Digital Business Delivery-2
Sa1_Jyyy
MN7030Session4Manufacturing.pptxppt/slideLayouts/slideLayout1.xml
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Master of Business Administration Digital Business Delivery Session 4: From craft to capital to data Professor Nigel Caldwell
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Operations management is about the way organisations deliver service and goods. Everything you wear, eat, sit on, use, read or knock about on the sports field comes to you courtesy of the operations managers who organised its delivery. Every book you borrow from the library, every treatment you receive at the hospital, every service you expect in the shops and every lecture you attend at university - all have been delivered. The core activity of any organisation is its operations, and the performance of the organisation is determined by how well these operations are managed. This course takes a detailed look at the decisions managers need to make about operations.
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[Global] Learning objectives / what is the big idea here? Learn a series of analytical approaches, technologies and problem solving tools for operations issues Acquire an empathy for the issues operations managers and front line employees face Become familiar with, and able to use, appropriate vocabulary in tackling operations issues from the digital and strategic to the individual’s workstation, applying analysis and tools with empathy How? By exploring all the above through interaction with the course material, with me, and above all interaction with your peers
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Agenda: Why digital delivery of operations? Adam Smith and the division of labour Craft to mass production & management “Manufacturing” or “Production” Operation Management Adding value Servitisation From a “capital” economy to a “Data” economy The experience economy / The circular economy
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Capabilities that drive digital delivery Source: Adapted from Turban et al. (2012)
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The division of labour Adam Smith [The Wealth of Nations]
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Adam Smith statue near St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland. The statue of Adam Smith is located in the heart of Old Town along the Royal Mile. He was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author - a key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment era. 18 th century Smith's ideas–the importance of free markets, assembly-line production methods, and gross domestic product (GDP)–formed the basis for theories of classical economics. From Smith comes the idea of the "invisible hand" that guides the forces of supply and demand in an economy. According to this theory, by looking out for themselves, every person inadvertently helps create the best outcome for all.
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Adam Smith and the Pin factory …I have seen a small manufactory … where ten men … [even lacking] … the necessary machinery, could make…upwards of 48,000 pins in a day. Each person, therefore, ….might be considered as making 4,800 pins in a day. But… separately and independently … they could not [each]…have made 20, perhaps not one pin in a day… Smith, A. (2001 / 1776). The Wealth of Nations , Hayes Barton Press.
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Adam Smith and the division of labour … this business is now … divided into a number of branches, of which the greater part are likewise peculiar trades. One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a 3rd cuts it, a 4th points it, a 5th grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires 2 or 3 distinct operations; to put it on, is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about 18 distinct operations
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Why does the division of labour add value? Each worker gets better at their task Minimises movement and change over between tasks Encourages the development of labour saving machinery No need to employ expensive trades New opportunities for management to co-ordinate [?] / pressure [?] the workers
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This where management class comes from coordination and also the difference between capitalism and communism
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The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two (Miller, 1956)
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From craft to mass production Womack, Jones and Roos . The Machine that changed the world
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Craft car production - 1 Skilled craftspeople – often small business owners - carefully hand built cars in small numbers All the individual production was scattered No two cars were or could be identical No standard gauges
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The prime alone spoke to the customer and designed the vehicle 1890s machine tools could not cut hardened steel – so they steel parts were made by hand Oven baked to harden the steel parts warped and needed further skilled rectification
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Craft car production – 2 At the Prime When the parts arrive to be assembled into a car – none fit Skilled craftspeople hand craft part Aa to fit part B and then Part C… Complete this process for 100s of parts and create a new, unique car For wealthy customers with chauffeurs and staff, cost, driving ease and simple maintenance not concerns Then you test and test what today would be called a “prototype”
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“ Sequential fitting” produced “dimensional creep” So the one off, unique nature of the vehicle was made a sales feature Appearance, speed and customization were primary Customization was easy
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The drawbacks of craft production High production costs Production costs that do not drop with higher volumes Little consistency, durability or reliability – LOW QUALITY! Only the rich could afford craft products Small sub contractors could not develop technological innovation through systematic research But a basic design was evolving – four wheels, engine at the front…
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1908 Model T Ford Designed to be easy to manufacture & to repair
