Crisis Communication #1
Page 27
Chapter Three— A Best Practice Model: A General Framework for Crisis Management
''The only way to make bedrock, largescale change in an organization is to teach it how to be different, not how to do something differently."
Jac Fitzenz, The ROI of Human Capital
C o p y r i g h t 2 0 0 0 . A M A C O M .
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t f a i r u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV AN: 50485 ; Mitroff, Ian I..; Managing Crises Before They Happen : What Every Executive and Manager Needs to Know About Crisis Management Account: s8862125.main.ehost
Page 29
One of the most important findings from studying a large number and a wide variety of different crises is that there is a method, or a general framework, for managing
major crises. If there weren't such a method or framework, the situation would be truly hopeless. This is not to say that even with the best methods or frameworks one
can prevent all crises. Indeed, complete prevention is impossible. Nonetheless, with appropriate and advanced planning and preparation, one can limit substantially
both the duration of and the damage caused by major crises. In fact, it has been found repeatedly that those organizations that are prepared for major crises not only
recover substantially faster but with significantly less damage than those organizations that are not prepared. 1
There are other substantial benefits that accrue from being prepared for major crises. One, an organization's major business objectives are less likely to be derailed.
For this reason, one is better able to make a strong case for top management giving their strong support for a major program in crisis management. Two, since there
are a number of key overlaps between CM and other important organizational programs—
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 30
CM must not be viewed as another, standalone program. Unless it is integrated with other important programs, it will not succeed, and neither will the
other programs.
such as environmentalism, issues management, reengineering, strategic planning, and quality assurance—CM can help to effect the integration that is needed between
various key programs. Especially in today's world, one cannot keep adding new and costly programs to an organization, no matter how important each individual
program is. In today's world, one must take advantage of every possible synergy. For this reason, CM must not be viewed as another separate, standalone program.
Indeed, unless CM is integrated with other important programs, it will not succeed, and neither will the other programs.
A Best Practice Model
Exhibit 31 shows the components of a Best Practice Model for CM. The five factors—types/risks, mechanisms, systems, stakeholders, and scenarios—are the key
elements of the model that must be managed before, during, and after a major crisis.
Before discussing the model in detail, it is especially important to emphasize that no current organization of which I am aware does well on every one of the key
factors. The model is thus a composite of best practices drawn from a wide variety of organizations. In this sense, the model is an ideal. However, it is not utopian,
and there is no reason in principle why every organization cannot do well on each of the factors. In this sense, one of the main purposes of the model is to serve as
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 31
Exhibit 31
The Components of a Best Practice Model for CM
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 32
a benchmark against which all organizations should measure their current CM performance.
Types and Risks of Major Crises
Research demonstrates that crises can be sorted into the general categories, families, or types shown in Exhibit 32. 2 These are the major types of crises or major risk
categories that all organizations should be prepared for. Indeed, a robust ''crisis portfolio" consists precisely of the preparation for at least one crisis in each of the
various types or families shown in Exhibit 32.
Within each general family, specific crises share strong similarities. On the other hand, there are sharp differences between the general categories, families, or types of
major crises.
Research in CM also reveals how the best organizations plan for major crises. The first finding is that they attempt to prepare for at least one crisis in each of the
families.
This finding is especially important for the following six reasons:
• First, most organizations only consider at most one or two families. For instance, most organizations prepare at least for natural disasters, such as fires, earthquakes,
or floods. Natural disasters occur with great regularity, and they strike all organizations equally. Thus, they are the least threatening to the "collective ego" of
organizations. For instance, earthquakes affect all organizations in the Los Angeles area equally. Furthermore, since one can neither predict nor prevent earthquakes,
there is not the blame associated with earthquakes as
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 33
there is with other types of crises—such as workplace violence—that call for special human vigilance and mitigation.
