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mech_Markel_PracticalStrategies2e_SE_093015

Mike Markel

FOR TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

Practical Strategies

S E C O N D E D I T I O N

Practical Strategies for Technical Communication offers easy-to-follow strategies for writing and designing all of the major documents you’ll encounter in the workplace. This thoroughly updated new edition takes a boldly visual approach to technical communication, featuring “Thinking Visually” graphics addressing key principles and concepts, as well as new sample documents annotated with commentary from the professionals who created them. This book includes the assignments you need in order to succeed in the course and in your career.

Did your instructor assign LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication? macmillanhighered.com/ps2e

Where Students Learn

Practical Strategies for Technical Communication includes cross-references to LaunchPad with document analysis activities, tutorials, document-based case scenarios, and more. If your book did not come packaged with an access code, you can purchase access to LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication at macmillanhighered.com/ps2e.

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Practical Strategies for Technical Communication is available in a variety of e-book formats. For details, visit macmillanhighered.com/ps2e/catalog.

Mike Markel

for Technical communicaTion

Practical Strategies

S E C O N D E D i t i O N

mech_Markel_PracticalStrategies2e_SE_093015

G u i d e l i n e s

Determining Fair Use 23 Dealing with Copyright Questions 24 Using Social Media Ethically and Legally 27 Managing Your Project 37 Listening Effectively 38 Setting Your Team’s Agenda 39 Communicating Diplomatically 41 Critiquing a Colleague’s Work 41 Participating in a Videoconference 44 Writing for Readers from Other Cultures 68 Researching a Topic 85 Evaluating Print and Online Sources 93 Conducting an Interview 100 Creating a Professional Persona 110 Revising Headings 115 Dividing Long Paragraphs 119 Creating Effective Lists 131 Avoiding Sexist Language 150 Using the People-First Approach 152 Planning Your Design 160 Understanding Learning Theory and Page Design 167 Making Your Document Easy To Navigate 188 Designing Simple, Clear Web Pages 192 Integrating Graphics and Text 204 Creating Effective Tables 213 Creating Effective Bar Graphs 216 Creating Effective Infographics 219

Creating Effective Line Graphs 221 Creating Effective Pie Charts 222 Presenting Photographs Effectively 230 Organizing a Memo 255 Following Netiquette 256 Representing Your Organization on a Microblog 260 Building the Foundation of Your Professional Brand 267 Presenting Your Professional Brand 268 Using LinkedIn’s Employment Features 272 Elaborating on Your Education 274 Formatting a Plain-Text Résumé 281 Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal 300 Introducing a Proposal 302 Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report 324 Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status

Report 326 Writing Recommendations 350 Writing an Executive Summary 356 Writing Effective Sentence Definitions 390 Providing Appropriate Detail in Descriptions 399 Designing Clear, Attractive Pages 407 Drafting Introductions for Instructions 411 Drafting Steps in Instructions 412 Introducing and Concluding the Presentation 428 Using Memorable Language in Oral Presentations 442 Paraphrasing Accurately 451 Summarizing 453

T h i n k i n G V i s ua l ly

T e c h T i p s

Characteristics of a Technical Document 7 Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents 8 Principles for Ethical Communication 31 Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration 36

Determining the Important Characteristics of Your Audience 60

Characteristics of an Effective Graphic 200 Delivering the Presentation 444

How To Set Up Pages 169 How To Create Borders and Screens 180 How To Create Text Boxes 180 How To Insert and Modify Graphics 204 How To Use Drawing Tools 221 How To Create and Insert Screen Shots 233

How To Create a Gantt Chart 307 How To Format Headers, Footers, and Page Numbers 354 How To Create a Table of Contents 354 How To Create a Master Page Design in Presentation

Slides 433 How To Set List Items to Appear and Dim During a

Presentation 434

Presenting Clear Instructions 418 Mechanism Description Using Interactive Graphics 419

and Process Description Using Video Animation 419 and Instructions Using Video Screen Capture 419 and

Instructions Using a Combination of Video Demonstration and Screen Capture 419 and

Definition Using Video Animation 419 and Integrating Graphics and Text on a Presentation Slide 441

Get the most out of your book with LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication macmillanhighered.com/ps2e

Where Students Learn

LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication provides an interactive e-book, engaging content, and new ways to get the most out of your course.

• LearningCurve: adaptive, game-like practice that helps you focus on the technical communication topics where you need the most help

• Real-world case scenarios built around common workplace documents

• Analysis activities based on multimodal sample documents including video instructions and interactive visual reports

• Downloadable versions of helpful forms discussed in the text

• A test bank with quizzes and additional cases and exercises for every chapter

• Tutorials on digital composition, tech tips, and documentation

• Video-based modules on team writing

Take full advantage of the LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication. If your book did not come packaged with an access code, you can purchase access at macmillanhighered.com/ps2e.

Need help designing presentation slides or editing photos for a document?

Tutorials included in LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication will help you learn and apply digital composition skills for your assignments.

Try this in LaunchPad

Inside LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication

C A S E S

CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé

CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a Plagiarism-Detection Service

CASE 3: Accommodating a Team Member’s Scheduling Problems

CASE 4: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and Interests CASE 5: Revising a Questionnaire CASE 6: Emphasizing Important Information in a Technical

Description CASE 7: Designing a Flyer

CASE 8: Creating Appropriate Graphics To Accompany a Report CASE 9: Setting Up and Maintaining a Professional

Microblog Account CASE 10: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-Search Sites CASE 11: Revising a Brief Proposal CASE 12: Writing a Directive About Using Agendas for

Meetings CASE 13: Analyzing Decision Matrices CASE 14: Choosing a Medium for Presenting Instructions CASE 15: Understanding the Claim-and-Support Structure

for Presentation Graphics

Document-based cases, previously included at the end of each chapter, are now presented online, where you can familiarize yourself with each scenario, download and work with related documents, and access assignment questions in a single space.

Missing something? Instructors may assign the online materials that accompany this text. For access to them, visit macmillanhighered.com/ps2e. LaunchPad materials are identified throughout the text with the icon.

E - B O O K S

Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger, features seven realistic scenarios in which you can practice workplace writing skills. Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe, covers strategies for collaborating successfully in the workplace through written communication.

D O C U M E N T A N A LYS I S AC T I V I T I E S

Interactive Graphic: Tom Giratikanon and David Schutz, How Hard the Wind Will Hit Your Area, and When (Chapter 8)

Online Portfolio: Blane C. Holden’s Online Portfolio (Chapter 10)

Proposal Delivered as a Prezi Presentation: Andrew Washuta, Marketing Project Proposal (Chapter 11)

Report Presented as a Website: United States Geological Survey, High Plains Water-Level Monitoring Study (Chapter 12)

Interactive Graphic: Matthew C. Hansen et al., University of Maryland, Google, USGS, and NASA, “Global Forest Change” Interactive Map (Chapter 12)

Recommendations Presented as an Audio Podcast: Centers for Disease Control, Influenza 2010–2011, ACIP Vaccination Recommendations (Chapter 13)

Mechanism Description Using Interactive Graphics: Hybridcenter.org and Union of Concerned Scientists, Hybrids Under the Hood (Part 2) (Chapter 14)

Process Description Using Video Animation: North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT ), Diverging Diamond Interchange Visualization (Chapter 14)

Instructions Using Video Screen Capture: TechSmith, Jing Learning Center, Capture a Video (Chapter 14)

Explore real multimedia documents that harness digital technologies in exciting new ways, and respond to prompts that will help you analyze them.

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T E A M W R I T I N G M O D U L E S

These modules, built around five short videos of real team interactions, focus on the role of written communication in teamwork. They’ll teach you how to use written documentation to manage a team by producing task schedules, minutes, charters, and other materials and also provide models for working on large collaborative documents.

T U TO R I A L S

DIGITAL WRITING TUTORIALS Cross-Platform Word Processing with CloudOn, Quip, and

More (Chapter 3) Tracking Sources with Evernote and Zotero (Chapter 5) Photo Editing Basics with GIMP (Chapter 8) Building Your Professional Brand with LinkedIn, Twitter, and

More (Chapter 10) Creating Presentations with PowerPoint and Prezi (Chapter 15) Audio Recording and Editing with Audacity (Chapter 15)

DIGITAL TIpS TUTORIALS Creating Styles and Templates (Chapter 3) Scheduling Meetings Online (Chapter 3) Reviewing Collaborative Documents (Chapter 3) Incorporating Tracked Changes (Chapter 3) Conducting Online Meetings (Chapter 3)

Using Wikis for Collaborative Work (Chapter 3) Using Collaborative Software (Chapter 3) Proofreading for Format Consistency (Chapter 7)

DOCUMENTATION TUTORIALS How To Cite a Database in APA Style (Appendix, Part A:

Documenting Your Sources) How To Cite a Website in APA Style (Appendix, Part A:

Documenting Your Sources) How To Cite a Book in MLA Style (Appendix, Part A:

Documenting Your Sources) How To Cite an Article in MLA Style (Appendix, Part A:

Documenting Your Sources) How To Cite a Website in MLA Style (Appendix, Part A:

Documenting Your Sources) How To Cite a Database in MLA Style (Appendix, Part A:

Documenting Your Sources)

Engaging tutorials show you helpful tools and tips for creating your projects along with guidance on how to best use them, as well as the documentation process for citing the sources you use in MLA and APA style.

Instructions Using a Combination of Video Demonstration and Screen Capture: Texas Tech University, Multiple Literacy Lab (MuLL), Recording Audio with iPod + iTalk (Chapter 14)

Definition Using Video Animation: ABC News, What Is the Cloud? (Chapter 14)

L E A R N I N G C U R V E

Working in the Technical Communication Environment Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose Researching Your Subject Organizing and Emphasizing Information Writing Correct and Effective Sentences

Articles and Nouns for Multilingual Writers Prepositions for Multilingual Writers Sentence Structure for Multilingual Writers Verbs for Multilingual Writers

Master the material covered in the first six chapters of the text as well as key skills for multilingual writers with LearningCurve, an adaptive quizzing program that meets you where you are and gives you the extra support you need when you need it.

D O W N LO A D A B L E F O R M S

Work-Schedule Form (Chapter 3) Team-Member Evaluation Form (Chapter 3) Self-Evaluation Form (Chapter 3)

Audience Profile Sheet (Chapter 4) Oral Presentation Evaluation Form (Chapter 15)

Download and work with a variety of helpful forms discussed throughout the text.

T E S T B A N K

A test bank offers multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer questions for every chapter in the text.

00_MAR_03364_FM_i_xxxiv.indd 2 10/5/15 10:57 AM

S e co n d e d I T I o n

Mike Markel Boise State University

Bedford /St. Martin’s A Macmillan Education Imprint

Boston • New York

Practical Strategies For Technical communicaTion

© Getty Images/John Rensten

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For Bedford/St. Martin’s Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Higher Education Humanities: Edwin Hill Editorial Director, English and Music: Karen S. Henry Senior Publisher for Composition, Business and Technical Writing, Developmental Writing: Leasa Burton Executive Editor: Molly Parke Developmental Editor: Regina Tavani Media Producer: Melissa Skepko-Masi Publishing Services Manager: Andrea Cava Senior Production Supervisor: Lisa McDowell Executive Marketing Manager: Joy Fisher Williams Director of Rights and Permissions: Hilary Newman Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik Text Design: Maureen McCutcheon Design Cover Design: John Callahan Cover Art: © Getty Images/John Rensten Composition: Graphic World, Inc. Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley and Sons

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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher.

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For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 (617-399-4000)

ISBN 978-1-319-00336-4

Acknowledgments Acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the text and art selections they cover; these acknowledgments and copyrights constitute an extension of the copyright page. It is a violation of the law to reproduce these selections by any means whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder.

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Practical StrategieS for technical communication is a shorter version of Technical Communication, which for 11 editions has remained a best- selling text for introductory courses in technical communication. Practical Strat- egies focuses on the essential topics, writing strategies, and skills students need to succeed in the course and in their professional lives. Its streamlined and reorganized chapters make it more concise than the larger book, but it remains an accessible and thorough introduction to planning, drafting, designing, and revising technical documents. Practical Strategies also offers detailed advice on the most common applications such as proposals, reports, and instructions.

Evident throughout this book is a focus on the expanding role of collabo- ration in the world of technical communication. Technical communication has always involved collaboration. A writer who needed to produce a user manual for a new software package would likely have interviewed the engi- neer who wrote the code. The company might also have convened a focus group to find out what users liked and didn’t like about the prototype of the software. Now, however, there is more interaction than ever before between the people who produce technical documents and those who consume them. Often, that interaction goes in both directions. Using social media and new technologies, technical communicators can collaborate with their audiences at every step of the communication process. And thanks to online publishing, audience members contribute to the development of technical documents even after they have been published, by asking and answering questions, revising existing information, and contributing new information.

The types of documents that technical communicators routinely produce have changed as well. Microblog posts, contributions to discussion boards and wikis, and status updates to one’s LinkedIn profile—once the raw materi- als of longer and more-formal documents—are now routinely used to com- municate important messages.

Despite these changes, the fundamentals of technical communication are at least as important as they always have been. An inaccuracy in a microblog post communicating a project update is every bit as big a problem as an inac- curacy in a traditional progress report. And even though we live and work in an era that values brevity and quick turnaround, some information can be properly communicated only through the longer, detailed documents that have always been at the center of technical communication.

Preface for Instructors

v

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Preface for Instructors vi

I have revised this new edition of Practical Strategies for Technical Communica- tion to help students learn how to communicate effectively in the fast-paced, highly collaborative world in which they will work. Employers have never valued communication skills as much as they value them today, and for good reason. Today’s professionals need to communicate more frequently, more rapidly, more accurately, and with more individuals than ever before. This book will help prepare students to do so—in their courses and in their careers.

Organization and Features of the Text Practical Strategies for Technical Communication is organized into five parts.

• Part 1, “Working in the Technical-Communication Environment,” orients students to the practice of technical communication, introducing important topics such as the roles of technical communicators, a basic process for writing technical documents, ethical and legal considerations, effective collaboration, and uses for social media in collaboration.

• Part 2, “Planning and Drafting the Document,” focuses on rhetorical and stylistic concerns: considering audience and purpose, gathering information through primary and secondary research, and writing coherent, clear documents.

• Part 3, “Designing User-Friendly Documents and Websites,” introduces students to design principles and techniques and to the creation and use of graphics in technical documents and websites.

• Part 4, “Learning Important Applications,” offers practical advice for preparing the types of technical communication that students are most likely to encounter in their professional lives: letters, memos, emails, and microblogs; job-application materials; proposals; informational reports, such as progress and status reports; recommendation reports; definitions, descriptions, and instructions; and oral presentations.

• The appendix, “Reference Handbook,” provides help with paraphrasing, quoting, and summarizing sources; documenting sources in the APA, IEEE, and MLA styles; and editing and proofreading documents.

Help with the writing process is integrated throughout the book in the form of two prominent features.

• Choices and Strategies charts (see page 83, for example) are designed to help students at decision points in their writing. These charts summarize various writing and design strategies and help students choose the one that best suits their specific audience and purpose.

• Focus on Process boxes in each of the applications chapters (see page 293, for example) highlight aspects of the writing process that require special consideration when writing specific types of technical communication. Each Focus on Process box in Part 4 relates back to a complete overview of the writing process in Chapter 1 (see page 12).

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Preface for Instructors vii

New to This Edition The Second Edition recasts the text’s features in the context of today’s pro- fessional environment. Chapter 1, thoroughly revised in light of the input of fellow technical-communication instructors, sets the stage for the text’s new focus. The chapter about audience includes an expanded introduction that prepares students who are, for the first time, considering audiences other than their instructors. In addition, this chapter presents techniques for analyzing social-media data to better understand those audiences. The correspondence chapter now includes guidelines on how to represent one’s organization on a microblog. The chapter on definitions, descriptions, and instructions covers the new role of discussion boards, wikis, and videos in disseminating information. Updated sample documents, both in the print text and online, provide opportunities for students to analyze the types of documents they’ll need to produce or contribute to, such as a municipal government app that enables residents to report infrastructure problems from their phones, as well as an interactive map of global forest changes that allows different audiences to customize their viewing experience to obtain the precise information they need. New to the Second Edition of Practical Strategies are sample documents annotated with insights from conversations with the professionals who created them, such as a Prezi frame built for a sustainability startup’s presentation at an investor conference.

In keeping with its promise of serving as a model of the principles it teaches, the new edition communicates in new ways. Reflecting the increas- ingly visual nature of today’s learners and of technical communication itself, the Second Edition includes new “Thinking Visually” graphics, developed with feedback from instructors. This feature provides an accessible, modern take on key principles and concepts throughout the text. Online resources, labeled in the text with an icon, are located in LaunchPad, a customiz- able online course space including a full e-book that can be packaged with new copies of the text for a significant discount. Cases are now presented in LaunchPad so that students can easily download and work with related documents. Tutorials introduce tools for multimodal composition, present helpful technology tips, and offer another means of learning documenta- tion. LearningCurve adaptive quizzing activities, covering the first six chap- ters, help students master and apply concepts in a new, personalized way. LearningCurve activities for multilingual writers are also available here, as are video-based team writing modules that help students learn collabora- tive writing skills. Also available in LaunchPad are two full-length e-books: Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger, and Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe. Finally, instructors can access a variety of instructor resources here, including a new test bank featuring multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer questions for each chapter.

The table on the next two pages describes the updates made to each chap- ter in the Second Edition.

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Preface for Instructors viii

chapTer WhaT’S neW

chapter 1 Introduction to Technical Communication

• New focus on continuous collaboration between technical communicators and stakeholders • A discussion of the challenges related to producing technical communication and how to

meet them • Thinking Visually: Characteristics of a Technical Document • Thinking Visually: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents • A discussion of the skills and qualities shared by successful workplace communicators • New annotated sample documents that set the stage for those that will follow throughout

the text, such as a company blog post and comment thread

chapter 2 Understanding Ethical and Legal Obligations

• A discussion of ethical and legal issues related to social media, including guidelines for using social media ethically in the workplace

• Document Analysis Activity: Presenting Guidelines for Using Social Media • Thinking Visually: Principles for Ethical Communication

chapter 3 Writing Collaboratively

• Thinking Visually: Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration • Advice on choosing the best digital writing tool for a project • Tutorials on scheduling and conducting meetings online, creating styles and templates,

reviewing collaborative documents, incorporating tracked changes, using wikis for collaborative work, and using collaborative software

• Screenshots of a real team collaborating on a press release, annotated with insights from team members

• LearningCurve: Working in the Technical-Communication Environment, covering Chapters 1–3

chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose

• Thinking Visually: Determining the Important Characteristics of Your Audience • A new, more-detailed introduction to the role of audience and purpose • Advice on using social-media data in audience analysis • Case: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and Interests • LearningCurve: Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose

chapter 5 Researching Your Subject

• Advice on using social-media data in research • LearningCurve: Researching Your Subject

chapter 6 Writing for Your Readers

• New focus on emphasizing important information at various document levels • Instruction on writing grammatically correct sentences relocated from the Reference

Handbook • Case: Emphasizing Important Information in a Technical Description • LearningCurve: Organizing and Emphasizing Information • LearningCurve: Writing Correct and Effective Sentences

chapter 7 Designing Print and Online Documents

• Advice on designing documents for mobile screens • A tutorial on proofreading for format consistency

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Preface for Instructors ix

chapTer WhaT’S neW

chapter 8 Creating Graphics

• Thinking Visually: Characteristics of an Effective Graphic • A discussion of infographics • Document Analysis Activity: Interactive Graphic • Tutorial on editing photos

chapter 9 Writing Correspondence

• Guidelines for representing your organization on a microblog

chapter 10 Writing Job-Application Materials

• Advice on establishing your professional brand • Guidelines on creating and using a LinkedIn profile • Tutorial on building a professional brand online • Document Analysis Activity: Online Portfolio • Case: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-Search Sites

chapter 11 Writing Proposals

• Sample internal proposal: Tablet Study at Rawlings Regional Medical Center • Document Analysis Activity: Proposal Delivered as a Prezi Presentation

chapter 12 Writing Informational Reports

• Sample progress report: Tablet Study at Rawlings Regional Medical Center • Document Analysis Activity: Report Presented as a Website • Document Analysis Activity: Interactive Graphic

chapter 13 Writing Recommendation Reports

• Sample recommendation report: Tablet Study at Rawlings Regional Medical Center • Document Analysis Activity: Recommendations Presented as an Audio Podcast

chapter 14 Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions

• Guidelines for designing instructional videos • Document Analysis Activity: Presenting Clear Instructions • Document Analysis Activity: Mechanism Description Using Interactive Graphics • Document Analysis Activity: Process Description Using Video Animation • Document Analysis Activity: Instructions Using Video Screen Capture • Document Analysis Activity: Instructions Using a Combination of Video Demonstration and

Screen Capture • Document Analysis Activity: Definition Using Video Animation • Case: Choosing a Medium for Presenting Instructions

chapter 15 Making Oral Presentations

• Thinking Visually: Delivering the Presentation • Advice on creating presentation materials using Prezi • A sample Prezi presentation annotated with insights from its designer • Tutorials on creating presentation slides and on recording and editing audio for recorded

presentations and other projects

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Preface for Instructors x

Get the Most out of Practical Strategies for Technical Communication, Second Edition The Second Edition of Practical Strategies for Technical Communication lives not only in print but also online, where you and your students will find an array of engaging resources to enhance your course. Bedford/St. Martin’s offers resources and format choices that help you and your students get even more out of your book and course. To learn more about or to order any of the following products, contact your Macmillan sales representative, email sales support ([email protected]), or visit the website at macmillanhighered.com/ps2e.

Launchpad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication: Where Students Learn LaunchPad provides engaging content and new ways to get the most out of your course. Get an interactive e-book combined with unique, book-specific materi- als in a fully customizable course space; then mix our resources with yours.

• Prebuilt units—tutorials, quizzes, and more—are easy to adapt and assign. Add your own materials and mix them with our high-quality multimedia content and ready-made assessment options, such as LearningCurve adaptive quizzing.

• LaunchPad also includes access to a gradebook that provides a clear window on the performance of your whole class and individual students, overall and on individual assignments.

• A streamlined interface helps students focus on what’s due, and social- commenting tools let them engage, make connections, and learn from each other. Use LaunchPad on its own or integrate it with your school’s learning management system so that your class is always on the same page.

LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication, Second Edition, includes the following book-specific media materials:

• Cases Previously located at the end of each chapter, these document- based cases now live online, making it easy for students to familiarize themselves with the case scenarios, download and work with related documents, and complete their assignments.

• Document Analysis Activities The online equivalent of the Document Analysis Activities included in the print book, these models introduce students to the kinds of multimedia documents that can exist only online—such as a recommendation report presented as a podcast and a definition delivered via video and animation. Each model is accompanied by a set of assessment questions to guide students in their analysis.

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Preface for Instructors xi

• Downloadable Forms Students can download and work with a variety of forms discussed throughout the text, including an audience profile sheet, a team-member evaluation form, and an oral presentation evaluation form.

• LearningCurve LearningCurve is an adaptive, game-like quizzing program that helps students master comprehension and application of the course material. LearningCurve activities cover the technical- communication environment, audience and purpose, research, organizing and emphasizing information, writing effective sentences, and communicating persuasively. Activities on reading and grammar topics, including common issues for multilingual writers, are also available.

• Team Writing Assignment Modules Based on Team Writing by Joanna Wolfe, these modules focus on the role of written communication in teamwork. The modules are built around five short videos of real team interactions. They teach students how to use written documentation to manage a team by producing task schedules, minutes, charters, and other materials and also provide models for working on large collaborative documents.

• Test Bank Instructors using LaunchPad have access to a robust test bank that offers multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer questions for each chapter.

• Tutorials Engaging tutorials present digital tips and introduce students to helpful multimodal composition tools, such as Prezi and Audacity, providing guidance on how to best use them for projects. Documentation tutorials provide a visual way for students to learn citation.

For a complete list of LaunchPad content, see pages i and ii of this book.

To get the most out of your course, order LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication packaged with the print book at a significant dis- count. (LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication can also be purchased on its own.) An activation code is required. To order LaunchPad for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication with the print book, use ISBN 978-1-319-04774-0.

choose from alternative Formats of Practical Strategies for Technical Communication Bedford/St. Martin’s offers a range of affordable formats, allowing students to choose the one that works best for them. For details, visit macmillanhighered.com/ps2e.

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Preface for Instructors xii

Select Value packages Add more value to your text by packaging one of the following resources with Practical Strategies for Technical Communication, Second Edition. To learn more about package options for any of the products below, contact your Macmillan sales representative or visit macmillanhighered.com/ps2e/catalog.

Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger, Boise State University, offers realistic writing tasks based on seven context-rich scenarios, with more than 50 examples of documents that students are likely to encounter in the workplace. To order the textbook pack- aged with Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication for free, use ISBN 978-1-319-04773-3.

Team Writing by Joanna Wolfe, University of Louisville, is a print supple- ment with online videos that provides guidelines and examples of collaborat- ing to manage written projects by documenting tasks, deadlines, and team goals. Two- to five-minute videos corresponding with the chapters in Team Writing give students the opportunity to analyze team interactions and learn about communication styles. Practical troubleshooting tips show students how best to handle various types of conflicts within peer groups. To order the textbook packaged with Team Writing, use ISBN 978-1-319-04775-7.

Instructor resources You have a lot to do in your course. Bedford/St. Martin’s wants to make it easy for you to find the support you need—and to get it quickly.

Computerized Test Bank for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication, Second Edition, is a new test bank that features multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer questions for every chapter in the text. The test bank offers a convenient way to provide additional assessment of students. Instructors using LaunchPad will find the test bank material available in the “Resources” section, where they can add the items they wish to their units for the course. The test bank files are also available to download from the Bedford/St. Mar- tin’s online catalog macmillanhighered.com/ps2e/catalog.

Instructor’s Resource Manual for Practical Strategies for Technical Communication, Second Edition, is available in the “Resources” section of LaunchPad and as a PDF file that can be downloaded from the Bedford/St. Martin’s online catalog macmillanhighered.com/ps2e/catalog. In addition to sample syllabi, chapter summaries, and suggested teaching approaches, the Instructor’s Resource Manual includes suggested responses to every Document Analysis Activity, exercise, and case in the book. The manual also includes a unique series of teaching topics.

Additional Cases and Exercises for every chapter are available in LaunchPad, and you can choose which ones you assign to students. Sug- gested responses to each case and exercise are also available.

Lecture Slides are available to download and adapt for each chapter.

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Preface for Instructors xiii

Acknowledgments All of the examples in this book—from single sentences to complete documents—are real. Some were written by my students at Boise State University. Some were written by engineers, scientists, health-care providers, and businesspeople, with whom I have worked as a consultant for more than 40 years. Because much of the information in these documents is proprietary, I have silently changed brand names and other identifying information. I thank the dozens of individuals—students and professionals alike—who have graciously allowed me to reprint their writing. They have been my best teachers.

The Second Edition of Practical Strategies for Technical Communication has benefited greatly from the perceptive observations and helpful suggestions of my fellow instructors throughout the country. I thank Lisa Angius, Farmingdale State College; Katie Arosteguy, University of California, Davis; Monique Babin, Clackamas Community College; Jenny Billings Beaver, Rowan Cabarrus Community College; Sheri Benton, University of Toledo; Charles Bevis, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Olin Bjork, University of Houston–Downtown; An Cheng, Oklahoma State University; Elijah Coleman, Washington State University; Crystal Colombini, University of Texas at San Antonio; Teresa Cook, University of Cincinnati; Matthew Cox, East Carolina University; Ed Cuoco, Wentworth Institute of Technology; Jerry DeNuccio, Graceland University; Charlsye Smith Diaz, University of Maine; Carolyn Dunn, East Carolina University; Tomie Gowdy-Burke, Washington State University; Sandy Johnston, University of Maryland Eastern Shore; Amber Kinonen, Bay College; Tamara Kuzmenkov, Tacoma Community College; Jodie Marion, Mt. Hood Community College; Donna Miguel, Bellevue College; Bonni Miller, University of Maryland Eastern Shore; Mary Ellen Muesing, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Ervin Nieves, Kirkwood Community College; Sabrina Peters-Whitehead, University of Toledo; Ehren Pflugfelder, Oregon State University; Neil Plakcy, Broward College; Kathleen Robinson, Eckerd College; Paula Sebastian, Bellevue College; Stella Setka, Loyola Marymount University; Terry Smith, University of Maryland Eastern Shore; Russel Stolins, Institute of American Indian Arts; Virginia Tucker, Old Dominion University; Gabriela Vlahovici-Jones, University of Maryland Eastern Shore; Lynne Walker, Bellevue College; Beverly Army Williams, Westfield State University; and several anonymous reviewers.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions of one of my colleagues from Boise State University, Russell Willerton. Russell developed two of the LearningCurve activities and contributed substantially to the test bank and to various instructor resources. I greatly appreciate his expertise and hard work. I wish to thank Elaine Silverstein, who developed the other three LearningCurve activities with great patience, wisdom, and care. I also wish to extend my gratitude to Jerilyn Bockerick and Alisha Webber at Cenveo for

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Preface for Instructors xiv

helping to design the new “Thinking Visually” feature that appears in the Second Edition.

I have been fortunate, too, to work with a terrific team at Bedford/St. Martin’s, led by Regina Tavani, an editor of great intelligence, judgment, and energy. Regina has helped me improve the text in many big and small ways. I also want to express my appreciation to Joan Feinberg, Denise Wydra, Karen Henry, Leasa Burton, Molly Parke, Andrea Cava, Eliza Kritz, Anna Palchik, Carrie Thompson, Kathleen Karcher, Chelsea Rodin, Quica Ostrander, and Sally Lifland. For me, Bedford/St. Martin’s continues to exemplify the highest standards of professionalism in publishing. The people there have been end- lessly encouraging and helpful. I hope they realize the value of their contri- butions to this book.

My greatest debt is, as always, to my wife, Rita, who, over the course of many years, has helped me say what I mean.

A Final Word I am more aware than ever before of how much I learn from my students, my fellow instructors, and my colleagues in industry and academia. If you have comments or suggestions for making this a better book, please send an email to [email protected]. I hope to hear from you.

Mike Markel

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xv

ThE SECOND EDITION of Practical Strategies for Technical Communication offers a wealth of support to help you complete your technical-communication projects.

Introduction for Writers

annotated examples make it easier for you to learn from the many model documents, illustrations, and screen shots throughout the text.

CREATING GRAPHICS8 222

Pie Charts The pie chart is a simple but limited design used for showing the relative sizes of the parts of a whole. You can make pie charts with your spreadsheet software. Figure 8.13 (on page 224) shows typical examples.

Figure 8.12 Line Graph Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012, p. 13: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/pdfs/climateindicators-full-2012.pdf.

Note that the title is lengthy because it specifically names the main variables presented in the graph. Name all the important data in the title; it is better for a title to be lengthy than to be imprecise or unclear.

The designer has included a caption that explains how to read the graph. Because this graph is illustrating several items that are measured in different units and therefore cannot be plotted on the same scale (including population and greenhouse gas emissions), the designer chose to have the y-axis express variations from a norm. In this case, the norm is represented by the quantity of each item in the year 1990. If this graph illustrated several items that were measured in the same units, such as the sales figures, in dollars, of several sales- persons, the designer would start the y-axis at zero.

Because the four data lines are sufficiently far apart, the designer placed the appropriate data label next to each line. Alternatively, the designer could have used a separate color-coded legend.

Each axis is labeled clearly.

Using different colors and thicknesses for the lines helps readers distinguish them.

The grid lines—both vertical and horizontal— help readers see the specific value for any data point on the graph.

(continued)

Creating Effective Pie Charts Follow these eight suggestions to ensure that your pie charts are easy to understand and professional looking.

Restrict the number of slices to no more than seven. As the slices get smaller, judging their relative sizes becomes more difficult.

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xvi Introduction for Writers

Guidelines boxes throughout the book sum- marize crucial information and provide strategies related to key topics.

Ethics Notes in every chapter remind you to think about the ethical implications of your writing and oral presentations.

WRITING INFORMATIONAL REPORTS 12 324

Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report

When you write a field report, be sure to answer the following six questions:

What is the purpose of the report?

What are the main points covered in the report?

What were the problems leading to the decision to perform the procedure?

What methods were used?

What were the results?

What do the results mean?

If appropriate, also discuss what you think should be done next.

We would recommend, however, that the pump be modified as follows:

1. Replace the front-end bell with a tungsten carbide-coated front-end bell. 2. Replace the bearings on the impeller. 3. Install insulation plugs in the holes in the front-end bell.

Further, we recommend that the pump be reinspected after another 30-day run on Kentucky #10.

If you have any questions or would like to authorize these modifications, please call me at 555-1241. As always, we appreciate the trust you have placed in us.

Sincerely,

Marvin Littridge Director of Testing and Evaluation

page 2

Informational reports sometimes include recommendations.

The writer concludes politely.

Figure 12.2 A Field Report (continued)

Writing Progress and Status Reports A progress report describes an ongoing project. A status report, sometimes called an activity report, describes the entire range of operations of a depart- ment or division. For example, the director of marketing for a manufacturing company might submit a monthly status report.

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WRITING FOR YOUR READERS 6 146

Avoid Euphemisms A euphemism is a polite way of saying something that makes people uncomfortable. For instance, a near miss between two airplanes is officially an “air proximity incident.” The more uncomfortable the subject, the more often people resort to euphemisms. Dozens of euphemisms deal with drinking, bathrooms, sex, and death. Here are several euphemisms for firing someone:

personnel-surplus reduction dehiring

workforce-imbalance correction decruiting

rightsizing redundancy elimination

indefinite idling career-change-opportunity creation

downsizing permanent furloughing

administrative streamlining personnel realignment

synergy-related headcount restructuring

E T H I C S N OT E

EUphEmISmS AND TRUTh TEllING There is nothing wrong with using the euphemism restroom, even though few people visit one to rest. The British use the phrase go to the toilet in polite company, and nobody seems to mind. In this case, if you want to use a euphemism, no harm done.

But it is unethical to use a euphemism to gloss over an issue that has important implications for people or the environment. People get uncomfortable when discussing layoffs—and they should. It’s an uncomfortable issue. But calling a layoff a redundancy elimination initiative ought to make you even more uncomfortable. Don’t use language to cloud reality. It’s an ethical issue.

BE CONCISE The following five principles can help you write concise technical documents:

• Avoid obvious statements. • Avoid filler. • Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases. • Avoid wordy phrases. • Avoid fancy words.

Avoid Obvious Statements Writing can become sluggish if it over­ explains. The italicized words in the following example are sluggish:

sluggish The market for the sale of flash memory chips is dominated by two chip manufacturers: Intel and Advanced Micro Systems. These two chip manufacturers are responsible for 76 percent of the $1.3 billion market in flash memory chips last year.

improved The market for flash memory chips is dominated by Intel and Advanced Micro Systems, two companies that claimed 76 percent of the $1.3 billion industry last year.

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Document Analysis Activities, located both in print and online, allow you to apply what you have just read as you analyze a real business or tech- nical document.

Choosing EffECtivE LanguagE Delivering an oral presentation is more challenging than writing a document because listeners can’t reread something they didn’t understand. In addition, because you are speaking live, you must maintain your listeners’ attention, even if they are hungry or tired or the room is too hot. Using language effec- tively helps you meet these two challenges.

Even if you use graphics effectively, listeners cannot “see” the organization of a presentation as well as readers can. For this reason, use language to alert your listeners to advance organizers, summaries, and transitions.

• Advance organizers. Use an advance organizer (a statement that tells the listener what you are about to say) in the introduction. In addition, use advance organizers when you introduce main ideas in the body of the presentation.

Nucleus Chromosomes

Daughter helix

Daughter helix

Separating strands of

parent DNA

Thymine

Phosphate

Deoxyribose Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen

A single nucleotide

DNA Details

•   number of chromosomes:   22 pairs + 1 pair  sex-determining  chromosomes = 46

    -   one chromosome of each   pair donated from each   parent’s egg or sperm

    -   sex chromosomes: X,Y for  males; X,X for females

    -   largest chromosome: #1 =   ~263 million base pairs (bp)

    -   smallest chromosome: Y =  ~59  million bp

Chromosome Facts

Integrating Graphics and Text on a Presentation Slide The following slide is part of a presentation about the Human Genome Project. The questions below ask you to think about the discussion of preparing presentation graphics (on pp. 429–40).

D o c u m e n t A n A lys i s Ac t i v i t y

1. How effective is the Human Genome Project logo in the upper left-hand corner of the slide?

2. How well does the graphic of DNA support the accom- panying text on chromo- some facts?

3. Overall, how effective is the presentation graphic?

Preparing the Presentation 441

15

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xvii Introduction for Writers

Tech Tips for using basic software tools give you step-by- step, illustrated instructions on topics such as tracking changes, creating graphics, and modify- ing templates. Keywords in each Tech Tip help you use the Help menu in your word-processing software to find additional information.

Choosing the Appropriate Kind of Graphic 8 233

How To Create and Insert Screen Shots

To show your reader what appears in a window on your com- puter monitor, you can insert a screen shot.

Select Screenshot from the Illustrations group on the Insert tab. You will see a small version of each window you have open on your desktop. Click the screen you want to show your readers, and Word will insert the picture into your document.

If your active screen has a dialog box open, you will see it pictured under Available Windows. Click on the picture of the dialog box to insert it.

To insert part of an active screen other than a dialog box, select Screen Clipping. You will see the active screen with a white shade over it. Use your cursor to draw a rectangular box around the part that you want in your screen shot.

You can modify screen shots by using the Picture Tools For- mat tab. For example, you can use the Crop tool in the Size group to hide unnecessary details.

If you plan to create many screen shots, consider using soft- ware designed to capture and edit screen images efficiently. Search the Internet for “screen capture software,” such as TechSmith’s SnagIt.

KEYWORDS: screen shot, screen capture, format tab, crop

FiguRE 8.26 Phantom, Cutaway, and Exploded Views

a. Phantom drawings show parts hidden from view by outlining external items that would ordinarily obscure them.

b. Cutaway drawings “remove” a part of the surface to expose what is underneath.

c. Exploded drawings separate components while maintaining their physical relationship.

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Writer’s checklists summarize important concepts and act as handy reminders as you draft and revise your work.

cases in every chapter present real- world writing scenarios built around common workplace documents that you can critique, download, and revise.

5 105

Writer’s Checklist

to schedule meetings between 11:30 and 1:30, to make it easier for their people to choose one of the less-popular times.

The body of a document is also a good place to discuss important nonquan- titative data. For example, you might wish to discuss and interpret several representative textual answers to open-ended questions.

E T H I C S N OT E

RepoRting and analyzing data Honestly When you put a lot of time and effort into a research project, it’s frustrating if you can’t find the information you need or if the information you find doesn’t help you say what you want to say. As discussed in Chapter 2, your responsibility as a professional is to tell the truth.

If the evidence suggests that the course of action you propose won’t work, don’t omit that evi- dence or change it. Rather, try to figure out why the evidence does not support your proposal. Present your explanation honestly.

If you can’t find reputable evidence to support your claim that one device works better than another, don’t just keep silent and hope your readers won’t notice. Explain why you think the evidence is missing and how you propose to follow up by continuing your research.

If you make an honest mistake, you are a person. If you cover up a mistake, you’re a dishonest person. If you get caught fudging the data, you could be an unemployed dishonest person. If you don’t get caught, you’re still a smaller person.

W r I T E r ’S C H E C k l I S T

Did you determine the questions you need to answer for your document? (p. 82)

Did you choose appropriate secondary-research tools to answer those questions, including, if appropriate,

online catalogs? (p. 86)

reference works? (p. 86)

periodical indexes? (p. 86)

newspaper indexes? (p. 87)

abstract services? (p. 88)

government information? (p. 88)

social media and other interactive resources? (p. 90)

In evaluating information, did you carefully assess

the author’s credentials? (p. 93)

the publisher? (p. 93)

the author’s knowledge of literature in the field? (p. 94)

the accuracy and verifiability of the information? (p. 94)

the timeliness of the information? (p. 94)

Did you choose appropriate primary-research methods to answer your questions, including, if appropriate,

social-media data analysis? (p. 94)

observations and demonstrations? (p. 96)

inspections? (p. 97)

experiments? (p. 97)

field research? (p. 98)

interviews? (p. 99)

inquiries? (p. 101)

questionnaires? (p. 102)

Did you report and analyze the data honestly? (p. 105)

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264 WRITING CORRESPONDENCE9

Sea-Tasty Tuna Route 113 Lynchburg, TN 30563 www.seatastytuna.com

April 20, 2017

Mr. Seth Reeves 19 Lowry’s Lane Morgan, TN 30610

Dear Mr. Reeves:

We were very sorry to learn that you found a fly in your tuna fish.

Here at Sea-Tasty we are very careful about hygiene at our plant. The tuna are scrubbed thoroughly as soon as we receive them. After they are processed, they are inspected visually at three different points. Before we pack them, we rinse and sterilize the cans to ensure that no foreign material is sealed in them.

Because of these stringent controls, we really don’t see how you could have found a fly in the can. Nevertheless, we are enclosing coupons good for two cans of Sea-Tasty tuna.

We hope this letter restores your confidence in us.

Truly yours,

To: Paul From: Louise

Sometimes I just have to wonder what you’re thinking, Paul.

>Of course, it’s not possible to expect perfect resumes. But I >have to screen them, and last year I had to read over 200. I’m >not looking for perfection, but as soon as I spot an error I >make a mental note of it and, when I hit a second and >then a third error I can’t really concentrate on the writer’s >credentials. Listen, Paul, you might be a sharp editor, but the rest of us have a different responsibility: to make the products and move them out as soon as possible. We don’t have the luxury of studying documents to see if we can find errors. I suggest you concentrate on what you were hired to do, without imposing your “standards” on the rest of us.

>From my point of view, an error can include a >misused tradmark.

Misusing a “tradmark,” Paul? Is that Error Number 1?

C a s e 9 : Setting Up and Maintaining a Professional Microblog Account

As the editor-in-chief of your college newspaper, you have recently been granted permission to create a Twitter account. The newspaper’s faculty advisor has requested that, before you set up the account, you develop a statement of audience and purpose based on your school’s own social-media policy statement and statements from other schools, newspapers, and organizations. To begin putting together a bibliography to guide your research and craft your statement, go to LaunchPad.

6. Louise and Paul work for the same manufacturing company. Louise, a senior engineer, is chairing a committee to investigate ways to improve the hiring process at the company. Paul, a technical editor, also serves on the committee. The excerpts quoted in Louise’s email are from Paul’s email to all members of the committee in response to Louise’s request that members describe their approach to evaluating job- application materials. How would you revise Louise’s email to make it more effective?

7. Because students use email to communicate with other group members when they write collaboratively, your college or university would like to create a one-page handout on how to use email responsibly. Using a search engine, find three or four netiquette guides on the Internet that focus on email. Study these guides and write a one-page student guide to using email to communicate with other students. Somewhere in the guide, be sure to list the sites you studied, so that students can visit them for further information about netiquette.

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For quick reference, many of these features are indexed on the last book page and the inside back cover of this book.

