs, but also upgrade the ideological and ethical standards as well as the scientific and cultural qualities of the entire people. In other words, we should increase people’s material wealth, promote their cultural and ethical progress, and constantly push forward their all-around development. This comprehensive plan shows that we have made great strides in our drive toward modernization.

In exploring our road to modernization, we have adopted what is useful in

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Western modernization theory and discarded its unfit components. We have formed a modernization outlook with Chinese characteristics. The continuity from Western modernization theory can be seen in the following three points: first, the most important step of China’s modernization is taking the path of industrialization. The path of a new type of industrialization that we advocate today also holds that the primary task is to develop a modern economy. Second, China’s exploration of the road to modernization has displayed the features of a certain phase defined by modernization. This inevitable phase is the transfor- mation from an economy dominated by agriculture to an economy where the tertiary sector plays a central role. Third, over the decades of modernization endeavor, China has gradually established structures in economics, politics, and society that resemble those of the West. In certain areas, we have even copied the theories of the West.

However, the major achievement is that China has proceeded from realities, and formulated its own concepts of modernization. These concepts and the mod- ernization guided by those concepts have distinctive characteristics in contrast to modernization theory and the model of Western modernization.

1. Socialist characteristics. Modernization is a systematic project and process. The impact of modernization is not only seen in economic development, but also reflected in the changes of some ideologies and social systems. This means that China’s modernization must follow its own guiding ideology. The road that China sticks to is not that of capitalist modernization, but a road guided by both Marxism and China’s realities. China has to modernize itself because modernization is crucial to set a solid foundation for a strong socialist China. At the same time, China has to strengthen the socialist system and uphold Marxist ideology since they are the fundamental guarantee that modernization in China will proceed smoothly.

2. Integral harmony. Continuing to emphasize the all-around development of the economy, spiritual civilization, and democratic politics, the central collective leadership of the CCP represented by Jiang Zemin attaches more importance to the harmony between economic development and social progress, and to the overall progress of society and the development of individuals, insists on promoting the common progress of material and spiritual civilization, and the coordinated development of the economy and the society, places the overall advancement of society in a position of strategic importance, and stresses the coordinated and sustainable development of the economy and society. During the five years since the Sixteenth National Congress of the CCP, the party has continuously deepened the concept of building a harmonious society, and has requested that the people should be united under the leadership of the party and endeavor to build an economic, political, and spiritual civilization with Chinese

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characteristics, and to bring about a harmonious society. The current path of China’s modernization goes together with the path of building a “four- in-one”2 harmonious society. The coupling of these two paths is beneficial to building a harmonious society with Chinese characteristics and realizing China’s modernization with Chinese characteristics.

3. Putting people first. In terms of the understanding of modernization, China has shifted from focusing on the economy to focusing on society, people, and the harmonious relations between man and nature. The country is witnessing a series of transformations in the model of development: from pure economic pursuit to comprehensive social development, from unsustainable to sustainable development, and from substance-centered to people-centered ideas. Modernization theory in its early stage has a tendency to eliminate or disregard the characteristics of any individual. A person in such a modern social system is primarily seen as a functional unit filling a position rather than as a vivid individual. But China is pursuing a people-centered modernization. By drawing on the latest ideas of modernization theory and analyzing China’s own practice, China has found a road to modernization with Chinese characteristics.

China’s socialist modernization requires that we base ourselves on China’s realities, conform to the internal law of China’s social development, and respond to the trend of advancement in human society. The formulation of the new out- look and strategy on an all-around and coordinated development has shown that the generations of central collective leadership of the CCP since the Fourteenth Congress maintain a firm faith in China’s socialist modernization with a global perspective in its planning, and that our interpretation of a socialist modernization with Chinese characteristics has evolved to a new level.

The Future of China’s Modernization

At the beginning of a new century, facing the question of where China’s modern- ization is heading, the CCP and Chinese theorists on modernization have carried out significant explorations and practices.