However, even earthquakes have some degree of human blame or responsibility associated with them. For instance, even though we can neither predict nor prevent
earthquakes, humans are still charged with the responsibility of designing appropriate buildings that will withstand their worst effects. Humans are also charged with
designing appropriate recovery efforts for the victims of earthquakes.
Thus, even those crises that are due solely to ''acts of nature" still have a strong human component associated with them, as recent tragedies in Turkey and Venezuela
demonstrate so vividly. In the case of Turkey, the failure to design appropriate apartment structures led not only to their collapse but to the deaths of hundreds of
occupants. Thus, while Mother Nature may produce earthquakes, humans contribute to their worst effects through shoddy, irresponsible, and even criminal actions.
• Two, organizations that do broaden their preparations for crises other than natural disasters most often do it only for "core or normal" disasters that are specific to
their particular industry. For instance, no one really has to prod the chemical industry to prepare for explosions and fires, since such occurrences are part of the
industry's daytoday operating experience. Such occurrences are considered a natural part of the territory. For another, no one really has to prod fast food
companies to prepare for food contamination and poisoning, since such incidents are also unfortunately part of their daytoday operating experience.
• Three, one does have to continually prod organizations to consider the occurrence of crises from any and all of the families in Exhibit 32 simultaneously. That is,
major crises occur not only because of what an organization knows, antici
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 34
Exhibit 32
Major Crisis Types/Risks
pates, and plans for, but just as much because of what it does not know and does not anticipate. Organizations also need to consider that even when they have
prepared for a particular type of crisis and a specific form of it, major crises will still occur because of constantly emerging new environmental factors that give a new
wrinkle to old forms.
At this point, it is important to say a few words about the definition of a crisis. Up to this point, I have deliberately avoided defining a crisis, for while they are
important, definitions are only really important with regard to the purpose they serve. Unfortunately, it is not possible to give a precise and general definition of a crisis
any more than it is possible to predict with exact certainty how a crisis will occur, when it will occur, and why.
Nonetheless, a ''guiding definition" is that a crisis is an event that affects or has the potential to affect the whole of an organization. Thus, if something affects only a
small, isolated
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 35
Major crises occur not only because of what an organization knows, anticipates, and plans for, but just as much because of what it does not know and
does not anticipate.
part of an organization, it may not be a major crisis. In order for a major crisis to occur, it must exact a major toll on human lives, property, financial earnings, the
reputation, and the general health and wellbeing of an organization. More often than not, these occur simultaneously. That is, a major crisis is something that ''cannot
be completely contained within the walls of an organization." Although they are rare, a few crises, such as the one at Barron's Bank a few years ago, have the potential
to destroy a whole organization. And, as the recent experience of the Los Angeles
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 36
Police Department shows, a major crisis can exact a tremendous financial cost potentially in the billions of dollars.
• Four, every organization should plan for the occurrence of at least one crisis in each of the various families or types for the reason that each type can happen to
any organization. For this reason, all of the various types must be considered explicitly.
Every organization should plan for the occurrence of at least one crisis in each of the various families or types for the reason that each type can happen
to any organization.
For instance, consider product tampering. Product tampering does not apply only to food or pharmaceutical organizations. All organizations are vulnerable to a form
of product tampering that applies specifically to them. For instance, computers are an integral part of every organization. As a result, the true value of computers is
neither their hardware nor their software. Rather, it is the information that they contain about customers and other key stakeholders. For instance, a person or persons
gaining access to and tampering with an organization's key records could seriously affect that organization's products and services.
An interesting example is the famous French manufacturer of encyclopedias, Larousse. Apparently, the French are avid collectors and eaters of mushrooms. At
particular times of the year, they literally go into the forest with their Larousse encyclopedias at their side. In one section of the encyclopedia there are two facing
pages. One side has pictures of the mushrooms that are safe to eat, and the other side has pictures of the unsafe mushrooms. For some unknown reason, whether
intentional or not, the labels on the two pages in one edition were reversed. Thus, the safe mushrooms were labeled unsafe,
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 37
and vice versa. This is a prominent example of product tampering. The moral should be absolutely clear: One ignores all or any major types of crises at one's peril!