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xix

Preface for Instructors v Introduction for Writers xv

Part 1 Working in the Technical-Communication Environment 1 1 Introduction to Technical Communication 2 2 Understanding Ethical and Legal Obligations 17 3 Writing Collaboratively 34

Part 2 Planning and Drafting the Document 53 4 Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose 54 5 Researching Your Subject 79 6 Writing for Your Readers 108

Part 3 Designing User-Friendly Documents and Websites 157 7 Designing Print and Online Documents 158 8 Creating Graphics 197

Part 4 Learning Important Applications 239 9 Writing Correspondence 240 10 Writing Job-Application Materials 265 11 Writing Proposals 292 12 Writing Informational Reports 318 13 Writing Recommendation Reports 340 14 Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions 386 15 Making Oral Presentations 424

APPENDIX Reference Handbook 449 A Documenting Your Sources 450 B Editing and Proofreading Your Documents 485

References 505 Index 509 Index of Features 526

Brief Contents

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Preface for Instructors v Introduction for Writers xv

Contents

xxi Additional resources for each chapter can be found in LaunchPad: macmillanhighered.com/ps2e

1 Introduction to Technical communication 2 What Is Technical communication? 3

The challenges of producing Technical communication 5

Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace communicators 6

ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Characteristics of a Technical Document 7

ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents 8

how communication Skills and Qualities affect your career 10

a process for Writing Technical documents 11

FocuS on proceSS: Writing Technical Documents 12

a Look at Three Technical documents 13

2 understanding ethical and Legal obligations 17 a Brief Introduction to ethics 18

your ethical and Legal obligations 20 ObLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER 20

ObLIGATIONS TO THE PUbLIC 21

ObLIGATIONS TO THE ENvIRONMENT 22

ObLIGATIONS TO COPYRIGHT HOLDERS 22 GUIDELINES: Determining Fair Use 23

GUIDELINES: Dealing with Copyright Questions 24

ETHICS NOTE: Distinguishing Plagiarism from Acceptable Reuse of Information 24

The role of corporate culture in ethical and Legal conduct 25

understanding ethical and Legal Issues related to Social Media 26 GUIDELINES: Using Social Media Ethically and Legally 27

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Presenting Guidelines for Using Social Media 30

Part 1 Working in the Technical-Communication Environment 1

EXERCISES 16

CASE 1: USING THE MEASURES OF EXCELLENCE IN EvALUATING A RéSUMé 16 and

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xxii contents

communicating ethically across cultures 29 COMMUNICATING WITH CULTURES WITH DIFFERENT ETHICAL bELIEFS 29

COMMUNICATING IN COUNTRIES WITH DIFFERENT LAWS 29

ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Principles for Ethical Communication 31

3 Writing collaboratively 34 ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration 36

Managing projects 37 GUIDELINES: Managing Your Project 37

conducting Meetings 38 LISTENING EFFECTIvELY 38

GUIDELINES: Listening Effectively 38

SETTING YOUR TEAM’S AGENDA 38 GUIDELINES: Setting Your Team’s Agenda 39

ETHICS NOTE: Pulling Your Weight on Collaborative Projects 40

CONDUCTING EFFICIENT MEETINGS 40

COMMUNICATING DIPLOMATICALLY 40

CRITIqUING A TEAM MEMbER’S WORk 40 GUIDELINES: Communicating Diplomatically 41

GUIDELINES: Critiquing a Colleague’s Work 41

using Social Media and other electronic Tools in collaboration 42 WORD-PROCESSING TOOLS 43

MESSAGING TECHNOLOGIES 43 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Critiquing a Draft Clearly and Diplomatically 43

vIDEOCONFERENCING 44 GUIDELINES: Participating in a Videoconference 44

WIkIS AND SHARED DOCUMENT WORkSPACES 45 ETHICS NOTE: Maintaining a Professional Presence Online 48

Gender and collaboration 49

culture and collaboration 49

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 32

EXERCISES 32

CASE 2: THE ETHICS OF REqUIRING STUDENTS TO SUbSIDIzE A PLAGIARISM-DETECTION SERvICE 33 and

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 50

EXERCISES 51

CASE 3: ACCOMMODATING A TEAM MEMbER’S SCHEDULING PRObLEMS 52 and

Additional resources for each chapter can be found in LaunchPad: macmillanhighered.com/ps2e

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xxiii contents

4 analyzing your audience and purpose 54 understanding audience and purpose 56

using an audience profile Sheet 57 ■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Responding to Readers’ Attitudes 58

Techniques for Learning about your audience 59 DETERMINING WHAT YOU ALREADY kNOW AbOUT YOUR AUDIENCE 59

INTERvIEWING PEOPLE 59

READING AbOUT YOUR AUDIENCE ONLINE 59

ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Determining the Important Characteristics of Your Audience 60

SEARCHING SOCIAL MEDIA FOR DOCUMENTS YOUR AUDIENCE HAS WRITTEN 62

ANALYzING SOCIAL-MEDIA DATA 62

communicating across cultures 63 UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURAL vARIAbLES “ON THE SURFACE” 63

UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURAL vARIAbLES “bENEATH THE SURFACE” 64

CONSIDERING CULTURAL vARIAbLES AS YOU WRITE 67 GUIDELINES: Writing for Readers from Other Cultures 68

USING GRAPHICS AND DESIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL READERS 69

applying What you have Learned about your audience 69 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Examining Cultural Variables in a Business Letter 70 ETHICS NOTE: Meeting Your Readers’ Needs Responsibly 74

Writing for Multiple audiences 74

determining your purpose 74

5 researching your Subject 79 understanding the differences Between academic and Workplace research 80

understanding the research process 81

FocuS on proceSS: Researching a Topic 81

choosing appropriate research Methods 82 ■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Choosing Appropriate Research Techniques 83 ■ GUIDELINES: Researching a Topic 85

Part 2 Planning and Drafting the Document 5 3

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 76

EXERCISES 77

CASE 4: FOCUSING ON AN AUDIENCE’S NEEDS AND INTERESTS 78 and

Additional resources for each chapter can be found in LaunchPad: macmillanhighered.com/ps2e

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xxiv contents

conducting Secondary research 85 USING TRADITIONAL RESEARCH TOOLS 86

OnLIne CATALOGS 86 / ReFeRenCe WORkS 86 / PeRIODICAL InDexeS 86 / neWSPAPeR InDexeS 87 / AbSTRACT SeRVICeS 88 / GOVeRnMenT InFORMATIOn 88

USING SOCIAL MEDIA AND OTHER INTERACTIvE RESOURCES 89 DISCUSSIOn bOARDS 89 / WIkIS 89 / bLOGS 90 / TAGGeD COnTenT 91 / RSS FeeDS 91

EvALUATING THE INFORMATION 92 GUIDELINES: Evaluating Print and Online Sources 93

conducting primary research 94 ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL-MEDIA DATA 94

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Evaluating Information from Internet Sources 95

ObSERvATIONS AND DEMONSTRATIONS 96

INSPECTIONS 97

EXPERIMENTS 97

FIELD RESEARCH 98

INTERvIEWS 99 GUIDELINES: Conducting an Interview 100

INqUIRIES 101

qUESTIONNAIRES 102 ASkInG eFFeCTIVe QUeSTIOnS 102 / TeSTInG THe QUeSTIOnnAIRe 104 / ADMInISTeRInG THe QUeSTIOnnAIRe 104 / PReSenTInG QUeSTIOnnAIRe DATA In YOUR DOCUMenT 104

■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Choosing Types of Questions for Questionnaires 103 ETHICS NOTE: Reporting and Analyzing Data Honestly 105

6 Writing for your readers 108 presenting yourself effectively 109

GUIDELINES: Creating a Professional Persona 110

using Basic organizational patterns 110 ■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Choosing Effective Organizational Patterns 111

Writing clear, Informative Titles and headings 112 GUIDELINES: Revising Headings 115

Writing clear, Informative paragraphs 114 STRUCTURE PARAGRAPHS CLEARLY 116

THe TOPIC SenTenCe 116 / THe SUPPORTInG InFORMATIOn 117 / PARAGRAPH LenGTH 118

ETHICS NOTE: Avoiding Burying Bad News in Paragraphs 118 GUIDELINES: Dividing Long Paragraphs 119

USE COHERENCE DEvICES WITHIN AND bETWEEN PARAGRAPHS 120

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 105

EXERCISES 106

CASE 5: REvISING A qUESTIONNAIRE 107 and

Additional resources for each chapter can be found in LaunchPad: macmillanhighered.com/ps2e

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xxv contents

ADDInG TRAnSITIOnAL WORDS AnD PHRASeS 120 / RePeATInG keY WORDS 122 / USInG DeMOnSTRATIVe PROnOUnS FOLLOWeD bY nOUnS 122

Writing Grammatically correct Sentences 123 AvOID SENTENCE FRAGMENTS 124

AvOID COMMA SPLICES 125

AvOID RUN-ON SENTENCES 125

AvOID AMbIGUOUS PRONOUN REFERENCES 126

COMPARE ITEMS CLEARLY 127

USE ADjECTIvES CLEARLY 128

MAINTAIN SUbjECT-vERb AGREEMENT 128

MAINTAIN PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT 129

USE TENSES CORRECTLY 129

Structuring effective Sentences 130 USE LISTS 130

GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Lists 131

EMPHASIzE NEW AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION 130

CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE SENTENCE LENGTH 134 AVOID OVeRLY LOnG SenTenCeS 134 / AVOID OVeRLY SHORT SenTenCeS 134

FOCUS ON THE “REAL” SUbjECT 135

FOCUS ON THE “REAL” vERb 136

USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE 137

USE MODIFIERS EFFECTIvELY 138 DISTInGUISH beT Ween ReSTRICTIVe AnD nOnReSTRICTIVe MODIFIeRS 138 / AVOID MISPLACeD MODIFIeRS 139 / AVOID DAnGLInG MODIFIeRS 140

choosing the right Words and phrases 140 SELECT AN APPROPRIATE LEvEL OF FORMALITY 140

bE CLEAR AND SPECIFIC 141 USe ACTIVe AnD PASSIVe VOICe APPROPRIATeLY 141 / be SPeCIFIC 143 / AVOID UnneCeSSARY JARGOn 143 / USe POSITIVe COnSTRUCTIOnS 144 / AVOID LOnG nOUn STRInGS 145 / AVOID CLICHéS 145 / AVOID eUPHeMISMS 146

ETHICS NOTE: Euphemisms and Truth Telling 146

bE CONCISE 146 AVOID ObVIOUS STATeMenTS 146 / AVOID FILLeR 147 / AVOID UnneCeSSARY PRePOSITIOnAL PHRASeS 147 / AVOID WORDY PHRASeS 148 / AVOID FAnCY WORDS 149

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Revising for Conciseness and Simplicity 151

USE INOFFENSIvE LANGUAGE 149 nOnSexIST LAnGUAGe 149 / PeOPLe-FIRST LAnGUAGe FOR ReFeRRInG TO PeOPLe WITH DISAbILITIeS 150

GUIDELINES: Avoiding Sexist Language 150

GUIDELINES: Using the People-First Approach 152

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 152

EXERCISES 153

CASE 6: EMPHASIzING IMPORTANT INFORMATION IN A TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 156 and

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7 designing print and online documents 158 Goals of document design 159

planning the design of print and online documents 160 GUIDELINES: Planning Your Design 160

understanding design principles 161 PROXIMITY 161

ALIGNMENT 162

REPETITION 162

CONTRAST 164

designing print documents 164 ACCESSING AIDS 164

■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Creating Accessing Aids 165

PAGE LAYOUT 164 PAGe GRIDS 168 / WHITe SPACe 170

GUIDELINES: Understanding Learning Theory and Page Design 167

TECH TIP: How To Set Up Pages 169

COLUMNS 171

TYPOGRAPHY 172 TYPeFACeS 172 / TYPe FAMILIeS 172 / CASe 173 / TYPe SIze 173 / LIne LenGTH 174 / LIne SPACInG 174 / JUSTIFICATIOn 175

ETHICS NOTE: Using Type Sizes Responsibly 174

TITLES AND HEADINGS 176 TITLeS 176 / HeADInGS 176

OTHER DESIGN FEATURES 177 TECH TIP: How To Create Borders and Screens 180 TECH TIP: How To Create Text Boxes 180

analyzing Several print-document designs 177 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Analyzing a Page Design 185

designing online documents 177 USE DESIGN TO EMPHASIzE IMPORTANT INFORMATION 186

CREATE INFORMATIvE HEADERS AND FOOTERS 186

HELP READERS NAvIGATE THE DOCUMENT 186 GUIDELINES: Making Your Document Easy To Navigate 188

INCLUDE EXTRA FEATURES YOUR READERS MIGHT NEED 186

HELP READERS CONNECT WITH OTHERS 189

DESIGN FOR READERS WITH DISAbILITIES 190

DESIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL AUDIENCES 191 ETHICS NOTE: Designing Legal and Honest Online Documents 191

AIM FOR SIMPLICITY 191 GUIDELINES: Designing Simple, Clear Web Pages 192

Part 3 Designing User-Friendly Documents and Websites 1 5 7

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analyzing Several online-document designs 191

8 creating Graphics 197 The Functions of Graphics 198

ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Characteristics of an Effective Graphic 200

understanding the process of creating Graphics 201 PLANNING GRAPHICS 201

■ ETHICS NOTE: Creating Honest Graphics 203

PRODUCING GRAPHICS 203 TECH TIP: How To Insert and Modify Graphics 204

■ GUIDELINES: Integrating Graphics and Text 204

REvISING GRAPHICS 205

CITING SOURCES OF GRAPHICS 205

using color effectively 206

choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 209 ILLUSTRATING NUMERICAL INFORMATION 209

TAbLeS 209 / bAR GRAPHS 215 / InFOGRAPHICS 219 / LIne GRAPHS 221 / PIe CHARTS 222

■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Choosing the Appropriate Kind of Graphic 211 GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Tables 213

GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Bar Graphs 216

GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Infographics 219

TECH TIP: How To Use Drawing Tools 221 GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Line Graphs 221

GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Pie Charts 222

ILLUSTRATING LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS 224 DIAGRAMS 224 / ORGAnIzATIOn CHARTS 224

ILLUSTRATING PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS 224 CHeCkLISTS 226 / FLOWCHARTS 226 / LOGIC TReeS 229 / TeCHnIQUeS FOR SHOWInG ACTIOn OR MOTIOn 229

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Analyzing a Graphic 226

ILLUSTRATING vISUAL AND SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS 229 PHOTOGRAPHS 229 / SCReen SHOTS 231 / LIne DRAWInGS 231 / MAPS 234

GUIDELINES: Presenting Photographs Effectively 230

TECH TIP: How To Create and Insert Screen Shots 233

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 194

EXERCISES 194

CASE 7: DESIGNING A FLYER 196 and

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creating effective Graphics for Multicultural readers 234

9 Writing correspondence 240 understanding the process of Writing correspondence 241

FocuS on proceSS: Writing Correspondence 241

■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Choosing a Type of Correspondence 242

presenting yourself effectively in correspondence 242 USE THE APPROPRIATE LEvEL OF FORMALITY 242

COMMUNICATE CORRECTLY 243

PROjECT THE “YOU ATTITUDE” 243

AvOID CORRESPONDENCE CLICHéS 244

COMMUNICATE HONESTLY 245 ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Business Correspondence 245

Writing Letters 245 ELEMENTS OF A LETTER 245

COMMON TYPES OF LETTERS 247 InQUIRY LeT TeR 247 / ReSPOnSe TO An InQUIRY 248 / CLAIM LeT TeR 248 / ADJUSTMenT LeT TeR 251

Writing Memos 253 GUIDELINES: Organizing a Memo 255

Writing emails 255 GUIDELINES: Following Netiquette 256

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Following Netiquette in an Email Message 259

Writing Microblogs 258 GUIDELINES: Representing Your Organization on a Microblog 260

Writing correspondence to Multicultural readers 261

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 235

EXERCISES 236

CASE 8: CREATING APPROPRIATE GRAPHICS TO ACCOMPANY A REPORT 238 and

Part 4 Learning Important Applications 2 3 9

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 262

EXERCISES 263

CASE 9: SETTING UP AND MAINTAINING A PROFESSIONAL MICRObLOG ACCOUNT 264 and

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10 Writing Job-application Materials 265 establishing your professional Brand 266

GUIDELINES: Building the Foundation of Your Professional Brand 267

GUIDELINES: Presenting Your Professional Brand 268

ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Job-Application Materials 269

understanding Four Major Ways To Look for a position 269 GUIDELINES: Using LinkedIn’s Employment Features 272

Writing résumés 270 ELEMENTS OF THE CHRONOLOGICAL RéSUMé 273

IDenTIFYInG InFORMATIOn 273 / SUMMARY STATeMenT 274 / eDUCATIOn 274 / eMPLOYMenT HISTORY 275 / InTeReSTS AnD ACTIVITIeS 278 / ReFeRenCeS 278 / OTHeR eLeMenTS 279

GUIDELINES: Elaborating on Your Education 274

ELEMENTS OF THE SkILLS RéSUMé 280

PREPARING A PLAIN-TEXT RéSUMé 280 GUIDELINES: Formatting a Plain-Text Résumé 281

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Preparing a Résumé 285

Writing Job-application Letters 286

Writing Follow-up Letters or emails after an Interview 286

11 Writing proposals 292 FocuS on proceSS: Writing Proposals 293

The Logistics of proposals 294 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS 294

InTeRnAL PROPOSALS 294 / exTeRnAL PROPOSALS 294

SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS 295 SOLICITeD PROPOSALS 295 / UnSOLICITeD PROPOSALS 295

The “deliverables” of proposals 295 RESEARCH PROPOSALS 295

GOODS AND SERvICES PROPOSALS 297

persuasion and proposals 298 UNDERSTANDING READERS’ NEEDS 298

ReADeRS’ neeDS In An InTeRnAL PROPOSAL 298 / ReADeRS’ neeDS In An exTeRnAL PROPOSAL 298

DESCRIbING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO 299

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 289

EXERCISES 290

CASE 10: IDENTIFYING THE bEST-OF-THE-bEST jOb-SEARCH SITES 291 and

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DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM 299 GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal 300

ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Proposals 300

The Structure of the proposal 301 SUMMARY 301

INTRODUCTION 301 GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal 302

PROPOSED PROGRAM 301 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Writing the Proposed Program 303

qUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE 304

bUDGET 305

APPENDIXES 305 TASk SCHeDULe 305 / DeSCRIPTIOn OF eVALUATIOn TeCHnIQUeS 308

TECH TIP: How To Create a Gantt Chart 307

Sample Internal proposal 308

12 Writing Informational reports 318 FocuS on proceSS: Writing Informational Reports 319

Writing directives 320 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Writing a Persuasive Directive 322

Writing Field reports 323 GUIDELINES: Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report 324

Writing progress and Status reports 324 ETHICS NOTE: Reporting Your Progress Honestly 325

ORGANIzING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS 325

CONCLUDING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS 326 GUIDELINES: Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status Report 326

Sample progress report 326

Writing Incident reports 335

Writing Meeting Minutes 337

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 316

EXERCISES 316

CASE 11: REvISING A bRIEF PROPOSAL 317 and

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 339

EXERCISES 339

CASE 12: WRITING A DIRECTIvE AbOUT USING AGENDAS FOR MEETINGS 339 and

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13 Writing recommendation reports 340 understanding the role of recommendation reports 341

using a problem-Solving Model for preparing recommendation reports 342

IDENTIFY THE PRObLEM OR OPPORTUNITY 343

ESTAbLISH CRITERIA FOR RESPONDING TO THE PRObLEM OR OPPORTUNITY 343

DETERMINE THE OPTIONS 344

STUDY EACH OPTION ACCORDING TO THE CRITERIA 344

DRAW CONCLUSIONS AbOUT EACH OPTION 346

FORMULATE RECOMMENDATIONS bASED ON THE CONCLUSIONS 346 ETHICS NOTE: Presenting Honest Recommendations 347

Writing recommendation reports 347 WRITING THE bODY OF THE REPORT 348

InTRODUCTIOn 348 / MeTHODS 349 / ReSULTS 349 / COnCLUSIOnS 350 / ReCOMMenDATIOnS 350

GUIDELINES: Writing Recommendations 350

WRITING THE FRONT MATTER 351 LeT TeR OF TRAnSMIT TAL 351 / COVeR 351 / TITLe PAGe 351 / AbSTRACT 351 / TAbLe OF COnTenTS 352 / LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOnS 353 / exeCUTIVe SUMMARY 355

TECH TIP: How To Format Headers, Footers, and Page Numbers 354 TECH TIP: How To Create a Table of Contents 354 GUIDELINES: Writing an Executive Summary 356

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Analyzing an Executive Summary 357

WRITING THE bACk MATTER 356 GLOSSARY AnD LIST OF SYMbOLS 356 / ReFeRenCeS 358 / APPenDIxeS 359

Sample recommendation report 359

14 Writing definitions, descriptions, and Instructions 386 FocuS on proceSS: Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions 388

Writing definitions 388 ANALYzING THE WRITING SITUATION FOR DEFINITIONS 389

■ CHOICES AND STRATEGIES: Choosing the Appropriate Type of Definition 389

WRITING SENTENCE DEFINITIONS 390 GUIDELINES: Writing Effective Sentence Definitions 390

WRITING EXTENDED DEFINITIONS 390 GRAPHICS 391 / exAMPLeS 391 / PARTITIOn 391 / PRInCIPLe OF OPeRATIOn 392 / COMPARISOn AnD COnTRAST 392 / AnALOGY 393 / neGATIOn 393 / eTYMOLOGY 393 / A SAMPLe exTenDeD DeFInITIOn 394

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 384

EXERCISES 385

CASE 18: ANALYzING DECISION MATRICES 385 and

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xxxii contents

Writing descriptions 394 ANALYzING THE WRITING SITUATION FOR DESCRIPTIONS 396

DRAFTING EFFECTIvE DESCRIPTIONS 396 InDICATe CLeARLY THe nATURe AnD SCOPe OF THe DeSCRIPTIOn 396 / InTRODUCe THe DeSCRIPTIOn CLeARLY 397 / PROVIDe APPROPRIATe DeTAIL 398 / COnCLUDe THe DeSCRIPTIOn 398

■ GUIDELINES: Providing Appropriate Detail in Descriptions 399

A LOOk AT SEvERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS 398

Writing Instructions 402 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL vIDEOS 405

DESIGNING A SET OF INSTRUCTIONS 405 GUIDELINES: Designing Clear, Attractive Pages 407

PLANNING FOR SAFETY 408 ETHICS NOTE: Ensuring Your Readers’ Safety 408

DRAFTING EFFECTIvE INSTRUCTIONS 410 DRAFTInG TITLeS 411 / DRAFTInG GeneRAL InTRODUCTIOnS 411 / DRAFTInG STeP-bY-STeP InSTRUCTIOnS 412 / DRAFTInG COnCLUSIOnS 413

GUIDELINES: Drafting Introductions for Instructions 411

GUIDELINES: Drafting Steps in Instructions 412

REvISING, EDITING, AND PROOFREADING INSTRUCTIONS 413

A LOOk AT SEvERAL SAMPLE SETS OF INSTRUCTIONS 413 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Presenting Clear Instructions 418

Writing Manuals 419

15 Making oral presentations 424 FocuS on proceSS: Preparing an Oral Presentation 425

preparing the presentation 426 ANALYzING THE SPEAkING SITUATION 426

AnALYzInG YOUR AUDIenCe AnD PURPOSe 426 / bUDGeTInG YOUR TIMe 427

ORGANIzING AND DEvELOPING THE PRESENTATION 427 GUIDELINES: Introducing and Concluding the Presentation 428

PREPARING PRESENTATION GRAPHICS 429 CHARACTeRISTICS OF An eFFeCTIVe SLIDe 431 / GRAPHICS AnD THe SPeAkInG SITUATIOn 432 / USInG GRAPHICS TO SIGnAL THe ORGAnIzATIOn OF A PReSenTATIOn 434

TECH TIP: How To Create a Master Page Design in Presentation Slides 433 TECH TIP: How To Set List Items To Appear and Dim During a Presentation 434 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AC TIVIT Y: Integrating Graphics and Text on a Presentation Slide 441

CHOOSING EFFECTIvE LANGUAGE 441 GUIDELINES: Using Memorable Language in Oral Presentations 442

REHEARSING THE PRESENTATION 443

WRITER’S CHECkLIST 420

EXERCISES 421

CASE 14: CHOOSING A MEDIUM FOR PRESENTING INSTRUCTIONS 423 and

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ThInkInG VISuaLLy: Delivering the Presentation 444

answering Questions after a presentation 446 ETHICS NOTE: Answering Questions Honestly 446

A documenting your Sources 450 note Taking 450 apa Style 454 Ieee Style 467 MLa Style 472

B editing and proofreading your documents 485 punctuation 486 Mechanics 496 proofreading Symbols and Their Meanings 503

SPEAkER’S CHECkLIST 447

EXERCISES 447

CASE 15: UNDERSTANDING THE CLAIM-AND-SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR PRESENTATION GRAPHICS 447 and

APPENDIX Reference Handbook 4 4 9

References 505 Index 509 Index of Features 526

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Working in the Technical-

Communication Environment

Part 1

© Getty Images/John Rensten

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1Insert Chapter Title What Is Technical Communication? 3

The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication 5

Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators 6

ThInkIng VISually: Characteristics of a Technical Document 7

ThInkIng VISually: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents 8

how Communication Skills and Qualities affect your Career 10

a Process for Writing Technical Documents 11

FoCuS on ProCeSS: Writing Technical Documents 12

a look at Three Technical Documents 13

exerCISeS 16

CaSe 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé 16 and

1Introduction to Technical Communication 01_MAR_03364_ch01_001_016.indd 2 9/30/15 11:04 AM

What Is Technical Communication? 1 3

This TexTbook explores how people in the working world find, create, and deliver technical information. Even if you do not plan on becoming a technical communicator (a person whose main job is to produce documents such as manuals, reports, and websites), you will often find yourself writing documents on your own, participating in teams that write them, and contributing technical information for others who read and write them. The purpose of Practical Strategies for Technical Communication is to help you learn the skills you need to communicate more effectively and more efficiently in your professional life.

People in the working world communicate technical information for a number of purposes, many of which fall into one of two categories:

• To help others learn about a subject, carry out a task, or make a decision. For instance, the president of a manufacturing company might write an article in the company newsletter to explain to employees why management decided to phase out production of one of the company’s products. Administrators with the Social Security Administration might hire a media-production company to make a video that explains to citizens how to sign up for Social Security benefits. The board of directors of a community-service organization might produce a grant proposal to submit to a philanthropic organization in hopes of being awarded a grant.

• To reinforce or change attitudes and motivate readers to take action. A wind-energy company might create a website with videos and text intended to show that building windmills off the coast of a tourist destination would have many benefits and few risks. A property owners’ association might create a website to make the opposite argument: that the windmills would have few benefits but many risks. In each of these two cases, the purpose of communicating the information is to persuade people to accept a point of view and encourage them to act—perhaps to contact their elected representatives and present their views about this public-policy issue.

Notice that when you communicate in the workplace, you always have a clear purpose—what you want to achieve—and an audience—one or more people who are going to read the document, attend the oral presentation, visit the website, or view the video you produce.

What Is Technical Communication? Technical information is frequently communicated through documents, such as proposals, emails, reports, podcasts, computer help files, blogs, and wikis. Although these documents are a key component of technical communica- tion, so too is the process: writing and reading tweets and text messages, for example, or participating in videoconference exchanges with colleagues. Technical communication encompasses a set of activities that people do to discover, shape, and transmit information.

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InTroDuCTIon To TeChnICal CoMMunICaTIon1 4

Technical communication begins with listening, speaking, and reading. For instance, an executive reads an article about a new kind of computer security threat. She doesn’t understand all the details of the threat, but she concludes that it could hurt her company’s IT infrastructure. She sets up a meeting with her IT supervisor to see whether he knows about it and thinks it could be a problem. It turns out that he is aware of the issue and has been doing some research about it. The executive asks him to keep going, discuss it with his IT colleagues, and contact her next week.

A week goes by, and the IT supervisor gets back to the executive. He tells her that his research suggests the threat is real and serious. She asks him to write a recommendation report discussing the nature and scope of the threat and presenting a strategy for combatting it.

How does the IT supervisor begin to write that report? He starts by speak- ing with his colleagues in the company and outside it, and then reading dis- cussion boards, blogs, and trade magazines online. Next, he devises a plan to have various people in IT draft sections of the report, and he creates a sched- ule for posting their drafts to the company’s online writing space, Google Drive, so that all the team members can read and comment on the report as it develops. Ten days later, after he and his team have revised, edited, and proofread the report, he sends it to the executive.

But that’s not the end of the story. The executive reads the report and agrees with the team’s findings: the company needs to make some changes to the IT infrastructure and invest in new software to combat this serious security threat. She decides to meet with her own colleagues to see if they agree. She points them to the report and sets up a meeting for later that week.

When you produce technical communication, you use the four basic com- munication skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—to analyze a problem, find and evaluate evidence, and draw conclusions.

These are the same skills and processes you use when you write in col- lege, and the principles you have studied in your earlier writing courses apply to technical communication. The biggest difference between technical communication and the other kinds of writing you have done is that techni- cal communication has a somewhat different focus on audience and purpose.

In most of your previous academic writing, your audience has been your instructor, and your purpose has been to show your instructor that you have mastered some body of information or skill. Typically, you have not tried to create new knowledge or motivate the reader to take a particular action— except to give you an “A” for that assignment.

By contrast, in technical communication, your audience will likely include peers and supervisors in your company, as well as people outside your company. Your purpose will likely be to reinforce or change their attitudes toward the subject you are writing about, to motivate them to take particular actions, or to help them carry out their own tasks.

For example, suppose you are a public-health scientist working for a fed- eral agency. You and your colleagues just completed a study showing that, for

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The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication 1 5

most adults, moderate exercise provides as much health benefit as strenuous exercise. After participating in numerous meetings with your colleagues and after drafting, critiquing, and revising many drafts, you produce four different documents:

• a journal article for other scientists

• a press release to distribute to popular print and online publications

• a blog post and podcast for your agency’s website

In each of these documents, you present the key information in a different way to meet the needs of a particular audience.

The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication Most people in the working world don’t look forward to producing technical communication. Why? Because it’s hard to do.

For instance, your supervisor has finally approved your request to buy a scanning-electron microscope (SEM) for your department and given you a budget for buying it. It would be nice if all you had to do now was list the important features you need in an SEM, read a couple of articles about SEMs, check off the ones that have those features, and then buy the best one that fits your budget.

Unfortunately, life is not that simple, and neither is technical communica- tion. If it were, this book would be about a dozen pages long.

Technical communication is challenging, and not primarily because SEMs are complex devices, although they are. Technical communication is chal- lenging because people are complicated, and collaborating with people is at the heart of the process.

As soon as you have decided you need an SEM that can detect signals for secondary electrons, for instance, someone on your team argues that you also need to detect signals for back-scattered electrons and character- istic X-rays. Someone else on the team disagrees, arguing that an SEM that detects those additional signals costs an additional $15,000, putting it beyond your budget, and that on those rare occasions when you need those func- tions you can send the samples out for analysis. Another team member sug- gests that you wait until next year, when SEM manufacturers are expected to release products with improved signal-detection functions. You realize that with the complications your colleagues have presented, you won’t be pur- chasing an SEM any time soon. You do more research, keeping their concerns in mind.

The good news is that there are ways to think through these kinds of com- plications that will help you communicate better. No matter what document you produce or contribute to, you need to begin by considering three sets of factors:

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InTroDuCTIon To TeChnICal CoMMunICaTIon1 6

• Audience-related factors. Does your audience know enough about your subject to understand a detailed discussion, or do you need to limit the scope, the amount of technical detail, or the type of graphics you use? Does your audience already have certain attitudes or expectations about your subject that you wish to reinforce or change? Will the ways in which your audience uses your document, or the physical environment in which they use it, affect how you write? Does your audience speak English well, or should you present the information in several languages? Does your audience share your cultural assumptions about such matters as the need to spell out details or how to organize the document, or do you need to adjust your writing style to match a different set of assumptions? Does your audience include people with disabilities who have needs you want to meet?

• Purpose-related factors. Before you can write, you need to determine what you want your audience to know or believe or do after having read your document. Although much technical communication is intended to help people perform tasks, such as installing a portable hard drive for a computer, many organizations large and small devote significant communication resources to branding: creating an image that helps customers distinguish the company from competitors. Most companies now employ community specialists to coordinate the organization’s day- to-day online presence and its social-media campaigns.

• Document-related factors. Does your budget limit the number of people you can enlist to help you or limit the size or shape of the document? Does your schedule limit how much information you can include in the document? Does your subject dictate what kind of document (such as a report or a blog post) you choose to write? Does the application call for a particular writing style or level of formality? (For the sake of convenience, I will use the word document throughout this book to refer to all forms of technical communication, from written documents to oral presentations and online forms, such as podcasts and wikis.)

Because all these factors interact in complicated ways, every technical document you create involves a compromise. If you are planning to make a video about installing a water heater and you want the video to be easily understood by people who speak only Spanish, you might decide to make two videos: one in English and one in Spanish.

Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators People who are good at communicating in the workplace share a number of skills and qualities. Four of them relate to the skills you have been honing in school and in college:

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Characteristics of a Technical Document

It addresses particular READERS.

Knowing who your readers are, what they understand about the subject, how well they speak English, and how they will use the document will help you determine the type of document to create.

It helps readers solve PROBLEMS.

You might produce a video that shows your company’s employees how to select their benefits, or a text document that explains the company’s social-media policy.

It reflects the organization’s GOALS and CULTURE.

Organizations produce documents that help them further their goals and that demonstrate their values and culture to the outside world.

It uses DESIGN to increase readability.

Design features such as typography, spacing, and color help make a document attractive, navigable, and understandable.

Almost every technical document that

gets the job done has six major

characteristics.

Clockwise from top left: (1) Colorlife/Shutterstock; (2) Palsur/Shutterstock; (4) puruan/Shutterstock; (5) Brothers Good/Shutterstock; (6) PureSolution/Shutterstock

It consists of WORDS or IMAGES or both.

Images—both static and moving—can communicate difficult concepts, instructions, descriptions of objects and processes, and large amounts of data. They can also communicate information to nonnative speakers.

It is produced COLLABORATIVELY.

No one person has all the skills, information, or time to create a large document. You will work with a variety of technical professionals inside and outside your organization to obtain the information you need.

THINKING VISUALLY

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Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents

Clockwise from top left: (1) Visual Idiot/Shutterstock; (2) RedKoala/Shutterstock; (3) Voodoodot/Shutterstock; (4) Armita/Shutterstock; (5) Brothers Good/Shutterstock; (6) graphixmania/Shutterstock; (7) ProStockStudio/Shutterstock; (8) Ramcreativ/Shutterstock

Eight characteristics

distinguish excellent technical

documents.

HONESTY The most-important measure of excellence is honesty. Not only are dishonest documents unethical, but they can hurt readers and can result in serious legal repercussions.

CLARITY An unclear technical document can be dangerous and incur additional expenses.

ACCURACY A slight inaccuracy can confuse and annoy your readers; a major inaccuracy can be dangerous and expensive.

COMPREHENSIVENESS A comprehensive document provides readers with a complete, self-contained discussion.

ACCESSIBILITY Because few people will read a document from beginning to end, your job is to make its various parts easy to locate.

CONCISENESS You can shorten most writing by 10 to 20 percent by eliminating unnecessary phrases, choosing shorter words, and using economical grammatical forms.

PROfESSIONAL APPEARANCE If the document looks professional, readers will form a positive impression of it and of you. Your document should adhere to the format standards of your organization or your field, and it should be well designed.

CORRECTNESS A correct document adheres to the conventions of grammar, punctuation, spelling, mechanics, and usage. Incorrect writing can confuse readers, make your document inaccurate, and make you look unprofessional.

THINKING VISUALLY

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Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators 1 9

• Ability to perform research. Successful communicators know how to perform primary research (discovering new information through experiments, observations, interviews, surveys, and calculations) and secondary research (finding existing information by reading what others have written or said). Successful communicators seek out information from people who use the products and services, not just from the manufacturers.

• Ability to analyze information. Successful communicators know how to identify the best information—most accurate, relevant, recent, and unbiased—and then figure out how it helps in understanding a problem and finding ways to solve it.

• Ability to solve problems. Successful communicators know how to break big problems into smaller ones, figure out what isn’t working, and identify and assess options for solving the problems. They know how to compare and contrast the available options to achieve the clearest, most objective understanding of the situation.

• Ability to speak and write clearly. Successful communicators know how to express themselves clearly and simply, both to audiences that know a lot about the subject and to audiences that do not. They take care to revise, edit, and proofread their documents so that the documents present accurate information, are easy to read, and make a professional impression. And they know how to produce different types of documents, from tweets to memos to presentations.

In addition to the skills just described, successful workplace communicators have seven qualities that relate to professional attitudes and work habits:

• They are honest. Successful communicators tell the truth. They don’t promise what they know they can’t deliver, and they don’t bend facts. When they make mistakes, they admit them and work harder to solve the problem.

• They are willing to learn. Successful communicators know that they don’t know everything—not about what they studied in college, what their company does, or how to write and speak. Every professional is a lifelong learner.

• They display emotional intelligence. Because technical communication usually calls for collaboration, successful communicators understand their own emotions and those of others. Because they can read people— through body language, facial expression, gestures, and words—they can work effectively in teams.

• They are generous. Successful communicators share information willingly. (Of course, they don’t share confidential information, such as trade secrets, information about new products being developed, or personal information about colleagues.)

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• They monitor the best information. Successful communicators seek out opinions from others in their organization and in their industry. They monitor the best blogs, discussion boards, and podcasts for new approaches that can spark their own ideas. They know how to use social media and can represent their organization online.

• They are self-disciplined. Successful communicators are well organized and diligent. They know, for instance, that proofreading an important document might not be fun but is always essential. They know that when a colleague asks a simple technical question, answering the question today—or tomorrow at the latest—is more helpful than answering it in a couple of weeks. They finish what they start, and they always do their best on any document, from the least important text message to the most important report.

• They can prioritize and respond quickly. Successful communicators know that the world doesn’t always conform to their own schedules. Because social media never sleep, communicators sometimes need to put their current projects aside in order to respond immediately when a stakeholder reports a problem that needs prompt action or publishes inaccurate information that can hurt the organization.

How Communication Skills and Qualities Affect Your Career Many college students believe that the most important courses they take are those in their major. Some biology majors think, for example, that if they just take that advanced course in genetic analysis, employers will con- clude that they are prepared to do more-advanced projects and therefore hire them.

Therefore, many college students are surprised to learn that what employ- ers say they are looking for in employees are the communication skills and qualities discussed in the previous section. Surveys over the past three or four decades have shown consistently that employers want people who can communicate. Look at it this way: when employers hire a biologist, they want a person who can communicate effectively about biology. When they hire a civil engineer, they want a person who can communicate about civil engineering.

A 2013 survey of 500 business executives found that almost half—44 percent—think that recent hires are weak in soft skills (including commu- nication and collaboration), whereas only 22 percent think recent hires are weak in technical skills (Adecco Staffing US, 2013). According to another 2013 survey, by the Workforce Solutions Group at St. Louis Community College, more than 60 percent of employers believe that job seekers are weak in com-

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a Process for Writing Technical Documents 1 11

munication and interpersonal skills. This figure is up 10 percentage points from 2011 (TIME, 2013).

Job Outlook 2014, a report produced by the National Association of Col- leges and Employers, found that communication skills were second only to problem-solving skills among the abilities employers seek (National Associa- tion, 2014, p. 8). On a 5-point scale, communication skills scored a 4.6, as did the ability to obtain and process information. Also scoring above 4 were the ability to plan, organize, and prioritize work (4.5); the ability to analyze quan- titative data (4.4); technical knowledge related to the job (4.2); and proficiency with computer software programs (4.1). The ability to create and/or edit writ- ten reports and the ability to sell or influence others scored a 3.6 and a 3.7, respectively. Most of these skills relate to the previous discussion about the importance of process in technical communication.

A 2014 study of more than 400 freelancer profiles conducted by the online grammar-checking service Grammarly found a direct correlation between the number of errors in a freelancer’s client service profile on the website Elance and that freelancer’s client rating (Grammarly, 2014). This pattern held across eight industries. Grammarly also found that in most skill-driven jobs, better writers tended to earn more money from clients. This was especially true in the fields of engineering and manufacturing, finance and management, legal, and sales and marketing.

You’re going to be producing and contributing to a lot of technical docu- ments, not only in this course but also throughout your career. The facts of life in the working world are simple: the better you communicate, the more valuable you are. This textbook can help you learn and practice the skills that will make you a better communicator.

A Process for Writing Technical Documents Although every technical document is unique, in most of your writing you will likely carry out the tasks described in the Focus on Process box on page 12.

This writing process consists of five steps: planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading. The frustrating part of writing, however, is that these five steps are not linear. That is, you don’t plan the document, then check off a box and go on to drafting. At any step, you might double back to do more planning, drafting, or revising. Even when you think you’re almost done—when you’re proofreading—you still might think of something that would improve the planning. That means you’ll need to go back and rethink all five steps.

As you backtrack, you will have one eye on the clock, because the deadline is sneaking up on you. That’s the way it is for all writers. A technical writer stops working on a user manual because she has to get it off to the print

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• analyze your audience. Who are your readers? What are their attitudes and expectations? How will they use the document? See Ch. 4 for advice about analyzing your audience.

• analyze your purpose. After they have read the document, what do you want your readers to know or to do? See Ch. 4, p. 74, for advice about determining your purpose.

• generate ideas about your subject. Ask journalistic questions (who, what, when, where, why, and how), brainstorm, freewrite, talk with someone, or make clustering or branching diagrams.

• research additional information. See Ch. 5 for advice about researching your subject. • organize and outline your document. See Ch. 6, p. 110, for information about common

organizational patterns. • Select an application, a design, and a delivery method. See Ch. 7 for advice about

designing your document. • Devise a schedule and a budget. How much time will you need to complete each task of

the project? Will you incur expenses for travel, research, or usability testing?

• Draft effectively. Get comfortable. Start with the easiest topics, and don’t stop writing to revise.

• use templates—carefully. Check that their design is appropriate and that they help you communicate your information effectively to your readers.

• use styles. Styles are like small templates that apply to the design of elements such as headings and bullet lists. They help you present the elements of your document clearly and consistently.

look again at your draft to see if it works. Revising by yourself and with the help of others, focus on three questions:

• Has your understanding of your audience changed? • Has your understanding of your purpose changed? • Has your understanding of your subject changed?

If the answer to any of these questions is yes, what changes should you make to the content and style of your document? See the Writer’s Checklist in each chapter for information about what to look for when revising.

Check your revised draft to improve six aspects of your writing: grammar, punctuation, style, usage, diction (word choice), and mechanics (matters such as use of numbers and abbreviations). See Appendix, Part B, p. 485, for more information about these topics.

Check to make sure you have typed what you meant to type. Don’t rely on the spell-checker or the grammar-checker. They will miss some errors and flag correct words and phrases. See Appendix, Part B, p. 503, for more information about proofreading.

PlannIng

Dr aFTIng

reVISIng

eDITIng

ProoFreaDIng

F o c u s o n p r o c e s s Writing Technical Documents

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a look at Three Technical Documents 1 13

shop. An engineer stops working on a set of slides for a conference presenta- tion because it’s time to head for the airport.

So, when you read about how to write, remember that you are reading about a messy process that goes backward as often as it goes forward and that, most likely, ends only when you run out of time.

Later chapters will discuss how to vary this basic process in writing vari- ous applications such as proposals, reports, and descriptions. The Focus on Process boxes at the beginning of various chapters will highlight important steps in this process for each application.

Should you use the process described here? If you don’t already have a process that works for you, yes. But your goal should be to devise a process that enables you to write effective documents (that is, documents that accom- plish what you want them to) efficiently (without taking more time than necessary).

A Look at Three Technical Documents Figures 1.1, 1.2 (page 14), and 1.3 (page 15) present excerpts from technical documents. Together, they illustrate a number of the ideas about technical communication discussed in this chapter.

Figure 1.1 a Video That educates the Public about a Technical Subject Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 2012: http://energy.gov/articles/energy-101-concentrating-solar-power.

The video was designed to accom- modate people with disabilities: the viewer can listen to the narration or turn on the subtitles.

The document includes a text-only version that provides a complete transcript of the narration and describes the images.

This screen is from a video produced by the Department of Energy and is intended to educate the general public about the basics of solar energy. Because the document includes narration, still images, video, and animation, creating it required the efforts of many profes- sionals.

The video is meant to be easy to share on social media.

The video takes advantage of our cultural assumptions about color: red suggests heat, blue suggests cold.

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edit

edit

view

view

send

send

save

sendsave

save

edit view

editview

editview

edit view

editview

edit view

send save

re ce

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receive

receive re ce

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Figure 1.2 a graphic Comparing Two Communication Media Source: Williams, 2008: http://www.wikinomics.com/blog/index.php/2008/03/26/wiki-collaboration-leads-to-happiness/.

One characteristic that distin- guishes technical communication from many other kinds of writing is its heavy use of graphics to clarify concepts and present data. This graphic, from a PowerPoint presen- tation, compares two technologies used for collaborative writing. The image on the left represents how a writer creates a document and then distributes it via email to others for editing. The image on the right represents how a writer creates a document in a wiki (an online writing and editing space), to which others come to view and edit the document.

The writer who created this image doesn’t need to say that a wiki is a better tool than email for editing a document. The complexity of the image on the left, compared with the simplicity of the image on the right, shows why the wiki is the better tool for this job.

The history of this graphic says something about how information flows in the digital age. The graphic was originally created by one per- son, Manny Wilson of U.S. Central Command, who shared it with a colleague at another U.S. govern- ment agency. Eventually, it made its way to another person, Anthony D. Williams, who incorporated it into a presentation he delivered at a cor- poration. From there, it went viral.

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a look at Three Technical Documents 1 15

Figure 1.3 a Corporate Blog Post Presenting a Public-Policy Viewpoint Source: Patagonia, 2013: http://www.thecleanestline.com/2013/07/fracking-in-our-backyard.html#more.

Patagonia, the manufacturer of outdoor clothing, hosts a blog called The Cleanest Line. In one recent post, “Fracking In Our Backyard,” the company sought to educate its readers about the controversy sur- rounding hydraulic fracturing. The post included links to many online sources about the controversy and presented the company’s perspective: “Because of fracking’s wide-ranging risks and impacts, we support each community’s right to educate itself and regulate and/or ban fracking, and we support local, state and federal government efforts to monitor and regulate fracking.”

The post generated many comments, of which the first three are presented here. Notice that the third comment ends with a swipe at the company. Blogs are a popular way for organizations to interact with their stakeholders, and even though blog posts routinely elicit negative comments, most organizations believe that the occasionally embarrassing or critical comment is a reasonable price to pay for the opportunity to gen- erate honest discussions about issues—and thereby learn what is on the minds of their stakeholders.

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e x e r c i s e s

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Form small groups and study the home page of your college or university’s website. Focus on three measures of excellence in technical communication: clarity, accessibility, and professional appearance. How effectively does the home page meet each of these measures of excellence? Be prepared to share your findings with the class.

2. Locate an owner’s manual for a consumer product, such as a coffee maker, bicycle, or hair dryer. In a memo to your instructor, discuss two or three decisions the writers and designers of the manual appear to have

made to address audience-related factors, purpose- related factors, or document-related factors. For instance, if the manual is available only in English, the writers and designers presumably decided that they didn’t have the resources to create versions in other languages.

3. Using a job site such as Indeed.com or Monster.com, locate three job ads for people in your academic major. In each ad, identify references to writing and communication skills, and then identify references to professional attitudes and work habits. Be prepared to share your findings with the class.

InTroDuCTIon To TeChnICal CoMMunICaTIon1

c a s e 1 : Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé

Your technical-communication instructor is planning to invite guest speakers to deliver presentations to the class on various topics throughout the semester, and she has asked you to work with one of them to tailor his job-application presentation to the “Measures of Excellence” illustrated in this chapter. To access relevant documents and get started on your project, go to LaunchPad.

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2 A Brief Introduction to Ethics 18

Your Ethical and Legal Obligations 20 ObligatiOns tO YOur EmplOYEr 20

ObligatiOns tO thE public 21

ObligatiOns tO thE EnvirOnmEnt 22

ObligatiOns tO cOpYright hOldErs 22 ■ Guidelines: determining Fair use 23 ■ Guidelines: dealing with Copyright Questions 24 ■ ethiCs note: distinguishing Plagiarism from Acceptable Reuse of information 24

The Role of Corporate Culture in Ethical and Legal Conduct 25

Understanding Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Social Media 26 ■ Guidelines: using social Media ethically and legally 27 ■ doCuMent AnAlysis ACtivity: Presenting Guidelines for using social Media 30

Communicating Ethically Across Cultures 29 cOmmunicating with culturEs with diffErEnt Ethical bEliEfs 29

cOmmunicating in cOuntriEs with diffErEnt laws 29

ThInkIng VISUALLY: Principles for ethical Communication 31

WRITER’S ChECkLIST 32

ExERCISES 32

CASE 2: the ethics of Requiring students to subsidize a Plagiarism-detection service 33 and

Understanding Ethical and Legal

Obligations

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Ethical and lEgal issuEs are all around you in your work life. if you look at the website of any bike manufacturer, for example, you will see that bicyclists are always shown wearing helmets. is this because bike manufacturers care about safety? Certainly. But bike makers also care about product liability. if a company website showed cyclists without helmets, an injured cyclist might sue, claiming that the company was suggesting it is safe to ride without a helmet.

ethical and legal pitfalls lurk in the words and graphics of many kinds of formal documents. in producing a proposal, you might be tempted to exaggerate or lie about your organization’s accomplishments, pad the résumés of the project personnel, list as project personnel some workers who will not be contributing to the project, or present an unrealistically short schedule. in drafting product information, you might feel pressured to exaggerate the quality of the products shown in catalogs or manuals or to downplay their hazards. in creating graphics, you might be asked to hide a product’s weaknesses by manipulating a photo of it.

one thing is certain: there are many serious ethical and legal issues related to technical communication, and all professionals need a basic understanding of them.

a brief introduction to Ethics Ethics is the study of the principles of conduct that apply to an individual or a group. For some people, ethics is a matter of intuition—what their gut feel- ings tell them about the rightness or wrongness of an act. Others see ethics in terms of their own religion or the Golden Rule: treat others as you would like them to treat you. Ethicist Manuel G. Velasquez outlines four moral stan- dards that are useful in thinking about ethical dilemmas (2011):

• rights. This standard concerns individuals’ basic needs and welfare. Everyone agrees, for example, that people have a right to a reasonably safe workplace. When we buy a product, we have a right to expect that the information that accompanies it is honest and clear. However, not everything that is desirable is necessarily a right. For example, in some countries, high-quality health care is considered a right. That is, the government is required to provide it, regardless of whether a person can afford to pay for it. In other countries, health care is not considered a right.

• Justice. This standard concerns how the costs and benefits of an action or a policy are distributed among a group. For example, the cost of maintaining a high-speed broadband infrastructure should be borne, in part, by people who use it. However, because everyone benefits from the infrastructure, the standard of justice suggests that general funds can also be used to pay for it. Another example: justice requires that people doing the same job receive the same pay, regardless of whether they are male or female, black or white.

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A Brief Introduction to Ethics 2 19

• utility. This standard concerns the positive and negative effects that an action or a policy has, will have, or might have on others. For example, if a company is considering closing a plant, the company’s leaders should consider not only the money they would save but also the financial hardship of laid-off workers and the economic effects on the community. One tricky issue in thinking about utility is figuring out the time frame to examine. An action such as laying off employees can have one effect in the short run—improving the company’s quarterly balance sheet—and a very different effect in the long run—hurting the company’s productivity or the quality of its products.

• care. This standard concerns the relationships we have with other individuals. We owe care and consideration to all people, but we have greater responsibilities to people in our families, our workplaces, and our communities. The closer a person is to us, the greater care we owe that person. Therefore, we have greater obligations to members of our family than we do to others in our community.

Although these standards provide a vocabulary for thinking about how to resolve ethical conflicts, they are imprecise and often conflict with each other. Therefore, they cannot provide a systematic method of resolving ethi- cal conflicts. Take the case of a job opportunity in your company. You are a member of the committee that will recommend which of six applicants to hire. One of the six is a friend of yours who has been unable to secure a pro- fessional job since graduating from college two years ago. She therefore does not have as much relevant workplace experience as the other five candidates. However, she is enthusiastic about gaining experience in this particular field—and eager to start paying off her student loans.