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Ford’s Mass Production “Complete and consistent interchangeability of parts and the simplicity of attaching them to each other” Eliminate skilled fitters The division of labour to its ultimate extreme Easy to train workers in hours Line workers as easy to replace as the parts on the car Specialist engineers: process, product, manufacturing One model in massive volume
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Ford’s Mass Consumption The common “man” or at first maybe doctors, lawyers, accountants, farmers people with some money, could afford a Model T The increasing number of buyers led to expansion and prices dropping, so more and more workers could afford a model T – and repair it themselves, if necessary Mass production across industries lowered prices and opened up ownerships to ordinary working people - fridges, air conditioning, washing machines, cheap clothes, cheap dining out Regular working people Eating out – Reserved for the very rich in Europe – was directly influenced by Ford’s ideas culminating in McDonald’s and KFC forming in the 1950s
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What did Sloan achieve at General Motors? Under Sloan, GM became the largest industrial enterprise the world had ever seen. GM dominated for 70+ years.. A family of cars to grow with the buyer’s family Chevrolet , Pontiac , Oldsmobile , Buick and Cadillac ‘the ladder of success’ — models did not compete with each other. Added choice Sloan invented annual styling changes , creating the concept of “planned obsolescence ”. Added “marketing” He also created a management structure…
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https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2011/10/apples-marketing-playbook-was-written-in-the-1920s/247417/
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1959 Chevrolet
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Sloan’s divisional structure
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1950s was boom time: Sloan’s system was rigid Sloan an engineer built an organisation to function like an engine, a fool proof system; but it left out employees and society. For the 21st century Sloan’s system was all about "policies, systems, and structures” nothing on people, principles, and values. One consequence of this management philosophy was a culture that resisted change (O'Toole, 1995). You could say – mass production + mass marketing - was not agile. c.f. Michael Porter
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Porter’s Five Forces Model Substitutes or Alternatives e.g. coke/water Barriers to New Entrants e.g. Patents, high capital investment, technology Industry Rivalry The intensity of competition among current participants Power of Suppliers Power of Buyers
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Key elements of porter’s model all have an influence on the amount of supply-side risk and complexity in a given marketplace … T o derive five forces that determine the competitive intensity and therefore attractiveness of a market Industrial rivalry – refers to the level of competition within an industry Barriers to new entrants – concerned with the costs of investment of entering the marketplace. This might be because market channels are expensive, logistics networks are required or there is a substantial amount of investment in tooling, machinery and processes Threat of new competition Profitable markets that yield high returns will attract new firms. This results in many new entrants, which eventually will decrease profitability for all firms in the industry. Unless the entry of new firms can be blocked by incumbents , the abnormal profit rate will tend towards zero ( perfect competition ). The existence of barriers to entry ( patents , rights , etc.) The most attractive segment is one in which entry barriers are high and exit barriers are low. Few new firms can enter and non-performing firms can exit easily. Economies of product differences / Brand equity / Switching costs or sunk costs Capital requirements / Access to distribution / Customer loyalty to established brands / Absolute cost / Industry profitability; the more profitable the industry the more attractive it will be to new competitors.
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Make or buy analysis Outsourcing used to focus on periphery activities E.g. Catering, cleaning, security Today it increasingly involves more strategic areas Manufacturing, design and logistics (McIvor, 2009) Strategic evaluation of the firm: ‘ what are we & what do we do?’ A number of outsourcing models inform the so-called ‘make or buy’ decision Arnold (2000) TCE: Williamson (1975, 2005, 2008) RBV: (Wernfelt, 1984; Barney, 1991, Teece et al, 1997) & NRBV Interaction approach / IMP (Hakansson, 1982, 1987) Third option: make, buy or ‘ally’: inter-firm alliance Alliance based collaboration (Jacobides & Billinger, 2006)
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Outsourcing: “ moving functions or activities outside of the organisation” (e.g. Lonsdale and Cox, 1997) ¼ of European/US companies now use 3 rd party Procurement Service Providers (PSPs) for e.g. hosting e-sourcing and e-procurement applications: expected to grow (Accenture Procurement Survey, 2003)
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Outsourcing Company core Functions close to core Complementary functions Peripheral functions Partner or supplier Figure 5.1 Outsourcing Model (Adapted: Arnold 2000). Outsourcing Model (Arnold, 2000) Key question: is an activity core or non-core to the business? Arnold’s 2000 model provides a useful starting point However, the boundary between the company & its environment is no longer clear cut
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Transaction Cost Economics Transaction costs involve: Costs of making each contracts Search and information costs Bargaining and decision costs Policing and enforcement costs Also called ‘frictional costs’ that arise from buyer-supplier negotiation, drafting and monitoring of contracts Oliver Eaton Williamson (born September 27, 1932) is an American economist, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and recipient of the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