• Five, one fortunately does not have to prepare for every specific type of crisis within each of the families. If this were required, then the task of CM would be
rendered both impossible and hopeless. Instead, it has been found that, within limits, it is acceptable to merely prepare for the occurrence of at least one type within
each of the families. The reasoning behind this is as follows: If no crisis ever happens precisely as one plans for it, then the critical factor is doing one's best to think
about the unthinkable prior to its occurrence. Indeed, it has been found that just thinking about the unthinkable prior to its occurrence makes one much more able to
think on one's feet and hence to recover from a crisis once it has occurred. The fact that one has anticipated the unthinkable means that one is not paralyzed when it
occurs.
If each of the specific types of crises within a particular family share strong similarities, then all that really matters is that one has given serious consideration to each of
the families and not necessarily to the particular members within each family. This is not to say that over time one should not attempt to prepare for a broader and
wider range of crises, both within and across the families. It merely means that to start on the difficult and onerous road of CM preparation, one need not prepare for
everything simultaneously, which is both an impossible and hopeless task.
One of the reasons why I am extremely critical of traditional risk analysis, and as a result, counsel against it, is that it mainly selects only those crises that one has
already experienced in the past or with which is familiar. Traditional risk analyses mainly lead one to construct models of the probability of occurrence of various risks.
These probabilities are based on historical data of the occurrence of past crises or on various analytical models. The models traditionally give high
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 38
weight or high ranking to certain types of crises to prepare for, and conversely, low weight or low probability to others. The fallacy behind this procedure is that it is
precisely those crises that have not yet occurred to an organization that need to be considered.
The fact that one has anticipated the unthinkable means that one is not paralyzed when it occurs.
In effect, one is caught in a vicious loop. One does not prepare for something until it has happened, and then it may be too late for the organization to recover from the
particular crisis. That is, the crises that an organization is not prepared for have the potential to destroy an organization. Thus, the strategy of spreading one's risk
across all of the families attempts to correct for this limited oversight.
• Six, another important reason for preparing for at least one crisis in each of the families is that in today's world any crisis is capable of setting off any other crisis and
in turn being caused by it. That is, every crisis is capable of being both the cause and the effect of any other crisis. For this reason, the best organizations not only
prepare for each individual crisis that they have selected as part of their crisis portfolio, but they also attempt to prepare for the simultaneous occurrence of multiple
crises.
Organizations that are prepared for crises have done so by studying past crises and looking for patterns and interconnections between them. They have generated
visual maps to better understand how crises unfold over time and how they reverberate both within and beyond the organization.
Again, it is not enough to be prepared for individual crisis in isolation. In today's world no crisis ever happens in isolation. For this reason, one's CM preparations are
not effective
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 39
if one does not consider the impact of every crisis in an organization's crisis portfolio on every other crisis.
In short, CM is strongly systemic. Like total quality management or environmentalism, if CM is not done systemically, then it is not being done well.
Like total quality management or environmentalism, if CM is not done systemically, then it is not being done well.
When my colleagues and I perform a crisis audit of an organization, one of the things we especially look for is the range and scope of the crises that are prepared for
as well as of those crises that are not prepared for. To do this, we deliberately do not give people a copy of Exhibit 32. To do so would alert them to the broad range
of different types of crises. Instead, we deliberately ask the openended question, ''What would you consider to be a crisis for your organization?" We then ask them
what crises they believe their organization is prepared for and why, and what crises their organization is not prepared for and why. In addition, we ask such questions
as what they think their organization will do well in the heat of a crisis, and what it will not do well.
In this way, we are able to obtain their informal and implicit "maps" of Exhibit 32. That is, we are able to obtain a portrait of the crises that their organization even
considers, let alone those it is adequately prepared to handle. In addition, by interviewing an appropriate number of individuals, we are also able to see the similarities
as well as the gaps that exist in the thinking of the organization with regard to types of crises.