How can the four standards help you think through the situation? Accord- ing to the rights standard, lobbying for your friend or against the other appli- cants would be wrong because all applicants have an ethical right to an eval- uation process that considers only their qualifications to do the job. Looking at the situation from the perspective of justice yields the same conclusion: it would be wrong to favor your friend. From the perspective of utility, lobbying for your friend would probably not be in the best interests of the organiza- tion, although it might be in your friend’s best interests. Only according to the care standard does lobbying for your friend seem reasonable.

As you think about this case, you have to consider a related question: should you tell the other people on the hiring committee that one of the applicants is your friend? Yes, because they have a right to know about your personal relationship so that they can better evaluate your contributions to the discussion. You might also offer to recuse yourself (that is, not participate in the discussion of this position), leaving it to the other committee members to decide whether your friendship represents a conflict of interest.

One more complication in thinking about this case: Let’s say your friend is one of the top two candidates for the job. In your committee, which is made

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up of seven members, three vote for your friend, but four vote for the other candidate, who already has a very good job. She is a young, highly skilled employee with degrees from prestigious universities. In other words, she is likely to be very successful in the working world, regardless of whether she is offered this particular job. Should the fact that your friend has yet to start her own career affect your thinking about this problem? Some people would say no: the job should be offered to the most qualified applicant. Others would say yes: society does not adequately provide for its less-fortunate members, and because your friend needs the job more and is almost as qualified as the other top applicant, she should get the offer. In other words, some people would focus on the narrow, technical question of determining the best candidate for the job, whereas others would see a much broader social question involving human rights.

Because ethical questions can be complex, ethicists have described a gen- eral set of principles that can help people organize their thinking about the role of ethics within an organizational context. These principles form a web of rights and obligations that connect an employee, an organization, and the world in which the organization is situated.

Your Ethical and legal Obligations In addition to enjoying rights, an employee assumes obligations, which can form a clear and reasonable framework for discussing the ethics of technical communication. The following discussion outlines four sets of obligations that you have as an employee: to your employer, to the public, to the environ- ment, and to copyright holders.

OBLIgATIOnS TO YOUR EMpLOYER You are hired to further your employer’s legitimate aims and to refrain from any activities that run counter to those aims. Specifically, you have five obligations:

• competence and diligence. Competence refers to your skills; you should have the training and experience to do the job adequately. Diligence simply means hard work. Unfortunately, according to a recent survey of 10,000 workers, the typical worker wastes nearly two hours of his or her eight- hour day surfing the web, socializing with co-workers, and doing other tasks unrelated to his or her job (Malachowski, 2013).

• generosity. Although generosity might sound like an unusual obligation, you are obligated to help your co-workers and stakeholders outside your organization by sharing your knowledge and expertise. What this means is that if you are asked to respond to appropriate questions or provide recommendations on some aspect of your organization’s work, you should do so. If a customer or supplier contacts you, make the time to respond helpfully.

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Your Ethical and Legal Obligations 2 21

• honesty and candor. You should not steal from your employer. Stealing includes such practices as embezzlement, “borrowing” office supplies, and padding expense accounts. Candor means truthfulness; you should report to your employer problems that might threaten the quality or safety of the organization’s product or service.

Issues of honesty and candor include what Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Society, calls trimming, cooking, and forging (Sigma Xi, 2000, p. 11). Trimming is the smoothing of irregularities to make research data look extremely accurate and precise. Cooking is retaining only those results that fit the theory and discarding the others. And forging is inventing some or all of the data or even reporting experiments that were never performed. In carrying out research, employees must resist any pressure to report only positive findings.

• confidentiality. You should not divulge company business outside of the company. If a competitor finds out that your company is planning to introduce a new product, it might introduce its own version of that product, robbing your company of its competitive advantage. Many other kinds of privileged information—such as information on quality-control problems, personnel matters, relocation or expansion plans, and financial restructuring—also could be used against the company. A well-known confidentiality problem involves insider information: an employee who knows about a development that will increase (or decrease) the value of the company’s stock, for example, buys (or sells) the stock before the information is made public, thus unfairly—and illegally—reaping a profit (or avoiding a loss).

• loyalty. You should act in the employer’s interest, not in your own. Therefore, it is unethical to invest heavily in a competitor’s stock, because that could jeopardize your objectivity and judgment. For the same reason, it is unethical (and illegal) to accept bribes or kickbacks. It is unethical to devote considerable time to moonlighting (performing an outside job, such as private consulting), because the outside job could lead to a conflict of interest and because the heavy workload could make you less productive in your primary position. However, you do not owe your employer absolute loyalty; if your employer is acting unethically, you have an obligation to try to change that behavior—even, if necessary, by blowing the whistle.

OBLIgATIOnS TO ThE pUBLIC Every organization that offers products or provides services is obligated to treat its customers fairly. As a representative of an organization, and espe- cially as an employee communicating technical information, you will fre- quently confront ethical questions.

In general, an organization is acting ethically if its product or service is both safe and effective. The product or service must not injure or harm the consumer, and it must fulfill its promised function. However, these com-

For more about whistle-blowing, see p. 26.

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monsense principles provide little guidance in dealing with the complicated ethical problems that arise routinely.

According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (2013), more than 4,500 deaths and 14 million injuries occur each year in the United States because of consumer products—not counting automobiles and medications. Even more common, of course, are product and service failures: products or services don’t do what they are supposed to do, products are difficult to assemble or operate, they break down, or they require more expensive main- tenance than the product information indicates.

Although in some cases it is possible to blame either the company or the consumer for the injury or product failure, in many cases it is not. Today, most court rulings are based on the premise that the manufacturer knows more about its products than the consumer does and therefore has a greater responsibility to make sure the products comply with all of the manufacturer’s claims and are safe. Therefore, in designing, manufacturing, testing, and communicating about a product, the manufacturer has to make sure the product will be safe and effec- tive when used according to the instructions. However, the manufacturer is not liable when something goes wrong that it could not have foreseen or prevented.

OBLIgATIOnS TO ThE EnVIROnMEnT One of the most important lessons we have learned in recent decades is that we are polluting and depleting our limited natural resources at an unac- ceptably high rate. Our excessive use of fossil fuels not only deprives future generations of them but also causes possibly irreversible pollution problems. Everyone—government, businesses, and individuals—must work to preserve the environment to ensure the survival not only of our own species but also of the other species with which we share the planet.

But what does this have to do with you? In your daily work, you probably do not cause pollution or deplete the environment in any extraordinary way. Yet you will often know how your organization’s actions affect the environ- ment. For example, if you work for a manufacturing company, you might be aware of the environmental effects of making or using your company’s prod- ucts. Or you might help write an environmental impact statement.

As communicators, we should treat every actual or potential occurrence of environmental damage seriously. We should alert our supervisors to the situation and work with them to try to reduce the damage. The difficulty, of course, is that protecting the environment can be expensive. Clean fuels usu- ally cost more than dirty ones. Disposing of hazardous waste properly costs more (in the short run) than merely dumping it. Organizations that want to reduce costs may be tempted to cut corners on environmental protection.

OBLIgATIOnS TO COpYRIghT hOLDERS As a student, you are often reminded to avoid plagiarism. A student caught plagiarizing would likely fail the assignment or the course or even be expelled from school. A medical researcher or a reporter caught plagiariz- ing would likely be fired, or at least find it difficult to publish in the future.

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Your Ethical and Legal Obligations 2 23

But plagiarism is an ethical, not a legal, issue. Although a plagiarist might be expelled from school or be fired, he or she will not be fined or sent to prison.

By contrast, copyright is a legal issue. Copyright law is the body of law that relates to the appropriate use of a person’s intellectual property: written documents, pictures, musical compositions, and the like. Copyright literally refers to a person’s right to copy the work that he or she has created.

The most important concept in copyright law is that only the copyright holder—the person or organization that owns the work—can copy it. For instance, if you work for IBM, you can legally copy information from the IBM website and use it in other IBM documents. This reuse of information is rou- tine because it helps ensure that the information a company distributes is both consistent and accurate.

However, if you work for IBM, you cannot simply copy information that you find on the Dell website and put it in IBM publications. Unless you obtained written permission from Dell to use its intellectual property, you would be infringing on Dell’s copyright.

Why doesn’t the Dell employee who wrote the information for Dell own the copyright to that information? The answer lies in a legal concept known as work made for hire. Anything written or revised by an employee on the job is the company’s property, not the employee’s.

Although copyright gives the owner of the intellectual property some rights, it doesn’t give the owner all rights. You can place small portions of copyrighted text in your own document without getting formal permission from the copy- right holder. When you quote a few lines from an article, for example, you are taking advantage of an aspect of copyright law called fair use. Under fair-use guidelines, you have the right to use material, without getting permission, for purposes such as criticism, commentary, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. Unfortunately, fair use is based on a set of general guidelines that are meant to be interpreted on a case-by-case basis. Keep in mind that you should still cite the source accurately to avoid plagiarism.

Determining Fair Use Courts consider four factors in disputes over fair use:

the purpose and character of the use, especially whether the use is for profit. Profit-making organizations are scrutinized more carefully than nonprofits.

the nature and purpose of the copyrighted work. When the information is es- sential to the public—for example, medical information—the fair-use principle is applied more liberally.

the amount and substantiality of the portion of the work used. A 200-word pas- sage would be a small portion of a book but a large portion of a 500-word brochure.

the effect of the use on the potential market for the copyrighted work. Any use of the work that is likely to hurt the author’s potential to profit from the original work would probably not be considered fair use.

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UnDERSTAnDIng EThICAL AnD LEgAL OBLIgATIOnS 2 24

A new trend is for copyright owners to stipulate which rights they wish to retain and which they wish to give up. You might see references to Creative Commons, a not-for-profit organization that provides symbols for copyright owners to use to communicate their preferences.

Dealing with Copyright Questions Consider the following advice when using material from another source.

abide by the fair-use concept. do not rely on excessive amounts of another source’s work (unless the information is your company’s own boilerplate).

seek permission. Write to the source, stating what portion of the work you wish to use and the publication you wish to use it in. the source is likely to charge you for permission.

cite your sources accurately. Citing sources fulfills your ethical obligation and strengthens your writing by showing the reader the range of your research.

consult legal counsel if you have questions. Copyright law is complex. don’t rely on instinct or common sense.

For more about documenting your sources, see Appendix, Part A.

E t h i c s n Ot E

DISTIngUIShIng pLAgIARISM fROM ACCEpTABLE REUSE Of InfORMATIOn Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s words or ideas without giving credit to the origi- nal author. it doesn’t matter whether the user of the material intended to plagiarize. obvi- ously, it is plagiarism to borrow or steal graphics, video or audio media, written passages, or entire documents and then use them without attribution. Web-based sources are particularly vulnerable to plagiarism, partly because people mistakenly think that if information is on the web it is free to borrow and partly because this material is so easy to copy, paste, and reformat.

however, writers within a company often reuse one another’s information without giving credit—and that is completely ethical. For instance, companies publish press releases when they wish to publicize news. these press releases typically conclude with descriptions of the company and how to get in touch with an employee who can answer questions about the company’s products or services. these descriptions, sometimes called boilerplate, are simply copied and pasted from previous press releases. Because these descriptions are legally the intellectual property of the company, reusing them in this way is completely honest. similarly, companies often repurpose their writing. that is, they copy a description of the company from a press release and paste it into a proposal or an annual report. this reuse also is acceptable.

When you are writing a document and need a passage that you suspect someone in your organization might already have written, ask a more-experienced co-worker whether the cul- ture of your organization permits reusing someone else’s writing. if the answer is yes, check with your supervisor to see whether he or she approves of what you plan to do.

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The Role of Corporate Culture in Ethical and Legal Conduct 2 25

the role of corporate culture in Ethical and legal conduct Most employees work within organizations, such as corporations and gov- ernment agencies. We know that organizations exert a powerful influence on their employees’ actions. According to a study by the Ethics Resource Center of more than 6,500 employees in various businesses (2014), organi- zations that value ethics and build strong cultures experience fewer ethical problems than organizations with weak ethical cultures.

Companies can take specific steps to improve their ethical culture:

• The organization’s leaders can set the right tone by living up to their commitment to ethical conduct.

• Supervisors can set good examples and encourage ethical conduct.

• Peers can support those employees who act ethically.

• The organization can use informal communication to reinforce the formal policies, such as those presented in a company code of conduct.

In other words, it is not enough for an organization to issue a statement that ethical and legal behavior is important. The organization has to create a culture that values and rewards ethical and legal behavior. That culture starts at the top and extends to all employees, and it permeates the day-to-day operations of the organization.

An important element of a culture of ethical and legal conduct is a formal code of conduct. Most large corporations in the United States have one, as do almost all professional societies. (U.S. companies that are traded publicly are required to state whether they have a code of conduct—and if not, why not.) Codes of conduct vary greatly from orga- nization to organization, but most of them address such issues as the following:

• adhering to local laws and regulations, including those intended to protect the environment

• avoiding discrimination

• maintaining a safe and healthy workplace

• respecting privacy

• avoiding conflicts of interest

• protecting the company’s intellectual property

• avoiding bribery and kickbacks in working with suppliers and customers

A code of conduct focuses on behavior, including such topics as adhering to the law. Many codes of conduct are only a few paragraphs long; others are lengthy and detailed, some consisting of several volumes.

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UnDERSTAnDIng EThICAL AnD LEgAL OBLIgATIOnS 2 26

An effective code has three major characteristics:

• it protects the public rather than members of the organization or profession. For instance, the code should condemn unsafe building practices but not advertising, which increases competition and thus lowers prices.

• it is specific and comprehensive. A code is ineffective if it merely states that people must not steal or if it does not address typical ethical offenses such as bribery in companies that do business in other countries.

• it is enforceable. A code is ineffective if it does not stipulate penalties, including dismissal from the company or expulsion from the profession.

Although many codes are too vague to be useful in determining whether a person has violated one of their principles, writing and implementing a code can be valuable because it forces an organization to clarify its own values and fosters an increased awareness of ethical issues.

If you think there is a serious ethical problem in your organization, find out what resources your organization offers to deal with it. If there are no resources, work with your supervisor to solve the problem.

What do you do if the ethical problem persists even after you have exhausted all the resources at your organization and, if appropriate, the pro- fessional organization in your field? The next step will likely involve whistle- blowing—the practice of going public with information about serious unethi- cal conduct within an organization. For example, an engineer is blowing the whistle when she tells a regulatory agency or a newspaper that quality- control tests on a company product were faked.

Ethicists such as Velasquez (2011) argue that whistle-blowing is justified if you have tried to resolve the problem through internal channels, if you have strong evidence that the problem is hurting or will hurt other parties, and if the whistle-blowing is reasonably certain to prevent or stop the wrongdo- ing. But Velasquez also points out that whistle-blowing is likely to hurt the employee, his or her family, and other parties. Whistle-blowers can be penal- ized through negative performance appraisals, transfers to undesirable loca- tions, or isolation within the company. The Ethics Resource Center reports in its 2013 survey that 21 percent of whistle-blowers experienced retaliation (2013, p. 13).

understanding Ethical and legal issues related to social media There is probably some truth to social-media consultant Peter Shankman’s comment “For the majority of us, social media is nothing more than a faster way to screw up in front of a larger number of people in a shorter amount of time” (Trillos-Decarie, 2012). User-generated content, whether it is posted to

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Understanding Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Social Media 2 27

Facebook, Twitter, Linked In, YouTube, Google Groups, Yelp, Pinterest, or any of the many other online services, presents significant new ethical and legal issues. Just as employers are trying to produce social-media policies that promote the interests of the organization without infringing on employees’ rights of free expression, all of us need to understand the basics of ethical and legal principles related to these new media.

A 2014 report by the law firm Proskauer Rose LLP, “Social Media in the Workplace Around the World 3.0,” surveyed some 150 companies from the United States and many other countries. Here are some of the survey find- ings (Proskauer Rose LLP, 2014, p. 2):

• More than 80 percent of employers have social-media policies.

• More than 40 percent of employers monitor their employees’ use of social- media sites.

• One-third of employers block employee access to social media.

• Half of the employers reported problems caused by misuse of social media by employees. Seventy percent of businesses have had to take disciplinary action against an employee for misuse of social media.

Over the next few years, organizations will revise their policies about how employees may use social media in the workplace, just as courts will clarify some of the more complicated issues related to social media and the law. For these reasons, what we now see as permissible and ethical is likely to change. Still, it is possible to identify a list of best practices that can help you use social media wisely—and legally—in your career.

Using Social Media Ethically and Legally these nine guidelines can help you use social media to your advantage in your career.

Keep your private social-media accounts separate from your company- sponsored accounts. After you leave a company, you don’t want to get into a dispute over who “owns” an account. Companies can argue, for example, that your collection of twitter followers on a company-sponsored account is in fact a customer list and therefore the company’s intellectual property. Regardless of whether you post from the workplace or at home, post only about business on your company-sponsored accounts.

read the terms of service of every service to which you post. Although you retain the copyright on original content that you post, most social-media services state that they can re-post your content wherever and whenever they want, without informing you, getting your permission, or paying you. Many employers would consider this policy unacceptable.

(continued )

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UnDERSTAnDIng EThICAL AnD LEgAL OBLIgATIOnS 2 28

Finally, a related suggestion: avoid criticizing your employer online. Although defamation laws forbid making untrue factual statements about your employer, you are in fact permitted to criticize your employer, online or offline. The National Labor Relations Board has ruled that doing so is legal because it is protected discussion about “working conditions.” My advice:

avoid revealing unauthorized news about your own company. A company that wishes to apply for a patent has, according to the law, only one year to do so after the product or process is first mentioned or illustrated in a “printed publication.” Because courts have found that a photo on Facebook or a blog or even a tweet is equivalent to a printed publication (Bettinger, 2010), you could inadvertently start the clock ticking. even worse, some other company could use the information to apply for a patent for the product or process that your company is developing. or suppose that on your personal blog, you reveal that your company’s profits will dip in the next quarter. this information could prompt investors to sell shares of your company’s stock, thereby hurting every- one who owns shares.

avoid self-plagiarism. self-plagiarizing is the act of publishing something you have already published. if you write an article for your company newsletter and later publish it on a blog, you are violating your company’s copyright, because your newsletter article was a work made for hire and therefore the company’s intellectual property.

avoid defaming anyone. defamation is the legal term for making false state- ments of fact about a person that could harm that person. defamation includes libel (making such statements in writing, as in a blog post) and slander (making them in speech, as in a video posted online). in addition, you should not re-post libelous or slanderous content that someone else has created.

don’t live stream or quote from a speech or meeting without permission. Al- though you may describe a speech or meeting online, you may not stream video or post quotations without permission.

avoid false endorsements. the Federal trade Commission has clear rules defin- ing false advertising. the most common type of false advertising involves posting a positive review of a product or company in exchange for some compensation. Also common is endorsing your own company’s products without stating your relationship with the company (u.s. Federal trade Commission, 2009).

avoid impersonating someone else online. if that person is real (whether alive or dead), you could be violating his or her right of publicity (the right to control his or her name, image, or likeness). if that person is a fictional character, such as a character on a tv show or in a movie, you could be infringing on the copyright of whoever created that character.

avoid infringing on trademarks by using protected logos or names. don’t include copyrighted or trademarked names, slogans, or logos in your posts unless you have received permission to do so. even if the trademark owner likes your content, you probably will be asked to stop posting it. if the trade- mark owner dislikes your content, you are likely to face a more aggressive legal response.

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Communicating Ethically Across Cultures 2 29

if you’re angry, move away from the keyboard. Once you post something, you’ve lost control of it.

However, if you think your employer is acting illegally or unethically, start by investigating the company’s own resources for addressing such problems. Then, if you are still dissatisfied, consider whistle-blowing, which is dis- cussed on page 26.

communicating Ethically across cultures Every year, the United States exports more than $2.1 trillion worth of goods and services to the rest of the world (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012, p. 832). U.S. companies do not necessarily have the same ethical and legal obligations when they export as when they sell in the United States. For this reason, communicators should understand the basics of two aspects of writing for people in other countries: communicating with cultures with different ethi- cal beliefs and communicating in countries with different laws.

COMMUnICATIng WITh CULTURES WITh DIffEREnT EThICAL BELIEfS Companies face special challenges when they market their products and services to people in other countries (and to people in their home countries who come from other cultures). Companies need to decide how to deal with situations in which the target culture’s ethical beliefs clash with those of their own culture. For instance, in many countries, sexual discrimination makes it difficult for women to assume responsible positions in the work- place. If a U.S. company that sells cell phones, for example, wishes to present product information in such a country, should it reinforce this discrimina- tion by excluding women from photographs of its products? Ethicist Thomas Donaldson argues that doing so is wrong (1991). According to the principle he calls the moral minimum, companies are ethically obligated not to reinforce patterns of discrimination in product information.

However, Donaldson argues, companies are not obligated to challenge the prevailing prejudice directly. A company is not obligated, for example, to include photographs that show women performing roles they do not nor- mally perform within a particular culture, nor is it obligated to portray women wearing clothing, makeup, or jewelry that is likely to offend local standards. But there is nothing to prevent an organization from adopting a more activist stance. Organizations that actively oppose discrimination are acting admirably.

COMMUnICATIng In COUnTRIES WITh DIffEREnT LAWS When U.S. companies export goods and services to other countries, they need to adhere to those countries’ federal and regional laws. For instance, a company that wishes to export to Montreal must abide by the laws of Quebec Province and of Canada. A company that wishes to export to Germany must

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UnDERSTAnDIng EThICAL AnD LEgAL OBLIgATIOnS 2 30

This excerpt is from a corporate social-media policy statement. The questions below ask you to think about how to make the policy statement clearer and more useful.

1. The “Overview” section discusses the company’s social-media policy guide- lines in terms of etiquette. In what way is “etiquette” an appropriate word to describe the policy? In what way is it inappropriate?

2. The “What Are Social Media?” section provides little useful information. What other information might it include to make the document more useful to Paragon employees?

3. The bulleted guidelines are vague. Revise any two of them to include more specific information.

Presenting Guidelines for Using Social Media

Overview

in today’s world, just about everything we do online can be traced back to us and can have an impact (for better or worse) on a company. Paragon wants to remind you that the company policies on anti-harassment, ethics, and company loyalty extend to all media. there is a certain etiquette you should abide by when you participate online. this document is not intended to be restrictive, but to provide some guidelines on proper social-networking etiquette.

What Are Social Media?

social media are the tools and content that enable people to connect online, share their interests, and engage in conversations.

Guidelines

these policies apply to individuals who want to participate in social-media conversations on behalf of Paragon. Please be mindful that your behavior at all times reflects on Paragon as a whole. do not write or post anything that might reflect negatively on Paragon.

• Always use your best judgment and be honest.

• Be respectful of confidential information (such as clients, financials).

• Always be professional, especially when accepting criticism.

• Participate, don’t promote. Bring value. Give to get.

• Write only about what you know.

• When in doubt, ask for help/clarification.

• Seek approval before commenting on any articles that portray Paragon negatively.

d O c u m E n t a n a lys i s ac t i v i t y

1

3

2

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Principles for Ethical Communication The following ten principles provide a starting point

for communicating ethically in the workplace.

Abide by Copyright Laws. Get written permission when you wish to include copyrighted material in a document.

Don’t MisLead your readers. Avoid false implications about products, euphemisms, exaggerations about product specifications, and legalistic constructions.

Take advantage of your employer’s ethiCs resourCes, such as its Ethics Office. Your employer will likely have a mechanism for registering complaints anonymously.

Tell the truth. Resist pressure to lie, going over your supervisor’s head if necessary.

From left to right: (2) artizarus/Shutterstock; (3) Fejas/Shutterstock; (4, 5) Visual Idiot/Shutterstock; (6) alexandrovskyi/Shutterstock; (7) Bryan Solomon/Shutterstock; (8) Voodoodot/Shutterstock; (9) Punsayaporn/Shutterstock

Abide by your organization’s professional Code of ConduCt. Your field’s professional organization is likely to have a code that expresses ethical principles.

Cite your sourCes and your CoLLaborators accurately and graciously.

Be CLear, using tables of contents, indexes, and other accessing devices to help your readers find what they need.

Use design to highlight important ethical and legal information. Don’t bury this information or downplay it using very small type.

Avoid Language that disCriMinates against people because of their sex, religion, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, or physical or mental abilities.

Abide by your organization’s poLiCy on soCiaL Media. If there is no written policy, check with Human Resources or your supervisor for advice.

THINKING VISUALLY

!@#%

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UnDERSTAnDIng EThICAL AnD LEgAL OBLIgATIOnS 2 32

abide by the laws of Germany and of the European Union, of which it is a part. In many cases, the target region will not allow the importation of goods and services that do not conform to local laws. The hazardous-product laws of the European Union, in particular, are typically more stringent than those of the United States.

Because exporting goods to countries with different laws is such a com- plex topic, companies that export devote considerable resources to finding out what they need to do, not only in designing and manufacturing products but also in writing the product information. For a good introduction to this topic, see Lipus (2006).

W r i t E r ’s c h E c k l i s t

Did you abide by copyright laws? (p. 31)

Did you abide by your organization’s professional code of conduct? (p. 31)

Did you abide by your organization’s policy on social media? (p. 31)

Did you take advantage of your employer’s ethics resources? (p. 31)

Did you tell the truth? (p. 31)

Did you avoid using misleading language? (p. 31)

Did you use design to highlight important ethical and legal information? (p. 31)

Were you clear? (p. 31)

Did you avoid language that discriminates? (p. 31)

Did you cite your sources and your collaborators? (p. 31)

E x E r c i s E s

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. It is late April, and you need a summer job. On your town’s news website, you see an ad for a potential job. The only problem is that the ad specifically mentions that the job is “a continuing, full-time position.” You know that you will be returning to college in the fall. Is it ethical for you to apply for the job without mentioning this fact? Why or why not? If you believe it is unethical to withhold that information, is there any ethical way you can apply? Be prepared to share your ideas with the class.

2. You serve on the Advisory Committee of your college’s bookstore, which is a private business that leases space on campus and donates 10 percent of its profits to student scholarships. The head of the bookstore wishes to stock Simple Study Guides, a popular series of plot summaries and character analyses of classic literary works. In similar bookstores, the sale of Simple Study Guides yields annual profits of over $10,000. Six academic departments have signed a

statement condemning the idea. Should you support the bookstore head or the academic departments? Be prepared to discuss your answer with the class.

3. Using the search term “social media policy examples,” find a corporate policy statement on employee use of social media. In a 500-word memo to your instructor, explain whether the policy statement is clear, specific, and comprehensive. Does the statement include a persuasive explanation of why the policy is necessary? Is the tone of the statement positive or negative? How would you feel if you were required to abide by this policy? If appropriate, include a copy of the policy statement (or a portion of it) so that you can refer to it in your memo.

4. TEAM ExERCISE Form small groups. Study the website of a company or other organization that has a prominent role in your community or your academic field. Find information about the organization’s commitment to ethical and legal conduct. Often, organizations present this information in sections with

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Case 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a plagiarism-Detection Service 33

2

c a s E 2 : the Ethics of requiring students to subsidize a plagiarism-detection service

The provost of your university has sent a letter to you and other members of the Student Council proposing that the university subscribe to a plagiarism-detection service, the cost of which would be subsidized by students’ tuition. You and other council members have some serious concerns about the proposal and decide to write to the provost analyzing the ethical implications of requiring students to subsidize such a program. To read the provost’s letter and begin drafting your response, go to LaunchPad.

titles such as “information for investors,” “about the company,” or “values and principles of conduct.”

• One group member could identify the section that states the organization’s values. How effective is this section in presenting information that goes beyond general statements about the importance of ethical behavior?

• A second group member could identify the section that describes the organization’s code of conduct. Does the organization seem to take principles of ethical and legal behavior seriously? Can you get a clear idea from the description whether the organization has a specific, well-defined set of policies, procedures, and resources

available for employees who wish to discuss ethical and legal issues?

• A third group member could identify any information related to the organization’s commitment to the environment. What does the organization do, in its normal operations, to limit its carbon footprint and otherwise encourage responsible use of natural resources and limit damage to the environment?

• As a team, write a memo to your instructor presenting your findings. Attach the organization’s code to your memo.

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Thinking Visually: Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration 36

Managing Projects 37 ■ GuiDelines: Managing Your Project 37

Conducting Meetings 38 ■ TuToriAl: scheduling Meetings online

Listening effectiveLy 38 ■ GuiDelines: listening effectively 38

setting your team’s agenda 38 ■ GuiDelines: setting Your Team’s Agenda 39 ■ TuToriAl: Creating styles and Templates ■ eThiCs noTe: Pulling Your Weight on Collaborative Projects 40 ■ DoWnloADABle ForM: Work-schedule Form ■ DoWnloADABle ForM: Team-Member evaluation Form ■ DoWnloADABle ForM: self-evaluation Form

conducting efficient meetings 40

communicating dipLomaticaLLy 40

critiquing a team member’s Work 40 ■ GuiDelines: Communicating Diplomatically 41 ■ GuiDelines: Critiquing a Colleague’s Work 41

using social Media and Other Electronic Tools in Collaboration 42 Word-processing tooLs 43

■ TuToriAl: reviewing Collaborative Documents ■ TuToriAl: incorporating Tracked Changes

3Writing Collaboratively

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35

3 messaging technoLogies 43

■ DoCuMenT AnAlYsis ACTiviTY: Critiquing a Draft Clearly and Diplomatically 43

videoconferencing 44 ■ TuToriAl: Conducting online Meetings ■ GuiDelines: Participating in a videoconference 44

Wikis and shared document Workspaces 45 ■ TuToriAl: using Wikis for Collaborative Work ■ TuToriAl: Cross-Platform Word Processing with Cloudon, Quip, and More ■ TuToriAl: using Collaborative software ■ eThiCs noTe: Maintaining a Professional Presence online 48

gender and Collaboration 49

Culture and Collaboration 49

WriTEr’s ChECklisT 50

ExErCisEs 51

lEarningCurVE: Working in the Technical Communication environment 51 and

CasE 3: Accommodating a Team Member’s scheduling Problems 52 and

THE EXPLOSIVE GROWTH of social media over the last decade has greatly expanded the scope of workplace collaboration, reducing former barriers of time and space. Today, people routinely collaborate not only with members of their project teams but also with others within and outside their organization.

Workplace collaboration takes numerous forms. For example, you and other members of your project team might use social media primarily to gather information that you will use in your research. You bring this information back to your team, and then you work exclusively with your team in drafting, revising, and proofreading your document. in a more complex collaboration pattern, you and other members of your team might use social media to gather information from sources around the globe and then reach out to others in your organization to see what they think of your new ideas. later in the process, you create the outline of your document, in the form of a wiki, and authorize everyone in your organization to draft sections, pose questions and comments, and even edit what others have written. in short, you can collaborate with any number of people at one or at several stages of the writing process.

every document is unique and will therefore call for a unique kind of collaboration. Your challenge is to think creatively about how you can work effectively with others to make your document as good as it can be. Being aware of the strengths and limitations of collaborative tools can prompt you to find people in your building and around the world who can help you think about your subject and write about it compellingly and persuasively.

To complete a series of interactive team writing

modules, go to LaunchPad.

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draws on a wider SkillS baSe.

provides a better idea of how the audience will read the document.

improves employee communication.

motivateS employeeS to Share skills and knowledge.

takes more time than individual writing.

can yield a diSjointed document. Sections can contradict or repeat each other or be written in different styles.

can lead to inequitable workloadS.

advantageS diSadvantageS

Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration

Collaboration… Collaboration…

From left to right: (1) WonderfulPixel/Shutterstock; (2) PureSolution/Shutterstock; (3) Ecelop/Shutterstock; (4) milo827/Shutterstock; (5) Colorlife/ Shutterstock; (6) NEGOVURA/Shutterstock; (7) Jiripravda/Shutterstock; (8) iDesign/Shutterstock; (9) Aleutie/Shutterstock; (10) Ingka D. Jiw/ Shutterstock; (11) Introwiz1/Shutterstock; (12) Macrovector/Shutterstock

helps acclimate new employeeS to an organization.

can lead to diSagreement and interperSonal conflict, leaving a lasting impact on working relationships.

can reduce a perSon’S motivation if he or she feels alienated from the group.

can lead to groupthink, which values harmony over critical thinking.

THINKING VISUALLY

draws on a wider knowledge baSe.

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Managing Projects 3 37

managing projects At some point in your career, you will likely collaborate on a project that is just too big, too technical, too complex, and too difficult for your team to complete successfully without some advance planning and careful oversight. Often, collaborative projects last several weeks or months, and the efforts of several people are required at scheduled times for the project to proceed. For this reason, collaborators need to spend time managing the project to ensure that it not only meets the needs of the audience but also is completed on time and, if relevant, within budget.

Managing Your Project These seven suggestions can help you keep your project on track.

break down a large project into several smaller tasks. Working backward from what you must deliver to your client or manager, partition your project into its component parts, making a list of what steps your team must take to complete the project. This task is not only the foundation of project management but also a good strategy for determining the resources you will need to complete the project successfully and on time. once you have a list of tasks to complete, you can begin to plan your project, assign responsibilities, and set deadlines.

plan your project. Planning allows collaborators to develop an effective ap- proach and reach agreement before investing a lot of time and resources. Plan- ning prevents small problems from becoming big problems when a deadline looms. effective project managers use planning documents such as needs analy- ses, information plans, specifications, and project plans.

create and maintain an accurate schedule. An accurate schedule helps collabo- rators plan ahead, allocate their time, and meet deadlines. update your schedule when changes are made, and either place the up-to-date schedule in an easily ac- cessible location (for example, on a project website) or send the schedule to each team member. if the team misses a deadline, immediately create a new deadline. Team members should always know when tasks must be completed.

put your decisions in writing. Writing down your decisions, and communicating them to all collaborators, helps the team remember what happened. in addition, if questions arise, the team can refer easily to the document and, if necessary, update it.

monitor the project. By regularly tracking the progress of the project, the team can learn what it has accomplished, whether the project is on schedule, and if any unexpected challenges exist.

distribute and act on information quickly. Acting fast to get collaborators the information they need helps ensure that the team makes effective decisions and steady progress toward completing the project.

be flexible regarding schedule and responsibilities. Adjust your plan and meth- ods when new information becomes available or problems arise. When tasks are held up because earlier tasks have been delayed or need reworking, the team should consider revising responsibilities to keep the project moving forward.

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WriTing COllaBOraTiVEly3 38

sETTing yOur TEaM’s agEnda It’s important to get your team off to a smooth start. In the first meeting, start to define your team’s agenda.

conducting meetings Collaboration involves meetings. Whether you are meeting live in a room on campus or using videoconferencing tools, the five aspects of meetings dis- cussed in this section can help you use your time productively and produce the best possible document.

lisTEning EffECTiVEly Participating in a meeting involves listening and speaking. If you listen carefully to other people, you will understand what they are thinking and you will be able to speak knowledgeably and constructively. Unlike hearing, which involves receiving and processing sound waves, listening involves understanding what the speaker is saying and interpreting the information.

To watch a tutorial on using online tools to schedule

meetings, go to LaunchPad.

Listening Effectively Follow these five steps to improve your effectiveness as a listener.

pay attention to the speaker. look at the speaker, and don’t let your mind wander.

Listen for main ideas. Pay attention to phrases that signal important information, such as “What i’m saying is . . .” or “The point i’m trying to make is . . . .”

don’t get emotionally involved with the speaker’s ideas. even if you disagree, continue to listen. Keep an open mind. Don’t stop listening in order to plan what you are going to say next.

ask questions to clarify what the speaker said. After the speaker finishes, ask questions to make sure you understand. For instance, “When you said that each journal recommends different protocols, did you mean that each journal recommends several protocols or that each journal recommends a different protocol?”

provide appropriate feedback. The most important feedback is to look into the speaker’s eyes. You can nod your approval to signal that you understand what he or she is saying. Appropriate feedback helps assure the speaker that he or she is communicating effectively.

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Conducting Meetings 3 39

Setting Your Team’s Agenda Carrying out these eight tasks will help your team work effectively and efficiently.

define the team’s task. every team member has to agree on the task, the deadline, and the approximate length of the document. You also need to agree on more conceptual points, including the document’s audience, purpose, and scope.

choose a team leader. This person serves as the link between the team and management. (in an academic setting, the team leader represents the team in communicating with the instructor.) The team leader also keeps the team on track, leads the meetings, and coordinates communication among team members.

define tasks for each team member. There are three main ways to divide the tasks: according to technical expertise (for example, one team member, an engi- neer, is responsible for the information about engineering), according to stages of the writing process (one team member contributes to all stages, whereas another participates only during the planning stage), or according to sections of the document (several team members work on the whole document but oth- ers work only on, say, the appendixes). People will likely assume informal roles, too. one person might be good at clarifying what others have said, another at preventing arguments, and another at asking questions that force the team to reevaluate its decisions.

establish working procedures. Before starting to work, collaborators need answers—in writing, if possible—to the following questions:

— When and where will we meet?

— What procedures will we follow in the meetings?

— What tools will we use to communicate with other team members, including the leader, and how often will we communicate?

establish a procedure for resolving conflict productively. Disagreements about the project can lead to a better product. Give collaborators a chance to express ideas fully and find areas of agreement, and then resolve the conflict with a vote.

create a style sheet. A style sheet defines the characteristics of the document’s writing style. For instance, a style sheet states how many levels of headings the document will have, whether it will have lists, whether it will have an informal tone (for example, using “you” and contractions), and so forth. if all collaborators draft using a similar writing style, the document will need less revision. And be sure to use styles to ensure a consistent design for headings and other textual features.

establish a work schedule. For example, for a proposal to be submitted on February 10, you might aim to complete the outline by January 25, the draft by February 1, and the revision by February 8. These dates are called milestones.

create evaluation materials. Team members have a right to know how their work will be evaluated. in college, students often evaluate themselves and other team members. in the working world, managers are more likely to do the evaluations.

To watch a tutorial on creating styles and templates, go to

LaunchPad.

To download a work-schedule form, a team-member

evaluation form, and a self- evaluation form, go to LaunchPad.

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WriTing COllaBOraTiVEly3 40

E T H I C S N OT E

Pulling yOur WEighT On COllaBOraTiVE PrOjECTs Collaboration involves an ethical dimension. if you work hard and well, you help the other members of the team. if you don’t, you hurt them.

You can’t be expected to know and do everything, and sometimes unanticipated problems arise in other courses or in your private life that prevent you from participating as actively and effectively as you otherwise could. When problems occur, inform the other team mem- bers as soon as possible. For instance, call the team leader as soon as you realize you will have to miss a meeting. Be honest about what happened. suggest ways you might make up for missing a task. if you communicate clearly, the other team members are likely to cooper- ate with you.

if you are a member of a team that includes someone who is not participating fully, keep rec- ords of your attempts to get in touch with that person. When you do make contact, you owe it to that person to try to find out what the problem is and suggest ways to resolve it. Your goal is to treat that person fairly and to help him or her do better work, so that the team will function more smoothly and more effectively.

COnduCTing EffiCiEnT MEETings Human communication is largely nonverbal. That is, although people com- municate through words and through the tone, rate, and volume of their speech, they also communicate through body language. For this reason, meetings provide the most information about what a person is thinking and feeling—and the best opportunity for team members to understand one another.

To help make meetings effective and efficient, team members should arrive on time and stick to the agenda. One team member should serve as secretary, recording the important decisions made at the meeting. At the end of the meeting, the team leader should summarize the team’s accomplish- ments and state the tasks each team member is to perform before the next meeting. If possible, the secretary should give each team member this infor- mal set of meeting minutes.

COMMuniCaTing diPlOMaTiCally Because collaborating can be stressful, it can lead to interpersonal conflict. People can become frustrated and angry with one another because of per- sonality clashes or because of disputes about the project. If the project is to succeed, however, team members have to work together productively. When you speak in a team meeting, you want to appear helpful, not critical or overbearing.

CriTiquing a TEaM MEMBEr’s WOrk In your college classes, you probably have critiqued other students’ writing. In the workplace, you will do the same sort of critiquing of notes and drafts written by other team members. Knowing how to do it without offending the writer is a valuable skill.

For a discussion of meeting minutes, see Ch. 12, p. 337.

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Conducting Meetings 3 41

Communicating Diplomatically These seven suggestions for communicating diplomatically will help you communi- cate effectively.

Listen carefully, without interrupting. see the Guidelines box on page 38.

give everyone a chance to speak. Don’t dominate the discussion.

avoid personal remarks and insults. Be tolerant and respectful of other people’s views and working methods. Doing so is right—and smart: if you anger people, they will go out of their way to oppose you.

don’t overstate your position. A modest qualifier such as “i think” or “it seems to me” is an effective signal to your listeners that you realize that everyone might not share your views. overbearing My plan is a sure thing; there’s no way we’re not going to kill Allied

next quarter. diplomatic i think this plan has a good chance of success: we’re playing off our

strengths and Allied’s weaknesses.

note that in the diplomatic version, the speaker says “this plan,” not “my plan.”

don’t get emotionally attached to your own ideas. When people oppose you, try to understand why. Digging in is usually unwise—unless it’s a matter of principle—because, although it’s possible that you are right and everyone else is wrong, it’s not likely.

ask pertinent questions. Bright people ask questions to understand what they hear and to connect it to other ideas. Asking questions also encourages other team members to examine what they hear.

pay attention to nonverbal communication. Bob might say that he understands a point, but his facial expression might show that he doesn’t. if a team member looks confused, ask him or her about it. A direct question is likely to elicit a state- ment that will help the team clarify its discussion.

(continued)

Critiquing a Colleague’s Work Most people are very sensitive about their writing. Following these three sugges- tions for critiquing writing will increase the chances that your colleague will consider your ideas positively.

start with a positive comment. even if the work is weak, say, “You’ve obviously put a lot of work into this, Joanne. Thanks.” or, “This is a really good start. Thanks, Joanne.”

discuss the larger issues first. Begin with the big issues, such as organization, development, logic, design, and graphics. Then work on smaller issues, such as paragraph development, sentence-level matters, and word choice. leave editing and proofreading until the end of the process.

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WriTing COllaBOraTiVEly3 42

using social media and other electronic tools in collaboration The tremendous growth in the use of social-media services such as Face- book, YouTube, and Twitter by the general population is reflected in the working world. Although few of the social-media tools were created for use in that context, most of them are used by professionals as business tools.

With each passing year, more professionals are using social media in the workplace. A 2012 survey by the human-resources consulting com- pany SilkRoad found that almost three-quarters of employees surveyed use their own mobile devices in the workplace every day to connect with co-workers and customers, to share work-related information, to collabo- rate, and to spark new ideas. The three most popular services were Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn, each used by more than half of those surveyed. By contrast, company-sponsored tools, such as intranets, were used by less than one-fifth of respondents. Email is still the most popular com- munication tool, used by more than 80 percent of respondents; no other company-sponsored tool was used by even 50 percent of respondents (SilkRoad, 2013).

Professionals use many types of electronic tools to exchange informa- tion and ideas as they collaborate. The following discussion highlights the major technologies that enable collaboration: word-processing tools, mes- saging technologies, videoconferencing, and wikis and shared document workspaces.

talk about the document, not the writer. rude You don’t explain clearly why this criterion is relevant. better i’m having trouble understanding how this criterion relates to the

topic.

Your goal is to improve the quality of the document you will submit, not to evalu- ate the writer or the draft. offer constructive suggestions. rude Why didn’t you include the price comparisons here, as you said you

would? better i wonder if the report would be stronger if we included the price

comparisons here.

in the better version, the speaker focuses on the goal (to create an effective report) rather than on the writer’s draft. Also, the speaker qualifies his recommen- dation by saying, “i wonder if . . . .” This approach sounds constructive rather than boastful or annoyed.

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using social Media and Other Electronic Tools in Collaboration 3 43

WOrd-PrOCEssing TOOls Most word processors offer three powerful features that you will find useful in collaborative work:

• The comment feature lets readers add electronic comments to a file.

• The revision feature lets readers mark up a text by deleting, revising, and adding words and indicates who made which suggested changes.

• The highlighting feature lets readers use one of about a dozen “highlighting pens” to call the writer’s attention to a particular passage.

MEssaging TEChnOlOgiEs Two messaging technologies have been around for decades: instant mes- saging and email. Instant messaging (IM) is real-time, text-based commu- nication between two or more people. In the working world, IM enables people in different locations to communicate textual information at the same time. Email is an asynchronous medium for sending brief textual

To watch a tutorial on using the commenting features in

Word, Adobe Acrobat, and Google Drive, go to LaunchPad.

To watch a tutorial on incorporating tracked

changes, go to LaunchPad.

This is an excerpt from the methods section of a report about computer servers. In this section, the writer is explaining the tasks he performed in analyzing different servers. In a later section, he explains what he learned from the analysis. The comments in the balloons were inserted into the document by the author’s colleague.

The questions in the margin ask you to think about techniques for critiquing (as outlined on page 41).

Critiquing a Draft Clearly and Diplomatically

each server. We noted the relative complexity of setting up each system to our network.

maintenance tasks: add a new memory module, swap a hard drive, swap a power supply, and perform system diagnostics.

tried to gather a qualitative feeling for how much effort would be involved in the day-to-day maintenance of the systems.

After each system was set up, we completed the maintenance evaluations and began the benchmark testing. We ran the complete WinBench and NetBench test suites on each system. We chose several of the key factors from these tests for comparison.

Comment: Huh? What exactly does this mean?

Comment: Okay, good. Maybe we should explain why we chose these tests.

Comment: What kind of scale are you using? If we don’t explain it, it’s basically useless.

Comment: Same ques- tion as above.

Comment: Will readers know these are the right tests? Should we explain?

D O C u m E N T A N A LyS I S AC T I V I T y

1. What is the tone of the com- ments? How can they be improved?

2. How well does the collaborator address the larger issues?

3. How well does the collabo- rator address the writing, not the writer?

4. How well do the collabora- tor’s comments focus on the goal of the document, rather than judging the quality of the writing?

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WriTing COllaBOraTiVEly3 44

messages and for transferring files such as documents, spreadsheets, images, and videos.

In the last decade, several new messaging technologies have been intro- duced that are well-suited for use on mobile devices such as phones. Of these, the two most popular are text messaging and microblogging.

Text messaging enables people to use mobile devices to send messages that can include text, audio, images, and video. Texting is the fastest-growing technology for exchanging messages electronically because most people keep their phones nearby. Organizations use text messaging for such pur- poses as sending a quick update or alerting people that an item has been delivered or a task completed. On your campus, the administration might use a texting system to alert people about a campus emergency.

Microblogging is a way of sending very brief textual messages to your personal network. You might use the world’s most popular microblog, Twit- ter, which now has more than half a billion users. Although some organiza- tions use Twitter, many use Twitter-like microblogs such as Yammer, which includes a search function and other features and which can be administered from within an organization.

VidEOCOnfErEnCing Videoconferencing technology allows two or more people at different loca- tions to simultaneously see and hear one another as well as exchange docu- ments, share data on computer displays, and use electronic whiteboards. Systems such as Skype are simple and inexpensive, requiring only a webcam and some free software. However, there are also large, dedicated systems that require extensive electronics, including cameras, servers, and a fiber-optic network or high-speed telephone lines.

For more about writing emails, see Ch. 9, p. 255.

To watch a tutorial on using videoconferencing software

to conduct online meetings, go to LaunchPad.

(continued)

Participating in a Videoconference Follow these six suggestions for participating effectively in a videoconference.

practice using the technology. For many people, being on camera is uncomfort- able, especially the first time. Before participating in a high-stakes videoconfer- ence, become accustomed to the camera by participating in a few informal videoconferences.

arrange for tech support at each site. Participants can quickly become impatient or lose interest when someone is fumbling to make the technology work. each site should have a person who can set up the equipment and troubleshoot if problems arise.

