assignment #6
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Chapter Eight— Treating the Big Picture
''I always try to write on the principle of the iceberg. There is seveneighths of it under water for every part that shows . . . If a writer omits something because he does not know it,
then there is a hole in the story."
Ernest Hemingway (interview in Paris Review)
C o p y r i g h t 2 0 0 0 . A M A C O M .
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t f a i r u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .
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To understand more fully what is so different about today's world, and as a result, why our problems require systems thinking if we are to formulate them effectively,
let alone truly solve them, let us examine a highly simplistic, fictitious world. It is a world that does not require us to think systemically. When we understand why this
world does not and could not really exist, we will be in a better position to understand the nature of today's world and hence why crisis management requires the
ability to think systemically.
A Fictional World
First of all, we need to note that the world we are about to enter has never really existed. For this reason alone, it is most unfortunate that it is the picture that many
people have in their heads when it comes to assigning and to accepting moral responsibility for their actions.
Let us begin by imagining, as Albert Einstein did many years ago in the initial, formative stages of his General Theory
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of Relativity, the case of an isolated rocket ship traveling deep in outer space. (Actually, Einstein used the mental picture, or ''thought experiment," of an elevator.
However, the difference is not crucial.) Next, imagine that the rocket ship is accelerating uniformly, namely that the force produced by the rocket's engine is smooth
and constant (or, what amounts to the same thing, that the elevator is being pulled upwards by a constant force). Under these circumstances, the velocity of the rocket
ship will continue to increase until it reaches the upper limiting speed of light. (Actually, it will only approach the speed of light since it would require an infinite amount
of energy to travel as fast as light.)
Imagine further that the rocket is far from the gravitational pull of nearby planets, stars, or galaxies. Then, under these circumstances, the astronauts in the rocket ship
would feel as if they were being tugged downwards by the constant pull of gravity of a real planet. In other words, the constant upward acceleration of the rocket
would feel the same to the astronauts as if they were being constantly tugged downwards by gravity. Furthermore, since they were in outer space, there would be
nothing for them to differentiate between the "virtual gravity" produced by the upward force of the rocket ship, and the "real gravity" of an actual planet. This would
especially be the case if the inhabitants of the rocket ship, or elevator, had no portals or windows that would let them see outside.
Cause and Effect
Let us use Einstein's "imagined world" or "simple thought experiment" to illustrate the profound differences between the complex world in which we live and the simple,
fictitious world of our imaginary rocket ship. Suppose, for instance, that the rocket ship were large enough to be luxurious,
i.e., that it had an elaborate recreational room. Suppose fur
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ther that the recreational room contained a pool table. Then, in this simple world, and only in this simple world, are there direct causes and effects. For example, if one
of the astronauts were to pick up a cue stick and use it to hit a cue ball, and furthermore, if the cue ball hit the eight ball and caused it to drop into one of the side
pockets, then we could say that the direct actions of the astronaut were the direct cause of the eight ball's moving and falling into the side pocket, i.e., the resulting
endeffect. In this simple world, and only in this simple world, can one locate and assign direct causes and effects.
The world of the rocket ship constitutes a perfectly closed system. To account for the motion of the pool balls, it is not necessary to take anything into account except
only those things going on inside the rocket ship. As a result, the behavior of the pool balls can be traced to the direct actions of one of the astronauts.
Exhibit 81 illustrates the nature of causality or a ''causeeffect" relationship. In order for one thing, a cue ball, to be
Exhibit 81
A Simple Example of Cause and Effect
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the cause of another thing, the motion of the eight ball, then the movement of the cue ball is both necessary and sufficient for the eight ball's subsequent motion. That
is, in order for the eight ball to move, it is absolutely necessary that the cue ball, or some other object, first strike it. In somewhat different words, if the cue ball
does not strike the eight ball, then the eight ball must not be capable of moving. On the other hand, if the cue ball strikes the eight ball, then this alone is sufficient for
the eight ball to move. In other words, for the eight ball to move, nothing else is required than the cue ball. (Of course, the eight ball can move if something else strikes
it.)
A causeeffect relationship is a very severe and limiting condition. Rarely is any one single thing sufficient to cause another thing. Furthermore, while a certain thing may
be necessary for the occurrence of another thing, many other things are required as well. That is, rarely is one thing alone sufficient for the occurrence of another.
Rarely is any one single thing sufficient to cause another thing.
The whole point of the rocket ship example is that it does not apply in the complex world in which we live. In our world, there are no such things as single causes and
effects. For instance, as we argued in the last chapter, we cannot say that one thing alone was the cause of the violence in Turkey. The conclusion is that every effect
has multiple causes, and every set of causes produces multiple effects.
Edgar Singer and the Concept of ProducerProduct
Edgar Singer is hardly a household name. Suffice it to say that in the words of his teacher, the great American philosopher
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William James, ''Singer is the best allaround student I have had in offering instruction in philosophy for some thirty years at Harvard." Singer went on to teach my
philosophical mentor, C. West Churchman. I am thus fortunate enough to be able to trace my intellectual lineage directly back to one of the founders of pragmatism,
the philosophical school in which I work.
In contradistinction to the limiting concept of causeeffect, which is much too simple to describe our world, Singer proposed instead the notion of "producerproduct."
A simple example of a producerproduct relationship is one that in fact was used by Singer. It consists of the relationship between an acorn and an oak tree. An acorn
is certainly necessary for the final production of an oak tree, but by itself, it is hardly sufficient. If we wish to get an oak tree, we certainly have to plant an acorn in
the ground or in the soil. However, without the proper moisture, wind, and sun, an oak tree will not result. Thus, while an acorn may be "necessary" for the
production of an oak tree, by itself it is not "sufficient." In slightly different words, we require many contributing factors if we are to produce an oak tree. The same is
now true of all of the complex things that occur in society. Indeed, the necessity of many contributing factors is another of the major definitions of "complexity."