Building a Moderately Prosperous Society

Deng Xiaoping first put forward the idea of building a moderately prosperous society as one of the goals of China’s modernization. At the Fifth Plenary Session of the Fifteenth Central Committee, building a moderately prosperous society in all respects was established as a new goal. The tasks for building a moderately prosperous society have been set, and these have largely defined the content and process of China’s socialist modernization. This goal of building a moderately prosperous society is based on both China’s socialist system and China’s realities.

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Therefore, China’s road to modernization is fundamentally different from that of Western countries. The objectives of building a moderately prosperous society are as follows: In the economy, efforts will be made to quadruple the gross domestic product (GDP) of 2000 by the year 2020, and China’s overall national strength and international competitiveness will increase markedly. In political develop- ment, the systems of socialist democracy will be further enhanced, the socialist legal system will be improved, and the basic principle of ruling the country by law will be completely established. In cultural development, the ideological and ethical standards, the scientific and cultural qualities, as well as the health of the entire people, will be upgraded so as to promote the all-around development of people. In sustainable development, capability will be enhanced, the efficiency of using resources will be increased, and harmony between man and nature will be improved. This goal of promoting the all-around and coordinated development in the socialist economy, politics, and culture demonstrates the overall features of China’s pursuit of modernization.

The Scientific Outlook on Development

It is put forward that we should always put people first and adopt the concept of comprehensive, balanced, and sustainable development to advance the all-around development of the economy, society, and the people. We should solve the problems arising in the process of development as well as push forward reform and develop- ment in accordance with the principle of the “Five Overall Plans.”3 The scientific outlook on development is a dialectical negation of the Western model of social development and Western modernization theory which puts the economy first. It pursues a comprehensive and steady development with Chinese characteristics. It has clearly stated the layers of meaning of development, and set the goal of an overall coordinated development. To a certain degree, it has identified itself with some of the rational ideas found in A new Concept of development and the Clash of Civilizations.4 But of course, this scientific outlook on development is tailor- made to suit China’s unique circumstances.5

The idea of building a moderately prosperous society, the scientific outlook on development, and the concept of “overall plans” all contribute to the cause of build- ing a harmonious society by either pointing out the goals or providing the patterns of realizing a modernization with Chinese characteristics. It is true that finding answers to such questions as how to recognize and solve the problems in China’s present modernization and how to realize the harmonious development in China have become tasks of great significance. To fulfill these tasks, one important step is to correctly understand and handle various relationships, and to address all kinds of conflicts arising from the social transformation. There are still quite a few difficulties and problems in China’s way forward. The outstanding ones include the following: first, over a fairly long period of time, there is an imbalance in development with economic pursuit getting the top priority. Political, cultural, and social developments

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have been overlooked, resulting in China’s current “crippled” development. This is especially evident in the sector of social programs where national investment falls short of the needs. Second, the conflict in urban and rural development is very serious. China has been experiencing a long-standing pattern of urban–rural dual- ism which seriously limits rural development. As a result, it is very hard for rural reform to advance and the imbalance in urban and rural development is worsening. Third, there remains an imbalance in development among regions. From 1978 to 2000, the eastern region has been experiencing a higher GDP growth rate than the central and the western regions. Beginning in the 1990s, the GDP growth rate of the eastern region accelerated, and was more than four percentage points higher than that of the central region, and more than six percentage points higher than that of the western region. Also, China’s economic growth is being realized at an excessively high cost of resources and the environment. With a large population, China’s per capita resources ratio is very low. How can we improve the environ- ment for life and development and build a harmonious society?

