2 Separate Questions 350 words each

Module 2: Effects of Cultural Diversity and Globalization on Homeland Security and International Relations

The threat of terrorism is having a profound effect on international security. Research exploring the causes and consequences of terrorism has shown that a country's chances of being victimized by terrorist groups are directly correlated to its ethnic, linguistic, and religious fragmentation. Much of this fragmentation occurs in "failed states."

The definition of failed state is imprecise, but such states have two significant features (Chomsky, 2006; Thürer, 1999):

· lack of viable political, legal, and social governance structures

· unchecked violence against citizens

Given these characteristics, failed states like Afghanistan, Iraq, Sudan, Somalia, Pakistan, and Yemen have served as "launching pads for transnational terror" (Basuchoudhary & Shughart, 2010, p. 70; The Fund for Peace, 2011).

Faced with the growing worldwide threat of terrorism, the international community needs an overall approach to confront it—one that combines cultural considerations with political, economic, legal, and social methods. Cultural diversity in all its aspects—the arts, heritage, religion, media, science, education, youth, and sports—can play an important role (Sudarenkov et al., 2004) in

· preventing the development of terrorist mentality

· dissuading would-be terrorists

· cutting them off from wider support

To experience cultural democracy and freedom, nations must be unified around a set of democratic values, such as justice and equality, that balance unity and diversity and protect the rights of diverse groups. The basis for any cultural action against terrorism lies in understanding the "complex and delicate relationship between terrorism and its cultural context" (Banks, 2004, p. 3).

Globalization—the increasing economic and social interdependence among countries—has created many opportunities for mutually beneficial exchanges. Many have argued that this interdependence could "increase stability, peace, and prosperity" (Kilroy, 2008, p. 23). In Europe, globalization helped integrate the region, obliging all states to cooperate and coordinate on political, economic, social, and security problems. Globalization has helped democratic systems to emerge, and democratic countries engage in armed conflict less than nondemocratic countries (United Nations, 1999).

Conversely, globalization has also created vulnerabilities, leaving countries open to short- and long-term risk of terrorist acts. The terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, and the subsequent war on terrorism dramatically revealed the downsides of globalization—global flows of technology, goods, information, ideologies, and people can have destructive as well as productive effects (Kellner, 2007, p. 245). Huntington (1996) asserted that the world is articulated into competing civilizations that are based on irreconcilably different cultures and religions. For Huntington, religion is the central force that motivates and mobilizes people.

The risks mentioned in the preceding paragraph arise from the expanding gap between rich and poor nations. Poverty, oppression, disrespect for human rights, a sense of injustice, and the lack of brighter prospects provide a breeding ground for all kinds of violence (Sudarenkov et al., 2004).

Globalization has contributed to the phasing out of political boundaries (as in Western Europe), and the resurgence of a great variety of cultures has accentuated boundaries within countries as well as between them (Dogan, 2000). Among the external factors contributing to the increase in diversity are

· the massive migration of peoples under the impact of new economic opportunities and necessities

· political upheavals

Paradoxically, many of these political upheavals arose from the homogenizing effects of globalization and the consequent weakening power of nation-states to control their boundaries. Although most of the world's countries are multiethnic and multilingual, not every nation recognizes the cultural diversity within its own borders (Smolicz & Secombe, 2005). Regardless, the cultural map of the world has become more complex, with political and cultural boundaries overlapping rather than coinciding. Globalization presents challenges to "building a coalition among seemingly competing views and finding an appropriate and coordinated response to the threat of terrorism" (Kilroy, 2008, p. 23).

The complex interrelationships among politics, economics, and social equity create a climate that often triggers transnational threats to the United States and the international community. International coalitions form around this "interplay among globalization, transnational risks, and politics, economics, and social equity" (Kilroy, 2008, p. 24). Consider the transnational risks to U.S. homeland and international security, a few of which are listed below.