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using social Media and Other Electronic Tools in Collaboration 3 45

Wikis and sharEd dOCuMEnT WOrksPaCEs Ten years ago, people would collaborate on a document by using email to send it from one person to another. One person would write or assemble the document and then send it to another person, who would revise it and send it along to the next person, and so forth. Although the process was effective, it was inefficient: only one person could work on the document at any given moment. Today, two new technologies—wikis and shared document workspaces—make collaborat- ing on a document much simpler and more convenient.

A wiki is a web-based document that authorized users can write and edit. The best-known wiki is Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia that contains some four million articles written and edited by people around the world. In the working world, people use software such as Jive and Socialtext to host wikis used for creating many kinds of documents, such as instruc- tions, manuals, lists of frequently asked questions, and policy documents. The concept is that a wiki draws on the expertise and insights of people throughout the organization and, sometimes, outside the organization.

A shared document workspace makes it convenient for a team of users to edit a file, such as a Prezi or PowerPoint slide set or a Word document. A shared document workspace such as Microsoft SharePoint or Google Drive archives all the revisions made by each of the team members, so that the team can create a single document that incorporates selected revisions. Some shared document workspaces enable a user to download the docu- ment, revise it on his or her computer, and then upload it again. This feature is extremely convenient because the user does not need to be connected to the Internet to work on the document.

To watch a tutorial on using wikis for collaborative work,

go to LaunchPad.

To watch a tutorial on cross-platform word

processing, go to LaunchPad.

To watch a tutorial on using collaboration software, go to

LaunchPad.

organize the room to encourage participation. if there is more than one person at the site, arrange the chairs so that they face the monitor and camera. each per- son should be near a microphone. Before beginning the conference, check that each location has adequate audio and video as well as access to other relevant technology such as computer monitors. Finally, remember to introduce everyone in the room, even those off camera, to everyone participating in the conference.

make eye contact with the camera. eye contact is an important element of establishing your professional persona. The physical setup of some videocon- ferencing systems means you will likely spend most of your time looking at your monitor and not directly into the camera. however, this might give your viewers the impression that you are avoiding eye contact. Make a conscious effort peri- odically to look directly into the camera when speaking.

dress as you would for a face-to-face meeting. Wearing inappropriate clothing can distract participants and damage your credibility.

minimize distracting noises and movements. sensitive microphones can mag- nify the sound of shuffling papers, fingers tapping on tables, and whispering. likewise, depending on your position in the picture frame, excessive movements can be distracting.

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WRITING COLLABORATIVELY3 46

Figure 3.1 A Quip Document and Chat Thread Courtesy TASER International, Inc.

TASER employees collaborate in Quip on final edits to a press release announcing the purchases of products by several municipal police forces. The chat thread, which is located directly to the left of the document, serves as a single space where all communication about a project is recorded, such as approv- als from other departments, as well as communication about the docu- ment itself. Here, team members discuss how to format information about purchases from multiple departments within a single police force, and they quickly resolve the questions. See the following page for the press release under discussion.

TASER, a company that manufactures law-enforcement products, uses the shared document workspace Quip to collaborate on press releases and on other documents. Figure 3.1 shows one of those press releases in develop- ment. In Quip, team members can edit a single version of a document simul- taneously. Those edits are recorded in a chat thread, where team members can also add comments and questions. TASER PR director Sydney Siegmeth notes that Quip helps the company overcome one of collaboration’s biggest disadvantages: inefficiency.

TASER’s press releases are developed by many teams, including some from outside the company. Before using Quip, Siegmeth’s team had to con- solidate edits made to various versions of the document by other teams and make sure all the contributors received updates about the progress of the press release. Quip’s chat thread streamlines all communication regarding the document in a single place, ensuring that all parties are kept in the loop. TASER has also found that Quip motivates employees to make their contri- butions more quickly than they did when working with email and a word processor. “I’ve found that once someone goes in to make an edit or a com- ment, others will jump in there too and offer their approval or other edits,” Siegmeth says.

(continued)

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using social Media and Other Electronic Tools in Collaboration 3 47

FIGuRE 3.1 a quip document and Chat Thread (continued)

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WriTing COllaBOraTiVEly3 48

E T H I C S N OT E

MainTaining a PrOfEssiOnal PrEsEnCE OnlinE According to a report from Cisco systems (2010), half of the surveyed employees claim to rou- tinely ignore company guidelines that prohibit the use of social media for non-work-related activities during company time. if you use your organization’s social media at work, be sure to act professionally so that your actions reflect positively on you and your organization. Be aware of several important legal and ethical issues related to social media.

Although the law has not always kept pace with recent technological innovations, a few things are clear. You and your organization can be held liable if you make defamatory state- ments (statements that are untrue and damaging) about people or organizations, publish private information (such as trade secrets) or something that publicly places an individual “in a false light,” publish personnel information, harass others, or participate in criminal activity.

in addition, follow these guidelines to avoid important ethical pitfalls:

• Don’t waste company time using social media for nonbusiness purposes. You owe your em- ployer diligence (hard work).

• Don’t divulge secure information, such as a login and password that expose your organiza- tion to unauthorized access, and don’t reveal information about products that have not yet been released.

• Don’t divulge private information about anyone. Private information relates to such issues as religion, politics, and sexual orientation.

• Don’t make racist or sexist comments or post pictures of people drinking.

if your organization has a written policy on the use of social media, study it carefully. Ask ques- tions if anything in it is unclear. if the policy is incomplete, work to make it complete. if there is no policy, work to create one.

For an excellent discussion of legal and ethical aspects of using your organization’s social me- dia, see Kaupins and Park (2010).

Although this section has discussed various collaboration tools as sepa- rate technologies, software companies are bundling programs in commercial products such as IBM Sametime, Adobe Creative Cloud, and Microsoft Lync, which are suites of voice, data, and video services. These services usually share four characteristics:

• they are cloud based. That is, organizations lease the services and access them over the Internet. They do not have to acquire and maintain special hardware. This model is sometimes called software as a service.

• they are integrated across desktop and mobile devices. Because employees can access these services from their desktops or mobile devices, they are free to collaborate in real time even if they are not at their desks. Some services provide presence awareness, the ability to determine a person’s online status, availability, and geographic location.

For more about maintaining a professional presence online, see Ch. 2, p. 26.

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Culture and Collaboration 3 49

• they are customizable. Organizations can choose whichever services they wish and then customize the services to work effectively with the rest of their electronic infrastructure, such as computer software and telephone systems.

• they are secure. Organizations store the software behind a firewall, providing security: only authorized employees have access to the services.

gender and collaboration Effective collaboration involves two related challenges: maintaining the team as a productive, friendly working unit and accomplishing the task. Scholars of gender and collaboration see these two challenges as representing the feminine and the masculine perspectives.

This discussion should begin with a qualifier: in discussing gender, we are generalizing. The differences in behavior between two men or between two women are likely to be greater than the differences between men and women in general.

The differences in how the genders communicate and work in teams have been traced to every culture’s traditional family structure. Because women were traditionally the primary caregivers in American culture, they learned to value nurturing, connection, growth, and cooperation; because men were the primary breadwinners, they learned to value separateness, competi- tion, debate, and even conflict (Karten, 2002). In collaborative teams, women appear to value consensus and relationships more than men do, to show more empathy, and to demonstrate superior listening skills. Women talk more about topics unrelated to the task (Duin, Jorn, & DeBower, 1991), but this talk is central to maintaining team coherence. Men appear to be more competitive than women and more likely to assume leadership roles. Scholars of gender recommend that all professionals strive to achieve an androgynous mix of the skills and aptitudes commonly associated with both women and men.

culture and collaboration Most collaborative teams in industry and in the classroom include people from other cultures. The challenge for all team members is to understand the ways in which cultural differences can affect team behavior. People from other cultures

• might find it difficult to assert themselves in collaborative teams

• might be unwilling to respond with a definite “no”

For more about multicultural issues, see Ch. 4, p. 63.

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WriTing COllaBOraTiVEly3 50

• might be reluctant to admit when they are confused or to ask for clarification

• might avoid criticizing others

• might avoid initiating new tasks or performing creatively

Even the most benign gesture of friendship on the part of a U.S. student can cause confusion. If a U.S. student casually asks a Japanese student about her major and the courses she is taking, the Japanese student might find the ques- tion too personal—yet she might consider it perfectly appropriate to talk about her family and her religious beliefs (Lustig & Koester, 2012). Therefore, you should remain open to encounters with people from other cultures without jumping to conclusions about what their actions might or might not mean.

W R I T E R ’S C H E C k L I S T

In managing your project, did you

break it down into several smaller tasks if it was large? (p. 37)

create a plan? (p. 37)

create and maintain an accurate schedule? (p. 37)

put your decisions in writing? (p. 37)

monitor progress? (p. 37)

distribute and act on information quickly? (p. 37)

act flexibly regarding schedule and responsibilities? (p. 37)

At your first team meeting, did you

define the team’s task? (p. 39)

choose a team leader? (p. 39)

define tasks for each team member? (p. 39)

establish working procedures? (p. 39)

establish a procedure for resolving conflict productively? (p. 39)

create a style sheet? (p. 39)

establish a work schedule? (p. 39)

create evaluation materials? (p. 39)

To help make meetings efficient, do you

arrive on time? (p. 40)

stick to the agenda? (p. 40)

make sure that a team member records important decisions made at the meeting? (p. 40)

make sure that the leader summarizes the team’s accomplishments and that every member understands what his or her tasks are? (p. 40)

To communicate diplomatically, do you

listen carefully, without interrupting? (p. 41)

give everyone a chance to speak? (p. 41)

avoid personal remarks and insults? (p. 41)

avoid overstating your position? (p. 41)

avoid getting emotionally attached to your own ideas? (p. 41)

ask pertinent questions? (p. 41)

pay attention to nonverbal communication? (p. 41)

In critiquing a team member’s work, do you

start with a positive comment? (p. 41)

discuss the larger issues first? (p. 41)

talk about the document, not the writer? (p. 42)

use the comment, revision, and highlighting features of your word processor, if appropriate? (p. 43)

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Exercises 51

3

E X E R C I S E S

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Experiment with the comment, revision, and highlighting features of your word processor. Using online help if necessary, learn how to make, revise, and delete comments; make, undo, and accept revisions; and add and delete highlights.

2. Locate free videoconferencing software on the Internet. Download the software, and install it on your computer at home. Learn how to use the feature that lets you send attached files.

3. Using a wiki site such as wikiHow.com, find a set of instructions on a technical process that interests you. Study one of the revisions to the instructions, noting the types of changes made. Do the changes relate to the content of the instructions, to the use of graphics, or to the correctness of the writing? Be prepared to share your findings with the class.

4. TEaM ExErCisE If you are enrolled in a technical- communication course that calls for you to do a large collaborative project, such as a recommendation report or an oral presentation, meet with your team members. Study the assignment for the project, and then fill out the work-schedule form. (You can download the form in LaunchPad.) Be prepared to share your completed form with the class.

5. You have probably had a lot of experience working in collaborative teams in previous courses or on the job. Brainstorm for five minutes, listing some of your best and worst experiences participating in collaborative teams. Choose one positive experience and one negative experience. Think about why the positive experience went well. Was there a technique that a

team member used that accounted for the positive experience? Think about why the negative experience went wrong. Was there a technique or action that accounted for the negative experience? How might the negative experience have been prevented—or fixed? Be prepared to share your responses with the class.

6. TEaM ExErCisE Your college or university wishes to update its website to include a section called “For Prospective International Students.” Along with members of your team, first determine whether your school’s website already has information of particular interest to prospective international students. If it does, write a memo to your instructor describing and evaluating the information. Is it accurate? Comprehensive? Clear? Useful? What kind of information should be added to the site to make it more effective?

If the school’s site does not have this information, perform the following two tasks:

• Plan. What kind of information should this new section include? Does some of this information already exist elsewhere on the web, or does it all have to be created from scratch? For example, can you create a link to an external site with information on how to obtain a student visa? Write an outline of the main topics that should be covered.

• Draft. Write the following sections: “Where To Live on or near Campus,” “Social Activities on or near Campus,” and “If English Is Not Your Native Language.” What graphics could you include? Are they already available? What other sites should you link to from these three sections?

In a memo, present your suggestions to your instructor.

When you participate in a videoconference, do you

first practice using videoconferencing technology (p. 44)

arrange for tech support at each site? (p. 44)

organize the room to encourage participation? (p. 45)

make eye contact with the camera? (p. 45)

dress as you would for a face-to-face meeting? (p. 45)

minimize distracting noises and movements? (p. 45)

For more practice with the concepts covered in Chapters 1–3, complete the LearningCurve activity “Working in the Technical

Communication environment” in LaunchPad.

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WRITING COLLABORATIVELY3

C a s e 3 : Accommodating a Team Member’s Scheduling Problems

Your technical-communication instructor has organized you into groups of three. Your group will collaborate on a series of projects throughout the semester. Before your first assignment is due, you learn that one team member must deal with a family emergency that will interfere with his ability to participate in the project for some time. Now, you and your other teammate must devise a plan to proceed with the project. You also decide to propose a classwide policy for communicating with teammates when problems arise. To get started on your assignment, go to LaunchPad.

52

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Planning and Drafting the

Document

Part 2

© Getty Images/John Rensten

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54

Understanding Audience and Purpose 56

Using an Audience Profile Sheet 57 ■ DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Audience Profile Sheet ■ ChOiCES AND StRAtEgiES: Responding to Readers’ Attitudes 58

Techniques for Learning About Your Audience 59 Determining What You alreaDY KnoW about Your auDience 59

intervieWing PeoPle 59

reaDing about Your auDience online 59

Thinking ViSUALLY: Determining the important Characteristics of Your Audience 60 Searching Social meDia for DocumentS Your auDience haS Written 62

analYzing Social-meDia Data 62

Communicating Across Cultures 63 unDerStanDing the cultural variableS “on the Surface” 63

unDerStanDing the cultural variableS “beneath the Surface” 64

conSiDering cultural variableS aS You Write 67 ■ guiDELiNES: Writing for Readers from Other Cultures 68

uSing graPhicS anD DeSign for multicultural reaDerS 69

Applying What You have Learned About Your Audience 69 ■ DOCuMENt ANALYSiS ACtivitY: Examining Cultural variables in a Business Letter 70 ■ EthiCS NOtE: Meeting Your Readers’ Needs Responsibly 74

4Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose

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55

4 Writing for Multiple Audiences 74

Determining Your Purpose 74

WriTer’S CheCkLiST 76

exerCiSeS 77

LeArningCUrVe: Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose 78 and

CASe 4: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and interests 78 and

JASON FALLS, THE DIGITAL STRATEGIST for the online retailer CaféPress, writes frequently about how companies can use social media to create relationships with customers. What does he say is the key to using social media for business? Knowing your audience. in a 2013 blog post, Falls wrote about some of the electronic services that can help companies figure out who their customers are so that they can better appeal to their interests. One of the services he discussed is DemographicsPro, which supplies information about your twitter followers. Figure 4.1 shows part of the report that DemographicsPro supplied to Falls about his twitter followers.

Organizations of all sorts, not just businesses, analyze their audiences. government agencies that want to appeal to the general public—to urge them to eat better, get vaccinated, or sign up for health insurance, to name just a

FIGuRE 4.1 Analysis of Twitter Followers Source: Falls, 2013: http://www.socialmediaexplorer.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/demopro-falls.jpg.

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AnALYZing YOUr AUDienCe AnD PUrPOSe 4 56

few campaigns—start by analyzing their audiences to learn how to motivate them. Political campaigns analyze voters to determine the issues they want to see addressed. Charities such as the March of Dimes analyze their audiences to improve the effectiveness of their communications.

understanding audience and Purpose Projects and campaigns of all sizes and types succeed only if they are based on an accurate understanding of the needs and desires of their audiences and have a clear, focused purpose. Because the documents and other com- munication you produce in the workplace will, more often than not, form the foundations of these projects and campaigns, they too will succeed only if they are based on an accurate understanding of your audience and have a clear purpose.

Although you might not realize it, you probably consider audience in your day-to-day communication. For example, when you tell your parents about a new job you’ve landed, you keep the discussion general and focus on the job details you know they care most about: its location, its salary and benefits, and your start date. But when you email a former internship supervisor with the news, you discuss your upcoming duties and projects in more detail.

As you produce documents for this technical-communication course, you will of course consider your instructor’s expectations, just as you do when you write anything for any other course. But keep in mind that your instruc- tor in this course is also playing the role of the audience that you would be addressing if you had produced the document outside of this college course. Therefore, to a large extent your instructor will likely evaluate each of your course assignments on how effectively you’ve addressed the audience and achieved the purpose specified in the assignment.

Analyzing an audience means thinking about who your audience is, what they already know about your subject, how they feel about it, and how they are going to use the information you present. You analyze your audience as you plan your document so that it appeals to their interests and needs, is easy for them to understand, and motivates them to pay attention to your message and consider your recommendations.

The word purpose refers to what you want to accomplish with the docu- ment you are producing. Most often, your purpose is to explain to your audience how something occurs (how regenerative braking systems work in hybrid cars), how to carry out a task (how to set up a Skype connection), or why some situation is either good or bad (why the new county guidelines for water use will help or hurt your company). When your purpose is to explain why a situation is either good or bad, you are trying to reinforce or change the audience’s attitudes toward the situation and perhaps urge them to take action.

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Using an Audience Profile Sheet 4 57

Before you can start to think about writing about your subject, analyze your audience and purpose. Doing so will help you meet your readers’ needs—and your own. For instance, you’re an engineer working for a consulting company. One document to which you might contribute is a report to the city planning board about how building a housing development would affect the natural environment as well as the city’s roads, schools, and sanitation infrastructure. That’s the subject of the report. The purpose is to motivate the planning board to approve the project so that it can begin. How does the audience affect how you analyze your purpose? You think about who the board members are. If most of them are not engineers, you don’t want to use specialized vocabulary and advanced engineering graphics and concepts. You don’t want to dwell on the technical details. Rather, you want to use general vocabulary, graphics, and concepts. You want to focus on the issues the board members are concerned about. Would the development affect the environment negatively? If so, is the developer including a plan to offset that negative effect? Can the roads handle the extra traffic? Can the schools handle the extra kids? Will the city have to expand its police force? Its fire department? Its sewer system?

In other words, when you write to the planning board, you focus on topics they are most interested in, and you write the document so that it is easy for them to read and understand. If the project is approved and you need to communicate with other audiences, such as architects and contractors, you will have different purposes, and you will adjust your writing to meet each audience’s needs.

What can go wrong when you don’t analyze your audience? McDonald’s Corporation found out when it printed takeout bags decorated with flags from around the world. Among them was the flag of Saudi Arabia, which contains scripture from the Koran. This was extremely offensive to Muslims, who consider it sacrilegious to throw out items bearing sacred scripture. As a result, McDonald’s lost public credibility.

Throughout this chapter, the text will refer to your reader and your docu- ment. But all of the information refers as well to oral presentations, which are the subject of Chapter 15, as well as to nonprint documents, such as podcasts or videos.

using an audience Profile Sheet As you read the discussions in this chapter about audience characteristics and techniques for learning about your audience, you might think about using an audience profile sheet: a form that prompts you to consider various audience characteristics as you plan your document. For example, the profile sheet can help you realize that you do not know much about your primary reader’s work history and what that history can tell you about how to shape your document.

For an audience profile sheet, which will help you think about

audience characteristics, go to LaunchPad.

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If your document has several readers, you must decide whether to fill out only one sheet (for your most important reader) or several sheets. One tech- nique is to fill out sheets for one or two of your most important readers and one for each major category of other readers. For instance, you could fill out one sheet for your primary reader, Harry Becker; one for managers in other areas of your company; and one for readers from outside your company.

When do you fill out an audience profile sheet? Although some writers like to do so at the start of the process as a way to prompt themselves to consider audience characteristics, others prefer to do so at the end of the process as a way to help themselves summarize what they have learned about their audi- ence. Of course, you can start to fill out the sheet before you begin and then complete it or revise it at the end.

iF . . . TrY ThiS . . .

Your reader is neutral or positively inclined toward your subject

Write the document so that it responds to the reader’s needs; make sure that vocabulary, level of detail, organization, and style are appropriate.

Your reader is hostile to the subject or to your approach to it

• Find out what the objections are, and then answer them directly. Explain why the objections are not valid or are less important than the benefits. For example, you want to hire an online-community manager to coordinate your company’s social-media efforts, but you know that one of your primary readers won’t like this idea. try to find out why. Does this person think social media are a fad? that they are irrelevant and can’t help your company? if you understand the objections, you can explain your position more effectively.

• Organize the document so that your recommendation follows your explanation of the benefits. this strategy encourages the hostile reader to understand your argument rather than to reject it out of hand.

• Avoid describing the subject as a dispute. Seek areas of agreement and concede points. Avoid trying to persuade readers overtly; people don’t like to be persuaded, because it threatens their ego. instead, suggest that there are new facts that need to be considered. People are more likely to change their minds when they realize this.

Your reader was instrumental in creating the policy or procedure that you are arguing is ineffective

in discussing the present system’s shortcomings, be especially careful if you risk offending one of your readers. When you address such an audience, don’t write, “the present system for logging customer orders is completely ineffective.” instead, write, “While the present system has worked well for many years, new developments in electronic processing of orders might enable us to improve logging speed and reduce errors substantially.”

For tips on critiquing a team member’s draft diplomatically, see Ch. 3, p. 41.

CHOICES AND STRATEGIES responding to readers’ attitudes

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Techniques for Learning About Your Audience 4 59

techniques for learning about Your audience To learn about your audience, you figure out what you do and do not already know, interview people, read about them, and read documents they have written. Of course, you cannot perform extensive research about every possible reader of every document you write, but you should learn what you can about your most important readers of your most important documents.

DeTerMining WhAT YOU ALreADY knOW AbOUT YOUr AUDienCe Start by asking yourself what you already know about your most important readers: their demographics (such as age, education, and job responsibilities); their expectations and attitudes toward you and the subject; and the ways they will use your document. Then list the important factors you don’t know. That is where you will concentrate your energies. The audience profile sheet available in LaunchPad can help you identify gaps in your knowledge about your readers.

inTerVieWing PeOPLe For your most important readers, make a list of people who you think have known them and their work the longest or who are closest to them on the job. These people might include those who joined the organization at about the same time your readers did, people who work in the same department as your readers, and people at other organizations who have collaborated with your readers.

Prepare a few interview questions that are likely to elicit information about your readers and their preferences and needs. For instance, you are writing a proposal for a new project at work. You want to present return-on- investment calculations to show how long it will take the company to recoup what it invested, but you’re not sure how much detail to present because you don’t know whether an important primary reader has a background in this aspect of accounting. Several of this reader’s colleagues will know. Interview them in person, on the phone, or by email.

reADing AbOUT YOUr AUDienCe OnLine If you are writing for people in your own organization, start your research there. If your primary reader is a high-level manager or executive, search the organization’s website or internal social network. Sections such as “About Us,” “About the Company,” and “Information for Investors” often contain a wealth of biographical information, as well as links to other sources.

In addition, use a search engine to look for information on the Internet. You are likely to find newspaper and magazine articles, industry directories, websites, and blog posts about your audience.

For a discussion of interviewing, see Ch. 5, p. 99.

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Determining the Important Characteristics of Your Audience

For each of your most important readers, consider his or her

Consider why each of your most important readers is reading your document. Some writers find it helpful to classify readers into categories

that identify each reader’s distance from the writer.

A primary audience consists of people to whom

the communication is directed.

A secondary audience consists of people who will

not directly act on or respond to the document but who

need to be aware of it.

A tertiary audience consists of people who might take an interest in the document, such

as interest groups, government officials, and the general public.

From left to right: (1, 3, 5) Rungrote/Shutterstock; (2, 6) Domofon/Shutterstock; (4) Redberry/Shutterstock; (7, 8, 9) Nobelus/Shutterstock

Who Are Your reADerS?

WhY IS Your AuDIenCe reADIng Your DoCument?

educational background.

professional experience, including areas of competence or expertise.

Job responsibility and how your document will help that person accomplish it.

personal characteristics, such as age or physical impairments.

reading, speaking, and listening preferences.

cultural characteristics.

THINKING VISUALLY

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From left to right: (1) Colorlife/Shutterstock; (2) Leremy/Shutterstock; (3) Faberr Ink/Shutterstock; (4) Eman Design/Shutterstock; (5) Vasabii/Shutterstock; (6) Vector.design/Shutterstock; (7) Domofon/Shutterstock

WhAt Are Your reADerS’ AttItuDeS AnD expeCtAtIonS?

hoW WIll Your reADerS uSe Your DoCument?

In thinking about how your reader will use your document, consider the following four factors:

the way your reader will read

your document. Will he or she file it, skim it, study it carefully, modify it, try to implement its

recommendations, use it to perform a test, or use it as a source document?

Your reader’s reading skill. Consider whether you should be writing at all and at what level, or whether you should use

another medium, such as a video, an oral presentation, or a podcast.

the physical environment in which your reader will read your

document, including light levels and exposure to the elements.

the digital platforms on which your reader will read your document.

how can you design the document so that it is easy to access—easy to get to, to see, to navigate,

and to use—in these environments?

In thinking about the attitudes and expectations of each of your most important readers, consider these three factors:

Your reader’s attitude toward you. If a reader’s animosity toward you

is irrational or unrelated to the current project, try discussing

other, less-volatile projects or some shared interest.

Your reader’s attitude toward the subJect. If possible,

gauge your primary readers’ attitudes beforehand.

Your reader’s expectations about the document, including scope,

organizational pattern, amount of detail, and application.

…

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SeArChing SOCiAL MeDiA FOr DOCUMenTS YOUr AUDienCe hAS WriTTen Documents your readers have written can tell you a lot about what they like to see with respect to design, level of detail, organization and development, style, and vocabulary. If your primary audience consists of those within your organization, start searching for documents they’ve produced within the company. Then broaden the search to the Internet.

Although some of your readers might have written books or articles, many or even most of them might be active users of social media, such as Face- book. Pay particular attention to LinkedIn, a networking site for profession- als. LinkedIn profiles are particularly useful because they include a person’s current and former positions and education, as well as recommendations from other professionals.

A typical LinkedIn entry directs you to a person’s websites and blogs and to the LinkedIn groups to which the person belongs. You can also see the person’s connections (his or her personal network). And if you are a LinkedIn member, you can see whether you and the person share any connections.

In addition, the person you are researching might have a social-media account on which he or she posts about matters related to his or her job. Reading a person’s recent posts will give you a good idea of his or her job responsibilities and professionalism.

AnALYZing SOCiAL-MeDiA DATA Private companies and public agencies alike analyze social media to better understand their audiences. Private companies use these data primarily to determine who their customers are, how they feel about various marketing messages, and how these messages influence their buying behavior. Public agencies use these data to help them refine their own messages.

For instance, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a U.S. federal agency, analyzes social media to improve the quality and effectiveness of its public health information. The agency starts by classifying people into various categories by age (such as tweens, teens, baby boomers) and determin- ing which media each group uses most. On the basis of these data, the agency designs and implements health campaigns on such topics as cancer screening, HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, vaccines, and smoking cessation.

Then the CDC monitors social media to determine how many people are seeing the agency’s information, how they are engaging with the informa- tion (whether they share the information or follow links to other sites), and whether the information is changing their behavior (Centers for Disease Con- trol, 2013). Among the data the CDC analyzes each month are the following:

• the number of visitors to each of the CDC web pages

• the most popular keywords searched on CDC pages as well as on selected other sites and popular search engines such as Google

For an employee’s LinkedIn profile, see Ch. 10, p. 271.

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Communicating Across Cultures 4 63

• the numbers of Facebook fans and Twitter followers

• the number of click-throughs to CDC web pages from Facebook and Twitter

On the basis of these data, the CDC adjusts its social-media campaigns to use its campaign resources most effectively.

communicating across cultures Our society and our workforce are becoming increasingly diverse, both culturally and linguistically, and businesses are exporting more goods and services. As a result, professionals often communicate with individuals from different cultural backgrounds, many of whom are nonnative speakers of English, both in the United States and abroad, and with speakers of other languages who read texts translated from English into their own languages.

The economy of the United States depends on international trade. In 2012, according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis (2014b), the United States exported over $3 trillion of goods and services. In that year, direct investment abroad by U.S. companies totaled more than $4.6 trillion (Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2014a). In addition, the population of the United States itself is truly multicultural. Each year, the United States admits a million immigrants. In 2012, 13 percent of the U.S. population was foreign born; of those foreign born, more than a third had entered the country since 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014).

Effective communication requires an understanding of culture: the beliefs, attitudes, and values that motivate people’s behavior.

UnDerSTAnDing The CULTUrAL VAriAbLeS “On The SUrFACe” Communicating effectively with people from another culture requires under- standing a number of cultural variables that lie on the surface. You need to know, first, what language or languages to use. You also need to be aware of political, social, religious, and economic factors that can affect how readers will interpret your documents. Understanding these factors is not an exact science, but it does require that you learn as much as you can about the cul- ture of those you are addressing.

A brief example: an American manufacturer of deodorant launched an advertising campaign in Japan in which a cute octopus applied the firm’s product under each of its eight arms. But the campaign failed because, in Japan, an octopus is viewed as having eight legs, not eight arms (Bathon, 1999).

In International Technical Communication, Nancy L. Hoft (1995) describes seven major categories of cultural variables that lie on the surface:

• Political. This category relates to trade issues and legal issues (for example, some countries forbid imports of certain foods or chemicals) and laws about intellectual property, product safety, and liability.

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• economic. A country’s level of economic development is a critical factor. In many developing countries, most people cannot afford devices for accessing the Internet.

• Social. This category covers many issues, including gender and business customs. In most Western cultures, women play a much greater role in the workplace than they do in many Middle Eastern and Asian cultures. Business customs—including forms of greeting, business dress, and gift giving—vary from culture to culture.

• religious. Religious differences can affect diet, attitudes toward particular colors, styles of dress, holidays, and hours of business.

• educational. In the United States, 40 million people are only marginally literate. In other cultures, the rate can be much higher or much lower. In some cultures, classroom learning with a teacher is considered the most acceptable way to study; in others, people tend to study on their own.

• technological. If you sell high-tech products, you need to know whether your readers have the hardware, the software, and the technological infrastructure to use them.

• linguistic. In some countries, English is taught to all children starting in grade school; in other countries, English is seen as a threat to the national language. In many cultures, the orientation of text on a page and in a book is not from left to right.

In addition to these basic differences, you need to understand dozens of other factors. For instance, the United States is the only major country that has not adopted the metric system. Whereas Americans use periods to sepa- rate whole numbers from decimals, and commas to separate thousands from hundreds, much of the rest of the world reverses this usage.

united states 3,425.6 europe 3.425,6

Also, in the United States, the format for writing out and abbreviating dates is different from that of most other cultures:

united states March 2, 2015 3/2/15 europe 2 March 2015 2/3/15 japan 2015 March 2 15/3/2

These cultural variables are important in obvious ways: for example, you can’t send a file to a person who doesn’t have access to the Internet. However, there is another set of cultural characteristics—those beneath the surface—that you also need to understand.

UnDerSTAnDing The CULTUrAL VAriAbLeS “beneATh The SUrFACe” Scholars of multicultural communication have identified cultural variables that are less obvious than those discussed in the previous section but just as

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Communicating Across Cultures 4 65

important. Writing scholars Elizabeth Tebeaux and Linda Driskill (1999) explain five key variables and how they are reflected in technical communication.

• focus on individuals or groups. Some cultures, especially in the West, value individuals more than groups. The typical Western employee doesn’t see his or her identity as being defined by the organization for which he or she works. Other cultures, particularly those in Asia, value groups more than individuals. The typical employee in such cultures sees himself or herself more as a representative of the organization than as an individual who happens to work there.

Communication in individualistic cultures focuses on the writer’s and reader’s needs rather than on those of their organizations. Writers use the pronoun I rather than we. Communication in group-oriented cultures focuses on the organization’s needs by emphasizing the benefits to be gained through a cooperative relationship between organizations. Writers emphasize the relationship between the writer and the reader rather than the specific technical details of the message. Writers use we rather than I.

• Distance between business life and private life. In some cultures, especially in the West, many people separate their business lives from their private lives. When the workday ends, they are free to go home and spend their time as they wish. Although many employees are increasingly expected to be available by email or phone outside official working hours, those in the West still usually think of themselves primarily as individuals rather than as part of an organizational body. In other cultures, particularly in Asia, people see a much smaller distance between their business lives and their private lives. Even after the day ends, they still see themselves as employees of their organization.

Cultures that value individualism tend to see a great distance between business and personal lives. In these cultures, communication focuses on technical details, with relatively little reference to personal information about the writer or the reader.

Cultures that are group oriented tend to see a smaller distance between business life and private life. In these cultures, communication contains much more personal information—about the reader’s family and health— and more information about general topics—for example, the weather and the seasons. The goal is to build a formal relationship between the two organizations. Both the writer and the reader are, in effect, on call after business hours and are likely to transact business during long social activities such as elaborate dinners or golf games.

• Distance between ranks. In some cultures, the distance in power and authority between workers within an organization is small. Supervisors work closely with their subordinates. In other cultures, the distance in power and authority between workers within an organization is great. Supervisors do not consult with their subordinates. Subordinates use formal names and titles—“Mr. Smith,” “Dr. Jones”—when addressing people of higher rank.

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Individualistic cultures that separate business and private lives tend to have a smaller distance between ranks. In these cultures, communication is generally less formal. Informal documents (emails and memos) are appropriate, and writers often sign their documents with their first names only. Keep in mind, however, that many people in these cultures resent inappropriate informality, such as letters or emails addressed “Dear Jim” when they have never met the writer.

In cultures with a great distance between ranks, communication is generally formal. Writers tend to use their full professional titles and to prefer formal documents (such as letters) to informal ones (such as memos and emails). Writers make sure their documents are addressed to the appropriate person and contain the formal design elements (such as title pages and letters of transmittal) that signal their respect for their readers.

• need for details to be spelled out. Some cultures value full, complete communication. The written text must be comprehensive, containing all the information a reader needs to understand it. These cultures are called low-context cultures. Other cultures value documents in which some of the details are merely implied. This implicit information is transmitted by other forms of communication that draw on the personal relationship between the reader and the writer, as well as social and business norms of the culture. These cultures are called high-context cultures.

• attitudes toward uncertainty. In some cultures, people are comfortable with uncertainty. They communicate less formally and rely less on written policies. In many cases, they rely more on a clear set of guiding principles, as communicated in a code of conduct or a mission statement. In other cultures, people are uncomfortable with uncertainty. Businesses are structured formally, and they use written procedures for communicating.

In cultures that tolerate uncertainty, written communication tends to be less detailed. Oral communication is used to convey more of the information that is vital to the relationship between the writer and the readers. In cultures that value certainty, communication tends to be detailed. Policies are lengthy and specific, and forms are used extensively. Roles are firmly defined, and there is a wide distance between ranks.

As you consider this set of cultural variables, keep four points in mind:

• each variable represents a spectrum of attitudes. Terms such as high-context and low-context, for instance, represent the opposite end points on a scale. Most cultures occupy a middle ground.

• the variables do not line up in a clear pattern. Although the variables sometimes correlate—for example, low-context cultures tend to be individualistic—in any one culture, the variables do not form a consistent pattern. For example, the dominant culture in the United States is highly individualistic rather than group oriented but only about midway along the scale in terms of tolerance of uncertainty.

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• Different organizations within the same culture can vary greatly. For example, one software company in Germany might have a management style that does not tolerate uncertainty, whereas another software company in that country might tolerate a lot of uncertainty.

• an organization’s cultural attitudes are fluid, not static. How an organization operates is determined not only by the dominant culture but also by its own people. As new people join an organization, its culture changes. The Motorola of 2015 is not the Motorola of 1995.

For you as a communicator, this set of variables therefore offers no answers. Instead, it offers a set of questions. You cannot know in advance the attitudes of the people in an organization. You have to interact with them for a long time before you can reach even tentative conclusions. The value of being aware of the variables is that they can help you study the communica- tion from people in that organization and become more aware of underlying values that affect how they will interpret your documents.

COnSiDering CULTUrAL VAriAbLeS AS YOU WriTe The challenge of communicating effectively with a person from another culture is that you are communicating with a person, not a culture. You cannot be sure which cultures have influenced that person (Lovitt, 1999). For example, a 50-year-old Indian-born manager at the auto manufacturer Tata in India has been shaped by the Indian culture, but she also has been influenced by the culture of her company and of the Indian auto industry in general. Because she works on an export product, it is also likely that she has traveled extensively outside of India and has absorbed influences from other cultures.

A further complication is that when you communicate with a person from another culture, to that person you are from another culture, and you cannot know how much that person is trying to accommodate your cultural pat- terns. As writing scholar Arthur H. Bell (1992) points out, the communication between the two of you is carried out in a third, hybrid culture. When you write to a large audience, the complications increase.

No brief discussion of cultural variables can answer questions about how to write for a particular multicultural audience. You need to study your read- ers’ culture and, as you plan your document, seek assistance from someone native to the culture who can help you avoid blunders that might confuse or offend your readers.

Start by reading some of the basic guides to communicating with people from other cultures, and then study guides to the particular culture you are investigating. In addition, numerous sites on the Internet provide useful guidelines that can help you write to people from another culture. If possible, study documents written by people in your audience. If you don’t have access to these, try to locate documents written in English by people from the cul- ture you are interested in.

For books and other resources about writing to people from other cultures, see the Selected Bibliography, located in LaunchPad.

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Figure 4.2 provides a useful glimpse into cultural variables. The excerpt, from a training manual used by Indian Railways, describes a medical exam that prospective applicants are required to take.

501. introduction: (1) the standards of physical fitness to be adopted should make due allowance for the age and length of service, if any, of the candidate concerned.

(2) No person will be deemed qualified for admission to the public service who shall not satisfy the government, or the appointing authority, as the case may be, that he has no disease, constitutional affliction or bodily infirmity unfitting him, or likely to unfit him for that service.

(3) it should be understood that the question of fitness involves the future as well as the present and that one of the main objectives of medical examination is to secure continuous effective service, and in the case of candidates for permanent appointment, to prevent early pension or payment in case of premature death.

…

Note: the minimum height prescribed can be relaxed in case of candidates belonging to races such as gorkhas, garhwalis, Assamese, Nagaland tribal, whose average height is distinctly lower.

FIGuRE 4.2 Statement from an indian railways Training Manual Source: Indian Railways, 2000: http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/codesmanual/MMVol-I/Chapter5.pdf.

The passage sounds as if it was written a hundred years ago, full of complicated sentences and formal vocabulary. The writing style is closer to that of the British (who colonized India) than that of the United States.

However, the explanation of why the exam is used is particularly can- did: to save the government from having to support employees who become ill and therefore cannot perform the tasks for which they were hired.

The wording of this note, which fol- lows a table showing the minimum height requirements for male and female applicants, would likely be considered offensive in most cultures. In India, a culture made of many ethnic groups and with a rigid caste system, most readers would not be offended.

(continued )

Writing for Readers from Other Cultures the following eight suggestions will help you communicate more effectively with multicultural readers.

limit your vocabulary. Every word should have only one meaning, as called for in Simplified English and in other basic-English languages.

Keep sentences short. there is no magic number, but try for an average sentence length of no more than 20 words.

Define abbreviations and acronyms in a glossary. Don’t assume that your read- ers know what a gFi (ground fault interrupter) is, because the abbreviation is derived from English vocabulary and word order.

avoid jargon unless you know your readers are familiar with it. For instance, your readers might not know what a graphical user interface is.

avoid idioms and slang. these terms are culture specific. if you tell your Japa- nese readers that your company plans to put on a “full-court press,” most likely they will be confused.

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Applying What You have Learned About Your Audience 4 69

USing grAPhiCS AnD DeSign FOr MULTiCULTUrAL reADerS One of the challenges for writing to people from another culture is that they are likely to be nonnative speakers of English. One way to overcome the language barrier is to use effective graphics and appropriate document design.

However, the most appropriate graphics and design can differ from culture to culture. Business letters written in Australia use a different size paper and a different format than those in the United States. An icon for a file folder in a software program created in the United States could confuse European readers, who use file folders of a different size and shape (Bosley, 1999). A series of graphics arranged left to right could confuse readers from the Middle East, who read from right to left. For this reason, you should study samples of documents written by people from the culture you are addressing to learn the important differences.

applying What You have learned about Your audience You want to use what you know about your audience to tailor your commu- nication to their needs and preferences. Obviously, if your most important reader does not understand the details of DRAM technology, you cannot use the concepts, vocabulary, and types of graphics used in that field. If she uses one-page summaries at the beginning of her documents, decide whether one will work for your document. If your primary reader’s paragraphs always start with clear topic sentences, yours should, too.

The samples of technical communication shown in Figure 4.3 illustrate some of the ways writers have applied what they know about their audiences in text and graphics.

For more about design for multicultural readers, see Ch. 7, p. 191. For more about graphics for international readers, see Ch. 8, pp. 234–35.

use the active voice whenever possible. the active voice is easier for nonnative speakers of English to understand than the passive voice.

be careful with graphics. the garbage-can icon on the Macintosh computer does not translate well, because garbage cans might have different shapes and be made of different materials in other countries.

be sure someone from the target culture reviews your document. Even if you have had help in planning the document, have it reviewed before you publish and distribute it.

For more about voice, see Ch. 6, pp. 141–43.

For more about graphics, see Ch. 8, pp. 234–35.

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AnALYZing YOUr AUDienCe AnD PUrPOSe 70

4

These two versions of the same business letter were written by a sales manager for an American computer company. The first letter was addressed to a potential customer in the United States; the second version was addressed to a potential customer in Japan. The questions in the margin ask you to think about how cultural variables affect the nature of the evidence, the structure of the letters, and their tone (see pp. 63–69).

Examining Cultural Variables in a Business Letter D O C u m E N T A N A LyS I S AC T I v I T y

Server Solutions Cincinnati, Oh 46539

nadine Meyer Director of Marketing

July 3, 2016

Mr. Philip henryson, Director of Purchasing Allied Manufacturing 1321 industrial Boulevard Boise, iD 83756

Dear Mr. henryson:

thank you for your inquiry about our PowerServer servers. i’m happy to answer your questions.

the most popular configuration is our PowerServer 3000. this model is based on the intel® Xeon ES-4600 processor, ServerSure high-End ultraLite chipset with quadpeer PCi architecture, and embedded RAiD. the system comes with our installit system-management CD, which lets you install the server and monitor and manage your network with a simple graphical interface. With six PCi slots, the PowerServer 3000 is equipped with redundant cooling as well as redundant power, and storage expandability to 1.0tB. i’m taking the liberty of enclosing the brochure for this system to fill you in on the technical details.

the PowerServer 3000 has performed extremely well on a number of industry benchmark tests. i’m including with this letter copies of feature articles on the system from PC World, CIO, and DigiTimes.

it would be a pleasure for me to arrange for an on-site demo at your convenience. i will phone you on Monday to see what dates would be best for you. in the meantime, please do not hesitate to get in touch with me directly if you have any questions about the PowerServer line.

i look forward to talking with you next week.

Sincerely,

Nadine Meyer Director of Marketing

Attachments: “PowerServer 3000 Facts at a glance” “Another Winner from Server Solutions” “Mid-Range Servers for 2016” “Four New Dual-Processor Workhorses”

1

(continued)

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Applying What You have Learned About Your Audience 71

4

1. How does the difference in the salutations (the “Dear . . .” part of the letter) reflect a cultural difference?

2. Does the first paragraph of the second letter have any function beyond delaying the discussion of business?

3. What is the point of telling Mr. Kirisawa about his own company? How does this paragraph help the writer introduce her own com- pany’s products?

4. To a reader from the United States, the third paragraph of the second letter would probably seem thin. What aspect of Japanese culture makes it effective in the context of this letter?

5. Why doesn’t the writer make a more explicit sales pitch at the end of the second letter?

Examining Cultural Variables in a Business Letter (continued)

Server Solutions Cincinnati, Oh 46539

nadine Meyer Director of Marketing

Mr. Kato Kirisawa, Director of Purchasing Allied Manufacturing 3-7-32 Kita urawa Saitama City, Saitama Pref. 336-0002 Japan

Dear Sir:

it is my sincere hope that you and your loved ones are healthy and enjoying the pleasures of summer. here in the American Midwest, the warm rays of the summer sun are accompanied by the sounds of happy children playing in the neighborhood swimming pools. i trust that the same pleasant sounds greet you in Saitama City.

Your inquiry about our PowerServer 3000 suggests that your company is growing. Allied Manufacturing has earned a reputation in Japan and all of Asia for a wide range of products manufactured to the most demanding standards of quality. We are not surprised that your company requires new servers that can be expanded to provide fast service for more and more clients.

For more than 20 years, Server Solutions has had the great honor of manufacturing the finest computer servers to meet the needs of our valued customers all over the world. We use only the finest materials and most innovative techniques to ensure that our customers receive the highest-quality, uninterrupted service that they have come to expect from us.

One of my great pleasures is to talk with esteemed representatives such as yourself about how Server Solutions can help them meet their needs for the most advanced servers. i would be most gratified if our two companies could enter into an agreement that would be of mutual benefit.

Sincerely,

Nadine Meyer Director of Marketing

Attachments: “PowerServer 3000 Facts at a glance” “Another Winner from Server Solutions” “Mid-Range Servers for 2016” “Four New Dual-Processor Workhorses”

2016 July 3

1

2

3

4

5

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AnALYZing YOUr AUDienCe AnD PUrPOSe 4 72

FIGuRE 4.3 Using Text and graphics to Appeal to readers’ needs and interests

a. Document presenting technical information to an expert audience Source: World Wide Web Consortium, 2013: http://www.w3.org/standards/xml/transformation.html.

This excerpt from a technical description of a web coding language appears on the site of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

Because the readers are coding experts, the writers use highly technical language and refer to advanced topics. Note, however, that the nontechnical information is written simply and directly.

Notice that the graphic is based on a simple flowchart and basic icons. Why? Because the readers are interested only in understanding the logic of the process illustrated in the flowchart.

This passage, from TASER, describes a videocam to be worn by police officers. It is addressed to high-level officers responsible for ordering equipment.

The writer makes a simple argument: that an unbiased study showed how the product eliminated complaints by providing a video record of an incident. (The web page also includes text and a video highlighting the argument about the product.)

The argument consists of two ele- ments: the photograph and the brief text. The photograph shows that the device is easy to wear. The text makes two points: (1) video of the incident will be even more compel- ling than an officer’s court testimony, and (2) therefore the product can greatly reduce the number of incidents in which officers are disci- plined. Together, these points appeal to the interests of police supervisors, who don’t want their officers to be unfairly charged. The links at the top of the page encourage the audience to take action, either by learning how to try out the device or by buying it.

b. Document motivating decision makers to learn about a product Source: TASER International, 2013: www.taser.com/products/on-officer-video/axon-flex-on-officer-video.

(continued)

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Applying What You have Learned About Your Audience 4 73

c. Document presenting educational resources to a general audience Source: American Cancer Society, 2013: http://www.cancer.org/healthy/index.

FIGuRE 4.3 Using Text and graphics (continued)

d. Document reinforcing a brand Source: Hewlett-Packard, 2013: http://www8.hp.com/us/en/hp-information/index.html.

This excerpt from the Stay Healthy section of the American Cancer Society website shows several tech- niques for providing information to a general audience.

The page begins with a short video and brief text intended to motivate readers to find out more about how to stay healthy. The tone throughout—from the words to the images of the smiling man and woman—is encouraging: it says, “You can do this.”

The page includes a set of seven links to detailed information on more-specific topics about preventing cancer.

The Tools and Calculators section gives readers opportunities to learn more about how to improve their health. This section is consistent with the main point of this page: you can take steps to improve your health.

Notice that the writers use simple, direct language, as well as the second person (“you”), to maintain an informal tone.

Hewlett-Packard, one of the world’s most innovative technology compa- nies, recently lost much of its luster because of management miscalcula- tions and scandals. This page from the HP site is part of the company’s attempt to project a new, positive message.

The smiling faces of company president and CEO Meg Whitman and of the other people suggest that bad times are over.