Mechanisms
One of the other findings of CM research 3 is that there are a relatively small number of mechanisms that are extremely
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 40
important in planning for and responding to major crises before, during, and after their occurrence. Indeed, the fact that these mechanisms apply before, during, and
after a major crisis shows why effective CM is not merely a case of responding or reacting to a major crisis after it has occurred.
Most serious students and workers in the field of CM acknowledge that the best form of CM is preparation for a major crisis before it has occurred. For this reason,
those of us who work and do research in the field of CM know that it is not CM plans per se that are important in preparing for a major crisis. Rather, it is an
organization's CM capabilities that are all important.
Well in advance of their occurrence, all crises send out a trail of early warning signals.
The various CM mechanisms are for anticipating, sensing, reacting to, containing, learning from, and redesigning effective organizational procedures for handling major
crises. Like total quality management or environmentalism, if CM is not done systemically, then it is not being done well. Far in advance of their actual occurrence, all
crises send out a trail of early warning signals. If these signals can be picked up and acted upon prior to the occurrence of a crisis, then a crisis can be prevented
before it occurs, which is the best possible form of CM. Since we will talk about ''signal detection" in Chapter 6, we simply mention its existence and importance at
this point. The key point is that signal detection mechanisms have to be in place and operable long before a crisis occurs or they will not function in the heat of an
actual crisis. Furthermore, without the proper signaldetection mechanisms, an organization not only makes a major crisis more likely, but it also reduces its chances to
bring it under control. Because
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 41
crises can expand quickly, early signal detection is vital. In addition, one has to have an appropriate range of signal detection mechanisms, since a signal detector for
one type of crisis in Exhibit 32 will not necessarily be appropriate for the other types.
Except in cases of criminal malfeasance or negligence, blame and fault finding are not to be encouraged. The main emphasis should be on nofault
learning.
Even with the best of signal detection mechanisms and programs, crises are inevitable. For this reason, one of the most important aspects of CM is damage
containment. As its name implies, the purpose of damage containment is to keep the unwanted effects of a crisis from spreading and hence affecting uncontaminated
parts of an organization. For instance, damage containment mechanisms are common in the oil industry. Although they are not perfectly effective, especially given the
size and the nature of a particular oil spill, the appropriate mechanisms are nonetheless under constant redesign and improvement to keep spills from spreading. As in
the case of signal detection, damage containment mechanisms for one type of crisis will not necessarily be appropriate or effective in containing others. Thus, a
systematic and systemic program of CM tries as much as is humanly possible to ensure that a variety of damage containment mechanisms is in place and is constantly
maintained.
Two of the most important mechanisms reveal why the vast majority of CM programs are not effective. These concern postcrisis learning and the redesign of systems
and mechanisms to improve future CM performance. Unfortunately, few
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 42
organizations conduct postmortems of crises and near misses, and those that either do not perform them correctly or do not implement their findings. The purpose of
such sessions is not to assign fault or blame, but rather to examine the key lessons that need to be learned so that future CM performance can be improved. Except in
cases of criminal malfeasance or negligence, blame and faultfinding are not to be encouraged. The main emphasis should be on nofault learning. That is, it should be
on the key lessons that need to be learned as well as those that have not been learned in the past, and why. The same emphasis has to be placed on the redesign of
systems so that the effects, if not the probabilities, of future crises can be lessened.
Systems
Exhibit 33 shows the various systems that govern most organizations. The five components that are key in understanding any complex organization are:
1. Technology
2. Organizational structure
3. Human factors
4. Culture
5. Top management psychology
Exhibit 33 is known as the ''onion model" of CM. 4 As we peel off the layers of an organization and get beneath its surface, the key factors that drive an
organization's behavior become exposed.
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 43
Exhibit 33
The ''Onion Model": The "Layers" of an Organization
Technology
Let us start with the surface or outer layer of the model. In today's world, all organizations contain complex technologies. These range from computers that process
key information to larger plants and processes that manufacture products. Even those organizations in the service area are still involved with complex technologies.
