Western Art History Approaches......7

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Art History

Sixth Edition

Chapter 18

Fourteenth-Century Art in Europe

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

18.a Identify the visual hallmarks of fourteenth-century European art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.

18.b Interpret the meaning of works of fourteenth-century European art based on its themes, subjects, and symbols.

18.c Relate fourteenth-century European art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

18.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to fourteenth-century European art, artists, and art history.

18.e Interpret a work of fourteenth-century European art using the art historical methods of observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.

18.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of a work of fourteenth-century European art.

Ambrogio Lorenzetti FRESCOS OF THE SALA DEI NOVE (OR SALA DELLA PACE) Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy. 1338–1339. Length of long wall approx. 46' (14 m). © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-01]

Fourteenth-Century Europe

Giotto di Bondone's murals were rooted in his observation of people around him, giving humanity to figures in sacred narrative.

Societal changes arrived in the form of artisan guilds, and Luke was the patron saint of painters.

Much of Europe was in crisis from famine, war, and the plague.

EUROPE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY Following its outbreak in the Mediterranean in 1347, the Black Death swept across the European mainland over the next four years. [Map 18-01]

Art and Its Contexts: A New Spirit in Fourteenth-Century Literature (1 of 2)

Petrarch and his contemporaries had an appreciation for Greek and Roman authors and the ability to observe people around them.

He updated Classical themes in The Triumphs.

Giovanni Boccaccio told moralizing short stories in The Decameron.

Art and Its Contexts: A New Spirit in Fourteenth-Century Literature (2 of 2)

Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales about fictional traveling pilgrims.

Christine de Pizan wrote The Book of the City Ladies to defend women's abilities and argue for their rights and status.

Italy

Wealth promoted the patronage of art and the emergence of artists as individuals.

Artists worked with similar methods and conditions as in the Middle Ages, but felt free to experiment in a self-confident way.

Florentine Architecture and Metalwork (1 of 2)

In Florence, the ancient Roman city formed the basis for civic layout.

Palazzo della Signoria

This fortified bell tower stands 300 feet tall.

Town houses around the piazza often had benches to provide public seating.

Loggia such as the Loggia dei Lanzi provided shelter for open-air events.

PIAZZA DELLA SIGNORIA WITH PALAZZO DELLA SIGNORIA (TOWN HALL) AND LOGGIA DEI LANZI (LOGGIA OF THE LANCERS) Florence. Palazzo della Signoria, 1299–1310; Loggia dei Lanzi, 1376–1382. © Achim Bednorz, Cologne. [Fig. 18-02]

Florentine Architecture and Metalwork (2 of 2)

The Baptistery Doors

Andrea Pisano was awarded the commission for gilded bronze doors for the Baptistery of San Giovanni.

They display 20 scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist.

The scene of John baptizing a multitude presents gilded figures as an independent mass of molded forms.

Andrea Pisano LIFE OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST South doors, baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence. 1330–1336. Gilded bronze, each panel 19-1/4 × 17" (48 × 43 cm). Frame, Ghiberti workshop, mid 15th century. © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-03]

Andrea Pisano THE BAPTISM OF THE MULTITUDE Detail of the south doors, baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence. 1330–1336. Gilded bronze, 19-1/4 × 17" (48 × 43 cm). Photo: David G. Wilkins. [Fig. 18-04]

Florentine Painting (1 of 6)

Cimabue

Cenni di Pepi, or Cimabue, probably painted the Virgin and Child Enthroned.

This is a monumental painting at over 12 feet high.

Highlights on the draperies of divine figures are lined with gold, a Byzantine tradition.

Subtle asymmetries make the painting lifelike and give figures presence.

Cimabue VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED Most likely painted for the high altar of the church of Santa Trinità, Florence. c. 1280. Tempera and gold on wood panel, 12'7" × 7'4" (3.53 × 2.2 m). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-05]

Florentine Painting (2 of 6)

Giotto di Bondone

Giotto di Bondone was a student of Cimabue who became an excellent imitator of nature.

Virgin and Child Enthroned reflects Cimabue's influence in posture, but Giotto portrays Mary as stocky and formal.

Figures pop out against a flat, gold background.

Giotto di Bondone VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED Most likely painted for the high altar of the church of the Ognissanti (All Saints), Florence. 1305–1310. Tempera and gold on wood panel, 10'8" × 6'8-1/4" (3.53 × 2.05 m). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-06]

Technique: Buon Fresco

Buon Fresco is a technique in which water-based paint is applied on wet plaster and bonds to the wall surface.

A giornata is a section of the work that could be painted in a day and varied in size based on complexity of the area being painted.

Underdrawings known as sinopia were drawn in reddish-brown pigment.