In the quotation, the CEO is forthright about the company’s mis- takes but asserts that the company has the people and resources neces- sary to “turn HP around.” Note that five sentences in a row begin with “we,” thereby including customers in the HP story.

Whitman uses simple, strong words and sentences to project honesty and determination. And she signs her name “Meg.” The point is that she is like HP’s customers: hard working and down-to-earth.

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AnALYZing YOUr AUDienCe AnD PUrPOSe 4 74

E T H I C S N OT E

MeeTing YOUr reADerS’ neeDS reSPOnSibLY A major theme of this chapter is that effective technical communication meets your readers’ needs. What this theme means is that as you plan, draft, revise, and edit, you should always be thinking of who your readers are, why they will read your document, and how they will read the document. For example, if your readers include many nonnative speakers of English, you will adjust your vocabulary, sentence structure, and other textual elements so that those readers can understand your document easily. if your readers will access the document on a mobile device, you will ensure that the design is optimized for their screen.

Meeting your readers’ needs does not mean writing a misleading or inaccurate document. if your readers want you to slant the information, omit crucial data, or downplay bad news, they are asking you to act unethically. You should not do so. For more information on ethics, see Chapter 2.

Writing for multiple audiences Many documents of more than a few pages are addressed to more than one reader. Often, an audience consists of people with widely different back- grounds, needs, and attitudes.

If you think your document will have a number of readers, consider mak- ing it modular: break it up into components addressed to different readers. A modular report might contain an executive summary for managers who don’t have the time, knowledge, or desire to read the whole report. It might also contain a full technical discussion for expert readers, an implementa- tion schedule for technicians, and a financial plan in an appendix for budget officers. Figure 4.4 shows the table of contents for a modular report.

Determining Your Purpose Once you have identified and analyzed your audience, it is time to examine your purpose. Ask yourself this: “What do I want this document to accom- plish?” When your readers have finished reading what you have written, what do you want them to know or believe? What do you want them to do? Your writing should help your readers understand a concept, adopt a particu- lar belief, or carry out a task.

In defining your purpose, think of a verb that represents it. (Sometimes, of course, you have several purposes.) The following list presents verbs in two categories: those used to communicate information to your readers and those used to convince them to accept a particular point of view.

communicating verbs convincing verbs authorize assess

define evaluate

describe forecast

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Determining Your Purpose 4 75

explain propose

illustrate recommend

inform request

outline

present

review

summarize

This classification is not absolute. For example, review could in some cases be a convincing verb rather than a communicating verb: one writer’s review of a complicated situation might be very different from another’s.

Contents

Foreword

Preface

Summary for Policymakers

Technical Summary

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

v

vii

1

19

93

129

235

337

385

433

499

589

663

747

847

941

955

969

981

989

Annex I:

Annex II:

Annex III:

Annex IV:

Index

Glossary

Contributors to the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

Reviewers of the IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report

Acronyms

Historical Overview of Climate Change Science

Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and Radiative Forcing

Observations: Atmospheric Surface and Climate Change

Observations: Changes in Snow,

Observations: Ocean Climate Change and Sea Level

Palaeoclimate

Coupling Between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry

Climate Models and Their Evaluation

Understanding and Attributing Climate Change

Global Climate Projections

Regional Climate Projections

Ice and Frozen Ground

Most readers will want to read the 18-page summary for policymakers.

Some readers will want to read selected sections of the technical summary or “annexes” (appendixes).

FIGuRE 4.4 Table of Contents for a Modular report From Solomon et al., Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, p. xix. Cambridge University Press.

This table of contents shows the organization of a modular docu- ment.

Few readers will want to read the whole document—it’s almost 1,000 pages long.

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AnALYZing YOUr AUDienCe AnD PUrPOSe 76

4 Here are a few examples of how you can use these verbs to clarify the pur-

pose of your document (the verbs are italicized).

• This wiki presents the draft of our policies on professional use of social media within the organization.

• This letter authorizes the purchase of six new tablets for the Jenkintown facility.

• This report recommends that we revise the website as soon as possible.

Sometimes your real purpose differs from your expressed purpose. For instance, if you want to persuade your reader to lease a new computer system rather than purchase it, you might phrase the purpose this way: to explain the advantages of leasing over purchasing. As mentioned earlier, many readers don’t want to be persuaded but are willing to learn new facts or ideas.

In situations like this, stick to the facts. No matter how much you want to convince your readers, it is unacceptable to exaggerate or to omit important information. Trust that the strength and accuracy of your writing will enable you to achieve your intended purpose.

W R I T E R ’S C H E C k L I S T

Following is a checklist for analyzing your audience and purpose. Remember that your document might be read by one person, several people, a large group, or several groups with various needs.

Did you fill out an audience profile sheet for your primary and secondary audiences? (p. 57)

In analyzing your audience, did you consider the following questions about each of your most important readers:

What is your reader’s educational background? (p. 60)

What is your reader’s professional experience? (p. 60)

What is your reader’s job responsibility? (p. 60)

What are your reader’s cultural characteristics? (p. 60)

What are your reader’s personal characteristics? (p. 60)

What are your reader’s personal preferences? (p. 60)

Why will the reader read your document? (p. 60)

What is your reader’s attitude toward you? (p. 61)

What is your reader’s attitude toward the subject? (p. 61)

What are your reader’s expectations about the document? (p. 61)

How will your reader read your document? (p. 61)

What is your reader’s reading skill? (p. 61)

In what physical environment and on what digital platforms will your reader read your document? (p. 61)

In learning about your readers, did you

determine what you already know about them? (p. 59)

interview people? (p. 59)

read about your audience online? (p. 59)

search social media for documents your audience has written? (p. 62)

analyze social-media data, if available? (p. 62)

In planning to write for an audience from another culture, did you consider the following cultural variables:

political? (p. 63)

economic? (p. 64)

social? (p. 64)

religious? (p. 64)

educational? (p. 64)

technological? (p. 64)

linguistic? (p. 64)

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exercises 77

4 In planning to write for an audience from another culture, did you consider other cultural variables:

focus on individuals or groups? (p. 65)

distance between business life and private life? (p. 65)

distance between ranks? (p. 65)

need for details to be spelled out? (p. 66)

attitudes toward uncertainty? (p. 66)

In writing for a multicultural audience, did you

limit your vocabulary? (p. 68)

keep sentences short? (p. 68)

define abbreviations and acronyms in a glossary? (p. 68)

avoid jargon unless you knew that your readers were familiar with it? (p. 68)

avoid idioms and slang? (p. 68)

use the active voice whenever possible? (p. 69)

use graphics carefully? (p. 69)

have the document reviewed by someone from the reader’s culture? (p. 69)

In writing for multiple audiences, did you consider creating a modular document? (p.74)

Did you state your purpose in writing and express it in the form of a verb or verbs? (p. 74)

E x E R C I S E S

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Choose a 200-word passage from a technical article related to your major course of study and addressed to an expert audience. (You can find a technical article on the web by using Google Scholar or the Directory of Open Access Journals. In addition, many federal government agencies publish technical articles and reports on the web.) Rewrite the passage so that it will be clear and interesting to a general reader. Submit the original passage to your instructor along with your revision.

2. The following passage is an advertisement for a translation service. Revise the passage to make it more appropriate for a multicultural audience. Submit the revision to your instructor.

If your technical documents have to meet the needs of a global market but you find that most translation houses are swamped by the huge volume, fail to accommodate the various languages you require, or fail to make your deadlines, where do you turn?

Well, your search is over. Translations, Inc. provides comprehensive translations in addition to full-service documentation publishing.

We utilize ultrasophisticated translation programs that can translate a page in a blink of an eye. Then our crack linguists comb each document to give it that personalized touch.

No job too large! No schedule too tight! Give us a call today!

3. Study the website of a large manufacturer of computer products, such as Hewlett-Packard, Acer, Dell, or Lenovo. Identify three different pages that address different audiences and fulfill different purposes. Here is an example:

Name of the page: Lenovo Group Fact Page

Audience: prospective investors

Purpose: persuade the prospective investor to invest in the company

Be prepared to share your findings with the class.

4. TeAM exerCiSe Form small groups and study two websites that advertise competing products. For instance, you might choose the websites of two car makers, two television shows, or two music producers. Have each person in the group, working alone, compare and contrast the two sites according to these three criteria:

a. the kind of information they provide: hard, technical information or more emotional information

b. the use of multimedia such as animation, sound, or video

c. the amount of interactivity they invite—that is, the extent to which you can participate in activities while you visit the site

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AnALYZing YOUr AUDienCe AnD PUrPOSe 78

4 After each person has separately studied the sites and

taken notes about the three criteria, come together as a group. After each person shares his or her findings, discuss the differences as a group. Which aspects of these sites caused the most difference in group

members’ reactions? Which aspects seemed to elicit the most consistent reactions? In a brief memo to your instructor, describe and analyze how the two sites were perceived by the different members of the group.

For more practice with the concepts covered in this chapter, complete the learningCurve activity “Analyzing Your Audience

and purpose” in launchpad.

C A S E 4 : focusing on an audience’s needs and interests

You’re interning in the marketing department of a cell-phone service provider, and your supervisor has asked you to perform research into a competing provider’s products and services for the over-65 market, paying special attention to the ways in which the company successfully appeals to the needs and interests of its audience. She then asks you to prepare an oral presentation about your findings. To begin this project, go to LaunchPad.

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Understanding the Differences Between Academic and Workplace Research 80

Understanding the Research Process 81

FocUs on PRocess: Researching a Topic 81

choosing Appropriate Research Methods 82 ■ ChoiCes and sTRaTegies: Choosing appropriate Research Techniques 83 ■ guidelines: Researching a Topic 85

conducting secondary Research 85 Using TradiTional research Tools 86

Using social Media and oTher inTeracTive resoUrces 89 ■ TuToRial: Tracking sources with evernote and Zotero

evalUaTing The inforMaTion 92 ■ guidelines: evaluating Print and online sources 93

conducting Primary Research 94 analysis of social-Media daTa 94

■ doCumenT analysis aCTiviTy: evaluating information from internet sources 95

observaTions and deMonsTraTions 96

inspecTions 97

experiMenTs 97

field research 98

inTerviews 99 ■ guidelines: Conducting an interview 100

5Researching Your Subject

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80

5 inqUiries 101

qUesTionnaires 102 ■ ChoiCes and sTRaTegies: Choosing Types of Questions for Questionnaires 103 ■ eThiCs noTe: Reporting and analyzing data honestly 105

WRiteR’s checklist 105

exeRcises 106

leARningcURve: Researching your subject 107 and

cAse 5: Revising a Questionnaire 107 and

IN THE WORKPLACE, you will conduct research all the time. as a buyer for a clothing retailer, for example, you might need to conduct research to help you determine whether a new line of products would be successful in your store. as a civil engineer, you might need to perform research to determine whether to replace your company’s traditional surveying equipment with gPs-based gear. and as a pharmacist, you might need to research whether a prescribed medication might have a harmful interaction with another medication a patient is already taking.

in the workplace, you will conduct research using a variety of methods. you will consult websites, blogs, and discussion boards, and you might listen to podcasts or watch videos. sometimes you will interview people, and you will likely distribute surveys electronically to acquire information from customers and suppliers. Regardless of which technique you use, your challenge will be to sort the relevant information from the irrelevant, and the accurate from the bogus.

This chapter focuses on conducting primary research and secondary research. Primary research involves discovering or creating technical information yourself. Secondary research involves finding information that other people have already discovered or created. This chapter presents secondary research first. Why? Because you will probably do secondary research first. To design the experiments or the field research that constitutes primary research, you need a thorough understanding of the information that already exists about your subject.

Understanding the differences between academic and workplace research Although academic research and workplace research can overlap, in most cases they differ in their goals and their methods.

In academic research, your goal is to find information that will help answer a scholarly question: “What would be the effect on the trade balance between the United States and China if China lowered the value of its currency by 10 percent?” or “At what age do babies learn to focus on people’s eyes?” Aca- demic research questions are often more abstract than applied. That is, they get at the underlying principles of a phenomenon. Academic research usually requires extensive secondary research: reading scholarly literature in aca-

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Understanding the Research Process 5 81

demic journals and books. If you do primary research, as scientists do in labs, you do so only after extensive secondary research.

In workplace research, your goal is to find information to help you answer a practical question: “Should we replace our sales staff’s notebook comput- ers with tablets?” or “What would be the advantages and disadvantages to our company of adopting a European-style privacy policy for customer information?” Workplace research questions frequently focus on improving a situation at a particular organization. These questions call for considerable primary research because they require that you learn about your own orga- nization’s processes and how the people in your organization would respond to your ideas. Sometimes, workplace research questions address the needs of customers or other stakeholders. You will need a thorough understanding of your organization’s external community in order to effectively align your products or services with their needs.

Regardless of whether you are conducting academic or workplace research, the basic research methods—primary and secondary research—are fundamentally the same, as is the goal: to help you answer questions.

Understanding the research process When you perform research, you want the process to be effective and effi- cient. That is, you want to find information that answers the questions you need to answer. And you don’t want to spend any more time than necessary getting that information. To meet these goals, you have to think about how the research relates to the other aspects of the overall project. The Focus on Process box provides an overview of the research process. Although all these tasks are described as part of the planning stage, remember that you might also need to perform additional research during the drafting, revising, edit- ing, and proofreading stages. Whenever you need additional information to help you make your argument clear and persuasive, do more research.

planning • Analyze your audience. Who are your most important readers? What are their personal characteristics, their attitudes toward your subject, their motivations for reading? if you are writing to an expert audience that might be skeptical about your message, you need to do a lot of research to gather the evidence for a convincing argument. see Ch. 4.

• Analyze your purpose. Why are you writing? understanding your purpose helps you understand the types of information readers will expect. Think in terms of what you want your readers to know or believe or do after they finish reading your document. see Ch. 4.

F O C u s O N P R O C E s s researching a Topic

(continued )

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ReseARching YoUR sUBJect5 82

• Analyze your subject. What do you already know about your subject? What do you still need to find out? using techniques such as freewriting and brainstorming, you can determine those aspects of the subject you need to investigate.

• visualize the deliverable. What application will you need to deliver: a proposal, a report, a website? What kind of oral presentation will you need to deliver?

• Work out a schedule and a budget for the project. When is the deliverable due? do you have a budget for phone calls, database searches, or travel to libraries or other sites?

• Determine what information will need to be part of the deliverable. draft an outline of the contents, focusing on the kinds of information that readers will expect to see in each part.

• Determine what information you still need to acquire. make a list of the pieces of information you don’t yet have.

• create questions you need to answer in your deliverable. Writing the questions in a list forces you to think carefully about your topic. one question suggests another, and soon you have a lengthy list that you need to answer.

• conduct secondary research. study journal articles and web-based sources such as online journals, discussion boards, blogs, and podcasts.

• conduct primary research. you can answer some of your questions by consulting company records, by interviewing experts in your organization, by distributing questionnaires, and by interviewing other people in your organization and industry. other questions call for using social media to gather information from your customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders.

• evaluate your information. once you have your information, you need to evaluate its quality: is it accurate, comprehensive, unbiased, and current?

• Do more research. if the information you have acquired doesn’t sufficiently answer your questions, do more research. and if you have thought of additional questions that need to be answered, do more research. When do you stop doing research? you will stop only when you think you have enough high-quality information to create the deliverable.

F O C u s O N P R O C E s s researching a Topic

choosing appropriate research Methods Different research questions require different research methods. Once you have determined the questions you need to answer, think about the various research techniques you could use to answer them.

For example, your research methods for finding out how a current situa- tion is expected to change would differ from your research methods for find- ing out how well a product might work for your organization. That is, if you

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want to know how outsourcing will change the computer-support industry over the next 10 to 20 years, you might search for long-range predictions in journal and magazine articles and on reputable websites and blogs. By contrast, if you want to figure out whether a specific scanner will produce the quality of scan that you need and will function reliably, you might do the same kind of secondary research and then observe the operation of the scanner at a vendor’s site; schedule product demos at your site; follow up by interviewing others in your company; and perform an experiment in which you try two different scanners and analyze the results.

The Choices and Strategies feature provides a good starting point for think- ing about how to acquire the information you need. You are likely to find that your research plan changes as you conduct your research. You might find, for instance, that you need more than one method to get the information you need or that the one method you thought would work doesn’t. Still, having a plan can help you discover the most appropriate methods more quickly and efficiently.

tYPe oF qUestion exAMPle oF qUestion APPRoPRiAte ReseARch techniqUe

What is the theory behind this process or technique?

how do greenhouse gases contribute to global warming?

encyclopedias, handbooks, and journal articles present theory. also, you can find theoretical information on websites from reputable professional organizations and universities. search using keywords such as “greenhouse gases” and “global warming.”

What is the history of this phenomenon?

When and how did engineers first try to extract shale oil?

encyclopedias and handbooks present history. also, you can find historical information on websites from reputable professional organizations and universities. search using keywords such as “shale oil” and “petroleum history.”

What techniques are being used now to solve this problem?

how are companies responding to the federal government’s new laws on health-insurance portability?

if the topic is recent, you will have better luck using digital resources such as websites and social media than using traditional print media. search using keywords and tags such as “health- insurance portability.” your search will be most effective if you use standard terminology in your search, such as “hiPaa” for the health-insurance law.

how is a current situation expected to change?

What changes will outsourcing cause in the computer-support industry over the next 10 to 20 years?

For long-range predictions, you can find information in journal articles and magazine articles and on reputable websites. experts might write forecasts on discussion boards and blogs.

C H O I C E s A N d s T R A T E g I E s choosing appropriate research Techniques

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tYPe oF qUestion exAMPle oF qUestion APPRoPRiAte ReseARch techniqUe

What products are available to perform a task or provide a service?

Which vendors are available to upgrade and maintain our company’s website?

For current products and services, search websites, discussion boards, and blogs. Reputable vendors— manufacturers and service providers— have sites describing their offerings. But be careful not to assume vendors’ claims are accurate. even the specifications they provide might be exaggerated.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of competing products and services?

Which portable gPs system is the lightest?

search for benchmarking articles from experts in the field, such as a journal article—either in print or on the web— about camping and outfitting that compares the available gPs systems according to reasonable criteria. also check discussion boards for reviews and blogs for opinions. if appropriate, do field research to answer your questions.

Which product or service do experts recommend?

Which four-wheel-drive suv offers the best combination of features and quality for our needs?

experts write journal articles, magazine articles, and sometimes blogs. often, they participate in discussion boards. sometimes, you can interview them, in person or on the phone, or write inquiries.

What are the facts about how we do our jobs at this company?

do our chemists use gas chromatography in their analyses?

sometimes, you can interview someone, in person or on the phone, to answer a simple question. To determine whether your chemists use a particular technique, start by asking someone in that department.

What can we learn about what caused a problem in our organization?

What caused the contamination in the clean room?

you can interview personnel who were closest to the problem and inspect the scene to determine the cause of the problem.

What do our personnel think we should do about a situation?

do our quality-control analysts think we need to revise our sampling quotient?

if there are only a few personnel, interview them. if there are many, use questionnaires to get the information more quickly.

how well would this product or service work in our organization?

Would this scanner produce the quality of scan that we need and interface well with our computer equipment?

Read product reviews on reputable websites. study discussion boards. observe the use of the product or service at a vendor’s site. schedule product demos at your site. Follow up by interviewing others in your company to get their thinking. do an experiment in which you try two different solutions to a problem, then analyze the results.

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If you are doing research for a document that will be read by people from other cultures, think about what kinds of evidence your readers will consider appropriate. In many non-Western cultures, tradition or the authority of the per- son making the claim can be extremely important, in some cases more impor- tant than the kind of scientific evidence that is favored in Western cultures.

And don’t forget that all people pay particular attention to information that comes from their own culture. If you are writing to European readers about telemedicine, for instance, try to find information from European authorities and about European telemedicine. This information will interest your readers and will likely reflect their cultural values and expectations.

conducting secondary research When you conduct secondary research, you are trying to learn what experts have to say about a topic. Whether that expert is a world-famous scientist revising an earlier computer model about the effects of climate change on agriculture in Europe or the head of your human-resources department checking company records to see how the Affordable Care Act changed the way your company hired part-time workers last year, your goal is the same: to acquire the best available information—the most accurate, most unbiased, most comprehensive, and most current.

Sometimes you will do research in a library, particularly if you need specialized handbooks or access to online subscription services that are not freely available on the Internet. Sometimes you will do your research on the web. As a working professional, you might find much of the information you need in your organization’s information center. An information center is an

Researching a Topic Follow these three guidelines as you gather information to use in your document.

be persistent. don’t be discouraged if a research method doesn’t yield useful information. even experienced researchers fail at least as often as they succeed. Be prepared to rethink how you might find the information. don’t hesitate to ask reference librarians for help or to post questions on discussion boards.

record your data carefully. Prepare the materials you will need. Write informa- tion down, on paper or electronically. Record interviews (with the respondents’ permission). Paste the uRls of the sites you visit into your notes. Bookmark sites so that you can return to them easily.

Triangulate your research methods. Triangulating your research methods means using more than one or two methods. if a manufacturer’s website says a printer produces 17 pages per minute, an independent review in a reputable journal also says 17, and you get 17 in a demo at your office with your documents, the printer probably will produce 17 pages per minute. When you need to answer important questions, don’t settle for only one or two sources.

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organization’s library, a resource that collects different kinds of information critical to the organization’s operations. Many large organizations have spe- cialists who can answer research questions or who can get articles or other kinds of data for you.

Using tRADitionAl ReseARch tools There is a tremendous amount of information in the different media. The trick is to learn how to find what you want. This section discusses six basic research tools.

online catalogs An online catalog is a database of books, microform materials, films, compact discs, phonograph records, tapes, and other mate- rials. In most cases, an online catalog lists and describes the holdings at one particular library or a group of libraries. Your college library has an online catalog of its holdings. To search for an item, consult the instructions, which explain how to limit your search by characteristics such as types of media, date of publication, and language. The instructions also explain how to use punctuation and words such as and, or, and not to focus your search effectively.

Reference Works Reference works include general dictionaries and ency- clopedias, biographical dictionaries, almanacs, atlases, and dozens of other research tools. These print and online works are especially useful when you are beginning a research project because they provide an overview of the subject and often list the major works in the field.

How do you know if there is a dictionary of the terms used in a given field? The following reference books—the guides to the guides—list some of the many resources available:

Hacker, D., and Fister, B. (2015). Research and documentation in the digital age (6th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Kennedy, X. J., Kennedy, D. M., and Muth, M. F. (2014). The Bedford guide for college writers with reader, research manual, and handbook (10th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Lester, R. (Ed.). (2008). The new Walford guide to reference resources (Vol. 1: Science, Technology and Medicine; Vol. 2: Social Sciences). London: Neal-Schuman.

To find information on the web, go to the “reference” section of a library website or search engine. There you will find links to excellent collections of reference works online, such as Infomine and ipl2.

Periodical indexes Periodicals are excellent sources of information because they offer recent, authoritative discussions of specific subjects. The biggest challenge in using periodicals is identifying and locating the

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dozens of articles relevant to any particular subject that are published each month. Although only half a dozen major journals might concentrate on your field, a useful article could appear in one of hundreds of other pub- lications. A periodical index, which is a list of articles classified according to title, subject, and author, can help you determine which journals you want to locate.

There are periodical indexes in all fields. The following brief list will give you a sense of the diversity of titles:

• Applied Science & Technology Index

• Business Source Premier

• Engineering Village

• Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature

You can also use a directory search engine. Many directory categories include a subcategory called “journals” or “periodicals” that lists online and printed sources.

Once you have created a bibliography of printed articles you want to study, you have to find them. Check your library’s online catalog, which includes all the journals your library receives. If your library does not have an article you want, you can use one of two techniques for securing it:

• interlibrary loan. Your library finds a library that has the article. That library scans the article and sends it to your library. This service can take more than a week.

• document-delivery service. If you are in a hurry, you can log on to a document-delivery service, such as IngentaConnect, a free database of 5 million articles in 10 thousand periodicals. There are also fee-based document-delivery services.

newspaper indexes Many major newspapers around the world are indexed by subject. The three most important indexed U.S. newspapers are the following:

• the New York Times, perhaps the most reputable U.S. newspaper for national and international news

• the Christian Science Monitor, another highly regarded general newspaper

• the Wall Street Journal, the most authoritative news source on business, finance, and the economy

Many newspapers available on the web can be searched electronically, although sometimes there is a charge for archived articles. Keep in mind that the print version and the electronic version of a newspaper can vary greatly. If you wish to quote from an article in a newspaper, the print version is the preferred one.

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Abstract services Abstract services are like indexes but also provide abstracts: brief technical summaries of the articles. In most cases, reading the abstract will enable you to decide whether to seek out the full article. The title of an article alone can often mislead you about its contents.

Some abstract services, such as Chemical Abstracts Service, cover a broad field, but many are specialized rather than general. Fuente Académica, for instance, focuses on Basque studies. Figure 5.1 shows an abstract from AnthroSource, an abstract service covering anthropology journals.

government information The U.S. government is the world’s biggest publisher. In researching any field of science, engineering, or business, you are likely to find that a federal agency or department has produced a relevant brochure, report, or book.

Government publications are cataloged and shelved separately from other kinds of materials. They are classified according to the Superintendent of Documents system, not the Library of Congress system. A reference librar- ian or a government-documents specialist at your library can help you use government publications.

You can also access various government sites and databases on the Inter- net. For example, if your company wishes to respond to a request for propos- als (RFP) published by a federal government agency, you will find that RFP on a government site. The major entry point for federal government sites is

For more about abstracts, see Ch. 13, p. 351.

For more about RFPs, see Ch. 11, p. 295.

FIguRE 5.1 An Abstract from AnthroSource Source: Maureen O’Dougherty, “Plot and Irony in Childbirth Narratives of Middle-Class Brazilian Women,” Medical Anthropol- ogy Quarterly, Volume 27, Issue 1, pages 43–62, March 2013.

Plot AnD iRonY in chilDBiRth nARRAtives oF MiDDle-clAss BRAziliAn WoMen

Brazil’s rate of cesarean deliveries is among the highest in the world and constitutes the majority of childbirths in private hospitals. This study examines ways middle-class Brazilian women are exercising agency in this context. it draws from sociolinguistics to examine narrative structure and dramatic properties of 120 childbirth narratives of 68 low- to high-income women. surgical delivery constituted 62% of the total. i focus on 20 young middle-class women, of whom 17 had C-sections. doctors determined mode of childbirth pre-emptively or appeared to accommodate women’s wishes, while framing the scenario as necessitating surgical delivery. The women strove to imbue C-section deliveries with value and meaning through staging, filming, familial presence, attempting induced labor, or humanized childbirth. Their stories indicate that class privilege does not lead to choice over childbirth mode. The women nonetheless struggle over the significance of their agency in childbirth.

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USA.gov (usa.gov), which links to hundreds of millions of pages of govern- ment information and services. It also features tutorials, a topical index, online transactions, and links to state and local government sites.

Using sociAl MeDiA AnD otheR inteRActive ResoURces Social media and other interactive resources enable people to collaborate, share, link, and generate content in ways that traditional websites offering static content cannot. The result is an Internet that can harness the collec- tive intelligence of people around the globe—and do so quickly. However, the ease and speed with which new content can be posted, as well as the lack of formal review of the content, creates challenges for people who do research on the Internet. Everyone using social-media resources must be extra cau- tious in evaluating and documenting sources.

This discussion covers three categories of social media and web-based resources used by researchers—discussion boards, wikis, and blogs—as well as two techniques for streamlining the process of using these resources: tagged content and RSS.

Discussion Boards Discussion boards, online discussion forums spon- sored by professional organizations, private companies, and others, enable researchers to tap a community’s information. Discussion boards are espe- cially useful for presenting quick, practical advice. However, the advice might or might not be authoritative. Figure 5.2 shows one interchange related to starting a business as a foreign national.

Wikis A wiki is a website that makes it easy for members of a community, company, or organization to create and edit content collaboratively. Often, a wiki contains articles, information about student and professional confer- ences, reading lists, annotated sets of links, book reviews, and documents used by members of the community. You might have participated in creating and maintaining a wiki in one of your courses or as a member of a commu- nity group outside of your college.

Wikis are popular with researchers because they contain information that can change from day to day, on topics in fields such as medicine or business. In addition, because wikis rely on information contributed voluntarily by members of a community, they represent a much broader spectrum of view- points than media that publish only information that has been approved by editors. For this reason, however, you should be especially careful when you use wikis; the information they contain might not be trustworthy. It’s a good idea to corroborate any information you find on a wiki by consulting other sources.

An excellent example of how organizations use wikis is provided by the federal government’s Mobile Gov, a set of wikis whose purpose is to make “anytime, anywhere, any-device government services and info” available to other government agencies, businesses, and the general public. These wikis

To watch a tutorial on using online tools to organize your

research, go to LaunchPad.

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enable all these stakeholders to contribute technical information and advice about how to help government agencies make their services available from mobile devices. A recent post by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), the standards agency for the web, explained that the barriers to using websites on a mobile device are similar to the barriers faced by people with disabili- ties when they try to use websites on any device. The post by W3C included detailed recommendations and links to information that can help develop- ers make the transition to responsive web design. In other words, the wiki provided a forum for experts on web accessibility to help federal agencies provide services.

How do you search wikis? You can use any search engine and add the word “wiki” to the search. Or you can use a specialized search engine such as Wiki.com.

Blogs Many technical and scientific organizations, universities, and private companies sponsor blogs that offer useful information for researchers.

Keep in mind that bloggers are not always independent voices. A Hewlett- Packard employee writing on a company-sponsored blog will likely be pre-

For more about blogs, see Ch. 9, p. 258.

FIguRE 5.2 A Discus- sion Board exchange Source: Small Business Administration, 2014: http://www.sba.gov/community /discussion-boards/starting-business -us-foreign-national.

Moderators who oversee discussion boards routinely delete comments from trolls advertising weight-loss solutions and other scams.

Hello, I am interested to open a branch of my company in US and before contacting professional that could assist me I would like to have a general idea on the steps and requirements that I must fulfill. I saw from older posts that there was a blog available with those infos but it seems the link it does not work anymore. Any suggestion is very helpfull!

Search Community

This comment was removed from public view (Spam). Please review the Community Rules of Conduct for more information.

If you use a search engine to find this interchange, you are perform- ing secondary research: discovering what has already been written or said about a topic. If you post a question to a discussion board (or comment on a blog post) and someone responds, you are per- forming primary research, just as if you were interviewing that person. For more on primary research, see p. 94. But don’t worry too much about whether you are doing pri- mary or secondary research; worry about whether the information is accurate and useful.

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senting the company’s viewpoint on the topic. Don’t count on that blogger to offer objective views about products.

Figure 5.3, a screenshot of a portion of NASA’s My Big Fat Planet blog, offers information that is likely to be credible, accurate, and timely.

tagged content Tags are descriptive keywords people use to categorize and label content such as blog entries, videos, podcasts, and images they post to the Internet or bookmarks they post to social-bookmarking sites. Tags can be one-word descriptors without spaces or punctuation (such as “sandi- egozoo”) or multiword descriptors (such as “San Diego Zoo”). More and more social-media platforms, including Facebook, have adopted the hashtag (#) as a way to tag an item to make it easier to find by searching.

Rss Feeds Repeatedly checking for new content on many different web- sites can be a time-consuming and haphazard way to research a topic. RSS (short for rich site summary or really simple syndication) technology allows read- ers to check just one place (such as a software program running on their

FIguRE 5.3 A Blog In the first ten days after it went online, this post was liked 522 times on Facebook, was tweeted 86 times on Twitter, and elicited 11 comments from readers. Almost all blogs invite readers to post comments or questions. Source: NASA, 2013: http://climate.nasa.gov/blog/938.

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computer or an email program) for alerts to new content posted on selected websites. Readers use a special type of software program called an RSS aggre- gator to be alerted by RSS feeds (notifications of new or changed content from sites of interest to them).

evAlUAting the inFoRMAtion You’ve taken notes, paraphrased, and quoted from your secondary research. Now, with more information than you can possibly use, you try to figure out what it all means. You realize that you still have some questions—that some of the information is incomplete, some contradictory, and some unclear. There is no shortage of information; the challenge is to find information that is accurate, unbiased, comprehensive, appropriately technical, current, and clear.

• accurate. Suppose you are researching whether your company should consider flextime scheduling. If you estimate the number of employees who would be interested in flextime to be 500 but it is in fact closer to 50, inaccurate information will cause you to waste time doing an unnecessary study.

• Unbiased. You want sources that have no financial stake in your project. A private company that transports workers in vans is likely to be a biased source because it could profit from flextime, making extra trips to bring employees to work at different times.

• comprehensive. You want information from different kinds of people— in terms of gender, cultural characteristics, and age—and from people representing all viewpoints on the topic.

• appropriately technical. Good information is sufficiently detailed to meet the needs of your readers, but not so detailed that they cannot understand it or do not need it. For the flextime study, you need to find out whether opening your building an hour earlier and closing it an hour later would significantly affect your utility costs. You can get this information by interviewing people in the Operations Department; you do not need to do a detailed inspection of all the utility records of the company.

• current. If your information is 10 years old, it might not accurately reflect today’s situation.

• clear. You want information that is easy to understand. Otherwise, you’ll waste time figuring it out, and you might misinterpret it.

The most difficult kind of material to evaluate is user-generated content from the Internet—such as information on discussion boards or in blogs— because it rarely undergoes the formal review procedure used for books and professional journals. A general principle for using any information you find on the Internet is to be extremely careful. Because content is unlikely to have

For more about taking notes, paraphrasing, and quoting, see Appendix, Part A, p. 450.

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been reviewed before being published on a social-media site, use one or more trusted sources to confirm the information you locate. Some instructors do not allow their students to use blogs or wikis, including Wikipedia, for their research. Check with your instructor to learn his or her policies.

Evaluating Print and Online Sources

FoR PRinteD soURces FoR online soURces

Authorship do you recognize the name of the author? does the source describe the author’s credentials and current position? if not, can you find this information in a “who’s who” or by searching for other books or other journal articles by the author?

if you do not recognize the author’s name, is the site mentioned on another reputable site? does the site contain links to other reputable sites? does it contain biographical information— the author’s current position and cre- dentials? Can you use a search engine to find other references to the author’s credentials? Be especially careful with unedited sources such as Wikipedia; some articles in it are authoritative, others are not. Be careful, too, with blogs, some of which are written by disgruntled former employees with a score to settle.

Publisher What is the publisher’s reputation? a reliable book is published by a repu- table trade, academic, or scholarly publisher; a reliable journal is spon- sored by a professional association or university. are the editorial board members well known?

Trade publications—magazines about a particular industry or group—often promote the interests of that industry or group. For example, information in a trade publication for either loggers or environmentalists might be biased. if you doubt the authority of a book or journal, ask a reference librarian or a professor.

Can you determine the publisher’s identity from headers or footers? is the publisher reputable?

if the site comes from a personal ac- count, the information it offers might be outside the author’s field of exper- tise. many internet sites exist largely for public relations or advertising. For instance, websites of corporations and other organizations are unlikely to con- tain self-critical information. For blogs, examine the blogroll, a list of links to other blogs and websites. Credible blogs are likely to link to blogs already known to be credible. if a blog links only to the author’s friends, blogs hosted by the same corporation, or blogs that express the same beliefs, be very cautious.

(continued)

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conducting primary research Although the library and the Internet offer a wealth of authoritative infor- mation, in the workplace you will often need to conduct primary research because you need new information. There are eight major categories of primary research: analysis of social-media data, observations and demon- strations, inspections, experiments, field research, interviews, inquiries, and questionnaires.

AnAlYsis oF sociAl-MeDiA DAtA Every hour, people post about 30 million comments, about 7 million photos, and some 453 years of video footage on social media (McCaney, 2013). A tor- rent of information is continuously coming online, and many organizations are working hard to sift through it to find useful insights.

Businesses are spending the most time on social-media research, trying to figure out what customers like and dislike about their products and services, learn what customers want, and reinforce brand loyalty. Take the case of

FoR PRinteD soURces FoR online soURces

knowledge of the literature does the author appear to be knowledgeable about the major literature on the topic? is there a bibliography? are there notes throughout the document?

analyze the internet source as you would any other source. often, refer- ences to other sources will take the form of links.

Accuracy and verifiability of the information is the information based on reason- able assumptions? does the author clearly describe the methods and theories used in producing the in- formation, and are they appropriate to the subject? has the author used sound reasoning? has the author explained the limitations of the information?

is the site well constructed? is the information well written? is it based on reasonable assumptions? are the claims supported by appropriate evidence? has the author used sound reasoning? has the author explained the limitations of the information? are sources cited? online services such as BlogPulse help you evaluate how active a blog is, how the blog ranks compared to other blogs, and who is citing the blog. active, influ- ential blogs that are frequently linked to and cited by others are more likely to contain accurate, verifiable information.

timeliness does the document rely on recent data? Was the document published recently?

Was the document created recently? Was it updated recently? if a site is not yet complete, be wary.

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5

This blog post appears in the FAQ section of the Climate Change Truth File section of the website of the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow. (For another view on climate change, see Figure 5.3 on p. 91.) The questions below ask you to consider the guidelines for evaluating Internet sources (pp. 93–94).

1. This blog post comes from a portion of the site called “Climate Change Truth File.” Does this title make you more likely or less likely to consider the information authoritative?

2. If you were considering using this source in a docu- ment you were writing, what information would you want to discover about the site and the organization that publishes it? How would you locate it?

3. The bulk of this passage is devoted to two prominent scientists who have changed their minds on the question of whether human-caused global warming is a serious threat. If the claim about the two scientists is true, does the case for human-caused global warming collapse?

Evaluating Information from Internet Sources

How can you ignore thousands of scientists who say manmade global warming is a serious threat?

The idea that there is a “scientific consensus” does not hold up. scientists who are skeptical about “dangerous manmade climate change” have been speaking out for years. Just this year, two prominent former believers in man-made global warming announced they were reconsidering the science.

“gaia” scientist James lovelock had been “alarmist” about climate change for years. now he says “The problem is we don’t know what the climate is doing. We thought we knew 20 years ago.”

german meteorologist Klaus-eckart Puls also reversed his belief in man- made global warming in 2012 and called the idea Co2 can regulate climate “sheer absurdity.” “Ten years ago i simply parroted what the iPCC told us,” he said. “one day i started checking the facts and data. First i started with a sense of doubt, but then i became outraged when i discovered that much of what the iPCC and media were telling us was sheer nonsense and was not even supported by any scientific facts and measurements. To this day, i still feel shame that as a scientist i made presentations of their science without first checking it.”

in 2010, a report documented that more Than 1000 international scientists dissented over man-made global Warming Claims. many of them were former iPCC scientists. Climate scientist mike hulme dismantled the “thousands of scientists agree” claim put forth by the united nations and news media. Claims that “2,500 of the world’s leading scientists have reached a consensus that human activities are having a significant influence on the climate” are disingenuous, hulme noted. The key scientific case for Co2 driving global warming, like many others in the iPCC reports, “is reached by only a few dozen experts in the specific field of detection and attribution studies; other iPCC authors are experts in other fields.” other scientists are excluded or not consulted.

dr. William schlesinger agrees with the un climate view but has admitted that only 20% of un iPCC scientists deal with climate. in other words, 80% of the un’s iPCC membership are experts in other fields and have no dealing with or expertise in climate change as part of their academic studies.

d O C u m E N T A N A Lys I s AC T I v I T y

Source: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow, 2013: www.cfact.org/issues/climate-change/climate-change-truth-file/.

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Nielsen, which for fifty years has been monitoring the TV viewing habits of Americans by distributing questionnaires and attaching devices to their TVs, and then selling the data it collects to TV networks and producers, who use the information to determine how much to charge advertisers. The problem for Nielsen is that many people don’t watch TV on TV or they don’t watch shows when they are broadcast. Now Nielsen also uses social-media analy- sis: gathering data by monitoring social media to listen in on what people are saying on Twitter, Facebook, and other services about different TV programs (DeVault, 2013).

But organizations other than businesses are analyzing social-media data, too. For instance, the U.S. Geological Survey created the Twitter Earthquake Detector (TED), a program to monitor Twitter for the use of the word earth- quake. Why? Because they realized that when people experience earthquakes, a lot of them tweet about it. The Centers for Disease Control, a U.S. federal agency, analyzes keywords on social media to monitor the spread of dis- eases, such as the H7N9 flu virus, in the United States and around the world. According to one scientist, “The world is equipped with human sensors— more than 7 billion and counting. It’s by far the most extensive sensor net- work on the planet. What can we learn by paying attention?” (McCaney, 2013).

One more example: in 2008, an article in a medical journal suggested that lithium might slow down the progression of ALS, a condition sometimes called Lou Gehrig’s Disease. But the study reported on only a small number of patients with ALS. When other people with ALS heard about the article, they suggested gathering data from people with ALS across the country. Some 596 patients volunteered: some who were already using lithium, some who were not, and some who started using it (with the approval of their doctors). Although studies such as this do not replace controlled double-blind experi- ments (in which neither the patients nor the researchers know whether the patients received the therapy), they are much faster and cheaper, and they can help researchers determine how to use their limited experimental resources wisely. According to the director of the ALS study, “sometimes the alternative is not our way or the old way. It is our way or it is not studied at all” (Marcus, 2011).

How do you perform social-media data analysis? There are many soft- ware programs that can help you devise searches. Among the most popular is HootSuite, which includes tools for listening in on what people are saying about your company on social media such as Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, and many other services. In addition, HootSuite helps you monitor and man- age your company’s social-media presence and provides analytics: demo- graphic data about who is following your company, their attitudes, and their behaviors.

oBseRvAtions AnD DeMonstRAtions Observation and demonstration are two common forms of primary research. When you observe, you simply watch some activity to understand some

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aspect of it. For instance, if you were trying to determine whether the loca- tion of the break room was interfering with work on the factory floor, you could observe the situation, preferably at different times of the day and on different days of the week. If you saw workers distracted by people moving in and out of the room or by sounds made in the room, you would record your observations by taking notes, taking photos, or shooting video of events. An observation might lead to other forms of primary research. You might, for example, follow up by interviewing some employees who could help you understand what you observed.

When you witness a demonstration (or demo), you are watching someone carry out a process. For instance, if your company was considering buying a mail-sorting machine, you could arrange to visit a manufacturer’s facility, where technicians would show how the machine works. If your company was considering a portable machine, such as a laptop computer, manufactur- ers or dealers could demo their products at your facility.

When you plan to observe a situation or witness a demo, prepare before- hand. Write down the questions you need answered or the factors you want to investigate. Prepare interview questions in case you have a chance to speak with someone. Think about how you are going to incorporate the infor- mation you acquire into the document you will write. Finally, bring whatever equipment you will need (pen and paper, computer, camera, etc.) to the site of the observation or demo.

insPections Inspections are like observations, but you participate more actively. For example, a civil engineer can determine what caused a crack in a foundation by inspecting the site: walking around, looking at the crack, photographing it and the surrounding scene, examining the soil. An accountant can determine the financial health of an organization by inspecting its financial records, perhaps performing calculations and comparing the data she finds with other data.

These professionals are applying their knowledge and professional judg- ment as they inspect a site, an object, or a document. Sometimes inspection techniques are more complicated. A civil engineer inspecting foundation cracking might want to test his hunches by bringing soil samples back to the lab for analysis.

When you carry out an inspection, do your homework beforehand. Think about how you will use the data in your document: will you need photo- graphs or video files or computer data? Then prepare the materials and equipment you’ll need to capture the data.

exPeRiMents Learning to conduct the many kinds of experiments used in a particular field can take months or even years. This discussion is a brief introduction. In many cases, conducting an experiment involves four phases.

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Establishing a hypothesis

Testing the hypothesis

Analyzing the data

Reporting the data

• establishing a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an informed guess about the relationship between two factors. In a study relating gasoline octane and miles per gallon, a hypothesis might be that a car will get 5 percent better mileage with 89-octane gas than with 87-octane gas.

• Testing the hypothesis. Usually, you need an experimental group and a control group. These two groups should be identical except for the condition you are studying: in the above example, the gasoline. The control group would be a car running on 87 octane. The experimental group would be an identical car running on 89 octane. The experiment would consist of driving the two cars over an identical course at the same speed—preferably in some sort of controlled environment—over a given distance, such as 1,000 miles. Then you would calculate the miles per gallon. The results would either support or refute your original hypothesis.

• analyzing the data. Do your data show a correlation—one factor changing along with another—or a causal relationship? For example, we know that sports cars are involved in more fatal accidents than sedans (there is a stronger correlation for sports cars), but we don’t know what the causal relationship is—whether the car or the way it is driven is the important factor.

• reporting the data. When researchers report their findings, they explain what they did, why they did it, what they saw, what it means, and what ought to be done next.

FielD ReseARch Whereas an experiment yields quantitative data that typically can be measured precisely, most field research is qualitative; that is, it yields data that typically cannot be measured precisely. Often in field research, you seek to understand the quality of an experience. For instance, you might want to understand how a new seating arrangement affects group dynamics in a classroom. You could design a study in which you observed and shot video of classes and interviewed the students and the instructor about their reactions to the new arrangement. Then you could do the same in a traditional classroom and compare the results.

Some kinds of studies have both quantitative and qualitative elements. In the case of classroom seating arrangements, you could include some quantitative measures, such as the number of times students talked with one another. You could also distribute questionnaires to elicit ratings by the

For more about reports, see Chs. 12 and 13.

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students and the instructor. If you used these same quantitative measures on enough classrooms, you could gather valid quantitative information.

When you are doing quantitative or qualitative studies on the behavior of animals—from rats to monkeys to people—try to minimize two common problems:

• The effect of the experiment on the behavior you are studying. In studying the effects of the classroom seating arrangement, minimize the effects of your own presence. For instance, if you observe in person, avoid drawing attention to yourself. Also, make sure that the video camera is placed unobtrusively and that it is set up before the students arrive, so they don’t see the process. But be aware that any time you bring in a camera, you cannot be sure that what you witness is typical.

• bias in the recording and analysis of the data. Bias can occur because researchers want to confirm their hypotheses. In an experiment to determine whether students write differently on physical keyboards than on touch screens, a researcher might see differences where other people don’t. For this reason, the experiment should be designed so that it is double blind. That is, the students shouldn’t know what the experiment is about so that they don’t change their behavior to support or negate the hypothesis, and the data being analyzed should be disguised so that researchers don’t know whether they are examining the results from the control group or the experimental group. For example, the documents produced on keyboards and touch screens should be printed out the same way.

Conducting an experiment or field research is relatively simple; the hard part is designing your study so that it accurately measures what you want it to measure.

inteRvieWs Interviews are extremely useful when you need information on subjects that are too new to have been discussed in the professional literature or are too narrow for widespread publication (such as local political questions).

In choosing a respondent—a person to interview—answer three questions:

• what questions do you want to answer? Only when you know this can you begin to search for a person who can provide the information.

• who could provide this information? The ideal respondent is an expert willing to talk. Unless there is an obvious choice, such as the professor carrying out the research you are studying, use directories, such as local industrial guides, to locate potential respondents.

• is the person willing to be interviewed? Contact the potential respondent by phone or in writing and state what you want to ask about. If the person is not able to help you, he or she might be willing to refer you to someone who can. Explain why you have decided to ask him or her. (A compliment works better than admitting that the person you really wanted to interview is out

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of town.) Explain what you plan to do with the information, such as write a report or present a talk. Then, if the person is willing to be interviewed, set up an appointment at his or her convenience.

Conducting an Interview PRePARing FoR the inteRvieW

Follow these suggestions for preparing for and conducting an interview—and for following up after the interview.

do your homework. if you ask questions that have already been answered in the professional literature, the respondent might become annoyed and uncooperative.

prepare good questions. good questions are clear, focused, and open. — be clear. The respondent should be able to understand what you are asking.

unclear Why do you sell Trane products? clear What are the characteristics of Trane products that led you to

include them in your product line?