First of all, we should get a broad picture of the process of modernization. World- wide modernization has undergone its first profound transformation from the times of agriculture to industrialization, from an agriculture-based to an industry-based economy, and from a society and civilization largely defined by agriculture to a society defined by industrialization. At present, the world is experiencing the second transformation, that is, a change from industry-based society to a knowledge-based society and from industry-based civilization to a knowledge-based civilization. These two important transformations are taking place simultaneously inside China due to its complicated national conditions. Therefore, China’s modernization should address the dual task combining the first and second stage of modernization: to fully realize the first stage of modernization typically characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and economic advancement, and to carry out the second stage of modernization featuring a knowledge-driven, information-driven society which ensures a high quality of life. In terms of the second-stage modernization, China has set a goal of reaching the level of a moderately developed country by 2050. China should give better play to its late-developing potential so that the country will develop by leaps and bounds.

Second, China should modernize itself stage by stage, varying its strategic priority in accordance with the realities manifested at different stages. The major strategic emphases include the following: first, the same importance should be attached to the drive for industrialization and the pursuit of a new road to industri- alization. A solid industrial foundation is a prerequisite for China’s modernization, and a new road to industrialization should be taken if the industrialization of China is to be accelerated. The new road to industrialization is an important thought on development put forward by the central government of China in the new century. China’s modernization drive is not a destructive development, and should not be realized at the high cost of resources and the environment. On the contrary, it is a modernization that features a resource-conserving society. Therefore, adhering

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to the new road of industrialization is one of the basic requirements for China’s modernization drive. Second, we should combine the urbanization drive and the diffusion of urban forms. A major part of modernization is the modernization of rural areas, which encompasses rural-to-urban transition in various forms, gradually bridging the gap between rural and urban areas until eventually equity between rural and urban areas is reached. Rural urbanization is a comparatively ideal path to successful rural development. Third, continued efforts should be made to improve information technology and network systems, and to accelerate knowledge-based technology and an advanced education system. In the global context where the knowledge-based economy has come to figure more prominently, China is aiming at accomplishing IT and network applications, which is one of the high goals formulated to bring about China’s development by leaps and bounds. In fulfilling this aim, we should accelerate the transformation of knowledge into productivity and improve the education system. Apart from these three strategic priorities, we should also endeavor to provide good political and legal guarantees through adjusting social structures, strengthening the virtuous movement of the social order, improving the social system, and facilitating the mobility of people. These external factors have been influencing and will continue to have an impact on China’s modernization.6

Third, China’s modernization theory should keep up with the times, should be very persuasive, and should take China’s basic realities into careful consideration. In addition to hardware development, the modernization drive also entails the ef- fort to provide theories to guide the process. We should observe carefully the new features coming into shape during modernization, recognize some significant topics, and expound on these so as to enrich the existing theory of modernization. While the updated theory can better guide China’s modernization drive, the enrichment of the theory itself will be a great contribution to the advancement of modernization theory. In fulfilling this task, we should not be satisfied with merely introducing and revising Western social theories and should not follow those Western theories rigidly. Instead, we should base ourselves on China’s realities and blaze a new road to modernization with our own explorations in the modernization drive.

Notes

1. Xie Lizhong, “Xiandaihua lilun de guoqu yu xianzai” (Modernization theory: Past and present), Shehui kexue yanjiu (Studies in social sciences) 1 (1998).

2. Four-in-one: to integrate the construction of four areas: the economy, politics, culture, and society. —Trans.

3. Five overall plans: five major relationships that should be correctly handled. They include the balance between urban and rural development, development among regions, economic and social development, relations between man and nature, and domestic devel- opment and opening to the outside world.—Trans.

4. See François Perroux, A new Concept of development: Basic tenets (Paris: UNESCO, 1983); and Samuel Huntington, the Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993).—Trans.

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5. Cheng Long, “Kexue fazhanguan: Zhidao Zhongguo xiandaihua jianshe de zhanxin lilun” (Scientific outlook on development: New theories guiding China’s modernization), Gansu lilun xuekan (Gansu journal of theory) 3 (2004).

6. Li Jingxuan, “Guanyu Zhongguo xiandaihua ruogan wenti de sikao” (Reflections on certain issues in China’s modernization), Jianghan luntan (Jianghan forum) 2 (2004).

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