Technology is often the most visible part of an organization, i.e., it can be seen from the highway. Even though most
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 44
of us may not understand the intricate details of a chemical processing plant, we can at least see the various ''protrusions."
The key thing about technology is that it neither exists nor functions in a vacuum. It is run by alltoohuman beings, who are error prone. Whether we like it or not,
human beings get tired, suffer from stress, or become irritated, all of which contributes to intentional and unintentional errors. The field of "human factors" is precisely
that branch of knowledge that exists to assess the causes of human errors and to design systems that, as much as possible, will eliminate or decrease the effects of
human errors.
A common example is an airplane cockpit. To the uninitiated, an airplane cockpit is an exercise in extreme chaos at best. The controls are bewildering in themselves.
They are laid out in such a fashion that an amateur literally cannot make sense of them, let alone operate them correctly. Yet human factors engineers have created the
best possible layout of controls to minimize the chances of catastrophic error for pilots, who often have to operate under stressful conditions. The same considerations
are obviously just as critical in the operation of chemical and nuclear power plants.
The next important thing to recognize about technology is that as much as it is run by humans who make errors, it is also embedded in complex organizations that also
introduce different sources and kinds of errors. These errors result from the different and multiple layers of an organization across which messages and communications
have to travel. They also result from the reward systems that reward certain kinds of behavior and attempt to extinguish other kinds of behavior. All of these factors
can both help and hinder the right information reaching the right people in a timely fashion so that the right decisions can be made. For instance, when these factors
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 45
don't work appropriately, as in the case of Exxon Valdez, then critical time is lost in getting the right people to the scene of a crisis in order to deal with it in a timely
and appropriate manner.
Exhibit 34 (see page 46) shows the potential interactions between the subsystems of Exhibit 33. That is, it shows that the operation of technology is affected by
people and the organizations in which it is embedded, etc.
Organizational Structure and Culture
To get at the underlying layers of an organization, and to understand how the various subsystems can interact, one has to be privy to the inner workings of an
organization. This requires that we take an even deeper look inside an organization. To do this, we have to examine in detail the policies and procedures that govern an
organization's behavior.
The deepest parts of an organization reside in its culture and in the psychology of its top management. These two layers are the most difficult to get at, and for this very
reason, the most critical determinants of an organization's CM performance.
Defense Mechanisms
Exhibit 35 shows some of the key components of an organization's culture and its relationship to CM. One of the first and most important discoveries regarding CM
was the identification and the assessment of organizational culture. 5 It was found that organizations, like individuals, make use of various defense mechanisms in
order to deny their vulnerabilities to major crises and hence to justify why they did not need to engage in effective CM. The various mechanisms can not only be
identified, but are easily sorted and labeled.
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 46
Exhibit 34
Interactions among the Layers of the Onion Model
Exhibit 35 is merely a small sampling of the wide variety of defense mechanisms that organizations use to deny their vulnerabilities to major crises. What is both
interesting and important is that these mechanisms follow almost to the letter the classic Freudian defense mechanisms that apply to individuals.
For instance, the first item in the table is denial. This mechanism completely denies an organization's vulnerability
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 47
to crises. Somehow or another, the organization is exempt from a whole class of crises, if not from crises altogether. The next item is the classic Freudian mechanism
of disavowal. Unlike denial, disavowal recognizes the existence and the threat of a major crisis, but it downplays its importance or seriousness. In other words,
disavowal diminishes the size, the magnitude, or the importance of a crisis.
Exhibit 35 is important because it can be used to assess both the kinds of defense mechanisms that an organization uses as well as the extent to which they are used.
In effect, the
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 48
mechanisms constitute an organization's culture with regard to CM. For instance, an organization that subscribes to a preponderance of the mechanisms in Exhibit 35
almost ensures that it will not take CM seriously. As a consequence, the organization will have dramatically increased its odds that it will experience a major crisis. It
also seriously lengthens the time that it will take the organization to recover from a crisis.