The unclear question can be answered in a number of unhelpful ways: “Be- cause they’re too expensive to give away” or “Because i’m a Trane dealer.”

— be focused. The question must be narrow enough to be answered briefly. if you want more information, you can ask a follow-up question. unfocused What is the future of the computer industry? focused What will the american chip industry look like in 10 years?

— ask open questions. your purpose is to get the respondent to talk. don’t ask a lot of questions that have yes or no answers. closed do you think the federal government should create industrial

partnerships? open What are the advantages and disadvantages of the federal gov-

ernment’s creating industrial partnerships?

check your equipment. if you will be recording the interview, test your voice recorder or video camera to make sure it is operating properly.

Beginning the inteRvieW

arrive on time.

Thank the respondent for taking the time to talk with you.

state the subject and purpose of the interview and what you plan to do with the information.

if you wish to record the interview, ask permission.

conDUcting the inteRvieW

Take notes. Write down important concepts, facts, and numbers, but don’t take such copious notes that you can’t make eye contact with the respondent or that you are still writing when the respondent finishes an answer.

(continued)

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start with prepared questions. Because you are likely to be nervous at the start, you might forget important questions. have your first few questions ready.

be prepared to ask follow-up questions. listen carefully to the respondent’s answer and be ready to ask a follow-up question or request a clarification. have your other prepared questions ready, but be willing to deviate from them if the respondent leads you in unexpected directions.

be prepared to get the interview back on track. gently return to the point if the respondent begins straying unproductively, but don’t interrupt rudely or show annoyance. do not say, “Whoa! i asked about layoffs in this company, not in the whole industry.” Rather, say, “on the question of layoffs at this company, do you anticipate . . . ?”

conclUDing the inteRvieW

Thank the respondent.

ask for a follow-up interview. if a second meeting would be useful, ask to arrange one.

ask for permission to quote the respondent. if you think you might want to quote the respondent by name, ask for permission now.

AFteR the inteRvieW

write down the important information while the interview is fresh in your mind. (This step is unnecessary, of course, if you have recorded the interview.) if you will be printing a transcript of the interview, make the transcript now.

send a brief thank-you note. Within a day or two, send a note showing that you appreciate the respondent’s courtesy and that you value what you have learned. in the note, confirm any previous offers you have made, such as to send the respondent a copy of your final document.

When you wish to present the data from an interview in a document you are preparing, include a transcript of the interview (or an excerpt from the interview). You will probably present the transcript as an appendix so that readers can refer to it but are not slowed down when reading the body of the document. You might decide to present brief excerpts from the transcript in the body of the document as evidence for points you make.

inqUiRies A useful alternative to a personal interview is to send an inquiry. This inquiry can take the form of a letter, an email, or a message sent through an organi- zation’s website. Although digital inquiries are more convenient for both the sender and the recipient, a physical letter is more formal and therefore might be more appropriate if the topic is important (concerning personnel layoffs, for instance) or related to safety.

If you are lucky, your respondent will provide detailed and helpful answers. However, the respondent might not clearly understand what you

For more about inquiry letters, see Ch. 9, p. 247.

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want to know or might choose not to help you. Although the strategy of the inquiry is essentially that of a personal interview, inquiries can be less suc- cessful because the recipient has not already agreed to provide information and might not respond. Also, an inquiry, unlike an interview, gives you little opportunity to follow up by asking for clarification.

qUestionnAiRes Questionnaires enable you to solicit information from a large group of peo- ple. You can send questionnaires through the mail, email them, present them as forms on a website, or use survey software (such as SurveyMonkey).

Unfortunately, questionnaires rarely yield completely satisfactory results, for three reasons:

• some of the questions will misfire. Respondents will misinterpret some of your questions or supply useless answers.

• you won’t obtain as many responses as you want. The response rate will almost never exceed 50 percent. In most cases, it will be closer to 10 to 20 percent.

• you cannot be sure the respondents are representative. People who feel strongly about an issue are much more likely to respond to questionnaires than are those who do not. For this reason, you need to be careful in drawing conclusions based on a small number of responses to a questionnaire.

When you send a questionnaire, you are asking the recipient to do you a favor. Your goal should be to construct questions that will elicit the informa- tion you need as simply and efficiently as possible.

Asking effective questions To ask effective questions, follow two suggestions:

• Use unbiased language. Don’t ask, “Should U.S. clothing manufacturers protect themselves from unfair foreign competition?” Instead, ask, “Are you in favor of imposing tariffs on men’s clothing?”

• be specific. If you ask, “Do you favor improving the safety of automobiles?” only an eccentric would answer no. Instead, ask, “Do you favor requiring automobile manufacturers to equip new cars with electronic stability control, which would raise the price by an average of $300 per car?”

The Choices and Strategies box explains common types of questions used in questionnaires.

Include an introductory explanation with the questionnaire. This explana- tion should clearly indicate who you are, why you are writing, what you plan to do with the information from the questionnaire, and when you will need it.

To find software for conducting surveys, search for “survey software.”

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iF YoU WAnt to . . . consiDeR Using this qUestion tYPe exAMPle

have respondents choose among alternatives

Multiple choice. The respondent selects one answer from a list.

Would you consider joining a company-sponsored sports team? yes_____ no_____

Measure respondents’ feelings about an idea or concept

likert scale. The respondent ranks the degree to which he or she agrees or disagrees with the statement. using an even number of possible responses (six, in this case) increases your chances of obtaining useful data. With an odd number, many respondents will choose the middle response.

The flextime program has been a success in its first year. strongly strongly agree __ __ __ __ __ __ disagree

Measure respondents’ feelings about a task, an experience, or an object

semantic differentials. The respondent registers a response along a continuum between a pair of opposing adjectives. as with likert scales, an even number of possible responses yields better data.

logging on to the system is simple __ __ __ __ __ __ difficult The description of the new desalinization process is interesting __ __ __ __ __ __ boring

have respondents indicate a priority among a number of alternatives

Ranking. When using ranking questions, be sure to give instructions about what method (in this case, numbering) the respondents should use to rank the items.

Please rank the following work schedules in order of preference. Put a 1 next to the schedule you would most like to have, a 2 next to your second choice, and so on. 8:00–4:30_____ 9:00–5:30_____ 8:30–5:00_____ flexible_____

Ask open-ended questions short answer. The respondent writes a brief answer using phrases or sentences.

What do you feel are the major advantages of the new parts- requisitioning policy? 1. ___________________________ 2. ___________________________ 3. ___________________________

give respondents an opportunity to present fuller responses

short essay. although essay questions can yield information you never would have found using closed-ended questions, you will receive fewer responses because they require more effort. also, essays cannot be quantified precisely, as data from other types of questions can.

The new parts-requisitioning policy has been in effect for a year. how well do you think it is working? ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________

C H O I C E s A N d s T R A T E g I E s choosing Types of questions for questionnaires

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testing the questionnaire Before you send out any questionnaire, show it and its accompanying explanation to a few people who can help you identify any problems. After you have revised the materials, test them on people whose backgrounds are similar to those of your intended respon- dents. Revise the materials a second time, and, if possible, test them again. Once you have sent the questionnaire, you cannot revise it and resend it to the same people.

Administering the questionnaire Determining who should receive the questionnaire can be simple or difficult. If you want to know what the residents of a particular street think about a proposed construction proj- ect, your job is easy. But if you want to know what mechanical-engineering students in colleges across the country think about their curricula, you will need a background in sampling techniques to identify a representative sample.

Make it easy for respondents to present their information. For mailed questionnaires, include a self-addressed, stamped envelope.

Presenting questionnaire Data in Your Document To decide where and how to present the data that you acquire from your questionnaire, think about your audience and purpose. Start with this principle: important information is presented and analyzed in the body of a document, whereas less-important information is presented in an appendix (a section at the end that only some of your audience will bother to read). Most often, different versions of the same information appear in both places.

Typically, the full questionnaire data are presented in an appendix. If you can, present the respondents’ data—the answers they provided—in the ques- tionnaire itself, as shown here:

1. approximately how many days per week do you eat lunch in the lunchroom?

0 12 1 16 2 18 3 12 4 9 5 4

2. at approximately what time do you eat in the lunchroom?

11:30–12:30 3 12:00–1:00 26 12:30–1:30 7 varies 23

Selected data might then be interpreted in the body of the document. For instance, you might devote a few sentences or paragraphs to the data for one of the questions. The following example shows how a writer might discuss the data from question 2.

Question 2 shows that 26 people say that they use the cafeteria between noon and 1:00. only 10 people selected the two other times: 11:30–12:30 or 12:30–1:30. of the 23 people who said they use the cafeteria at various times, we can conclude that at least a third—8 people—use it between noon and 1:00. if this assumption is correct, at least 34 people (26 + 8) use the cafeteria between noon and 1:00. This would explain why people routinely cannot find a table in the noon hour, especially between 12:15 and 12:30. To alleviate this problem, we might consider asking department heads not

If you think your reader will benefit from analyses of the data, present such analyses. For instance, you could calculate the percentage for each response: for question 1, “12 people—17 percent—say they do not eat in the cafeteria at all.” Or you could present the percentage in parentheses after each number: “12 (17%).”

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5 105

Writer’s checklist

to schedule meetings between 11:30 and 1:30, to make it easier for their people to choose one of the less-popular times.

The body of a document is also a good place to discuss important nonquan- titative data. For example, you might wish to discuss and interpret several representative textual answers to open-ended questions.

E T H I C s N OT E

RePoRting AnD AnAlYzing DAtA honestlY When you put a lot of time and effort into a research project, it’s frustrating if you can’t find the information you need or if the information you find doesn’t help you say what you want to say. as discussed in Chapter 2, your responsibility as a professional is to tell the truth.

if the evidence suggests that the course of action you propose won’t work, don’t omit that evi- dence or change it. Rather, try to figure out why the evidence does not support your proposal. Present your explanation honestly.

if you can’t find reputable evidence to support your claim that one device works better than another, don’t just keep silent and hope your readers won’t notice. explain why you think the evidence is missing and how you propose to follow up by continuing your research.

if you make an honest mistake, you are a person. if you cover up a mistake, you’re a dishonest person. if you get caught fudging the data, you could be an unemployed dishonest person. if you don’t get caught, you’re still a smaller person.

W R I T E R ’s C H E C K L I s T

Did you determine the questions you need to answer for your document? (p. 82)

Did you choose appropriate secondary-research tools to answer those questions, including, if appropriate,

online catalogs? (p. 86)

reference works? (p. 86)

periodical indexes? (p. 86)

newspaper indexes? (p. 87)

abstract services? (p. 88)

government information? (p. 88)

social media and other interactive resources? (p. 90)

In evaluating information, did you carefully assess

the author’s credentials? (p. 93)

the publisher? (p. 93)

the author’s knowledge of literature in the field? (p. 94)

the accuracy and verifiability of the information? (p. 94)

the timeliness of the information? (p. 94)

Did you choose appropriate primary-research methods to answer your questions, including, if appropriate,

social-media data analysis? (p. 94)

observations and demonstrations? (p. 96)

inspections? (p. 97)

experiments? (p. 97)

field research? (p. 98)

interviews? (p. 99)

inquiries? (p. 101)

questionnaires? (p. 102)

Did you report and analyze the data honestly? (p. 105)

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E x E R C I s E s

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Imagine you are an executive working for a company that distributes books to bookstores in the Seattle, Washington, area. Your company, with a 20,000-square- foot warehouse and a fleet of 15 small delivery vans, employs 75 people. The following are three questions that an academic researcher specializing in energy issues might focus on in her research. Translate each of these academic questions into a workplace question that your company might need to answer.

a. What are the principal problems that need to be resolved before biomass (such as switchgrass) can become a viable energy source for cars and trucks?

b. How much money will need to be invested in the transmission grid before windmills can become a major part of the energy solution for business and residential customers in the western United States?

c. Would a federal program that enables companies to buy and sell carbon offsets help or hurt industry in the United States?

2. For each of the following questions, select a research technique that is likely to yield a useful answer. For instance, if the question is “Which companies within a 20-mile radius of our company headquarters sell recycled paper?” a search of the web is likely to provide a useful answer.

a. Does the Honda CR-V include traction control as a standard feature?

b. How much money has our company’s philanthropic foundation donated to colleges and universities in each of the last three years?

c. How does a 3D printer work?

d. Could our Building 3 support a rooftop green space?

e. How can we determine whether we would save more money by switching to LED lighting in our corporate offices?

3. Using a search engine, answer the following questions. Provide the URL of each site that provides information for your answer. If your instructor requests it, submit your answers in an email to him or her.

a. What are the three largest or most-important professional organizations in your field? (For example, if you are a construction management major, your field is construction management, civil engineering, or industrial engineering.)

b. What are three important journals read by people in your field?

c. What are three important online discussion lists or bulletin boards read by people in your field?

d. What are the date and location of an upcoming national or international professional meeting for people in your field?

e. Name and describe, in one paragraph for each, three major issues being discussed by practitioners or academics in your field. For instance, nurses might be discussing the effect of managed care on the quality of medical care delivered to patients.

4. Revise the following interview questions to make them more effective. In a brief paragraph for each, explain why you have revised the question as you have.

a. What is the role of communication in your daily job?

b. Do you think it is better to relocate your warehouse or go to just-in-time manufacturing?

c. Isn’t it true that it’s almost impossible to train an engineer to write well?

d. Where are your company’s headquarters?

e. Is there anything else you think I should know?

5. Revise the following questions from questionnaires to make them more effective. In a brief paragraph for each, explain why you have revised the question as you have.

a. Does your company provide tuition reimbursement for its employees? Yes_____ No_____

b. What do you see as the future of bioengineering?

c. How satisfied are you with the computer support you receive?

d. How many employees work at your company? 5–10____ 10–15____ 15 or more____

e. What kinds of documents do you write most often? memos_____ letters_____ reports_____

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case 5: Revising a questionnaire 107

5 6. teAM exeRcise Form small groups, and describe and

evaluate your college or university’s website. A different member of the group might carry out each of the following tasks:

• In an email to the site’s webmaster, ask questions about the process of creating the site. For example, how involved was the webmaster with the content and design of the site? What is the webmaster’s role in maintaining the site?

• Analyze the kinds of information the site contains, and determine whether the site is intended primarily for faculty, students, alumni, legislators, or prospective students.

• Determine the overlap between information on the site and information in printed documents published by the school. In those cases in which there is overlap, is the information on the site merely a duplication of the printed information, or has it been revised to take advantage of the unique capabilities of the web?

In a memo to your instructor, present your findings and recommend ways to improve the site.

For more practice with the concepts covered in this chapter, complete the LearningCurve activity “Researching Your Subject”

in LaunchPad.

C A s E 5 : revising a questionnaire

You’re a marketing director at a real-estate company, and you are trying to determine whether it would be cost-effective to have the company’s agents take property photos instead of having the photos taken by the professional photographers from the supplier with which you currently contract. You ask one of your agents to develop a questionnaire to gauge agents’ reactions to and opinions about the possibility of adding photography to their responsibilities, but you find that her questionnaire needs considerable revising before it will be an effective tool. To access the questionnaire and begin assessing it, go to LaunchPad.

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108

Presenting Yourself Effectively 109 ■ Guidelines: Creating a Professional Persona 110

Using Basic Organizational Patterns 110 ■ ChoiCes and strateGies: Choosing effective organizational Patterns 111

Writing Clear, Informative Titles and Headings 112 ■ Guidelines: revising headings 115

Writing Clear, Informative Paragraphs 114 Structure ParagraPhS clearly 116

■ ethiCs note: avoiding Burying Bad news in Paragraphs 118 ■ Guidelines: dividing long Paragraphs 119

uSe coherence DeviceS Within anD BetWeen ParagraPhS 120

Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences 123 avoiD Sentence FragmentS 124

avoiD comma SPliceS 125

avoiD run-on SentenceS 125

avoiD amBiguouS Pronoun reFerenceS 126

comPare itemS clearly 127

uSe aDjectiveS clearly 128

maintain SuBject-verB agreement 128

maintain Pronoun-anteceDent agreement 129

uSe tenSeS correctly 129

6Writing for Your Readers

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109

6 Structuring Effective Sentences 130

uSe liStS 130 ■ Guidelines: Creating effective lists 131

emPhaSize neW anD imPortant inFormation 130

chooSe an aPProPriate Sentence length 134

FocuS on the “real” SuBject 135

FocuS on the “real” verB 136

uSe Parallel Structure 137

uSe moDiFierS eFFectively 138

Choosing the Right Words and Phrases 140 Select an aPProPriate level oF Formality 140

Be clear anD SPeciFic 141 ■ ethiCs note: euphemisms and truth telling 146

Be conciSe 146 ■ doCument analysis aCtivity: revising for Conciseness and simplicity 151

uSe inoFFenSive language 149 ■ Guidelines: avoiding sexist language 150 ■ Guidelines: using the People-First approach 152

WRITER’S CHECklIST 152

ExERCISES 153

lEaRnInGCURvE: organizing and emphasizing information 156 and

lEaRnInGCURvE: Writing Correct and effective sentences 156 and

CaSE 6: emphasizing important information in a technical description 156 and

Writing for your readers means writing documents that are easy for readers to use and understand. it starts with making sure you present yourself effectively, as a professional whose writing is worth reading. in addition, writing for your readers involves creating an accessible document—one in which readers can easily find the information they need—that presents ideas and data clearly and emphasizes the most important information. Finally, writing for your readers means choosing words carefully and crafting accurate, clear, concise, and forceful sentences. if a sentence doesn’t say what you intended, misunderstandings can occur, and misunderstandings cost money. more important, the ability to write for your readers—word by word and sentence by sentence—reflects positively on you and your organization.

Presenting yourself effectively A big part of presenting yourself effectively is showing that you know the appropriate information about your subject. However, you also need to come across as a professional.

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The following paragraph shows how a writer can demonstrate the quali- ties of cooperativeness, moderation, fair-mindedness, and modesty:

this plan is certainly not perfect. For one thing, it calls for a greater up-front investment than we had anticipated. and the return on investment through the first three quarters is likely to fall short of our initial goals. however, i think this plan is the best of the three alternatives for the following reasons. . . . therefore, i recommend that we begin implementing the plan. i am confident that this plan will enable us to enter the flat-screen market successfully, building on our fine reputation for high- quality advanced electronics.

using Basic organizational Patterns Every document calls for its own organizational pattern. You should begin by asking yourself whether a conventional pattern for presenting your informa- tion already exists. A conventional pattern makes things easier for you as a writer because it serves as a template or checklist, helping you remember which information to include in your document and where to put it. For your audience, a conventional pattern makes your document easier to read and understand because the organization of information meets readers’ expecta- tions. When you write a proposal, for example, readers who are familiar with proposals can find the information they want in your document if you put it where others have put similar information. The Choices and Strategies box beginning on page 111 explains the relationship between organizational pat- terns and the kinds of information you want to present.

Does this mean that technical communication is merely the process of fill- ing in the blanks? No. You need to assess the writing situation continuously

In the first three sentences, the writer acknowledges the problems with the plan. The use of “I think” adds an attractive modesty; the recommendation might be unwise. The recommendation itself is moderate; the writer does not claim that the plan will save the world. In the last sentence, the writer shows a spirit of cooperativeness by focusing on the company’s goals.

Creating a Professional Persona your persona is how you appear to your readers. demonstrating the following four characteristics will help you establish an attractive professional persona.

cooperativeness. make clear that your goal is to solve a problem, not to advance your own interests.

moderation. Be moderate in your judgments. the problem you are describing will not likely spell doom for your organization, and the solution you propose will not solve all the company’s problems.

Fair-mindedness. acknowledge the strengths of opposing points of view, even as you offer counterarguments.

modesty. if you fail to acknowledge that you don’t know everything, someone else will be sure to volunteer that insight.

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as you work. If you think you can communicate your ideas better by modify- ing a conventional pattern or by devising a new pattern, do so. Long, complex arguments often require several organizational patterns. For instance, one part of a document might be a causal analysis of a problem, and another might be a comparison and contrast of two options for solving that problem.

IF YOU WanT TO . . . COnSIDER USInG THIS ORGanIzaTIOnal PaTTERn ExamPlE

Explain events that occurred or might occur, or tasks the reader is to carry out in sequence

Chronological. most of the time, you present information in chronological order. sometimes, however, you use reverse chronology.

you describe the process you used to diagnose the problem with the accounting software. in a job résumé, you describe your more-recent jobs before your less-recent ones.

Describe a physical object or scene, such as a device or a location

Spatial. you choose an organizing principle such as top-to-bottom, east- to-west, or inside-to-outside.

you describe the three buildings that will make up the new production facility.

Explain a complex situation or idea, such as the factors that led to a problem or the theory that underlies a process

General to specific. you present general information first, then specific information. understanding the big picture helps readers understand the details.

you explain the major changes in and the details of the law mandating the use of a new refrigerant in cooling systems.

Present a set of factors more important to less important. you discuss the most-important issue first, then the next-most-important issue, and so forth. in technical communication, you don’t want to create suspense. you want to present the most-important information first.

When you launch a new product, you discuss market niche, competition, and then pricing.

Present similarities and differences between two or more items

Comparison and contrast. you choose from one of two patterns: discuss all the factors related to one item, then all the factors related to the next item, and so forth; or discuss one factor as it relates to all the items, then another factor as it relates to all the items, and so forth.

you discuss the strengths and weaknesses of three companies bidding on a contract your company is offering.

assign items to logical categories, or discuss the elements that make up a single item

Classification or partition. Classification involves placing items into categories according to some basis. Partition involves breaking a single item into its major elements.

you group the motors your company manufactures according to the fuel they burn: gasoline or diesel. or you explain the operation of each major component of one of your motors.

C h o i C e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s choosing effective organizational Patterns

(continued)

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Writing clear, informative titles and headings The title of a document is crucial because it is your first chance to define your subject and purpose for your readers, giving them their first clue to whether the document contains the information they need. The title is an implicit promise to readers: “This document is about Subject A, and it was written to achieve Purpose B.” Everything that follows has to relate clearly to the subject and purpose defined in the title; if it doesn’t, either the title is misleading or the document has failed to make good on the title’s promise.

You might want to put off giving a final title to your document until you have completed the document, because you cannot be sure that the subject and purpose you established during the planning stages will not change. However, you should jot down a working title before you start drafting; you can revise it later. To give yourself a strong sense of direction, make sure the working title defines not only the subject of the document but also its pur- pose. The working title “Snowboarding Injuries” states the subject but not the purpose. “How To Prevent Snowboarding Injuries” is better because it helps keep you focused on your purpose.

An effective title is precise. For example, if you are writing a feasibility study on the subject of offering free cholesterol screening at your company, the title should contain the key terms free cholesterol screening and feasibility. The following title would be effective:

offering Free Cholesterol screening at thrall associates: a Feasibility study

If your document is an internal report discussing company business, you might not need to identify the company. In that case, the following would be clear:

offering Free Cholesterol screening: a Feasibility study

IF YOU WanT TO . . . COnSIDER USInG THIS ORGanIzaTIOnal PaTTERn ExamPlE

Discuss a problem you encountered, the steps you took to address the problem, and the outcome or solution

Problem-methods-solution. you can use this pattern in discussing the past, the present, or the future. readers understand this organizational pattern because they use it in their everyday lives.

in describing how your company is responding to a new competitor, you discuss the problem (the recent loss in sales), the methods (how you plan to examine your product line and business practices), and the solution (which changes will help your company remain competitive).

Discuss the factors that led to (or will lead to) a given situation, or the effects that a situation led to or will lead to

Cause and effect. you can start from causes and speculate about effects, or start with the effect and work backward to determine the causes.

you discuss factors that you think contributed to a recent sales dip for one of your products. or you explain how you think changes to an existing product will affect its sales.

choosing effective organizational Patterns (continued)

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Or you could present the purpose before the subject:

a Feasibility study of offering Free Cholesterol screening

Avoid substituting general terms, such as health screening for cholesterol screening or study for feasibility study; the more precise your terms, the more useful your readers will find the title. An added benefit of using precise terms is that your document can be more accurately and effectively indexed in databases and online libraries, increasing the chances that someone researching your subject will be able to find the document.

You’ll notice that clear, comprehensive titles can be long. If you need eight or ten words to say what you want to say about your subject and purpose, use them.

Headings, which are lower-level titles for the sections and subsections in a document, do more than announce the subject that will be discussed in the document. Collectively, they create a hierarchy of information, dividing the document into major sections and subdividing those sections into subsec- tions. In this way, coherent headings communicate the relative importance and generality of the information that follows, helping readers recognize major sections as primary (likely to contain more-important or more-general information) and subsections as secondary or subordinate (likely to contain less-important or more-specific information).

Clear, informative headings communicate this relationship not only through their content but also through their design. For this reason, make sure that the design of a primary heading (sometimes referred to as a level 1 heading, 1 heading, or A heading) clearly distinguishes it from a subordinate heading (a level 2 heading, 2 heading, or B heading), and that the design of that subordinate heading clearly distinguishes it from yet a lower level of subordi- nate heading (a level 3 heading, 3 heading, or C heading).

The headings used in this book illustrate this principle, as does the example below. Notice that the example uses both typography and inden- tation to distinguish one heading from another and to communicate visu- ally how information at one level logically relates to information at other levels.

Level 1 Heading Level 2 Heading level 3 heading

Effective headings help both reader and writer by forecasting not only the subject and purpose of the discussion that follows but also its scope and organization. When readers encounter the heading “Three Health Benefits of Yoga: Improved Muscle Tone, Enhanced Flexibility, Better Posture,” they can reasonably assume that the discussion will consist of three parts (not two or four) and that it will begin with a discussion of muscle tone, followed by a discussion of flexibility and then posture.

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Because headings introduce text that discusses or otherwise elaborates on the subject defined by the heading, avoid back-to-back headings. In other words, avoid following one heading directly with another heading:

3. approaches to neighborhood Policing

3.1 Community Policing according to the CoPs agency (a component of the u.s. department of Justice), “Community policing focuses on crime and social disorder.” . . .

What’s wrong with back-to-back headings? First, they’re illogical. If your document contains a level 1 heading, you have to say something at that level before jumping to the discussion at level 2. Second, back-to-back headings distract and confuse readers. The heading “3. Approaches to Neighborhood Policing” announces to readers that you have something to say about neigh- borhood policing—but you don’t say anything. Instead, another, subordinate heading appears, announcing to readers that you now have something to say about community policing.

To avoid confusing and frustrating readers, separate the headings with text, as in this example:

3. approaches to neighborhood Policing over the past decade, the scholarly community has concluded that community policing offers significant advantages over the traditional approach based on patrolling in police cars. however, the traditional approach has some distinct strengths. in the following discussion, we define each approach and then explain its advantages and disadvantages. Finally, we profile three departments that have successfully made the transition to community policing while preserving the major strengths of the traditional approach.

3.1 Community Policing according to the CoPs agency (a component of the u.s. department of Justice), “Community policing focuses on crime and social disorder.” . . .

The text after the heading “3. Approaches to Neighborhood Policing” is called an advance organizer. It indicates the background, purpose, scope, and orga- nization of the discussion that follows it. Advance organizers give readers an overview of the discussion’s key points before they encounter the details in the discussion itself.

Writing clear, informative Paragraphs There are two kinds of paragraphs—body paragraphs and transitional paragraphs—both of which play an important role in helping you emphasize important information.

A body paragraph, the basic unit for communicating information, is a group of sentences (or sometimes a single sentence) that is complete and self- sufficient and that contributes to a larger discussion. In an effective paragraph,

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Revising Headings Follow these four suggestions to make your headings more effective.

avoid long noun strings. the following example is ambiguous and hard to understand:

Proposed Production enhancement strategies analysis techniques

is the heading introducing a discussion of techniques for analyzing strategies that have been proposed? or is it introducing a discussion that proposes using certain techniques to analyze strategies? readers shouldn’t have to ask such questions. adding prepositions makes the heading clearer:

techniques for analyzing the Proposed strategies for enhancing Production

this heading announces more clearly that the discussion describes techniques for analyzing strategies, that those strategies have been proposed, and that the strategies are aimed at enhancing production. it’s a longer heading than the original, but that’s okay. it’s also much clearer.

Be informative. in the preceding example, you could add information about how many techniques will be described:

three techniques for analyzing the Proposed strategies for enhancing Production

you can go one step further by indicating what you wish to say about the three techniques:

advantages and disadvantages of the three techniques for analyzing the Proposed strategies for enhancing Production

again, don’t worry if the heading seems long; clarity is more important than conciseness.

use a grammatical form appropriate to your audience. the question form works well for readers who are not knowledgeable about the subject (Benson, 1985) and for nonnative speakers:

What are the three techniques for analyzing the Proposed strategies for enhancing Production?

the “how-to” form is best for instructional material, such as manuals:

how to analyze the Proposed strategies for enhancing Production

the gerund form (-ing) works well for discussions and descriptions of processes:

analyzing the Proposed strategies for enhancing Production

avoid back-to-back headings. use advance organizers to separate the headings.

For more about noun strings, see p. 145.

For more about how to format headings, see Ch. 7, p. 176.

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all the sentences clearly and directly articulate one main point, either by intro- ducing the point or by providing support for it. In addition, the whole paragraph follows logically from the material that precedes it.

A transitional paragraph helps readers move from one major point to another. Like a body paragraph, it can consist of a group of sentences or be a single sentence. Usually it summarizes the previous point, introduces the next point, and helps readers understand how the two are related.

The following example of a transitional paragraph appeared in a discus- sion of how a company plans to use this year’s net proceeds.

our best estimate of how we will use these net proceeds, then, is to develop a second data center and increase our marketing efforts. We base this estimate on our current plans and on projections of anticipated expenditures. however, at this time we cannot precisely determine the exact cost of these activities. our actual expenditures may exceed what we’ve predicted, making it necessary or advisable to reallocate the net proceeds within the two uses (data center and marketing) or to use portions of the net proceeds for other purposes. the most likely uses appear to be reducing short- term debt and addressing salary inequities among software developers; each of these uses is discussed below, including their respective advantages and disadvantages.

STRUCTURE PaRaGRaPHS ClEaRlY Most paragraphs consist of a topic sentence and supporting information.

The Topic Sentence Because a topic sentence states, summarizes, or fore- casts the main point of the paragraph, put it up front. Technical communica- tion should be clear and easy to read, not suspenseful. If a paragraph describes a test you performed, include the result of the test in your first sentence:

the point-to-point continuity test on Cabinet 3 revealed an intermittent open circuit in the Phase 1 wiring.

Then go on to explain the details. If the paragraph describes a complicated idea, start with an overview. In other words, put the “bottom line” on top:

mitosis is the usual method of cell division, occurring in four stages: (1) prophase, (2) metaphase, (3) anaphase, and (4) telophase.

Putting the bottom line on top makes the paragraph much easier to read, as shown in Figure 6.1.

Make sure each of your topic sentences relates clearly to the organiza- tional pattern you are using. In a discussion of the physical condition of a building, for example, you might use a spatial pattern and start a paragraph with the following topic sentence:

on the north side of Building B, water damage to about 75 percent of the roof insulation and insulation in some areas in the north wall indicates that the roof has been leaking for some time. the leaking has contributed to . . .

Your next paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that continues the spatial organizational pattern:

The first sentence contains the word “then” to signal that it introduces a summary.

The final sentence clearly indicates the relationship between what precedes it and what follows it.

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on the east side of the building, a downspout has eroded the lawn and has caused a small silt deposit to form on the neighboring property directly to the east. riprap should be placed under the spout to . . .

Note that the phrases “on the north side” and “on the east side” signal that the discussion is following the points of the compass in a clockwise direction, further emphasizing the spatial pattern. Readers can reasonably assume that the next two parts of the discussion will be about the south side of the building and the west side, in that order.

Similarly, if your first topic sentence is “First, we need to . . . ,” your next topic sentence should refer to the chronological pattern: “Second, we should . . . .” (Of course, sometimes well-written headings can make such references to the orga- nizational pattern unnecessary, as when headings are numbered to emphasize that the material is arranged in a chronological pattern.)

The Supporting Information The supporting information makes the topic sentence clear and convincing. Sometimes a few explanatory details provide all the support you need. At other times, however, you need a lot of information to clarify a difficult thought or to defend a controversial idea. How much supporting information to provide also depends on your audience and purpose. Readers knowledgeable about your subject may require little supporting information; less-knowledgeable readers might require a lot. Like- wise, you may need to provide little supporting information if your purpose is merely to state a controversial point of view rather than persuade your reader to agree with it. In deciding such matters, your best bet is to be gener- ous with your supporting information. Paragraphs with too little support are far more common than paragraphs with too much.

Supporting information, which is most often developed using the basic patterns of organization discussed earlier in this chapter, usually fulfills one of these five roles:

• It defines a key term or idea included in the topic sentence.

Topic sentence at the end of the paragraph

Topic sentence at the start of the paragraph

a solar panel affixed to a satellite in distant geosynchronous orbit receives about 1400 watts of sunlight per square meter. on earth, cut this number in half, due to the day/night cycle. Cut it in half again because sunlight hits the earth obliquely (except exactly on the equator). Cut it in half again due to clouds and dust in the atmosphere. The result: eight times the amount of sunlight falls on a solar panel in sun-synchronous orbit as falls on the same size area on Earth.

Eight times the amount of sunlight falls on a solar panel in distant geosynchronous orbit as falls on the same size area on Earth. a solar panel affixed to a satellite in sun- synchronous orbit receives about 1400 watts of sunlight per square meter. on earth, cut this number in half, due to the day/night cycle. Cut it in half again because sunlight hits the earth obliquely (except exactly on the equator). Cut it in half again due to clouds and dust in the atmosphere.

figure 6.1 a Topic Sentence Works Better at the Start of the Paragraph

The topic sentences are italicized for emphasis in this figure.

Notice that placing the topic sentence at the start gives a focus to the paragraph, helping readers understand the information in the rest of the paragraph.

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• It provides examples or illustrations of the situation described in the topic sentence.

• It identifies causes: factors that led to the situation.

• It defines effects: implications of the situation.

• It supports the claim made in the topic sentence.

A topic sentence is like a promise to readers. At the very least, when you write a topic sentence that says “Within five years, the City of McCall will need to upgrade its wastewater-treatment facilities because of increased demands from a rapidly rising population,” you are implicitly promising read- ers that the paragraph not only will be about wastewater-treatment facili- ties but also will explain that the rapidly rising population is the reason the facilities need to be upgraded. If your paragraph fails to discuss these things, it has failed to deliver on the promise you made. If the paragraph discusses these things but also goes on to speculate about the price of concrete over the next five years, it is delivering on promises that the topic sentence never made. In both situations, the paragraph has gone astray.

Paragraph length How long should a paragraph be? In general, 75 to 125 words are enough for a topic sentence and four or five supporting sentences. Long paragraphs are more difficult to read than short paragraphs because they require more focused concentration. They can also intimidate some readers, who might skip over them.

e t h i C s n ot e

avOIDInG BURYInG BaD nEWS In PaRaGRaPHS the most-emphatic location in a paragraph is the topic sentence, usually the first sentence in a paragraph. the second-most-emphatic location is the end of the paragraph. do not bury bad news in the middle of the paragraph, hoping readers won’t see it. it would be misleading to structure a paragraph like this:

in our proposal, we stated that the project would be completed by may. in making this projection, we used the same algorithms that we have used successfully for more than 14 years. in this case, however, the projection was not realized, due to several factors beyond our control. . . . We have since completed the project satisfactorily and believe strongly that this missed deadline was an anomaly that is unlikely to be repeated. in fact, we have beaten every other deadline for projects this fiscal year.

a more forthright approach would be as follows:

We missed our may deadline for completing the project. although we derived this sched- ule using the same algorithms that we have used successfully for more than 14 years, several factors, including especially bad weather at the site, delayed the construction. . . .

however, we have since completed the project satisfactorily and believe strongly that this missed deadline was an anomaly that is unlikely to be repeated. . . . in fact, we have beaten every other deadline for projects this fiscal year.

The writer has buried the bad news in a paragraph beginning with a topic sentence that appears to sug- gest good news. The last sentence, too, suggests good news.

Here the writer forthrightly presents the bad news in a topic sentence. Then he creates a separate para- graph with the good news.

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Dividing Long Paragraphs here are three techniques for dividing long paragraphs.

Break the discussion at a logical place. the most logical place to divide this material is at the introduction of the second factor. Because the paragraphs are still relatively long and cues are minimal, this strategy should be reserved for skilled readers.

high-tech companies have been moving their operations to the suburbs for two main reasons: cheaper, more modern space and a better labor pool. a new office complex in the suburbs will charge from one-half to two-thirds of the rent charged for the same square footage in the city. and that money goes a lot further, too. the new office complexes are bright and airy; new office space is already wired for computers; and exercise clubs, shopping centers, and even libraries are often on-site.

the second major factor attracting high-tech companies to the suburbs is the availability of experienced labor. office workers and middle managers are abundant. in addition, the engineers and executives, who tend to live in the suburbs anyway, are happy to forgo the commuting, the city wage taxes, and the noise and stress of city life.

make the topic sentence a separate paragraph and break up the supporting information. this version is easier to understand than the one above because the brief paragraph at the start clearly introduces the information. in addition, each of the two main paragraphs now has a clear topic sentence.

high-tech companies have been moving their operations to the suburbs for two main reasons: cheaper, more modern space and a better labor pool.

First, office space is a bargain in the suburbs. a new office complex in the suburbs will charge from one-half to two-thirds of the rent charged for the same square footage in the city. and that money goes a lot further, too. the new office complexes are bright and airy; new office space is al- ready wired for computers; and exercise clubs, shopping centers, and even libraries are often on-site.

second, experienced labor is plentiful. office workers and middle manag- ers are abundant. in addition, the engineers and executives, who tend to live in the suburbs anyway, are happy to forgo the commuting, the city wage taxes, and the noise and stress of city life.

use a list. this is the easiest of the three versions for all readers because of the extra visual cues provided by the list format.

high-tech companies have been moving their operations to the suburbs for two main reasons: •   Cheaper, more modern space. office space is a bargain in the suburbs. a new

office complex in the suburbs will charge anywhere from one-half to two-thirds of the rent charged for the same square footage in the city. and that money goes a lot further, too. the new office complexes are bright and airy; new office space is already wired for computers; and exercise clubs, shopping centers, and even libraries are often on-site.

•   A better labor pool. office workers and middle managers are abundant. in addition, the engineers and executives, who tend to live in the suburbs anyway, are happy to forgo the commuting, the city wage taxes, and the noise and stress of city life.

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But don’t let arbitrary guidelines about length take precedence over your own analysis of the audience and purpose. You might need only one or two sentences to introduce a graphic, for example. Transitional paragraphs are also likely to be quite short. If a brief paragraph fulfills its function, let it be. Do not combine two ideas in one paragraph simply to achieve a minimum word count.

You may need to break up your discussion of one idea into two or more paragraphs. An idea that requires 200 or 300 words to develop should prob- ably not be squeezed into one paragraph.

A note about one-sentence paragraphs: body paragraphs and transitional paragraphs alike can consist of a single sentence. However, many single- sentence paragraphs are likely to need revision. Sometimes the idea in that sentence belongs with the paragraph immediately before it or immediately after it or in another paragraph elsewhere in the document. Sometimes the idea needs to be developed into a paragraph of its own. And sometimes the idea doesn’t belong in the document at all.

When you think about paragraph length, consider how the information will be printed or displayed. If the information will be presented in a narrow column, such as in a newsletter, short paragraphs are much easier to read. If the information will be presented in a wider column, readers will be able to handle a longer paragraph.

USE COHEREnCE DEvICES WITHIn anD BETWEEn PaRaGRaPHS For the main idea in the topic sentence to be clear and memorable, you need to make the support—the rest of the paragraph—coherent. That is, you must link the ideas together clearly and logically, and you must express parallel ideas in parallel grammatical constructions. Even if the paragraph already moves smoothly from sentence to sentence, you can strengthen the coher- ence by adding transitional words and phrases, repeating key words, and using demonstrative pronouns followed by nouns.

adding Transitional Words and Phrases Transitional words and phrases help the reader understand a discussion by explicitly stating the logical relationship between two ideas. Table 6.1 lists the most common logi- cal relationships between two ideas and some of the common transitions that express those relationships.

Transitional words and phrases benefit both readers and writers. When a transitional word or phrase explicitly states the logical relationship between two ideas, readers don’t have to guess at what that relationship might be. Using transitional words and phrases in your writing forces you to think more deeply about the logical relationships between ideas than you might otherwise.

To better understand how transitional words and phrases benefit both reader and writer, consider the following pairs of examples:

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weak demand for flash-memory chips is down by 15 percent. We have laid off 12 production-line workers.

improved demand for flash-memory chips is down by 15 percent; as a result, we have laid off 12 production-line workers.

weak the project was originally expected to cost $300,000. the final cost was $450,000.

improved the project was originally expected to cost $300,000. However, the final cost was $450,000.

The next sentence pair differs from the others in that the weak example does contain a transitional word, but it’s a weak transitional word:

weak according to the report from human resources, the employee spoke rudely to a group of customers waiting to enter the store, and he repeatedly ignored requests from co-workers to unlock the door so the customers could enter.

improved according to the report from human resources, the employee spoke rudely to a group of customers waiting to enter the store; moreover, he repeatedly ignored requests from co-workers to unlock the door so the customers could enter.

In the weak version, and implies simple addition: the employee did this, and then he did that. The improved version is stronger, adding to simple addition the idea that refusing to unlock the door compounded the employ- ee’s rude behavior, elevating it to something more serious. By using moreover, the writer is saying that speaking rudely to customers was bad enough, but the employee really crossed the line when he refused to open the door.

ta B L e 6 . 1 transitional Words and Phrases RElaTIOnSHIP TRanSITIOn

addition also, and, finally, first (second, etc.), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly

comparison in the same way, likewise, similarly

contrast although, but, however, in contrast, nevertheless, on the other hand, yet

illustration for example, for instance, in other words, to illustrate

cause-effect as a result, because, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus

time or space above, around, earlier, later, next, soon, then, to the right (left, west, etc.)

summary or conclusion at last, finally, in conclusion, to conclude, to summarize

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Whichever transitional word or phrase you use, place it as close as possi- ble to the beginning of the second idea. As shown in the examples above, the link between two ideas should be near the start of the second idea, to provide context for it. Consider the following example:

the vendor assured us that the replacement parts would be delivered in time for the product release. the parts were delivered nearly two weeks after the product release, however.

The idea of Sentence 2 stands in contrast to the idea of Sentence 1, but the reader doesn’t see the transition until the end of Sentence 2. Put the transi- tion at the start of the second idea, where it will do the most good.

You should also use transitional words to maintain coherence between para- graphs, just as you use them to maintain coherence within paragraphs. The link between two paragraphs should be near the start of the second paragraph.

Repeating key Words Repeating key words—usually nouns—helps read- ers follow the discussion. In the following example, the first version could be confusing:

unclear For months the project leaders carefully planned their research. the cost of the work was estimated to be over $200,000.

What is the work: the planning or the research?

clear For months the project leaders carefully planned their research. the cost of the research was estimated to be over $200,000.

From a misguided desire to be interesting, some writers keep changing their important terms. Plankton becomes miniature seaweed, then the ocean’s fast food. Avoid this kind of word game; it can confuse readers.

Of course, too much repetition can be boring. You can vary nonessential terms as long as you don’t sacrifice clarity.

sluggish the purpose of the new plan is to reduce the problems we are seeing in our accounting operations. We hope to see a reduction in the problems by early next quarter.

better the purpose of the new plan is to reduce the problems we are seeing in our accounting operations. We hope to see an improvement by early next quarter.

Using Demonstrative Pronouns Followed by nouns Demonstrative pronouns—this, that, these, and those—can help you maintain the coherence of a discussion by linking ideas securely. In almost all cases, demonstra- tive pronouns should be followed by nouns, rather than stand alone in the sentence. In the following examples, notice that a demonstrative pronoun by itself can be vague and confusing.

unclear new screening techniques are being developed to combat viral infections. These are the subject of a new research effort in California.

What is being studied in California: new screening techniques or viral

infections?

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Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences 6 123

clear new screening techniques are being developed to combat viral infections. These techniques are the subject of a new research effort in California.

unclear the task force could not complete its study of the mine accident. This was the subject of a scathing editorial in the union newsletter.

What was the subject of the editorial: the mine accident or the task force’s

inability to complete its study of the accident?

clear the task force failed to complete its study of the mine accident. This failure was the subject of a scathing editorial in the union newsletter.

Even when the context is clear, a demonstrative pronoun used without a noun might interrupt readers’ progress by forcing them to refer back to an earlier idea.

interruptive the law firm advised that the company initiate proceedings. this caused the company to search for a second legal opinion.

fluid the law firm advised that the company initiate proceedings. This advice caused the company to search for a second legal opinion.

Writing grammatically correct Sentences Grammar is the study of how words can be combined into sentences to make meaning. Why does being able to write grammatically correct sentences matter? One reason is that many grammar conventions are functional. If you write, “After sitting on a mildewed shelf in the garage for thirty years, my brother decided to throw out the old computer,” you’ve said that your brother sat on a mildewed shelf in the garage for thirty years, which gave him plenty of time to decide what to do with the old computer. If you write, “Did Sean tell Liam when he was expected to report to work?” the reader might have a hard time figuring out whether he refers to Sean or Liam.

Even if a grammar mistake doesn’t make you sound silly or confuse the reader, it can hurt you by making readers doubt your credibility. The logic is that if you are careless about grammar, you might also be careless about the quality of the technical information you communicate. Many readers will assume that documents that are unprofessional because of grammar prob- lems might also be unprofessional in other ways.

This section will review nine principles for using clear, correct grammar:

• Avoid sentence fragments.

• Avoid comma splices.

• Avoid run-on sentences.

• Avoid ambiguous pronoun references.

• Compare items clearly.

• Use adjectives clearly.

• Maintain subject-verb agreement.

• Maintain pronoun-antecedent agreement.

• Use tenses correctly.

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avOID SEnTEnCE FRaGmEnTS A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. A sentence fragment occurs when a sentence is missing either a verb or an independent clause. To correct a sentence fragment, use one of the following two strategies:

1. Introduce a verb.

fragment the pressure loss caused by a worn gasket.

This example is a fragment because it lacks a verb. (The word caused does

not function as a verb here; rather, it introduces a phrase that describes

the pressure loss.)

complete the pressure loss was caused by a worn gasket.

Pressure loss now has a verb: was caused.

complete We identified the pressure loss caused by a worn gasket.

Pressure loss becomes the object in a new main clause: We identified the

pressure loss.

fragment a plotting program with clipboard plotting, 3d animation, and FFts.

complete it is a plotting program with clipboard plotting, 3d animation, and FFts.

complete a plotting program with clipboard plotting, 3d animation, and FFts will be released today.

2. Link the fragment (a dependent element) to an independent clause.

fragment the article was rejected for publication. Because the data could not be verified.

Because the data could not be verified is a fragment because it lacks an

independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and could

stand alone as a sentence. To be complete, the clause needs more

information.

complete the article was rejected for publication because the data could not be verified.

The dependent element is joined to the independent clause that

precedes it.

complete Because the data could not be verified, the article was rejected for publication.

The dependent element is followed by the independent clause.

fragment delivering over 150 horsepower. the two-passenger coupe will cost over $32,000.

complete delivering over 150 horsepower, the two-passenger coupe will cost over $32,000.

complete the two-passenger coupe will deliver over 150 horsepower and cost over $32,000.

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Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences 6 125

avOID COmma SPlICES A comma splice is an error that occurs when two independent clauses are joined, or spliced together, by a comma. Independent clauses in a comma splice can be linked correctly in three ways:

1. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, so, or yet).

splice the 909 printer is our most popular model, it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

correct the 909 printer is our most popular model, for it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

The coordinating conjunction for explicitly states the relationship

between the two clauses.

2. Use a semicolon.

splice the 909 printer is our most popular model, it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

correct the 909 printer is our most popular model; it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

The semicolon creates a somewhat more distant relationship between

the two clauses than the comma and coordinating conjunction do; the

link remains implicit.