TECHNIQUE: Buon Fresco

Florentine Painting (3 of 6)

Giotto di Bondone

Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel frescos

Educated worshipers would understand the juxtaposition of such scenes as the resurrection of Lazarus and Jesus's own Resurrection.

These are traditional medieval associations.

Giotto's audience might envision these events in relation to their own experiences.

Florentine Painting (4 of 6)

Giotto di Bondone

Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel frescos

The chapel itself is a barrel-vaulted room with broad walls to showcase the paintings.

The entrance wall portrays the Last Judgment.

Scenes of the Life of Christ and the Virgin spread over the rest of the walls.

Giotto di Bondone SCROVEGNI (ARENA) CHAPEL, VIEW TOWARD EAST WALL Padua. 1305–1306. Frescos. © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-07]

Florentine Painting (5 of 6)

Giotto di Bondone

Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel frescos

A narrative set of frescos on the north wall portray Jesus performing his first miracle, the Raising of Lazarus, the lamentation, and the Resurrection.

Figures' twisting creates human drama.

Mourning over the dead Jesus gives way to the movement of Jesus away from the painting in the Resurrection.

Giotto di Bondone MARRIAGE AT CANA, RAISING OF LAZARUS, LAMENTATION, AND RESURRECTION/NOLI ME TANGERE North wall of Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel, Padua. 1305–1306. Fresco, each scene approx. 6-1/2 × 6' (2 × 1.85 m). © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-08]

Florentine Painting (6 of 6)

Giotto di Bondone

Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel frescos

The Kiss of Judas portrays the tension-filled scene.

Jesus alone stands with calm resolve.

In a subplot, Peter lunges to sever the ear of a member of the retinue.

Giotto di Bondone KISS OF JUDAS South wall of Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel, Padua. 1305–1306. Fresco, 6'6-3/4" × 6' 7/8" (2 × 1.85 m). © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-09]

Sienese Painting (1 of 5)

Duccio di Buoninsegna

Duccio di Buoninsegna synthesized Late Byzantine style with linear French Gothic forms.

The Maestà altarpiece for the Siena Cathedral was so large that it had to be painted on both sides, as it could be seen from all directions.

It was dismantled in 1771 and lacks cohesion of its elements today.

Duccio di Buoninsegna CONJECTURAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE FRONT OF THE MAESTÀ ALTARPIECE Made for Siena Cathedral. 1308–1311. Tempera and gold on wood, main front panel 7 × 13' (2.13 × 4.12 m). © Lew Minter. [Fig. 18-10a]

Duccio di Buoninsegna CONJECTURAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE BACK OF THE MAESTÀ ALTARPIECE Made for Siena Cathedral. 1308–1311. Tempera and gold on wood, main front panel 7 × 13' (2.13 × 4.12 m). © Lew Minter. [Fig. 18-10b]

Sienese Painting (2 of 5)

Duccio di Buoninsegna

In the scene Raising of Lazarus, lyrical figures have urgent, expressive gestures.

Duccio's experiment with the portrayal of space can be seen in the rocks.

The Betrayal of Jesus is more expansive in complexity and includes two subsequent moments in the story.

Duccio di Buoninsegna RAISING OF LAZARUS From the predella of the back of the Maestà altarpiece (lower right corner of FIG. 18-10b), made for Siena Cathedral. 1308–1311. Tempera and gold on wood, 17-1/8 × 18-1/4" (43.5 × 46.4 cm). Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 18-11]

Duccio di Buoninsegna BETRAYAL OF JESUS From the back of the Maestà altarpiece (lower center of FIG. 18-10b), made for Siena Cathedral. 1308–1311. Tempera and gold on wood, 22-1/2 × 40" (57.2 × 101.6 cm). Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena. © 2016. Photo Opera Metropolitana Siena/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 18-12]

Technique: Cennino Cennini on Panel Painting

In Il Libro dell' Arte, Cennini outlines a highly formulaic painting process.

He explains that wood for painting on panels should be fine-grained and seasoned by slow-drying.

He also specified at least nine layers of gesso should be applied.

Italian painters of this time primarily used tempera paint.

Sienese Painting (3 of 5)

Simone Martini

Martini's most famous work was commissioned for the cathedral of his native Siena, the Annunciation.

Seemingly frightened at her celestial visitor, Mary recoils into her throne.

Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi ANNUNCIATION Made for Siena Cathedral. 1333. Tempera and gold on wood, 10' × 8'9" (3 × 2.67 m). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-13]

Art and Its Contexts: The Black Death

The Black Death had a significant impact on the development of Italian art mid-fourteenth century.

Art historian Millard Meiss believed artists retreated from rounded forms to old-fashioned styles.

Recent art historians pointed out that stylistic change is not necessarily connected with social situations.