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The transaction cost approach to the theory of the firm was created by Ronald Coase: The Nature of the Firm (1937) and Coase won the Nobel prize in 1991!! Transaction cost refers to the cost of providing for some good or service through the market rather than having it provided from within the firm. In order to carry out a market transaction it is necessary to discover who it is that one wishes to deal with, to conduct negotiations leading up to a bargain, to draw up the contract, to undertake the inspection needed to make sure that the terms of the contract are being observed, and so on. More succinctly transaction costs are: search and information costs bargaining and decision costs policing and enforcement costs Coase contends that without taking into account transaction costs it is impossible to understand properly the working of the economic system and have a sound basis for establishing economic policy. Outsourcing activities from a transaction cost perspective Specificity refers to asset specificity as well as human capital specificity Goods and services with low specificity can be governed by an external outsourcing design - little information has to be exchanged with the transaction partner. External outsourcing partners are able to bundle demand and exploit economies of scale Goods and services with high specificity result in high market transaction costs. It makes sense to establish an internal outsourcing design for these transactions Based on firms core competencies - so insource Come onto core competencies in a moment
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TCE approach to make or buy decision Asset specificity is the most important aspect of a transaction (Williamson, 1989, 1991) High asset specificity High transaction cost High risk of opportunism In-sourcing Make Low asset specificity Low transaction cost Low risk of opportunism Outsourcing Buy style.visibility style.visibility
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Asset specificity means many information needs to be shared among partners Transactions can be dimensionalized in terms of Uncertainty. Frequency. Asset specificity Various kinds of asset specificity. Asset specificity implies the existence of quasi-rents. For a given ”governance structure” (e.g., the market), varying these dimensions means varying transaction costs. Williamson: He assumes opportunism as standard behaviour. Williamson only one proponent/one strand of TCE Theory of the firm perspective. Williamson- fixation: Asset specificity central; central concern with hold-up . The firm’s environment not really brought into focus.
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Transaction Cost Analysis Hierarchies are more expensive than markets to establish, govern and maintain Hierarchies are used where the transaction cost is minimised relative to markets This occurs when the product or service is not available in the market, or the governance of it through the market mechanism is prohibitive, due to specificity or uncertainty issues
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Transaction Cost Analysis (2) Governance structures Market Hierarchy Hybrid Asset specificity Site, physical, human, brand, dedicated assets, temporal Environmental uncertainty Behavioural uncertainty e.g. opportunism Mitigate through performance measurement Source: Williamson, O.E. (1983) The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach. American Journal of Sociology
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Criticisms of the TCE approach TCE focuses on cost minimization, not on value maximization It assumes that capabilities pre-exist and can be developed equally in all firms: which is not always possible It implies that all firms facing the similar set of transactional attributes will reach similar conclusions regarding in-sourcing and outsourcing TCE - ‘bad for practice’ ( Ghoshal & Moran, 1996): “..organizations are not mere substitutes for structuring efficient transactions when markets fail.”
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Because it is just based on the transaction cost and internal capability is not taken in account Last point example: having in same industry DELL and IBM have 2 different philosophy. Dell is highly disintegrated and outsource most of the products while IBM is highly integrated and not outsource much of the resources like dell.
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In praise of mass production It feeds us It clothes us It provides healthcare, contraception and VACCINES! It provides sanitation It lets us experience art and music and culture from around the planet We can afford cool stuff
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Operations Management as Manufacturing or Operations Research The age of Best Practice (and the auto industry)
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Configuring value for competitive advantage on chains, shops and networks This section is based on this paper by CHARLES B. STABELL and ØYSTEIN D. FJELDSTAD Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 19, 413–437 (1998)
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The value chain
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Value chain diagram for a copier manufacturer
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The value shop
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Value shop diagram for a general practitioner
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Value shop diagram for a petroleum explorer (A) and field developer (B)
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The value network
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Value network diagram for a retail bank
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Digital technologies generate, store or process Data
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The circular economy
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How does an organisation, enterprise, public body add value? One approach is to frame adding value in terms of a chain or a service shop or a network How then does digital technology improve/increase/enhance the value added – I have argued it is contingent to the way value is added in the domain not categoric or fixed irrespective of the business model So… there is good practice but no best practice
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Master of Business Administration Digital Business Delivery Professor Nigel Caldwell
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The Walter Scott Monument, Edinburgh – another unreadable Scottish author
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Ridley Scott
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CEO Management Division 1 Chevrolet Division 2 Pontiac Division 3 Cadillac
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CEO Division 1 Chevrolet Division 2 Pontiac Division 3 Cadillac Management
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