3. Use a period or another form of terminal punctuation.

splice the 909 printer is our most popular model, it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

correct the 909 printer is our most popular model. it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

The two independent clauses are separate sentences. Of the three ways

to punctuate the two clauses correctly, this one suggests the most distant

relationship between them.

avOID RUn-On SEnTEnCES In a run-on sentence (sometimes called a fused sentence), two independent clauses appear together with no punctuation between them. A run-on sen- tence can be corrected in the same three ways as a comma splice:

1. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, so, or yet).

run-on the 909 printer is our most popular model it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

correct the 909 printer is our most popular model, for it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

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WRITInG FOR YOUR REaDERS 6 126

2. Use a semicolon.

run-on the 909 printer is our most popular model it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

correct the 909 printer is our most popular model; it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

3. Use a period or another form of terminal punctuation.

run-on the 909 printer is our most popular model it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

correct the 909 printer is our most popular model. it offers an unequaled blend of power and versatility.

avOID amBIGUOUS PROnOUn REFEREnCES Pronouns must refer clearly to their antecedents—the words or phrases they replace. To correct ambiguous pronoun references, use one of these four strategies:

1. Clarify the pronoun’s antecedent.

unclear remove the cell cluster from the medium and analyze it.

Analyze what: the cell cluster or the medium?

clear analyze the cell cluster after removing it from the medium.

clear analyze the medium after removing the cell cluster from it.

clear remove the cell cluster from the medium. then analyze the cell cluster.

clear remove the cell cluster from the medium. then analyze the medium.

2. Clarify the relative pronoun, such as which, introducing a dependent clause.

unclear she decided to evaluate the program, which would take five months.

What would take five months: the program or the evaluation?

clear she decided to evaluate the program, a process that would take five months.

By replacing which with a process that, the writer clearly indicates that it

is the evaluation that will take five months.

clear she decided to evaluate the five-month program.

By using the adjective five-month, the writer clearly indicates that it is the

program that will take five months.

3. Clarify the subordinating conjunction, such as where, introducing a dependent clause.

unclear this procedure will increase the handling of toxic materials outside the plant, where adequate safety measures can be taken.

Where can adequate safety measures be taken: inside the plant or outside?

clear this procedure will increase the handling of toxic materials outside the plant. Because adequate safety measures can be taken only in the plant, the procedure poses risks.

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Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences 6 127

clear this procedure will increase the handling of toxic materials outside the plant. Because adequate safety measures can be taken only outside the plant, the procedure will decrease safety risks.

Sometimes the best way to clarify an unclear reference is to split the

sentence in two, drop the subordinating conjunction, and add clarifying

information.

4. Clarify the ambiguous pronoun that begins a sentence.

unclear allophanate linkages are among the most important structural components of polyurethane elastomers. they act as cross-linking sites.

What act as cross-linking sites: allophanate linkages or polyurethane

elastomers?

clear allophanate linkages, which are among the most important structural components of polyurethane elastomers, act as cross-linking sites.

The writer has rewritten part of the first sentence to add a clear

nonrestrictive modifier and has combined the rewritten phrase with the

second sentence.

If you begin a sentence with a demonstrative pronoun that might be unclear to the reader, be sure to follow it immediately with a noun that clarifies the reference.

unclear the new parking regulations require that all employees pay for parking permits. these are on the agenda for the next senate meeting.

What are on the agenda: the regulations or the permits?

clear the new parking regulations require that all employees pay for parking permits. these regulations are on the agenda for the next senate meeting.

COmPaRE ITEmS ClEaRlY When comparing or contrasting items, make sure your sentence communi- cates their relationship clearly. A simple comparison between two items usu- ally causes no problems: “The X3000 has more storage than the X2500.” Sim- ple comparisons, however, can sometimes result in ambiguous statements:

ambiguous trout eat more than minnows.

Do trout eat minnows in addition to other food, or do trout eat more than

minnows eat?

clear trout eat more than minnows do.

If you are introducing three items, make sure the reader can tell which two are being compared:

ambiguous trout eat more algae than minnows.

clear trout eat more algae than they do minnows.

clear trout eat more algae than minnows do.

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Beware of comparisons in which different aspects of the two items are compared:

illogical the resistance of the copper wiring is lower than the tin wiring.

logical the resistance of the copper wiring is lower than that of the tin wiring.

Resistance cannot be logically compared with tin wiring. In the revision,

the pronoun that substitutes for resistance in the second part of the

comparison.

USE aDjECTIvES ClEaRlY In general, adjectives are placed before the nouns that they modify: the plastic washer. In technical communication, however, writers often need to use clus- ters of adjectives. To prevent confusion in technical communication, follow two guidelines:

1. Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives. Adjectives that describe different aspects of the same noun are known as coordinate adjectives.

portable, programmable device

adjustable, removable housings

The comma is used instead of the word and.

Sometimes an adjective is considered part of the noun it describes: electric drill. When one adjective modifies electric drill, no comma is required: a reversible electric drill. The addition of two or more adjectives, however, cre- ates the traditional coordinate construction: a two-speed, reversible electric drill.

2. Use hyphens to link compound adjectives. A compound adjective is made up of two or more words. Use hyphens to link these elements when com- pound adjectives precede nouns.

a variable-angle accessory

increased cost-of-living raises

The hyphens in the second example prevent increased from being read as an

adjective modifying cost.

A long string of compound adjectives can be confusing even if you use hyphens appropriately. To ensure clarity, turn the adjectives into a clause or a phrase following the noun.

unclear an operator-initiated default-prevention technique

clear a technique initiated by the operator to prevent default

maInTaIn SUBjECT-vERB aGREEmEnT The subject and verb of a sentence must agree in number, even when a prep- ositional phrase comes between them. The object of the preposition might be plural in a singular sentence.

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Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences 6 129

incorrect the result of the tests are promising.

correct the result of the tests is promising.

The object of the preposition might be singular in a plural sentence.

incorrect the results of the test is promising.

correct the results of the test are promising.

Don’t be misled by the fact that the object of the preposition and the verb don’t sound natural together, as in tests is or test are. Here, the noun test(s) precedes the verb, but it is not the subject of the verb. As long as the subject and verb agree, the sentence is correct.

maInTaIn PROnOUn-anTECEDEnT aGREEmEnT A pronoun and its antecedent (the word or phrase being replaced by the pronoun) must agree in number. Often an error occurs when the antecedent is a collective noun—one that can be interpreted as either singular or plural, depending on its usage.

incorrect the company is proud to announce a new stock option plan for their employees.

correct the company is proud to announce a new stock option plan for its employees.

Company acts as a single unit; therefore, the singular pronoun is

appropriate.

When the individual members of a collective noun are emphasized, however, a plural pronoun is appropriate.

correct the inspection team have prepared their reports.

correct the members of the inspection team have prepared their reports.

The use of their emphasizes that the team members have prepared their

own reports.

USE TEnSES CORRECTlY Two verb tenses are commonly used in technical communication: the pres- ent tense and the past perfect tense. It is important to understand the spe- cific purpose of each.

1. The present tense is used to describe scientific principles and recurring events.

incorrect in 1992, mcKay and his coauthors argued that the atmosphere of mars was salmon pink.

correct in 1992, mcKay and his coauthors argued that the atmosphere of mars is salmon pink.

Although the argument was made in the historical past—1992—the

point is expressed in the present tense because the atmosphere of Mars

continues to be salmon pink.

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WRITInG FOR YOUR REaDERS 6 130

When the date of the argument is omitted, some writers express the entire sentence in the present tense.

correct mcKay and his coauthors argue that the atmosphere of mars is salmon pink.

2. The past perfect tense is used to describe the earlier of two events that occurred in the past.

correct We had begun excavation when the foreman discovered the burial remains.

Had begun is the past perfect tense. The excavation began before the

burial remains were discovered.

correct the seminar had concluded before i got a chance to talk with dr. tran.

Structuring effective Sentences Good technical communication consists of clear, graceful sentences that convey information economically. This section describes seven principles for structuring effective sentences:

• Use lists.

• Emphasize new and important information.

• Choose an appropriate sentence length.

• Focus on the “real” subject.

• Focus on the “real” verb.

• Use parallel structure.

• Use modifiers effectively.

USE lISTS A sentence list is a list in which the bulleted or numbered items are words, phrases, or single sentences. Figure 6.2 shows a traditional sentence and a list presenting the same information.

If you don’t have enough space to list the items vertically or if you are not permitted to do so, number the items within the sentence:

We recommend that more work on heat-exchanger performance be done (1) with a larger variety of different fuels at the same temperature, (2) with similar fuels at different temperatures, and (3) with special fuels such as diesel fuel and shale-oil-derived fuels.

EmPHaSIzE nEW anD ImPORTanT InFORmaTIOn Sentences are often easier to understand and more emphatic if new informa- tion appears at the end. For instance, if your company has labor problems and you want to describe the possible results, structure the sentence like this:

Because of labor problems, we anticipate a three-week delay.

In this case, three-week delay is the new information.

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Structuring Effective Sentences 6 131

Traditional sentence Sentence list

We recommend that more work on heat- exchanger performance be done with a larger variety of different fuels at the same temperature, with similar fuels at different temperatures, and with special fuels such as diesel fuel and shale-oil-derived fuels.

We recommend that more work on heat- exchanger performance be done •  with a larger variety of different fuels at 

the same temperature •  with similar fuels at different 

temperatures •  with special fuels such as diesel fuel and 

shale-oil-derived fuels

figure 6.2 a Traditional Sentence and a Sentence list

(continued)

Creating Effective Lists these five suggestions will help you write clearer, more effective paragraph lists and sentence lists.

Set off each listed item with a number, a letter, or a symbol (usually a bullet).

— use numbered lists to suggest sequence (as in the steps in a set of instructions) or priority (the first item being the most important). using numbers helps read- ers see the total number of items in a list. For sublists, use lowercase letters:

1. item a. subitem b. subitem

2. item a. subitem b. subitem

— use bullets to avoid suggesting either sequence or priority, such as for lists of people (everyone except number 1 gets offended). For sublists, use dashes.

•    Item — subitem — subitem

— use an open (unshaded) box ( ) for checklists. For more about designing checklists, see Ch. 8, p. 226.

If your readers already expect a three-week delay but don’t know the reason for it, reverse the structure:

We anticipate the three-week delay in production because of labor problems.

Here, the new and important information is labor problems.

Try not to end the sentence with qualifying information that blunts the impact of the new information.

weak the joint could fail under special circumstances.

improved under special circumstances, the joint could fail.

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Break up long lists. Because most people can remember only 5 to 9 items easily, break up lists of 10 or more items.

oriGinal list revised list

tool kit: tool kit: •  handsaw  •  Saws •  coping saw  – handsaw •  hacksaw  – coping saw •  compass saw  – hacksaw •  adjustable wrench  – compass saw •  box wrench  •  Wrenches •  Stillson wrench  – adjustable wrench •  socket wrench  – box wrench •  open-end wrench  – Stillson wrench •  Allen wrench  – socket wrench   – open-end wrench   – Allen wrench

Present the items in a parallel structure. a list is parallel if all the items have the same grammatical form. For instance, in the parallel list below, each item is a verb phrase.

nonParallel Parallel

here is the sequence we plan to follow: here is the sequence we plan to follow: 1. writing of the preliminary proposal 1. write the preliminary proposal 2. do library research 2. do library research 3. interview with the Bemco vice president 3. interview the Bemco vice president 4. first draft 4. write the first draft 5. revision of the first draft 5. revise the first draft 6. preparing the final draft 6. prepare the final draft

Structure and punctuate the lead-in correctly. the lead-in tells readers how the list relates to the discussion and how the items in the list relate to each other. although standards vary from one organization to another, the most common lead-in consists of a grammatically complete clause followed by a colon, as shown in the following examples:

Following are the three main assets:

the three main assets are as follows:

the three main assets are the following:

if you cannot use a grammatically complete lead-in, use a dash or no punctuation at all:

the committee found that the employee •  did not cause the accident •  acted properly immediately after the accident •  reported the accident according to procedures

Punctuate the list correctly. Because rules for punctuating lists vary, you should find out whether people in your organization have a preference. if not, punctuate lists as follows:

(continued)

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Structuring Effective Sentences 6 133

— if the items are phrases, use a lowercase letter at the start. do not use a period or a comma at the end. the space beneath the last item indicates the end of the list.

the new facility will offer three advantages: •  lower leasing costs •  shorter commuting distance •  a larger pool of potential workers

— if the items are complete sentences, use an uppercase letter at the start and a period at the end.

the new facility will offer three advantages: •  The leasing costs will be lower. •  The commuting distance for most employees will be shorter. •  The pool of potential workers will be larger.

— if the items are phrases followed by complete sentences, start each phrase with an uppercase letter and end it with a period. Begin the complete sen- tences with uppercase letters and end them with periods. use italics to emphasize the phrases.

the new facility will offer three advantages:

•   Lower leasing costs. the lease will cost $1,800 per month; currently we pay $2,300.

•   Shorter commuting distance. our workers’ average commute of 18 minutes would drop to 14 minutes.

•   Larger pool of potential workers. in the last decade, the population has shifted westward to the area near the new facility. as a result, we would increase our potential workforce in both the semiskilled and the managerial categories by relocating.

— if the list consists of two kinds of items—phrases and complete sentences— capitalize each item and end it with a period.

the new facility will offer three advantages:

•  Lower leasing costs.

•   Shorter commuting distance. Our workers’ average commute of 18 minutes  would drop to 14 minutes.

•   Larger pool of potential workers. In the last decade, the population has  shifted westward to the area near the new facility. as a result, we would increase our potential workforce in both the semiskilled and the managerial categories by relocating.

in most lists, the second and subsequent lines, called turnovers, align under the first letter of the first line, highlighting the bullet or number to the left of the text. this hanging indentation helps the reader see and understand the organization of the passage.

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Put references to time and space at the beginning of the sentence, where they can provide context for the main idea that the sentence expresses.

Since the last quarter of 2014, we have experienced an 8 percent turnover rate in personnel assigned to the project.

On the north side of the building, water from the leaking pipes has damaged the exterior siding and the sheetrock on some interior walls.

CHOOSE an aPPROPRIaTE SEnTEnCE lEnGTH Sometimes sentence length affects the quality of the writing. In general, an average of 15 to 20 words per sentence is effective for most technical com- munication. A series of 10-word sentences would be choppy. A series of 35-word sentences would probably be too demanding. And a succession of sentences of approximately the same length would be monotonous.

In revising a draft, use your software to compute the average sentence length of a representative passage.

avoid Overly long Sentences How long is too long? There is no simple answer, because ease of reading depends on the vocabulary, sentence struc- ture, and sentence length; the reader’s motivation and knowledge of the topic; the purpose of the communication; and the conventions of the appli- cation you are using. For instance, you use shorter sentences in tweets and text messages than in reports.

Often a draft will include sentences such as the following:

the construction of the new facility is scheduled to begin in march, but it might be delayed by one or even two months by winter weather conditions, which can make it impossible or nearly impossible to begin excavating the foundation.

To avoid creating such long sentences, say one thing clearly and simply before moving on to the next idea. For instance, to make this difficult 40-word sen- tence easier to read, divide it into two sentences:

the construction of the new facility is scheduled to begin in march. however, construction might be delayed until april or even may by winter weather conditions, which can make it impossible or nearly impossible to begin excavating the foundation.

Sometimes an overly long sentence can be fixed by creating a list (see the Guidelines box on p. 131).

avoid Overly Short Sentences Just as sentences can be too long, they can also be too short and choppy, as in the following example:

Customarily, environmental cleanups are conducted on a “time-and-materials” (t&m) basis. using the t&m basis, the contractor performs the work. then the contractor bills for the hours worked and the cost of equipment and materials used during the work. With the t&m approach, spending for environmental cleanups by private and government entities has been difficult to contain. also, actual contamination reduction has been slow.

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Structuring Effective Sentences 6 135

The problem here is that some of the sentences are choppy and contain too little information, calling readers’ attention to how the sentences are con- structed rather than to what the sentences say. In cases like this, the best way to revise is to combine sentences:

Customarily, environmental cleanups are conducted on a “time-and-materials” (t&m) basis: the contractor performs the work, then bills for the hours worked and the cost of equipment and materials. With the t&m approach, spending for environmental cleanups by private and government entities has been difficult to contain, and contamination reduction has been slow.

Another problem with excessively short sentences is that they needlessly repeat key terms. Again, consider combining sentences:

sluggish i have experience working with various microprocessor-based systems. some of these microprocessor-based systems include the t90, rCa 9600, and aim 7600.

better i have experience working with various microprocessor-based systems, including the t90, rCa 9600, and aim 7600.

FOCUS On THE “REal” SUBjECT The conceptual, or “real,” subject of the sentence should also be the gram- matical subject. Don’t disguise or bury the real subject in a prepositional phrase following a weak grammatical subject. In the following examples, the weak subjects obscure the real subjects. (The grammatical subjects are italicized.)

weak the use of this method would eliminate the problem of motor damage.

strong this method would eliminate the problem of motor damage.

weak the presence of a six-membered lactone ring was detected.

strong a six-membered lactone ring was detected.

In revising a draft, look for the real subject (the topic) and ask yourself whether the sentence would be more effective if the real subject was also the grammatical subject. Sometimes all that is necessary is to ask yourself this question: What is the topic of this sentence? The author of the first example above wasn’t trying to say something about using a method; she was trying to say something about the method itself. Likewise, in the second example, it wasn’t the presence of a lactone ring that was detected; rather, the lactone ring itself was detected.

Another way to make the subject of the sentence prominent is to reduce the number of grammatical expletives. Expletives are words that serve a grammati- cal function in a sentence but have no meaning. The most common expletives are it (generally followed by is) and there (generally followed by is or are).

weak there is no alternative for us except to withdraw the product.

strong We have no alternative except to withdraw the product.

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WRITInG FOR YOUR REaDERS 6 136

weak it is hoped that testing the evaluation copies of the software will help us make this decision.

strong We hope that testing the evaluation copies of the software will help us make this decision.

The second example uses the expletive it with the passive voice. The problem is that the sentence does not make clear who is doing the hoping.

Expletives are not errors. Rather, they are conversational expressions that can clarify meaning by emphasizing the information that follows them.

with the expletive it is hard to say whether the downturn will last more than a few months.

without the expletive Whether the downturn will last more than a few months is hard to say.

The second version is harder to understand because the reader has to remem- ber a long subject (Whether the downturn will last more than a few months) before getting to the verb (is). Fortunately, you can revise the sentence in other ways to make it easier to understand and to eliminate the expletive.

i don’t know whether the downturn will last more than a few months.

nobody knows whether the downturn will last more than a few months.

Use the search function of your word processor to locate both weak sub- jects (usually they precede the word of ) and expletives (search for it is, there is, and there are).

FOCUS On THE “REal” vERB A “real” verb, like a “real” subject, should stand out in every sentence. A com- mon problem in technical communication is the inappropriate use of a nomi- nalized verb—a verb that has been changed into a noun, then coupled with a weaker verb. To install becomes to effect an installation; to analyze becomes to conduct an analysis. Notice how nominalizing the verbs makes the following sentences both awkward and unnecessarily long (the nominalized verbs are italicized).

weak each preparation of the solution is done twice.

strong each solution is prepared twice.

weak Consideration should be given to an acquisition of the properties.

strong We should consider acquiring the properties.

Like expletives, nominalizations are not errors. In fact, many common nouns are nominalizations: maintenance, requirement, and analysis, for exam- ple. In addition, nominalizations often effectively summarize an idea from a previous sentence (in italics in the following extract).

For more about using the passive voice, see p. 141.

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Structuring Effective Sentences 6 137

the telephone-service provider decided not to replace the land lines that were damaged in the recent storm. this decision could prove a real problem for those residents who used land lines to connect to the internet and for their medical-alert services.

Some software programs search for common nominalizations. With any word processor, however, you can identify most of them by searching for character strings such as tion, ment, sis, ence, ing, and ance, as well as the word of.

USE PaRallEl STRUCTURE A sentence is parallel if its coordinate elements follow the same grammati- cal form: for example, all the clauses are either passive or active, all the verbs are either infinitives or participles, and so on. Parallel structure creates a recognizable pattern, making a sentence easier for the reader to follow. Non- parallel structure creates no such pattern, distracting and possibly confusing readers. In the following examples of nonparallel constructions, the verbs are not in the same form (verbs are italicized).

nonparallel our present system is costing us profits and reduces our productivity.

parallel our present system is costing us profits and reducing our productivity.

nonparallel the compositor should follow the printed directions; do not change the originator’s work.

parallel the compositor should follow the printed directions and should not change the originator’s work.

When using parallel constructions, make sure that parallel items in a series do not overlap, causing confusion or even changing the meaning of the sentence:

confusing the speakers will include partners of law firms, businesspeople, and civic leaders.

Partners of appears to apply to businesspeople and civic leaders, as well as to

law firms. That is, partners of carries over to the other items in the series.

The following revision solves the problem by rearranging the items so

that partners can apply only to law firms.

clear the speakers will include businesspeople, civic leaders, and partners of law firms.

confusing We need to buy more lumber, hardware, tools, and hire the subcontractors.

The writer has linked two ideas inappropriately. The first idea is that we

need to buy three things: lumber, hardware, and tools. The second is that

we need to hire the subcontractors. Hiring is not in the same category

as the items to be bought. In other words, the writer has structured

and punctuated the sentence as if it contained a four-item series, when

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in fact it should contain a three-item series followed by a second verb

phrase.

clear We need to buy more lumber, hardware, and tools, and we need to hire the subcontractors.

USE mODIFIERS EFFECTIvElY Modifiers are words, phrases, and clauses that describe other elements in the sentence. To make your meaning clear, you must indicate whether a modi- fier provides necessary information about the word or phrase it refers to (its antecedent) or whether it simply provides additional information. You must also clearly identify the antecedent—the element in the sentence that the modifier is describing or otherwise referring to.

Distinguish Between Restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers As the term implies, a restrictive modifier restricts the meaning of its antecedent; it provides information that the reader needs to identify the antecedent and is, therefore, crucial to understanding the sentence. Notice that restrictive modifiers—italicized in the following examples—are not set off by commas:

the airplanes used in the exhibitions are slightly modified.

The modifying phrase used in the exhibitions identifies which airplanes the writer is

referring to. Presumably, there are at least two groups of airplanes: those that are

used in the exhibitions and those that are not. The restrictive modifier tells readers

which of the two groups is being discussed.

Please disregard the notice you recently received from us.

The modifying phrase you recently received from us identifies which notice. Without it,

the sentence could be referring to one of any number of notices.

In most cases, the restrictive modifier doesn’t require a relative pronoun, such as that, but you can choose to use the pronoun that (or who, for people):

Please disregard the notice that you recently received from us.

A nonrestrictive modifier does not restrict the meaning of its antecedent: the reader does not need the information to identify what the modifier is describing or referring to. If you omit the nonrestrictive modifier, the basic sentence retains its primary meaning.

the hubble telescope, intended to answer fundamental questions about the origin of the universe, was last repaired in 2002.

Here, the basic sentence is The Hubble telescope was last repaired in 2002. Removing

the modifier doesn’t change the meaning of the basic sentence.

If you use a relative pronoun with a nonrestrictive modifier, choose which (or who or whom for a person).

Go to the registration area, which is located on the second floor.

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Use commas to separate a nonrestrictive modifier from the rest of the sen- tence. In the example about the Hubble telescope, a pair of commas encloses the nonrestrictive modifier and separates it from the rest of the sentence. In that respect, the commas function much like parentheses, indicating that the modifying information is parenthetical. In the example about the Registra- tion Area, the comma indicates that the modifying information is tacked on at the end of the sentence as additional information.

avoid misplaced modifiers The placement of the modifier often deter- mines the meaning of the sentence, as the placement of only in the following sentences illustrates:

Only turner received a cost-of-living increase last year.

Meaning: Nobody else received one.

turner received only a cost-of-living increase last year.

Meaning: He didn’t receive a merit increase.

turner received a cost-of-living increase only last year.

Meaning: He received a cost-of-living increase as recently as last year.

turner received a cost-of-living increase last year only.

Meaning: He received a cost-of-living increase in no other year.

Misplaced modifiers—those that appear to modify the wrong antecedent— are a common problem. Usually, the best solution is to place the modifier as close as possible to its intended antecedent.

misplaced the subject of the meeting is the future of geothermal energy in the downtown Webster Hotel.

correct the subject of the meeting in the downtown Webster Hotel is the future of geothermal energy.

A squinting modifier falls ambiguously between two possible antecedents, so the reader cannot tell which one is being modified:

unclear We decided immediately to purchase the new system.

Did we decide immediately, or did we decide to make the purchase

immediately?

clear We immediately decided to purchase the new system.

clear We decided to purchase the new system immediately.

A subtle form of misplaced modification can also occur with correlative constructions, such as either . . . or, neither . . . nor, and not only . . . but also:

misplaced the new refrigerant not only decreases energy costs but also spoilage losses.

Here, the writer is implying that the refrigerant does at least two things to energy costs: it decreases them and then does something else to them.

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Unfortunately, that’s not how the sentence unfolds. The second thing the refrigerant does to energy costs never appears.

correct the new refrigerant decreases not only energy costs but also spoilage losses.

In the revised sentence, the phrase decreases not only implies that at least two things will be decreased, and as the sentence develops that turns out to be the case. Decreases applies to both energy costs and spoilage losses. There- fore, the first half of the correlative construction (not only) follows the verb (decreases). Note that if the sentence contains two different verbs, each half of the correlative construction precedes a verb:

the new refrigerant not only decreases energy costs but also reduces spoilage losses.

avoid Dangling modifiers A dangling modifier has no antecedent in the sentence and can therefore be unclear:

dangling trying to solve the problem, the instructions seemed unclear.

This sentence says that the instructions are trying to solve the problem. To correct the sentence, rewrite it, adding the clarifying information either within the modifier or next to it:

correct as i was trying to solve the problem, the instructions seemed unclear.

correct trying to solve the problem, i thought the instructions seemed unclear.

Sometimes you can correct a dangling modifier by switching from the indic- ative mood (a statement of fact) to the imperative mood (a request or command):

dangling to initiate the procedure, the BeGin button should be pushed. (indicative mood)

correct to initiate the procedure, push the BeGin button. (imperative mood)

choosing the right Words and Phrases This section discusses four principles that will help you use the right words and phrases in the right places: select an appropriate level of formality, be clear and specific, be concise, and use inoffensive language.

SElECT an aPPROPRIaTE lEvEl OF FORmalITY Although no standard definition of levels of formality exists, most experts would agree that there are three levels:

informal the acorn 560 is a real screamer. With 5.5 Ghz of pure computing power, it slashes through even the thickest spreadsheets before you can say 2 + 2 = 4.

moderately With its 5.5-Ghz microprocessor, the acorn 560 can handle even formal the most complicated spreadsheets quickly.

highly formal With a 5.5-Ghz microprocessor, the acorn 560 is a high-speed personal computer appropriate for computation-intensive applications such as large, complex spreadsheets.

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Technical communication usually requires a moderately formal or highly formal style.

To achieve the appropriate level and tone, think about your audience, your subject, and your purpose:

• audience. You would probably write more formally to a group of retired executives than to a group of college students. You would likewise write more formally to the company vice president than to your co-workers, and you would probably write more formally to people from most other cultures than to people from your own.

• Subject. You would write more formally about a serious subject—safety regulations or important projects—than about plans for an office party.

• Purpose. You would write more formally in presenting quarterly economic results to shareholders than in responding to an email requesting sales figures on one of the company’s products.

In general, it is better to err on the side of formality. Avoid an informal style in any writing you do at the office, for two reasons:

• informal writing tends to be imprecise. In the example “The Acorn 560 is a real screamer,” what exactly is a screamer?

• informal writing can be embarrassing. If your boss spots your email to a colleague, you might wish it didn’t begin, “ ’Sup, dawg?”

BE ClEaR anD SPECIFIC Follow these seven guidelines to make your writing clear and specific:

• Use active and passive voice appropriately.

• Be specific.

• Avoid unnecessary jargon.

• Use positive constructions.

• Avoid long noun strings.

• Avoid clichés.

• Avoid euphemisms.

Use active and Passive voice appropriately In a sentence using the active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb: the “doer” of the action is the grammatical subject. By contrast, in a sentence using the passive voice, the recipient of the action is the grammatical subject. Compare the following examples (the subjects are italicized):

active Dave Brushaw drove the launch vehicle.

The doer of the action is the subject of the sentence.

passive the launch vehicle was driven by dave Brushaw.

The recipient of the action is the subject of the sentence.

In most cases, the active voice works better than the passive voice because it emphasizes the agent (the doer of the action). An active-voice sentence

For more about writing to a multicultural audience, see Ch. 4, p. 68.

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also is shorter because it does not require a form of the verb to be and the past participle, as a passive-voice sentence does. In the active version of the example sentence, the verb is drove rather than was driven, and the word by does not appear.

The passive voice, however, is generally better in these four cases:

• When the agent is clear from the context:

students are required to take both writing courses.

Here, the context makes it clear that the college sets the requirements.

• When the agent is unknown:

the comet was first referred to in an ancient egyptian text.

We don’t know who wrote this text.

• When the agent is less important than the action:

the blueprints were hand-delivered this morning.

It doesn’t matter who the messenger was.

• When a reference to the agent is embarrassing, dangerous, or in some other way inappropriate:

incorrect figures were recorded for the flow rate.

It might be unwise or tactless to specify who recorded the incorrect figures.

Perhaps it was your boss. However, it is unethical to use the passive voice to avoid

responsibility for an action.

The passive voice can also help you maintain the focus of your paragraph.

Cloud computing offers three major advantages. First, the need for server space is reduced. second, security updates are installed automatically . . .

Some people believe that the active voice is inappropriate in technical communication because it emphasizes the person who does the work rather than the work itself, making the writing less objective. In many cases, this objection is valid. Why write “I analyzed the sample for traces of iodine” if there is no ambiguity about who did the analysis or no need to identify who did it? The passive focuses on the action, not the actor: “The samples were analyzed for traces of iodine.” But if in doubt, use the active voice.

Other people argue that the passive voice produces a double ambiguity. In the sentence “The samples were analyzed for traces of iodine,” the reader is not quite sure who did the analysis (the writer or someone else) or when it was done (during the project or some time previously). Identifying the actor can often clarify both ambiguities.

The best approach is to recognize that the two voices differ and to use each one where it is most effective.

Many grammar-checkers can help you locate the passive voice. Some of them will advise you that the passive is undesirable, almost an error, but this

For more about ethics, see Ch. 2.

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advice is misleading. Use the passive voice when it works better than the active voice for your purposes.

Any word processor allows you to search for the forms of to be used most commonly in passive-voice expressions: is, are, was, and were. You can also search for ed to isolate past participles (for example, purchased, implemented, and delivered); such past participles appear in most passive-voice constructions.

Be Specific Being specific involves using precise words, providing adequate detail, and avoiding ambiguity.

• use precise words. A Ford Focus is an automobile, but it is also a vehicle, a machine, and a thing. In describing the Focus, automobile is better than the less-specific vehicle, because vehicle can also refer to pickup trucks, trains, hot-air balloons, and other means of transport. As words become more abstract—from machine to thing, for instance—chances for misunderstanding increase.

• Provide adequate detail. Readers probably know less about your subject than you do. What might be perfectly clear to you might be too vague for them.

vague an engine on the plane experienced some difficulties.

Which engine? What plane? What kinds of difficulties?

clear the left engine on the Cessna 310 temporarily lost power during flight.

• avoid ambiguity. Don’t let readers wonder which of two meanings you are trying to convey.

ambiguous after stirring by hand for 10 seconds, add three drops of the iodine mixture to the solution.

After stirring the iodine mixture or the solution?

clear stir the iodine mixture by hand for 10 seconds. then add three drops to the solution.

clear stir the solution by hand for 10 seconds. then add three drops of the iodine mixture.

If you don’t have the specific data, you should approximate—and clearly tell readers you are doing so—or explain why the specific data are unavail- able and indicate when they will be available:

the fuel leakage is much greater than we had anticipated; we estimate it to be at least 5 gallons per minute, not 2.

the fuel leakage is much greater than we had anticipated; we expect to have specific data by 4 p.m. today.

avoid Unnecessary jargon Jargon is shoptalk. To an audiophile, LP is a long-playing record; to an engineer, it is liquid propane; to a guitarist, it is a

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Gibson Les Paul model; to a physician, it is a lumbar puncture; to a drummer, it is Latin Percussion, a drum maker.

Jargon is often ridiculed; many dictionaries define it as “writing that one does not understand” or “nonsensical, incoherent, or meaningless talk.” However, jargon is useful in its proper sphere. For one thing, jargon enables members of a particular profession to communicate clearly and economi- cally with one another.

If you are addressing a technically knowledgeable audience, use jargon recognized in that field. However, keep in mind that technical documents often have many audiences in addition to the primary audience. When in doubt, avoid jargon; use more-common expressions or simpler terms.

Using jargon inappropriately is inadvisable for four reasons:

• it can be imprecise. If you ask a co-worker to review a document and provide feedback, are you asking for a facial expression, body language, a phone call, or a written evaluation?

• it can be confusing. If you ask a computer novice to cold swap the drive, he or she might have no idea what you’re talking about.

• it is often seen as condescending. Many readers will react as if you were showing off—displaying a level of expertise that excludes them. If readers feel alienated, they will likely miss your message.

• it is often intimidating. People might feel inadequate or stupid because they do not know what you are talking about. Obviously, this reaction undermines communication.

Use Positive Constructions The term positive construction has nothing to do with being cheerful. It indicates that the writer is describing what some- thing is instead of what it is not. In the sentence “I was sad to see this project completed,” “sad” is a positive construction. The negative construction would be “not happy.”

Here are a few more examples of positive and negative constructions:

Positive construction negative construction

most not all

few not many

on time not late, not delayed

positive not negative

inefficient not efficient

reject cannot accept

impossible not possible

Readers understand positive constructions more quickly and more easily than negative constructions. Consider the following examples:

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difficult Because the team did not have sufficient time to complete the project, it was unable to produce a satisfactory report.

simpler Because the team had too little time to complete the project, it produced an unsatisfactory report.

avoid long noun Strings A noun string contains a series of nouns (or nouns, adjectives, and adverbs), all of which together modify the last noun. For example, in the phrase parking-garage regulations, the first pair of words modifies regulations. Noun strings save time, and if your readers understand them, they are fine. It is easier to write passive-restraint system than a system that uses passive restraints.

Hyphens can clarify noun strings by linking words that go together. For example, in the phrase flat-panel monitor, the hyphen links flat and panel. Together they modify monitor. In other words, it is not a flat panel or a panel monitor, but a flat-panel monitor. However, noun strings are sometimes so long or so complex that hyphens can’t ensure clarity. To clarify a long noun string, untangle the phrases and restore prepositions, as in the following example:

unclear preregistration procedures instruction sheet update

clear an update of the instruction sheet for preregistration procedures

Noun strings can sometimes be ambiguous—they can have two or more plausible meanings, leaving readers to guess at which meaning you’re trying to convey.

ambiguous the building contains a special incoming materials storage area.

What’s special? Are the incoming materials special? Or is the area

they’re stored in special?

unambiguous the building contains a special area for storing incoming materials.

unambiguous the building contains an area for storing special incoming materials.

An additional danger is that noun strings can sometimes sound pompous. If you are writing about a simple smoke detector, there is no reason to call it a smoke-detection device or, worse, a smoke-detection system.

avoid Clichés Good writing is original and fresh. Rather than use a cliché, say what you want to say in plain English. Current clichés include pushing the envelope; synergy; mission critical; bleeding edge; paradigm shift; and been there, done that. The best advice is to avoid clichés: if you are used to hearing or reading a phrase, don’t use it. Jimi Hendrix was a rock star; the Employee of the Month sitting in the next cubicle isn’t. Don’t think outside the box, pick low-hanging fruit, leverage your assets, bring your “A” game, be a change agent, raise the bar, throw anyone under a bus, be proactive, put lipstick on a pig, or give 110 percent. And you can assume that everyone already knows that it is what it is.

For more about hyphens, see Appendix, Part B, p. 497.

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avoid Euphemisms A euphemism is a polite way of saying something that makes people uncomfortable. For instance, a near miss between two airplanes is officially an “air proximity incident.” The more uncomfortable the subject, the more often people resort to euphemisms. Dozens of euphemisms deal with drinking, bathrooms, sex, and death. Here are several euphemisms for firing someone:

personnel-surplus reduction dehiring

workforce-imbalance correction decruiting

rightsizing redundancy elimination

indefinite idling career-change-opportunity creation

downsizing permanent furloughing

administrative streamlining personnel realignment

synergy-related headcount restructuring

e t h i C s n ot e

EUPHEmISmS anD TRUTH TEllInG there is nothing wrong with using the euphemism restroom, even though few people visit one to rest. the British use the phrase go to the toilet in polite company, and nobody seems to mind. in this case, if you want to use a euphemism, no harm done.

But it is unethical to use a euphemism to gloss over an issue that has important implications for people or the environment. People get uncomfortable when discussing layoffs—and they should. it’s an uncomfortable issue. But calling a layoff a redundancy elimination initiative ought to make you even more uncomfortable. don’t use language to cloud reality. it’s an ethical issue.

BE COnCISE The following five principles can help you write concise technical documents:

• Avoid obvious statements. • Avoid filler. • Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases. • Avoid wordy phrases. • Avoid fancy words.

avoid Obvious Statements Writing can become sluggish if it over- explains. The italicized words in the following example are sluggish:

sluggish the market for the sale of flash memory chips is dominated by two chip manufacturers: intel and advanced micro systems. these two chip manufacturers are responsible for 76 percent of the $1.3 billion market in flash memory chips last year.

improved the market for flash memory chips is dominated by intel and advanced micro systems, two companies that claimed 76 percent of the $1.3 billion industry last year.

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avoid Filler In our writing, we sometimes use filler, much of which is more suited to speech. Consider the following examples:

basically kind of

certain rather

essentially sort of

Such words are common in oral communication, when we need to think fast, but they are meaningless in writing.

bloated I think that, basically, the board felt sort of betrayed, in a sense, by the kind of behavior the president displayed.

better the board felt betrayed by the president’s behavior.

But modifiers are not always meaningless. For instance, it might be wise to use I think or it seems to me to show that you are aware of other views.

blunt next year we will face unprecedented challenges to our market dominance.

less blunt in my view, next year we will face unprecedented challenges to our market dominance.

Of course, a sentence that sounds blunt to one reader can sound self- confident to another. As you write, keep your audience’s preferences and expectations in mind.

Other fillers include redundant expressions, such as collaborate together, past history, end result, any and all, still remain, completely eliminate, and very unique. Say it once.

redundant this project would not have succeeded if not for the hard work and considerable effort of each and every one of the auditors assigned to the project.

better this project would not have succeeded if not for the hard work of every one of the auditors assigned to the project.

avoid Unnecessary Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a noun or a noun equivalent, such as in the summary, on the engine, and under the heading. Unnecessary prepositional phrases, often used along with abstract nouns and nominalizations, can make your writing long and boring.

long the increase in the number of students enrolled in the materials- engineering program at lehigh university is suggestive of the regard in which that program is held by the university’s new students.

shorter the increased enrollment in lehigh university’s materials-engineering program suggests that the university’s new students consider it a good program.

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Avoid Wordy Phrases Wordy phrases also make writing long and bor- ing. For example, some people write on a daily basis rather than daily. The long phrase may sound more important, but daily says the same thing more concisely.

Table 6.2 lists common wordy phrases and their more concise equivalents.

TA B L E 6 . 2 Wordy Phrases and Their Concise Equivalents

WORDY PhRASE CONCISE PhRASE WORDY PhRASE CONCISE PhRASE

a majority of most in the event that if

a number of some, many in view of the fact that

because

at an early date soon it is often the case that

often

at the conclusion of after, following it is our opinion that we think that

at the present time now it is our recommendation that

we recommend that

at this point in time now it is our understanding that

we understand that

based on the fact that

because make reference to refer to

check out check of the opinion that think that

despite the fact that although on a daily basis daily

due to the fact that because on the grounds that because

during the course of during prior to before

during the time that during, while relative to regarding, about

have the capability to

can so as to to

in connection with about, concerning subsequent to after

in order to to take into consideration

consider

in regard to regarding, about until such time as until

Compare the following wordy sentence and its concise translation:

wordy I am of the opinion that, in regard to profit achievement, the statistics pertaining to this month will appear to indicate an upward tendency.

concise I think this month’s statistics will show an increase in profits.

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avoid Fancy Words Writers sometimes think they will impress their read- ers by using fancy words—utilize for use, initiate for begin, perform for do, due to for because, and prioritize for rank. In technical communication, plain talk is best. Compare the following fancy sentence with its plain-English version:

fancy the purchase of a database program will enhance our record-maintenance capabilities.

plain Buying a database program will help us maintain our records.

Table 6.3 lists commonly used fancy words and their plain equivalents.

ta B L e 6 . 3 Fancy Words and their Plain equivalents

FanCY WORD PlaIn WORD FanCY WORD PlaIn WORD

advise tell herein here

ascertain learn, find out impact (verb) affect

attempt (verb) try initiate begin

commence start, begin manifest (verb) show

demonstrate show parameters variables, conditions

due to because of perform do

employ (verb) use prioritize rank

endeavor (verb) try procure get, buy

eventuate happen quantify measure

evidence (verb) show terminate end, stop

finalize end, settle, agree, finish

utilize use

furnish provide, give

USE InOFFEnSIvE lanGUaGE Writing to avoid offense is not merely a matter of politeness; it is a matter of perception. Language reflects attitudes, but it also helps to form attitudes. Writing inoffensively is one way to break down stereotypes.

nonsexist language You can use your word processor to search for he, man, and men, the words and parts of words most often associated with sexist writing. Some grammar-checkers identify common sexist terms and suggest alternatives. But use what you know about the world. You don’t want to produce a sentence like this one from a benefits manual: “Every employee is responsible for the cost of his or her gynecological examination.”

For books about nonsexist writing, see the Selected Bibliography, located in LaunchPad. Many of the books in the Usage and General Writing, Handbooks for Grammar and Style, and Style Manuals sections address nonsexist writing.

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People-First language for Referring to People with Disabilities Almost one in five Americans—some 56 million people—has a physical, sensory, emotional, or mental impairment that interferes with daily life (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). In writing about people with disabilities, use the “people-first” approach: treat the person as someone with a disability, not as someone defined by that disability. The disability is a condition the person has, not what the person is.

Avoiding Sexist Language Follow these six suggestions for writing gender-neutral text.

replace male-gender words with non-gender-specific words. Chairman, for instance, can become chairperson or chair. Firemen are firefighters; policemen are police officers.

Switch to a different form of the verb. sexist the operator must pass rigorous tests before he is promoted. nonsexist the operator must pass rigorous tests before being promoted.

Switch to the plural. nonsexist Operators must pass rigorous tests before they are promoted.

some organizations accept the use of plural pronouns with singular nouns, par- ticularly in memos and other informal documents:

if an employee wishes to apply for tuition reimbursement, they should con- sult section 14.5 of the employee manual.

Careful writers and editors, however, resist this construction because it is gram- matically incorrect (it switches from singular to plural). in addition, switching to the plural can make a sentence unclear: unclear operators are responsible for their operating manuals.

does each operator have one operating manual or more than one? clear each operator is responsible for his or her operating manual.

Switch to he or she, he/she, s/he, or his or her. He or she, his or her, and related constructions are awkward, especially if overused, but at least they are clear and inoffensive.

address the reader directly. use you and your or the understood you.

[you] enter the serial number in the first text box.

alternate he and she. language scholar Joseph Williams (2007) and many other language authorities recommend alternating he and she from one paragraph or section to the next.

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1. This passage contains many prepositional phrases. Iden- tify two of them. For each one, determine whether its use is justified or whether the sentence would be easier to understand if it were eliminated.

2. Part of this passage is writ- ten in the passive voice. Select one sentence in the passive voice that would be clearer in the active voice, and rewrite it in the active voice.

3. This passage contains a number of fancy words. Identify two of them. How can they be translated into plain English?

Revising for Conciseness and Simplicity The following passage is from a request for proposals published by the National Science Foundation. (Sentence numbers have been added here.) The questions in the margin ask you to think about word choice (as discussed on pp. 146–49).

1. Grants.gov, part of the President’s management agenda to improve government services to the public, provides a single Government-wide portal for finding and applying for Federal grants online.

2. Proposals submitted via Grants.gov must be prepared and submitted in accordance with the NSF Grants.gov Application Guide, available through Grants .gov as well as on the nsF website at: http://www.nsf.gov/bfa/dias/policy/ docs/grantsgovguide.pdf.

3. the Grants.gov application Guide contains important information on:

•   general instructions for submission via Grants.gov, including the Grants.gov  registration process and Grants.gov software requirements;

•   NSF-specific instructions for submission via Grants.gov, including creation of  PdF files;

•   grant application package instructions;

•   required SF 424 (R&R) forms and instructions; and

•   NSF-specific forms and instructions.

4. upon successful insertion of the Grants.gov submitted proposal in the nsF Fastlane system, no further interaction with Grants.gov is required.

5. all further interaction is conducted via the nsF Fastlane system.

d o C u m e n t a n a Lys i s aC t i v i t y

Source: National Science Foundation, 2008: www.nsf.gov/pubs/policydocs/pappguide/nsf08_1/gpg_1.jsp#IA1.

Choosing the Right Words and Phrases 151

6

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WRITInG FOR YOUR REaDERS 6 152

Using the People-First Approach When writing about people with disabilities, follow these five guidelines, which are based on snow (2009).

refer to the person first, the disability second. Write people with mental retarda- tion, not the mentally retarded.

Don’t confuse handicap with disability. Disability refers to the impairment or condition; handicap refers to the interaction between the person and his or her environment. a person can have a disability without being handicapped.

Don’t refer to victimization. Write a person with AIDS, not an AIDS victim or an AIDS sufferer.

Don’t refer to a person as wheelchair bound or confined to a wheelchair. People who use wheelchairs to get around are not confined.

Don’t refer to people with disabilities as abnormal. they are atypical, not abnormal.