· terrorism

· proliferation and use of weapons of mass destruction (e.g., nuclear, biological, chemical, and high explosives)

· transnational criminal enterprises:

· narcotics trafficking

· human trafficking

· weapons trafficking

· asymmetric warfare

· immigration

· pandemics

· security of:

· cargo

· people

· networks and systems (e.g., transportation)

· information infrastructure (e.g., cybersecurity)

· borders

Now consider some of the political, economic, and social reasons why these transnational risks exist:

· patience to resolve prior conflicts growing thin (e.g., Israeli and Palestinian)

· resurgence of deep-seated ethnic or political rivalries

· economic development and prosperity not materializing in many parts of the world

· desire for political and governmental change (e.g., dictatorship, unresponsive democratic government)

· extreme political or social movements (e.g., Islamic fundamentalism)

· political or military involvement or intervention by the United States in the Middle East and other parts of the world

· widespread use of information technology communication (e.g., Internet, cell phones, social media) to mobilize individuals and groups, acquire resources, and in some cases garner external attention and support (McEntire, 2009, p. 5)

The following actions have been recommended to address the cultural diversity issues that may influence or promote acts of terrorism (Sudarenkov et al., 2004):

· Ensure coordinated actions between the bodies involved in the fight against terrorism and in culture.

· Make intercultural and interreligious dialogue and conflict prevention one of the main areas of dialogue.

· Develop human rights education and education for citizenship, thereby creating better understanding of human rights and the ways to protect them.

· Ensure that states, in their media and Internet policies, strike the right balance between protection of human rights and the fight against terrorism.

· Guarantee states an appropriate legal and political framework for free expression and true representation of all opinions, political views, religious beliefs, and cultural minorities.

· Develop intercommunal cultural activities as a way of relieving tension between communities.

Summary

Cultural diversity and globalization affect, positively and negatively, the security posture and protocols of individual nations and the international community. The tensions caused by cultural diversity and globalization provide challenges and opportunities for nations and the international community at large. Existing transnational issues and problems require cooperative and integrated solutions.

 

References

Banks, J. A. (2004). Democratic citizenship education in multicultural societies. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Diversity and citizenship education: Global perspectives (pp. 3–15). Indianapolis, IN: Jossey-Bass/Wiley.

Basuchoudhary, A., & Shughart, W. F., II. (2010). On ethnic conflict and the origins of transnational terrorism. Defence and Peace Economics, 21(1), 65–87. doi: 10.1080/10242690902868343

Chomsky, N. (2006). Superpower and failed states. Retrieved from http://www.chomsky.info/articles/20060405.htm

Dogan, M. (2000). Nationalism in Europe: Decline in the west, revival in the east. In E. K. Scheuch & D. Sciulli (Eds.), Societies, corporations and the nation state: The annals of the International Institute of Sociology (New Series, Vol. 7), (pp. 181–200). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill/International Institute of Sociology.

The Fund for Peace. (2011). The failed states index 2011. Retrieved from http://www.fundforpeace.org/global/?q=fsi

Huntington, S. P. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. New York, NY: Touchstone.

Kellner, D. (2007). Globalization, terrorism, and democracy: 9/11 and its aftermath. In I. Rossi (Ed.), Frontiers of globalization research: Theoretical and methodological approaches (pp. 243–268). New York, NY: Springer.

Kilroy, R. J., Jr. (Ed.). (2008). Threats to homeland security: An all-hazards perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

McEntire, D. A. (2009). Introduction to homeland security: Understanding terrorism with an emergency management perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Smolicz, J. J., & Secombe, M. J. (2005). Globalisation, cultural diversity, and multiculturalism: Australia. In J. Zajda (Ed.), International handbook on globalisation, education and policy research: Global pedagogies and policies (pp. 207–220). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

Sudarenkov, V., Atkinson, D., Bakulin, V., Blankenborg, H., Davis, T., Fedorov, V., Khripel, G., Laakso, J., Schreiner, B., & Wohlwend, R. (2004). Recommendation 1687: Combating terrorism through culture. Committee on Culture, Science and Education, Council of Europe. Retrieved from http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/AdoptedText/ta04/EREC1687.htm

Thürer, D. (1999). The "failed state" and international law. Retrieved from http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jq6u.htm

United Nations. (1999). Implications of globalization for security. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/Docs/SG/Report99/implicat.htm