Organizations use a variety of defense mechanisms to deny their vulnerability to major crises. These mechanisms follow the classic Freudian defense
mechanisms that apply to individuals.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders involve the broad range of internal and external parties who have to cooperate, share crises plans, and participate in the training and the development of
organizational capabilities in order to respond to a range of crises. Stakeholders range from internal employees to external, city, community, state, national, and even
international parties, such as the Red Cross, police departments, armies, and fire departments, all of whom may be called upon to help in a major crisis. What is key
about stakeholders is that important relationships among them have to be worked on years in advance if an organization is to develop the capabilities and the smooth
functioning that are required in the heat of a major crisis.
Scenarios
Good scenarios are the ''integrative glue" that binds all of the preceding factors together. A good CM scenario is the "best
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 49
A good CM scenario is the ''best case, worst case" scenario that one can construct with regard to how a crisis will affect an organization.
case, worst case" scenario that one can construct with regard to how a crisis will affect an organization. That is, a good crisis scenario involves the occurrence of a
type of crisis that the organization has neither considered nor has prepared for. In addition, the crisis should not only occur at a completely unanticipated time, but at
the worst possible time, such as over a holiday weekend. Furthermore, a good scenario involves the breakdown of the most takenforgranted, welldesigned, and
wellperforming systems. It should include a chain reaction of crises—related or not related—happening all at the same time. In effect, a good crisis scenario is a plan
for how the unthinkable can and will occur.
Concluding Remarks
All of the preceding factors constitute not only a set of ideal benchmarks by which any organization should evaluate itself, but the scorecard that the media will use to
evaluate and to ask questions about an organization's crisis performance. This is precisely why it is important for an organization to undergo crisis training and
preparation. In short, it is the reason why an organization has to ask the toughest questions of itself.
No matter how hard an organization is on itself, I can guarantee without qualification that the outside media—one of the most important of all stakeholders—will be
even harsher. For this reason, a successful crisis audit of an organization is not only that which points out the most serious weak
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 50
nesses of the organization, but one that is absolutely and ruthlessly blunt and honest. Although the prime purpose of such an audit is not necessarily to offend people,
the report should be so honest as to cause those who prepared it to be fired!
In the end, effective CM comes down to two main questions: ''How much reality can an organization bear to learn about itself with regard to its crisis strengths and
weaknesses?" and "How much is an organization willing to invest to correct its weaknesses and improve upon its strengths?"
Strategy List for Chapter Three
Integrate crisis management with other programs; do not make it a separate program.
• Create a crisis portfolio that prepares the company for at least one crisis in each of the seven categories: economic, informational, physical, human resources,
reputational, psychopathic acts, and natural disasters.
• Don't limit the crisis portfolio to just natural disasters or to disasters specific to your industry.
• Don't rely on traditional risk analysis, which concentrates only on those crises that have occurred in the past.
• Manage the five factors involved in a crisis: stakeholders, mechanisms, types/risks, systems, and scenarios.
• Look for patterns and interconnections in past crises.
• Generate maps to understand how a crisis develops and reverberates within and outside of the organization.
• Consider the impact that one crisis will have on the other seven categories of crises. Will it generate new crises?
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use
Page 51
• Set up mechanisms to detect the early warning signs of a crisis.
• Set up damage containment mechanisms.
• Conduct postmortems of crises and near misses.
• Avoid using such meetings as a means to assign blame but rather concentrate on improving signal detection and crisis prevention.
• Examine the five systems that govern an organization: technology, organizational structure, human factors, culture, and top management psychology.
• Determine how crises can develop from these systems, and how you can reduce errors.
• Identify the defense mechanisms the company uses to promote denial that crises can happen to them.
EBSCOhost - printed on 1/14/2020 1:03 PM via FLORIDA INTL UNIV. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use