Andrea di Cione (nicknamed "Orcagna") ENTHRONED CHRIST WITH SAINTS, FROM THE STROZZI ALTARPIECE Strozzi Chapel, Santa Maria Novella, Florence. 1354–1357. Tempera and gold on wood, 9' × 9'8" (2.74 × 2.95 m). © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-14]

Sienese Painting (4 of 5)

Ambrogio Lorenzetti

The Palazzo Pubblico was the most important civic structure in Siena.

Lorenzetti was commissioned to paint frescos for the council room of the Palazzo on the theme of contrast between good and bad government.

AERIAL VIEW OF THE CAMPO IN SIENA WITH THE PALAZZO PUBBLICO (CITY HALL INCLUDING ITS TOWER) FACING ITS STRAIGHT SIDE Siena. Palazzo Pubblico 1297–c. 1315; tower 1320s–1340s. © Archivi Alinari, Firenze. [Fig. 18-15]

Sienese Painting (5 of 5)

Ambrogio Lorenzetti

The Effects of Good Government in the City and in the Country was an idealized but recognizable portrait of the city.

The Porta Romana divides the city from the surrounding countryside.

Figures are rendered in large scale compared to the buildings to highlight their activity.

Ambrogio Lorenzetti THE EFFECTS OF GOOD GOVERNMENT IN THE CITY AND IN THE COUNTRY Sala dei Nove (also known as Sala della Pace), Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy. 1338–1339. Fresco, total length about 46' (14 m). © Studio Fotografico Quattrone, Florence. [Fig. 18-16]

France

The power of the nobility was challenged by townsmen, who took advantage of new economic opportunities.

French sculptors found lucrative outlets for their work.

Manuscript painters created illustrations for books of personal devotions.

Manuscript Illumination

A Book of Hours contained special prayers to be recited at eight canonical "devotional" hours.

The Book of Hours of Jeanne d'Évreaux

Illuminated by Jean Pucelle, this book was precious to the queen.

In the Annunciation, Mary receives Gabriel in a Gothic building that projects toward the viewer.

A CLOSER LOOK: The Kiss of Judas and the Annunciation by Jean Pucelle Two-page opening from the Hours of Jeanne d’Évreux. Paris. c. 1324–1328. Grisaille and color on vellum, each page 3-5/8 × 2-7/16" (9.2 × 6.2 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The Cloisters Collection (54.1.2), fols. 15v-16r. © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/ Scala, Florence. [Fig. 18-17]

Metalwork and Ivory (1 of 2)

Sculpted works became smaller in the fourteenth century and called for greater scrutiny from the viewer.

A Virgin and Child from Saint-Denis

An inscription dates Virgin and Child to 1339.

Mary holds the child while standing in a Gothic S-curve pose.

14 miniature scenes line the base.

VIRGIN AND CHILD c. 1324–1339. Silver gilt and enamel, height 27-1/8" (69 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris. © Jacqueline Guillot/akg-images. [Fig. 18-18]

Metalwork and Ivory (2 of 2)

An Ivory Chest with Scenes of Romance

A Parisian luxury object, this ivory chest contained secular scenes of romantic love and would have been given from a man to a woman.

Unlike royal marriages, romantic love involved passionate devotion and served as the theme for many works.

Jousting is the theme of the Walters casket.

SMALL IVORY CHEST WITH SCENES FROM COURTLY ROMANCES Made in Paris. c. 1330–1350. Elephant ivory with modern iron mounts, height 4-1/2 × 9-11/16 × 4-7/8" (11.5 × 24.6 × 12.4 cm). The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. [Fig. 18-19]

TRISTAN AND ISEULT AT THE FOUNTAIN; CAPTURE OF THE UNICORN Left short side of the chest in FIG. 18-19. Photo © The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. [Fig. 18-21]

England

English life in the fourteenth century was documented with social commentary by Geoffrey Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales.

Edward I and many nobles and bishops were generous patrons of the arts.

Embroidery: Opus Anglicanum

The English were renowned for pictorial needlework throughout Europe.

The Chichester-Constable Chasuble

This heavy liturgical vestment was embroidered with gold and would have required help for the wearers to move.

The Annunciation, Adoration of the Magi, and Coronation of the Virgin are scenes upon it.

LIFE OF THE VIRGIN, BACK OF THE CHICHESTER-CONSTABLE CHASUBLE From a set of vestments embroidered in opus anglicanum from southern England. c. 1330–1350. Red velvet with silk and metallic thread and seed pearls, length 4'3" (129.5 cm), width 30" (76 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Fletcher Fund, 1927 (27 162.1). © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 18-22]

Architecture (1 of 3)

The "Decorated style" of Gothic architecture developed out of Henry III's desire to surpass his brother-in-law as patron of the arts.