A ProducerProduct Analysis of CM
It is sad to report that in all the years that I have worked in the field of CM, and in all the crisis audits that my colleagues and I have conducted for major corporations,
there has only been one case of a corporate executive who was able to see the Big Picture, and as a result, able to understand how all the various contributing factors
to various crises relate to one
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In all the years that I have worked in the field of CM there has only been one case of a corporate executive who was able to see the Big Picture, and as a
result, able to understand how all the various contributing factors to various crises relate to one another.
another. As a result, this particular executive was able to see the futility of preparing for individual crises in isolation, and furthermore, of attending to individual
contributing factors in isolation as well. Since this point is so important, we need to take a brief look at the diagram produced by this executive. Of course, it should be
understood that all explicit references to the executive and his organization have been disguised for reasons of confidentiality.
Exhibit 82 shows what this executive considered to be major crises for the organization in which he worked. Although the distinction among the boxes is somewhat
arbitrary, crises are shown as shaded boxes. On the other hand, effects, or contributing factors, are those things that lead up to and follow from crises, and these are
shown as unshaded boxes.
This particular organization was in the oil industry. Hence, a major precipitating crisis for the organization was the falling of prices on world oil markets. This is shown
as box 1 in the upper lefthand corner of the exhibit. The consequences of falling oil prices are shown as one proceeds through the rest of the exhibit. Hence, boxes 2,
3, and 4 show particular outcomes and additional crises that can result from falling oil prices. (Note that the numbers exist only for identification of the separate
outcomes and crises, not for sequence.)
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Exhibit 82
A Systems Map of Potential Crises
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Exhibit 82 also shows what happens as other crises result from, and new, additional ones feed into, the drop in oil prices. As a result, the exhibit attempts to portray
the complex set of relationships among various crises. The purpose is to give the organization a better overall map of the full array of forces it faces so that it can
formulate actions and plans that will be most effective. Even more important, the purpose of the diagram is to help top level executives make sure that they do not take
the wrong corrective actions, i.e., those actions that would actually make a crisis worse.
The Moral
Exhibit 83 represents a summary of the key themes we have discussed throughout this book. First of all, the rows are meant to indicate the differences between (1)
those organizations that think and act systemically, and, (2) those that do not. It also is meant to portray the differences between (1)
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those organizations that act responsibly, and (2) those that deny their responsibility.
Cell 1 is obviously the ideal case. Unfortunately, it still applies to only a small number of organizations. These are the very few that are prepared to think and to act
systemically, and furthermore, accept their responsibility for crises. My colleagues and I call such organizations ''crisis prepared" because they have done everything in
their power to prepare for a wide variety of crises. 1 Not only does this mean that they have internalized the proper ways of thinking about crises, but it also means
that they have put in place the appropriate crisis mechanisms such as early warning systems that will help them get a leg up on impending crises. Once again, this does
not guarantee that they will never face a major crisis, for no such guarantee is possible. It does mean that when major crises occur, they will recover much faster than
those organizations that are not prepared.
Cell 2 is a fundamental contradiction in terms. It is difficult to imagine that one can think and act systemically, and yet, deny one's responsibility. An important part of
thinking and acting systemically is that it automatically includes the acceptance of responsibility. On the other hand, this does not mean that the situation shown in cell 2
can never occur, for a great deal hinges on what an organization believes thinking and acting systemically is.
Cell 3 represents those organizations that are of greatest concern. These are the organizations that neither think nor act systemically. They are the ones that are also
most likely to deny their responsibilities. For this reason, my colleagues and I call such organizations "crisis prone." 2 They substantially increase the odds that they will
experience a major crisis that will affect not only them, but also their customers and surrounding communities. The worst fear is that they will set off
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a chain reaction of additional crises that they will be unable to control.
And cell 4 typifies those organizations that constantly live on the edge. Whether they are aware of it or not, they count on luck to get them through any crisis. They
neither think nor act systemically, and yet, somewhat paradoxically, they accept responsibility for their actions. The point is that in spite of their willingness to accept
responsibility, their lack of thinking and acting systemically will nonetheless set off a chain reaction of crises that they will be unable to control. However, if by the
acceptance of responsibility one means the implementation of the proper CM control mechanisms, then how is such a thing really possible without thinking
systemically?
Finally, Exhibit 84 is an illustration of the things that all organizations can do to better prepare for major crises. The chart shows what one can do in the shortterm
versus the longterm. It also shows what one can do in order to be reactive as well as proactive with regard to major crises. In sum, Exhibit 84 is an ideal plan for the
evolution and development of an effective program of CM for every organization.
Closing Remarks
In the end, we are faced with the fundamental question, ''What is it that allows individuals and organizations to both accept responsibility and to prepare for crises?"
The answer cannot be the precise determination of how much a particular factor contributes to a specific crisis. This is not to say that we should not try to gather the
best possible data. But we must realize fundamentally that all data are at best incomplete. We live in a world that is far too complex to collect precise and perfect data
on anything.
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Exhibit 84
The Development of an Integrated CM Program
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In the end, that which allows us to accept moral responsibility for our actions is the deepest and the highest expression of morality and ethics, i.e., the notion that we
are all interconnected, and thereby, bear responsibility for one another. When this idea is finally accepted, then we will have truly taken a giant step in the moral
development of humankind.
Strategy List for Chapter Eight
• Recognize that rarely is one single thing or event sufficient to cause another.
• Analyze all contributing factors to get a sense of the Big Picture.
• Map the full array of forces that contribute to your situation to formulate action plans.
• Consult the map to ensure that the corrective actions won't make the crisis worse.
• Use Exhibit 84 to help prepare for major crises.
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