The Decorated Style at Exeter

Thomas of Witney supervised construction of the nave and upper parts of the choir.

Corbels support 13 clusters of ribs.

INTERIOR, EXETER CATHEDRAL Devon, England. Thomas of Witney, choir, 14th century and bishop's throne, 1313–1317; Robert Lesyngham, east window, 1389–1390. © akg/Bildarchiv Monheim. [Fig. 18-23]

Architecture (2 of 3)

The Decorated Style at Exeter

Detailed records survive for the building of the Cathedral, outlining how masons and carpenters were paid and housed as well as where materials came from.

The 57-foot-high bishop's throne was painted and gilded, invoking a symbol of power and authority of the Church rather than venerating the individual bishop.

Architecture (3 of 3)

The Perpendicular Style at Exeter

Robert Lesyngham rebuilt the great east window with rectilinear patterns and angular shapes.

This style of architecture heralds Renaissance style through its balance, regularity, and plainness.

The Holy Roman Empire

Germany, divided into multiple states, was united under the ideal fiction of the Holy Roman Empire.

Germans elected the Holy Roman emperors, who would continue to be lavish patrons of the arts.

Mysticism and Suffering (1 of 2)

Devotional images of Mary mourning her son were called Vesperbild.

Vesperbild

The example shows the intense, emotional face of the Virgin as she haunches over her emaciated son.

Such an image mimicked the way Mary held Christ as an infant.

VESPERBILD (PIETÀ) From the Middle Rhine region, Germany. c. 1330. Wood and polychromy, height 34-1/2" (88.4 cm). Landesmuseum, Bonn. © akg-images/Erich Lessing. [Fig. 18-24]

Mysticism and Suffering (2 of 2)

The Hedwig Codex

St. Hedwig devoted her life to caring for the poor and carried a small ivory statue of the Virgin and Child which she carried at all times.

Her image serves as the frontispiece of a manuscript commissioned in 1353.

She clutches the statue, rosary, and prayer book, and her boots are draped over her arm.

ST. HEDWIG OF SILESIA WITH DUKE LUDWIG I OF LIEGNITZ-BRIEG AND DUCHESS AGNES Dedication page of the Hedwig Codex. 1353. Ink and paint on parchment, 13-7/16 × 9-3/4" (34 × 25 cm). The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. MS. Ludwig XI 7, fol. 12v [Fig. 18-25]

The Supremacy of Prague (1 of 3)

During the rule of Charles IV of Bohemia, Prague replaced Constantinople as the "New Rome."

Pope Clement VI made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, inciting construction on the cathedral of St. Vitus in the Gothic style.

The Supremacy of Prague (2 of 3)

The Parler Family

Heinrich designed and began building the church of the Holy Cross in 1317 and his son Peter designed the choir after 1351.

The contrast between their styles shows the increasing complexity of rib patterns covering the vaults.

Peter turned the St. Vitrus Cathedral into a "glass house."

Heinrich and Peter Parler PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY CROSS, SCHWÄBISCH GMÜND Germany. Begun in 1317 by Heinrich Parler; choir by Peter Parler begun in 1351; vaulting completed 16th century. © Achim Bednorz, Cologne [Fig. 18-26a]

Heinrich and Peter Parler INTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY CROSS, SCHWÄBISCH GMÜND Germany. Begun in 1317 by Heinrich Parler; choir by Peter Parler begun in 1351; vaulting completed 16th century. [Fig. 18-26b]

The Supremacy of Prague (3 of 3)

Master Theodoric

The court painter at Karlstejn Castle painted saints on over 130 panels.

The gaze of St. Luke, patron saint of painters, suggests that this may be a self-portrait.

His personal style combined oversized heads and hands, soft-modeled drapery, and haunted faces.

Master Theodoric ST. LUKE Holy Cross Chapel, Karlstejn Castle, near Prague. 1360–1364. Paint and gold on panel, 45-1/4" × 37" (115 × 94 cm). Photo: Radovan Boček. [Fig. 18-27]

Think About It (1 of 2)

Compare and contrast Giotto's and Duccio's renderings of the biblical story of Christ's Raising of Lazarus (Figs. 18–8, 18–11).

Discuss Ambrogio Lorenzetti's engagement with secular subject matter in his frescos for Siena's Palazzo Pubblico (Fig. 18–16). How did these paintings relate to their sociopolitical context?

Think About It (2 of 2)

Discuss the circumstances surrounding the construction and decoration of the Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel, paying special attention to its relationship to the life and aspirations of its patron.

Choose one small work of art in this chapter that was crafted from precious materials with exceptional technical skill. Explain how it was made and how it was used. How does the work of art relate to its cultural and social contexts?