W r i t e r ’s C h e C k L i s t

Did you consider using a conventional pattern of organization? (p. 110)

Titles and Headings Did you revise the title of your document so that it

clearly states the subject and purpose of your document? (p. 112)

is precise and informative? (p. 112)

Did you revise the headings to

avoid long noun strings? (p. 114)

be informative? (p. 115)

use a grammatical form appropriate to your audience? (p. 115)

Did you avoid back-to-back headings by including an advance organizer? (p. 115)

Paragraphs Did you revise your paragraphs so that each one

begins with a clear topic sentence? (p. 116)

has adequate and appropriate support? (p. 117)

is not too long for readers? (p. 118)

uses coherence devices such as transitional words and phrases, repetition of key words, and demonstrative pronouns followed by nouns? (p. 120)

lists

Is each list of the appropriate kind: numbered, lettered, bulleted, or checklist? (p. 131)

Does each list contain an appropriate number of items? (p. 132)

Are all the items in each list grammatically parallel? (p. 132)

Is the lead-in to each list structured and punctuated properly? (p. 132)

Are the items in each list punctuated properly? (p. 132)

Sentences

Are the sentences structured with the new or important information near the end? (p. 130)

Are the sentences the appropriate length? (p. 134)

Does each sentence focus on the “real” subject? (p. 135)

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Exercises 153

6

Does each sentence focus on the “real” verb, without weak nominalizations? (p. 136)

Have you used parallel structure in your sentences? (p. 137)

Have you used restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers appropriately? (p. 138)

Have you eliminated misplaced modifiers, squinting modifiers, and dangling modifiers? (p. 139)

Words and Phrases Did you

select an appropriate level of formality? (p. 140)

use active and passive voice appropriately? (p. 141)

use precise words? (p. 143)

provide adequate detail? (p. 143)

avoid ambiguity? (p. 143)

avoid unnecessary jargon? (p. 143)

use positive rather than negative constructions? (p. 144)

avoid long noun strings? (p. 145)

avoid clichés? (p. 145)

avoid euphemisms? (p. 146)

avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases? (p. 147)

use the most concise phrases? (p. 148)

avoid fancy words? (p. 149)

use nonsexist language? (p. 149)

use the people-first approach in referring to people with disabilities? (p. 150)

e x e r C i s e s 1. Identify the best organizational pattern for a discussion

of each of the subjects that follow. For example, a discussion of distance education and on-campus courses could be organized using the comparison-and- contrast pattern. Write a brief explanation supporting your selection. (Use each of the organizational patterns discussed in this chapter at least once.)

a. how to register for courses at your college or university

b. how you propose to reduce the time required to register for classes or to change your schedule

c. your car’s dashboard

d. the current price of gasoline

e. the reasons you chose your college or major

f. two music-streaming services

g. MP3 players

h. college courses

i. increased security in airports

j. how to prepare for a job interview

2. Write a one-paragraph evaluation of each of the following titles. How clearly does the title indicate the subject and purpose of the document? In what ways does it fall short of incorporating this chapter’s advice about titles? On the basis of your analysis, rewrite each title.

a. Recommended Forecasting Techniques for Haldane Company

b. A Study of Digital Cameras

c. Agriculture in the West: A 10-Year View

3. Write a one-paragraph evaluation of each of the following headings. How clearly does the heading indicate the subject and purpose of the text that will follow it? In what ways does it fall short of incorporating this chapter’s advice about headings? On the basis of your analysis, rewrite each heading to make it clearer and more informative. Invent any necessary details.

a. Multigroup Processing Technique Review Board Report Findings

b. The Great Depression of 1929

c. Intensive-Care Nursing

4. Revise the following list so that the lead-in is clear, easy to understand, and punctuated correctly. In addition, be sure the bullet items are grammatically parallel with one another.

There are several goals being pursued by the Natural and Accelerated Bioremediation Research office;

• the development of cost-effective in situ bio- remediation strategies for subsurface radio- nuclides and metals;

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154 WRITInG FOR YOUR REaDERS 6

• an understanding of intrinsic bioremediation as well as accelerated bioremediation using nutrient amendments to immobilize contaminants;

• identifying societal issues associated with biore- mediation research, and communication of bio- remediation research findings to stakeholders.

5. Provide a topic sentence for this paragraph.

The reason for this difference is that a larger per- centage of engineers working in small firms may be expected to hold high-level positions. In firms with fewer than 20 engineers, for example, the median income was $62,200. In firms of 20 to 200 engineers, the median income was $60,345. For the largest firms, the median was $58,600.

6. In the following paragraph, transitional words and phrases have been removed. Add an appropriate transition in each blank space. Where necessary, add punctuation.

One formula that appeared foolproof for selling computers was direct sales by the manufacturer to the consumer. Dell, ___________, climbed to num- ber two in PC sales by selling customized products directly on its website. ___________, the recent suc- cess of Acer, now number three in sales, suggests that the older formula of distributing commodity items through retailers might be best for today’s PC industry. Acer’s success can be attributed to three decisions it made. First, it sold off its division that manufactured components for other PC brands. ___________, it correctly concluded that consum- ers, who generally prefer preconfigured PCs, would outnumber business customers. And ___________, it decided to expand its line of inexpensive netbooks (small PCs for surfing the web) just when the eco- nomic downturn increased the demand for cheaper PC products. These decisions appear to have paid off for Acer: last year, its market share rose 3 percent- age points, from 8 to 11. ___________, Dell rose only 0.1 point, from 14.8 to 14.9.

7. In each of the following exercises, the second sentence begins with a demonstrative pronoun. Add a noun after the demonstrative to enhance coherence.

a. The Zoning Commission has scheduled an open hearing for March 14. This ________ will enable concerned citizens to voice their opinions on the proposed construction.

b. The university has increased the number of parking spaces, instituted a shuttle system, and increased parking fees. These _________ are expected to ease the parking problems.

NOTE: In Exercises 8–29, pay close attention to what you are being asked to do, and do only as much revising as is necessary. Take special care to preserve the meaning of the original material. If necessary, invent reasonable details.

8. Refer to the advice on pages 131–33, and rewrite the following sentence in the form of a list.

The causes of burnout can be studied from three perspectives: physiological—the roles of sleep, diet, and physical fatigue; psychological—the roles of guilt, fear, jealousy, and frustration; and environmental—the role of physical surroundings at home and at work.

9. The following sentences might be too long for some readers. Refer to the advice on page 134, and break each sentence into two or more sentences.

a. If we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the necessary personnel and equipment, so with this in mind a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled for February 12.

b. Once we get the results of the stress tests on the 125-Z fiberglass mix, we will have a better idea of whether the project is on schedule, because if the mix isn’t suitable we will really have to hurry to find and test a replacement by the Phase 1 deadline.

10. In the following sentences, the real subjects are buried in prepositional phrases or obscured by expletives. Refer to the advice on pages 135–36, and revise the sentences so that the real subjects appear prominently.

a. There has been a decrease in the number of students enrolled in our training sessions.

b. The use of in-store demonstrations has resulted in a dramatic increase in business.

11. In the following sentences, unnecessary nominalization obscures the real verb. Refer to the advice on pages 136–37, and revise the sentences to focus on the real verb.

a. Pollution constitutes a threat to the Matthews Wildlife Preserve.

b. Evaluation of the gumming tendency of the four tire types will be accomplished by comparing the amount of rubber that can be scraped from the tires.

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Exercises 155

6 12. Refer to the advice on page 137, and revise the

following sentences to eliminate nonparallelism.

a. The next two sections of the manual discuss how to analyze the data, the conclusions that can be drawn from your analysis, and how to decide what further steps are needed before establishing a journal list.

b. In the box, we should include a copy of the documentation, the cables, and the docking station.

13. Refer to the advice on pages 138–39, and revise the following sentences to correct punctuation or pronoun errors related to modifiers.

a. Press the Greeting Record button to record the greeting that is stored on a microchip inside the machine.

b. This problem that has been traced to manufacturing delays, has resulted in our losing four major contracts.

14. Refer to the advice on pages 139–40, and revise the following sentences to eliminate the misplaced modifiers.

a. Information provided by this program is displayed at the close of the business day on the information board.

b. The computer provides a printout for the Director that shows the likely effects of the action.

15. Refer to the advice on page 140, and revise the following sentences to eliminate the dangling modifiers.

a. By following these instructions, your computer should provide good service for many years.

b. To examine the chemical homogeneity of the plaque sample, one plaque was cut into nine sections.

16. Refer to the advice on pages 140–41, and revise the following informal sentences to make them moderately formal.

a. The learning modules were put together by a couple of profs in the department.

b. If the University of Arizona can’t figure out where to dump its low-level radioactive waste, Uncle Sam could pull the plug on millions of dollars of research grants.

17. Refer to the advice on pages 141–43, and rewrite the following sentences to remove inappropriate use of the passive voice.

a. Mistakes were made.

b. Come to the reception desk when you arrive. A packet with your name on it can be picked up there.

18. Refer to the advice on page 143, and revise the following sentences by replacing the vague elements with specific information. Make up any reasonable details.

a. The results won’t be available for a while.

b. The chemical spill in the lab caused extensive damage.

19. Refer to the advice on pages 143–44, and revise the following sentences to remove unnecessary jargon.

a. We need to be prepared for blowback from the announcement.

b. The mission-critical data on the directory will be migrated to a new server on Tuesday.

20. Refer to the advice on pages 144–45, and revise the following sentences to convert the negative constructions to positive constructions.

a. Management accused Williams of filing trip reports that were not accurate.

b. We must make sure that all our representatives do not act unprofessionally toward potential clients.

21. General readers might find the following sentences awkward or difficult to understand. Refer to the advice on page 145, and rewrite the sentences to eliminate the long noun strings.

a. The corporate-relations committee meeting location has been changed.

b. The research team discovered a glycerin-initiated, alkylene-oxide-based, long-chain polyether.

22. Refer to the advice on page 145, and revise the following sentences to eliminate clichés.

a. If we are to survive this difficult period, we are going to have to keep our ears to the ground and our noses to the grindstone.

b. At the end of the day, if everyone is on the same page and it turns out to be the wrong page, you’re really up a creek without a paddle.

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23. Refer to the advice on page 146, and revise the following sentences to eliminate euphemisms.

a. Downsizing our workforce will enable our division to achieve a more favorable cash-flow profile.

b. Of course, accident statistics can be expected to show a moderate increase in response to a streamlining of the training schedule.

24. Refer to the advice on pages 146–48, and revise the following sentences to remove the redundancies.

a. In grateful appreciation of your patronage, we are pleased to offer you this free gift as a small token gesture of our gratitude.

b. An anticipated major breakthrough in storage technology will allow us to proceed ahead in the continuing evolution of our products.

25. Refer to the advice on page 147, and revise the following sentences to eliminate unnecessary prepositional phrases.

a. The complexity of the module will hamper the ability of the operator in the diagnosis of problems in equipment configuration.

b. The purpose of this test of your aptitudes is to help you with the question of the decision of which major to enroll in.

26. Refer to the advice on pages 146–48, and revise the following sentences to make them more concise.

a. The instruction manual for the new copier is lacking in clarity and completeness.

b. We remain in communication with our sales staff on a weekly basis.

27. Refer to the advice on page 149, and revise the following sentences to eliminate fancy words.

a. This state-of-the-art soda-dispensing module is to be utilized by Marketing Department personnel.

b. We have failed to furnish the proposal to the proper agency by the mandated date by which such proposals must be in receipt.

28. Refer to the advice on page 149, and revise the following sentences to eliminate sexist language.

a. Each doctor is asked to make sure he follows the standard procedure for handling Medicare forms.

b. Policemen are required to live in the city in which they work.

29. Refer to the advice on pages 149–50, and revise the following sentences to eliminate the offensive language.

a. This year, the number of female lung-cancer victims is expected to rise because of increased smoking.

b. Mentally retarded people are finding greater opportunities in the service sector of the economy.

WRITInG FOR YOUR REaDERS 6 156

For more practice with the concepts covered in this chapter, complete the LearningCurve activities “Organizing and

Emphasizing Information” and “Writing Correct and Effective Sentences” in LaunchPad.

C a s e 6 : emphasizing important information in a technical Description

You and two classmates have been asked to write a technical description of a new 3D printer purchased by the engineering college at your school. Your professor, however, has concerns about the draft you have submitted, and he has outlined those concerns in an email. To read the email, identify passages that warrant improvement, and begin revising the technical description for emphasis and coherence, go to LaunchPad.

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Designing User‑Friendly

Documents and Websites

Part 3

© Getty Images/John Rensten

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158

Goals of Document Design 159

Planning the Design of Print and Online Documents 160 ■ Guidelines: Planning Your design 160

Understanding Design Principles 161 Proximity 161

Alignment 162

rePetition 162 ■ TuTorial: Proofreading for Format Consistency

ContrAst 164

Designing Print Documents 164 ACCessing Aids 164

■ ChoiCes and sTraTeGies: Creating accessing aids 165

PAge lAyout 164 ■ Guidelines: understanding learning Theory and Page design 167 ■ TeCh TiP: how To set up Pages 169

Columns 171

tyPogrAPhy 172 ■ eThiCs noTe: using Type sizes responsibly 174

titles And heAdings 176

other design FeAtures 177 ■ TeCh TiP: how To Create Borders and screens 180 ■ TeCh TiP: how To Create Text Boxes 180

Analyzing Several Print-Document Designs 177 ■ doCumenT analYsis aCTiviTY: analyzing a Page design 185

7Designing Print and Online Documents

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159

7 Designing Online Documents 177

use design to emPhAsize imPortAnt inFormAtion 186

CreAte inFormAtive heAders And Footers 186

helP reAders nAvigAte the doCument 186 ■ Guidelines: making Your document easy To navigate 188

inClude extrA FeAtures your reAders might need 186

helP reAders ConneCt with others 189

design For reAders with disAbilities 190

design For multiCulturAl AudienCes 191 ■ eThiCs noTe: designing legal and honest online documents 191

Aim For simPliCity 191 ■ Guidelines: designing simple, Clear Web Pages 192

Analyzing Several Online-Document Designs 191

Writer’S CheCkliSt 194

exerCiSeS 194

CASe 7: designing a Flyer 196 and

THE DESIGN OF a print or online document can help a writer achieve many goals: to entertain, to amaze, to intrigue, to sell. in technical communication, the goal is typically to help the reader learn something, perform a task, or accept a point of view. When you look at a well-designed page or screen, you intuitively understand how to use it.

design refers to the physical appearance of print and online documents. For print documents, design features include binding, page size, typography, and use of color. For online documents, many of the same design elements apply, but there are unique elements, too. on a web page, for instance, there are navigation bars, headers and footers, and (sometimes) tables of contents and site maps.

The effectiveness of a document depends largely on how well it is designed, because readers see the document before they actually read it. in less than a second, the document makes an impression on them, one that might determine how well they read it—or even whether they decide to read it at all.

goals of document design In designing a document, you have five major goals:

• to make a good impression on readers. Your document should reflect your own professional standards and those of your organization.

• to help readers understand the structure and hierarchy of the information. As they navigate a document, readers should know where they are and how to get where they are headed. They should also be able to see the hierarchical relationship between one piece of information and another.

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DeSiGNiNG PriNt AND ONliNe DOCUMeNtS7 160

• to help readers find the information they need. Usually, people don’t read every word in a print document, and they don’t study every screen of an online document. In print documents, design elements (such as tabs, icons, and color), page design, and typography help readers find the information they need quickly and easily. In online documents, design elements are critically important because readers can see only what is displayed on the screen.

• to help readers understand the information. Effective design can clarify information. For instance, designing a set of instructions so that the text describing each step is next to the accompanying graphic makes the instructions easier to understand. An online document with a navigation bar displaying the main sections is easier to understand than an online document without one.

• to help readers remember the information. An effective design helps readers create a visual image of the information, making it easier to remember. Text boxes, pull quotes, and similar design elements help readers remember important explanations and passages.

Planning the design of Print and online documents The first step in designing a print or online technical document is planning. Analyze your audience and purpose, and then determine your resources.

(continued)

Planning Your Design Follow these four suggestions as you plan your design.

Analyze your audience. Consider factors such as your readers’ knowledge of the subject, their attitudes, their reasons for reading, the way they will be using the document, and the kinds of tasks they will perform. Think too about your audi- ence’s expectations. readers expect to see certain kinds of information presented in certain ways. Plan to fulfill those expectations. For example, hyperlinks in websites are often underscored and presented in blue type.

Consider multicultural readers. if you are writing for multicultural readers, keep in mind that many aspects of design vary from one culture to another. in memos, letters, reports, and manuals, you may see significant differences in design practice. The best advice, therefore, is to study documents from the culture you are addressing. look for differences in paper size, text direction, typeface prefer- ences, and color preferences.

Consider your purpose. For example, if you are creating a website for a new den- tal office, do you merely want to provide information on the hours and location, or do you also want to present dental information for patients? let patients set up or change appointments? let them ask a question? each of these purposes affects the site design.

For more about analyzing your audience and purpose, see Ch. 4.

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Understanding Design Principles 7 161

understanding design Principles Your biggest challenge in thinking about how to design a document is that, more than ever, readers control how the document appears. Although you can still write a memo, print it on a piece of 8.5 × 11‑inch paper, and stick it in an interoffice envelope, that model of print‑only communication is becoming increasingly rare. Most of the time, readers encounter your docu‑ ment online. Even if you produced it with a word processor, designed it to fit on a piece of 8.5 × 11‑inch paper, and saved it as a PDF to preserve the design, your readers can still zoom in or out, altering what appears on their screen.

For documents that are intended to be viewed online, readers can control many aspects of the design, including color and the size, shape, and location of objects on the screen. Perhaps the most significant variable that you have to consider is screen size. Some devices on which your readers will use your document will be as large as big‑screen TVs, whereas others will be as small as wrist watches.

In this chapter, the term print document will be used to refer to documents that are designed to be printed on paper, such as letters, memos, and reports, regardless of whether readers hold pieces of paper in their hands or view the documents online. The term online document will be used to refer to docu‑ ments that are designed to be used online, such as websites, apps, and other software programs.

Because there are so many different types of print and online documents used in so many different environments by so many different people for so many different purposes, it is impossible to provide detailed advice about “how to design” a technical document. Still, there are some powerful and durable principles that can help you design any kind of print or online document. The following discussion is based on Robin Williams’s The Non- designer’s Design Book (2008), which describes four principles of design: proximity, alignment, repetition, and contrast.

PrOxiMity The principle of proximity is simple: if two items appear close to each other, the reader will interpret them as related to each other. If they are far apart, the reader will interpret them as unrelated. Text describing a graphic should be positioned close to the graphic, as shown in Figure 7.1.

determine your resources. Think about your resources of time, money, and equipment. short, informal documents and websites are usually produced in- house; more-ambitious projects are often subcontracted to specialists. if your organization has a technical-publications department, consult the people there about scheduling and budgeting. a sophisticated design might require profes- sionals at service bureaus and print shops, and their services can require weeks or months and cost thousands of dollars.

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DeSiGNiNG PriNt AND ONliNe DOCUMeNtS7 162

AliGNMeNt The principle of alignment says that you should consciously line up text and graphics along a real or imaginary vertical axis so that the reader can under‑ stand the relationships among elements. Figure 7.2 shows how alignment works to help organize information.

rePetitiON The principle of repetition says that you should format the same kind of information in the same way so that readers can recognize consistent pat‑ terns. For example, all first‑level headings should have the same typeface, type size, spacing above and below, and so forth. This repetition signals a connection between headings, making the content easier to understand. Other elements that are used to create consistent visual patterns are colors, icons, rules, and screens. Figure 7.3 shows an effective use of repetition.

To watch a tutorial on proofreading, go to

LaunchPad.

FIGurE 7.1 effective Use of Proximity Source: U.S. Department of State, 2011: http://future.state.gov.

Text and graphics are clearly related by the principle of proximity. The textual descriptions are placed next to the drawings to which they refer.

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Understanding Design Principles 7 163

This page shows repetition used effectively as a design element.

Different colors, typefaces, and type sizes are used for the headings, instructions, and text.

The two lists make use of stylized bullets and oversize numbers, both in one of the two main colors.

FIGurE 7.3 effective Use of repetition Source: A HISTORY OF WESTERN SOCIETY, Eleventh Edition (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014). John P. McKay, Clare Haru Crowston, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks, Joe Perry, p. 319.

FIGurE 7.2 effective Use of Alignment Source: National Institutes of Health, 2013a: http://grants.nih.gov/grants/ElectronicReceipt/faq_full .htm#application.

This panel from an FAQ section of a website uses alignment to help organize the information.

The writer is using three levels of importance, each signaled by a different alignment.

Writers often use more than one technique at a time to help organize information. In this case, text size and color also indicate levels of importance.

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DeSiGNiNG PriNt AND ONliNe DOCUMeNtS7 164

CONtrASt The principle of contrast says that the human eye is drawn to—and the brain interprets—differences in appearance between two items. For example, the principle of contrast explains why black print is easier to read against a white background than against a dark gray background; why 16‑point type stands out more clearly against 8‑point type than against 12‑point type; and why informa‑ tion printed in a color, such as red, grabs readers’ attention when the informa‑ tion around it is printed in black. Figure 7.4 shows effective use of contrast.

designing Print documents Before you design the individual pages of a printed document, design the overall document. Decide whether you are creating a document that looks like a book, with content on both sides of the page, or a document that looks like a report, with content on only one side of the page. Decide whether to use paper of standard size (8.5 × 11 inches) or another size, choose a grade of paper, and decide how you will bind the pages together. Decide on the accessing elements you will include, such as a table of contents, index, and tabs. You want the different elements to work together to accomplish your objectives, and you want to stay within your budget for producing and (per‑ haps) shipping. Then think about how to design the document pages.

ACCeSSiNG AiDS In a well‑designed document, readers can easily find the information they seek. Most accessing aids use the design principles of repetition and contrast to help readers navigate the document. The Choices and Strategies feature explains six common kinds of accessing aids.

PAGe lAyOUt Every page has two kinds of space: white space and space devoted to text and graphics. The best way to design a page is to make a grid: a drawing of what the page will look like. In making a grid, you decide how to use white space and determine how many columns to have on the page.

FIGurE 7.4 effective Use of Contrast This portion of a web page shows effective use of color contrast in the five navigation boxes. The pale blue screen behind the word “Impact” helps visitors see which portion of the site they are viewing. Source: U.S. Department of State, 2013b: http://eca.state.gov/impact.

Notice that you do not have to use a strikingly different color to show contrast. The human brain can eas- ily tell the difference between the paler blue and the navy blue of the other boxes.

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Designing Print Documents 7 165

if yOU WANt tO . . . try USiNG thiS ACCeSSiNG AiD exAMPle

Symbolize actions or ideas

icons. icons are pictures that symbolize actions or ideas. Perhaps the most important icon is the stop sign, which alerts you to a warning. icons depend on repetition: every time you see the warning icon, you know what kind of information the writer is presenting.

don’t be too clever in thinking up icons. one computer manual uses a cocktail glass about to fall over to symbolize “tip.” This is a bad idea, because the pun is not functional: when you think of a cocktail glass, you don’t think of a tip for using computers. don’t use too many different icons, or your readers will forget what each one represents.

Information from Google, 2013: http://www.google.com/intl/en/ about/products.

Draw attention to important features or sections of the document

Color. Perhaps the strongest visual attribute is color (Keyes, 1993). use color to draw attention to important features of the document, such as warnings, hints, major headings, and section tabs. But use it sparingly, or it will overpower everything else in the document.

Color exploits the principles of repetition (every item in a particular color is logically linked) and contrast (items in one color contrast with items in another color).

use color logically. Third-level headings should not be in color, for example, if first- and second- level headings are printed in black.

using paper of a different color for each section of a document is another way to simplify access.

Here green is used to emphasize the titles of the sections, the box at the top left, and the bar along the edge of the page. Source: MEDIA & CULTURE: MASS COMMUNICATION IN A DIGITAL AGE, Ninth Edition (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014). Richard Campbell, Christopher R. Martin, Bettina Fabos, p. 113.

enable readers to identify and flip to sections

Dividers and tabs. You are already familiar with dividers and tabs from loose-leaf notebooks. a tab provides a place for a label, which enables readers to identify and flip to a particular section. sometimes dividers and tabs are color-coded. Tabs work according to the design principle of contrast: the tabs literally stick out.

Image Credit: © 2014 Macmillan. Photo by Regina Tavani.

C H O I C E S a N D S T r a T E G I E S Creating Accessing Aids

(continued)

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if yOU WANt tO . . . try USiNG thiS ACCeSSiNG AiD exAMPle

refer readers to related information within the document

Cross-reference tables. These tables, which exploit the principle of alignment, refer readers to related discussions.

Read . . . To learn to . . . Ch. 1 connect to the router Ch. 2 set up a firewall

help readers see where they are in the document

headers and footers. headers and footers help readers see where they are in the document. in a book, for example, the headers on the left- hand pages might repeat the chapter number and title; those on the right-hand pages might contain the most recent first-level heading. sometimes writers build other identifying information into the headers. For example, your instructor might ask you to identify your assignments with a header like the following: “smith, Progress report, english 302, page 6.” headers and footers work according to the principle of repetition: readers learn where to look on the page to see where they are in the document.

Source: General Services Administration, 2013.

Page numbering. For one-sided documents, use arabic numerals in the upper right corner, although the first page of most documents does not have a number on it. For two-sided documents, put the page numbers near the outside margins.

Complex documents often use two number sequences: lowercase roman numerals (i, ii, and so on) for front matter and arabic numerals for the body. There is no number on the title page, but the page following it is ii.

appendixes are often paginated with a letter and number combination: appendix a begins with page a-1, followed by a-2, and so on; appendix B starts with page B-1.

sometimes documents list the total number of pages in the document (so recipients can be sure they have all of them). The second page is “2 of 17,” and the third page is “3 of 17.”

documents that will be updated are sometimes numbered by section: section 3 begins with page 3-1, followed by 3-2; section 4 begins with 4-1. This way, a complete revision of one section does not affect the page numbering of subsequent sections.

Source: THE BEDFORD GUIDE FOR COLLEGE WRITERS, Tenth Edition (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014). X. J. Kennedy, Dorothy M. Kennedy, and Marcia F. Muth, pp. xxxi, 703, A-21.

Creating Accessing Aids (continued)

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Designing Print Documents 7 167

(continued)

Understanding Learning Theory and Page Design in designing the page, create visual patterns that help readers find, understand, and remember information. Three prin- ciples of learning theory, the result of research into how people learn, can help you design effective pages: chunking, queuing, and filtering.

Chunking. People understand information best if it is delivered to them in chunks — small units — rather than all at once. For single-spaced type, chunking involves double-spacing between paragraphs, as shown in Figure 7.5.

During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by the ambition of various kings to make their domains larger and to increase their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up a very powerful kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals spread his rule over a great part of what is Belgium and Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom the part of Germany be- tween the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vo_zh) Mountains.

Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle of Blenheim (1704), the English Duke of Marlborough, aided by the emperor’s army, put an end to the further expansion of the French.

The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. You will recall that there was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, whose count was one of the seven electors who chose the emperor. The capital of this county was Berlin. It so happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The little county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of these counts, called “the Great Elec- tor,” had added to Brandenburg the greater part of the neighboring county of Pomerania. His son did not have the ability of his father, but was a very proud and vain man.

He happened to visit King William III of England, and was very much of- fended because during the interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which was straight-backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, as it seemed to him, he went home and decided that he too should be called a king. The question was, what should his title be. He could not call himself “King of Brandenburg,” for Branden- burg was part of the Empire, and the emperor would not allow it. It had happened some one hundred years before, that, through his marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of Brandenburg had come into possession of the district known as East Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea.

The son of this elector who first called himself king had more energy and more character than his father. He ruled his country with a rod of iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who were over six feet tall to serve in his fa- mous regiment of Guards. He further increased the size of the Prussian kingdom.

His son was the famous Frederick the Great, one of the most remarkable fighters that the world has ever seen. This prince had been brought up under strict discipline by his father. The old king had been insistent that his son should be no weakling. It is told that one day, finding Frederick playing upon a flute, he seized the instrument and snapped it in twain over his son’s shoulder.

France in the 18th Century

During the 18th century, there were many wars in Europe caused by the ambi- tion of various kings to make their domains larger and to increase their own incomes. King Louis XIV of France had built up a very powerful kingdom. Brave soldiers and skillful generals spread his rule over a great part of what is Belgium and Luxemburg, and annexed to the French kingdom the part of Germany be- tween the Rhine River and the Vosges (Vo_zh) Mountains.

Finally, the English joined with the troops of the Holy Roman Empire to curb the further growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle of Blenheim (1704), the Eng- lish Duke of Marlborough, aided by the emperor’s army, put an end to the further expansion of the French.

Prussia in the 18th Century

The 18th century also saw the rise of a new kingdom in Europe. You will recall that there was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, whose count was one of the seven electors who chose the emperor. The capital of this county was Berlin. It so happened that a number of Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and ability. The little county had grown by adding small territories around it. One of these counts, called “the Great Elector,” had added to Brandenburg the greater part of the neighboring county of Pomerania. His son did not have the ability of his father, but was a very proud and vain man.

He happened to visit King William III of England, and was very much offended because during the interview, the king occupied a comfortable arm chair, while the elector, being simply a count, was given a chair to sit in which was straight- backed and had no arms. Brooding over this insult, as it seemed to him, he went home and decided that he too should be called a king. The question was, what should his title be. He could not call himself “King of Brandenburg,” for Brandenburg was part of the Empire, and the emperor would not allow it. It had happened some one hundred years before, that, through his marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a Count of Brandenburg had come into posses- sion of the district known as East Prussia, at the extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea.

The son of this elector who first called himself king had more energy and more character than his father. He ruled his country with a rod of iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. He was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who were over six feet tall to serve in his famous regiment of Guards. He further increased the size of the Prussian kingdom.

a. Without chunking b. With chunking

FIGurE 7.5 Chunking Chunking emphasizes units of related information. Note how the use of headings creates clear chunks of information.

Queuing. Queuing refers to creating visual distinctions to indicate levels of importance. more-emphatic elements — those with bigger type or boldface type — are more important than less-emphatic ones. another visual element of queuing is alignment. designers start more-important information closer to the left margin and indent less-important information. (an exception is titles, which are often centered in reports in the united states.) Figure 7.6 shows queuing.

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Filtering. Filtering is the use of visual patterns to distinguish various types of information. introductory material might be displayed in larger type, and notes might appear in italics, another typeface, and a smaller size. Figure 7.7 shows filtering.

FIGurE 7.7 filtering Effective technical communication presents data and explains what the data mean. In this table about the heat index, the writer uses color as a filtering device. In Western cultures, red signals danger. Source: National Weather Service, 2014: http://nws.noaa.gov/os/heat/index.shtml.

FIGurE 7.6 Queuing Source: U.S. Department of State, 2013: www.state.gov/documents /organization/203937.pdf.

The size of the type used for the various headings indicates their importance.

The largest type suggests that “Strategic Goals and Results” is a chapter heading.

The next largest type indicates that “Strategic Goal 1: Achieving Peace and Security” is an A head (the highest level within a chapter).

“Public Benefit” and “Summary of Performance and Resources” are B heads.

Page Grids As the phrase suggests, a page grid is like a map on which you plan where the text, the graphics, and the white space will go. Many writers like to begin with a thumbnail sketch, a rough drawing that shows how the text and graphics will look on the page. Figure 7.8 shows thumbnail sketches of several options for a page from the body of a manual.

Experiment by sketching the different kinds of pages of your document: body pages, front matter, and so on. When you are satisfied, make page grids. You can use either a computer or a pencil and paper, or you can combine the two techniques.

Figure 7.9 shows two simple grids: one using picas (the unit that printing professionals use, which equals one‑sixth of an inch) and one using inches. On the right is an example of a page laid out using the grid in the figure.

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Designing Print Documents 7 169

how to set up Pages

When designing a page to meet your audience’s needs and expectations, you can control many design ele- ments by using the Page Setup dialog box or the drop-down menus in the Page Setup group on the Page layout tab.

in the Page Setup group, use the Page Setup dialog box launcher to display the Page Setup dialog box.

use the Margins, Paper, and layout tabs to specify such de- sign elements as page margins, paper orientation, paper size, starting locations for new sections, and header and footer placement.

You can also use the drop-down menus on the Page Setup group to control many of the same design elements.

KEYWOrDS: page layout tab, page setup group, page setup, margins, paper, layout

45.9

3.9 3.98.75 1.1

28.1

64.15

3.9

3.9

32.3

picas

6 3/8"

7 5/8"

4 11/16"

10 1/16"

1 7/16"5/8" 8/2"

5/16"

7/8"

5/8"

FIGurE 7.9 Sample Grids Using Picas and inches Source: LISTEN, Brief Fifth Edition (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004). J. Kerman and G. Tomlinson, p. 388.

FIGurE 7.8 thumbnail Sketches

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Create different grids until the design is attractive, meets the needs of your readers, and seems appropriate for the information you are conveying. Figure 7.10 shows some possibilities.

White Space Sometimes called negative space, white space is the area of the paper with no writing or graphics: the space between two columns of text, the space between text and graphics, and, most obviously, the margins.

FIGurE 7.10 Popular Grids

a. double-column grid Source: Gardner and Barefoot, YOUR COLLEGE EXPERIENCE: STUDY SKILLS EDITION, 10th ed., p. 31.

b. Two-page grid, with narrow outside columns for notes Source: Kennedy, Kennedy, and Muth, THE BEDFORD GUIDE FOR COLLEGE WRITERS WITH READER, Tenth Edition, pp. 130–131.

c. Three-panel brochure Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014: http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/pdf/swimming/resources/healthy-swimming-rwi-brochure.pdf.

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Designing Print Documents 7 171

Left-hand page Right-hand page

8 1/2"

1 1/2"

2"

1" 11"

1 1/2"

FIGurE 7.11 typical Margins for a Document that is Bound like a Book

Increase the size of the margins if the subject is difficult or if your readers are not knowledgeable about it.

Margins, which make up close to half the area on a typical page, serve four main purposes:

• They reduce the amount of information on the page, making the document easier to read and use.

• They provide space for binding and allow readers to hold the page without covering up the text.

• They provide a neat frame around the type.

• They provide space for marginal glosses.

Figure 7.11 shows common margin widths for an 8.5 × 11‑inch document. White space can also set off and emphasize an element on the page. For

instance, white space around a graphic separates it from the text and draws readers’ eyes to it. White space between columns helps readers read the text easily. And white space between sections of text helps readers see that one section is ending and another is beginning.

COlUMNS Many workplace documents have multiple columns. A multicolumn design offers three major advantages:

• Text is easier to read because the lines are shorter.

• Columns enable you to fit more information on the page, because many graphics can fit in one column or extend across two or more columns. In addition, a multicolumn design enables you to put more words on a page than a single‑column design.

• Columns enable you to use the principle of repetition to create a visual pattern, such as text in one column and accompanying graphics in an adjacent column.

For more about marginal glosses, see p. 179.

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tyPOGrAPhy Typography, the study of type and the way people read it, encompasses typefaces, type families, case, and type size, as well as factors that affect the white space of a document: line length, line spacing, and justification.

typefaces A typeface is a set of letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and other symbols, all bearing a characteristic design. There are thousands of typefaces, and more are designed every year. Figure 7.12 shows three con‑ trasting typefaces.

As Figure 7.13 illustrates, typefaces are generally classified into two cat‑ egories: serif and sans serif.

Most of the time you will use a handful of standard typefaces such as Times New Roman, Cambria, Calibri, and Arial, which are included in your word‑processing software and which your printer can reproduce.

type families Each typeface belongs to a family of typefaces, which con‑ sists of variations on the basic style, such as italic and boldface. Figure 7.14, for example, shows the Helvetica family.

FIGurE 7.12 three Contrasting typefaces

N NSerifs Serif Sans Serif

FIGurE 7.13 Serif and Sans-Serif typefaces

Although scholars used to think that serif typefaces were easier to read because the serifs encourage readers’ eyes to move along the line, most now believe that there is no difference in readability between serif and sans-serif typefaces, either in print or online. Readers are most comfortable with the style they see most often.

Helvetica Light Helvetica Bold Italic

Helvetica Light Italic Helvetica Heavy

Helvetica Regular Helvetica Heavy Italic

Helvetica Regular Italic Helvetica Regular Condensed

Helvetica Bold Helvetica Regular Condensed Italic

FIGurE 7.14 helvetica family of type

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Designing Print Documents 7 173

Be careful not to overload your document with too many different mem‑ bers of the same family. Used sparingly and consistently, these variations can help you with filtering: calling attention to various kinds of text, such as warnings and notes. Use italics for book titles and other elements, and use bold type for emphasis and headings. Stay away from outlined and shadowed variations. You can live a full, rewarding life without ever using them.

Case To make your document easy to read, use uppercase and lowercase letters as you would in any other kind of writing (see Figure 7.15). Most people require 10 to 25 percent more time to read text using all uppercase letters than to read text using both uppercase and lowercase. In addition, uppercase letters take up as much as 35 percent more space than lowercase letters (Haley, 1991). If the text includes both cases, readers will find it easier to see where new sentences begin (Poulton, 1968).

type Size Type size is measured with a unit called a point. There are 12 points in a pica and 72 points in an inch. In most technical documents, 10‑, 11‑, or 12‑point type is used for the body of the text:

This paragraph is printed in 10‑point type. This size is easy to read, provided it is reproduced on a high‑quality ink‑jet printer or laser printer.

This paragraph is printed in 12‑point type. If the docu‑ ment will be read by people over age 40, 12‑point type is a good size because it is more legible than a smaller size.

This paragraph is printed in 14‑point type. This size is appropriate for titles or headings.

Type sizes used for other parts of a document include the following:

footnotes 8‑ or 9‑point type indexes 2 points smaller than body text slides 24‑ to 36‑point type

In general, aim for at least a 2‑ to 4‑point difference between the headings and the body. Too many size variations, however, suggest a sweepstakes advertisement rather than a serious text.

Individual variations are greater in lowercase words

THAN THEY ARE IN UPPERCASE WORDS.

FIGurE 7.15 individual Variations in lowercase and Uppercase type Lowercase letters are easier to read than uppercase because the individual variations from one letter to another are greater.

1

0 inches

72

0

12

24

36

48

60

points

1

0 picas

2

3

4

5

6

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E T H I C S N OT E

USiNG tyPe SizeS reSPONSiBly Text set in large type contrasts with text set in small type. it makes sense to use large type to emphasize headings and other important information. But be careful with small type. it is unethical (and, according to some court rulings, illegal) to use excessively small type (such as 6-point or smaller type) to disguise information that you don’t want to stand out. When you read the fine print in an ad for cell-phone service, you get annoyed if you discover that the low rates are guaranteed for only three months or that you are committing to a long-term contract. You should get annoyed. hiding information in tiny type is annoying. don’t do it.

line length The line length most often used on an 8.5 × 11‑inch page— about 80 characters—is somewhat difficult to read. A shorter line of 50 to 60 characters is easier, especially in a long document (Biggs, 1980).

line Spacing Sometimes called leading (pronounced “ledding”), line spacing refers to the amount of white space between lines or between a line of text and a graphic. If lines are too far apart, the page looks diffuse, the text loses coherence, and readers tire quickly. If lines are too close together, the page looks crowded and becomes difficult to read. Some research suggests that smaller type, longer lines, and sans‑serif typefaces all benefit from extra line spacing. Figure 7.16 shows three variations in line spacing.

FIGurE 7.16 line Spacing a. Excessive line spacing

Aronomink Systems has been contracted by Cecil Electric Cooperative, Inc.

(CECI) to design a solid waste management system for the Cecil County plant,

Units 1 and 2, to be built in Cranston, Maryland. The system will consist of two

600 MW pulverized coal-burning units fitted with high-efficiency electrostatic

precipitators and limestone reagent FGD systems.

b. Appropriate line spacing

Aronomink Systems has been contracted by Cecil Electric Cooperative, Inc. (CECI) to design a solid waste management system for the Cecil County plant, Units 1 and 2, to be built in Cranston, Maryland. The system will consist of two 600 MW pulverized coal-burning units fitted with high-efficiency electrostatic precipitators and limestone reagent FGD systems.

c. Inadequate line spacing Aronomink Systems has been contracted by Cecil Electric Cooperative, Inc. (CECI) to design a solid waste management system for the Cecil County plant, Units 1 and 2, to be built in Cranston, Maryland. The system will consist of two 600 MW pulverized coal-burning units fitted with high-efficiency electrostatic precipitators and limestone reagent FGD systems.

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Designing Print Documents 7 175

Line spacing is usually determined by the kind of document you are writ‑ ing. Memos and letters are single‑spaced; reports, proposals, and similar documents are often double‑spaced or one‑and‑a‑half‑spaced.

Figure 7.17 shows how line spacing can be used to distinguish one section of text from another and to separate text from graphics.

Justification Justification refers to the alignment of words along the left and right margins. In technical communication, text is often left-justified (also called ragged right). Except for the first line in each paragraph, which is some‑ times indented, the lines begin along a uniform left margin but end on an irregular right margin. Ragged right is most common in word‑processed text (even though word processors can justify the right margin).

In justified text, also called full-justified text, both the left and the right margin are justified. Justified text is seen most often in formal documents, such as books. The following passage (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2002) is presented first in left‑justified form and then in justified form:

The line spacing between two sec- tions is greater than the line spacing within a section.

Line spacing is also used to separate the text from the graphics.

FIGurE 7.17 line Spacing Used to Distinguish One Section from Another Source: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 2010: www.uspto.gov/about/stratplan /ar/2009/2009annualreport.pdf.

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Full justification can make the text harder to read in one more way. Some word processors and typesetting systems automatically hyphenate words that do not fit on the line. Hyphenation slows down and distracts the reader. Left‑justified text does not require as much hyphenation as full‑justified text.

titleS AND heADiNGS Titles and headings should stand out visually on the page because they intro‑ duce new ideas.

titles Because the title is the most‑important heading in a document, it should be displayed clearly and prominently. On a cover page or a title page, use boldface type in a large size, such as 18 or 24 points. If the title also appears at the top of the first page, make it slightly larger than the rest of the text—perhaps 16 or 18 points for a document printed in 12 point—but smaller than it is on the cover or title page. Many designers center titles on the page between the right and left margins.

headings Readers should be able to tell when you are beginning a new topic. The most effective way to distinguish one level of heading from another is to use size variations (Williams & Spyridakis, 1992). Most readers will notice a 20‑percent size difference between an A head (a first‑level head‑ ing) and a B head (a second‑level heading). Boldface also sets off headings effectively. The least‑effective way to set off headings is underlining, because the underline obscures the descenders, the portions of letters that extend below the body of the letters, such as in p and y.

In general, the more important the heading, the closer it is to the left mar‑ gin: A heads usually begin at the left margin, B heads are often indented a half inch, and C heads are often indented an inch. Indented C heads can also be run into the text.

For more about titling your document, see Ch. 6, p. 112.

We recruited participants to reflect the racial diversity of the area in which the focus groups were conducted. Participants had to meet the following eligibility criteria: have primary responsibility or share responsibility for cooking in their household; prepare food and cook in the home at least three times a week; eat meat and/or poultry; prepare meat and/or poultry in the home at least twice a week; and not regularly use a digital food thermometer when cooking at home.

Notice that the space between words is uniform in left-justified text.

In justified text, the spacing between words is irregular, slowing down the reader. Because a big space suggests a break between sentences, not a break between words, readers can become con- fused, frustrated, and fatigued.

Notice that the irregular spacing not only slows down reading but also can create “rivers” of white space. Readers are tempted to concentrate on the rivers run ning south rather than on the information itself.

We recruited participants to reflect the racial diversity of the area in which the focus groups were conducted. Participants had to meet the following eligibility criteria: have primary responsibility or share responsibility for cooking in their household; prepare food and cook in the home at least three times a week; eat meat and/or poultry; prepare meat and/or poultry in the home at least twice a week; and not regularly use a digital food thermometer when cooking at home.

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Designing Online Documents 7 177

In designing headings, use line spacing carefully. A perceivable distance between a heading and the following text increases the impact of the head‑ ing. Consider these three examples:

Summary

in this example, the writer has skipped a line between the heading and the text that follows it. The heading stands out clearly.

Summary in this example, the writer has not skipped a line between the heading and the text that follows it. The heading stands out, but not as emphatically.

Summary. in this example, the writer has begun the text on the same line as the heading. This run-in style makes the heading stand out the least.

Other DeSiGN feAtUreS Table 7.1 shows five other design features that are used frequently in techni‑ cal communication: rules, boxes, screens, marginal glosses, and pull quotes.

Analyzing several Print-document designs Figures 7.18 to 7.21 show typical designs used in print documents.

designing online documents Accessing tools are vitally important for online documents, because if your audience can’t figure out how to find the information they want, they’re out of luck. With a print document, they can at least flip through the pages.

The following discussion focuses on eight principles that can help you make it easy for readers to find and understand the information they seek:

• Use design to emphasize important information.

• Create informative headers and footers.

• Help readers navigate the document.

• Include extra features your readers might need.

• Help readers connect with others.

• Design for readers with disabilities.

• Design for multicultural readers.

• Aim for simplicity.

Although some of these principles do not apply to every type of online docu‑ ment, they provide a useful starting point as you think about designing your document.

For more about using headings, see Ch. 6, p. 113.

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Ta B L E 7 . 1 Additional design Features for technical Communication

Two types of rules are used here: vertical rules to separate the columns and horizontal rules to separate the items. Rules enable you to fit a lot of information on a page, but when overused they make the page look cluttered.

Source: Institute of Scientific and Tech- nical Communicators, “Industry News” in COMMUNICATOR (Spring 2005).

rules. Rule is a design term for a straight line. You can add rules to your document using the drawing tools in a word processor or as you define your styles. horizontal rules can separate headers and footers from the body of the page or divide two sections of text. vertical rules can separate columns on a multicolumn page or identify revised text in a manual. rules exploit the principles of alignment and proximity.

Source: J. W. Valley, “A cool early Earth?” from SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN (October 2005): 58–65.

Boxes. adding rules on all four sides of an item creates a box. Boxes can enclose graphics or special sections of text or can form a border for the whole page. Boxed text is often positioned to extend into the margin, giving it further emphasis. Boxes exploit the principles of contrast and repetition.

(continued)

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Designing Print Documents 7 179

The different-colored screens clearly distinguish the three sets of equations.

Source: W. K. Purves, D. Sadava, G. H. Orians, and H. C. Heller, LIFE: THE SCIENCE OF BIOL- OGY, Seventh Edition, page 466.

Screens. The background shading used behind text or graphics for emphasis is called a screen. The density of a screen can range from 1 percent to 100 percent; 5 to 10 percent is usually enough to provide emphasis without making the text illegible. You can use screens with or without boxes. screens exploit the principles of contrast and repetition.

The marginal glosses present definitions of key words.

Source: PSYCHOLOGY, Tenth Edition (New York: Worth Publishers, 2013). David C. Myers, page 304.

Marginal glosses. a marginal gloss is a brief comment on the main discussion. marginal glosses are usually set in a different typeface—and sometimes in a different color—from the main discussion. although marginal glosses can be helpful in providing a quick overview of the main discussion, they can also compete with the text for readers’ attention. marginal glosses exploit the principles of contrast and repetition.

This pull quote extends into the margin, but a pull quote can go anywhere on the page, even spanning two or more columns or the whole page.

Source: THE AMERICAN PROMISE: A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, VOLUME I: TO 1877 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005). L. Roark, M. P. Johnson, P. C. Cohen, S. Stage, A. Lawson, and S. M. Hartman, p. 115.

Pull quotes. a pull quote is a brief quotation (usually just a sentence or two) that is pulled from the text, displayed in a larger type size and usually in a different typeface, and sometimes enclosed in a box. newspapers and magazines use pull quotes to attract readers’ attention. Pull quotes are inappropriate for reports and similar documents because they look too informal. They are increasingly popular, however, in newsletters. Pull quotes exploit the principles of contrast and repetition.

Ta B L E 7 . 1 Additional design Features for technical Communication (continued )

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how to Create borders and screens

To emphasize page elements by enclosing them in a box or including background shading, use the Borders and Shading dialog box.

To create a border around a page element or an entire page, select the area you want to format. select the Page layout tab, and then select Page Borders in the Page Background group.

select the Borders or Page Border tab. You can specify the type of border, line style, color, and line width.

To create shading, also called a screen, select the area you want to format, and then select Page Borders on the Page Background group. select the Shading tab.

You can specify the color within the box as well as the style of the pattern.

KEYWOrDS: borders, page borders, shading, page background group

KEYWOrDS: text box, drawing toolbar, fill color, line color

how to Create text boxes

To emphasize graphics or special sections of text or to position such elements indepen dently of your margins, use the text Box feature in the text group on the insert tab.

To create a text box, select Draw text Box from the text Box drop-down menu.

Click and drag your cursor to create your text box.

Click inside the text box and begin typing.

You can select the text box and move it around your page.

You can also insert a built-in text box from the text Box drop-down menu.

To format your text box, select the box and then select the format Shape dialog box launcher from the Shape Styles group on the format tab.

The Arrange group enables you to specify design ele- ments such as the text box’s position in relation to other objects and the wrapping style of the surrounding text.

after select- ing the box, you can also use buttons on the format tab to specify such design elements as fill color, line color, font color, line style, and other effects.

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Designing Print Documents 7 181

FIGurE 7.18 A Multicolumn Design Source: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 2013: http://www.uspto.gov/about/stratplan/ar/USPTOFY2012PAR.pdf.

A multicolumn design enables you to present a lot of text and graphics of different sizes.

Notice how the designer has used the whole width of the page for one graphic and a single column for a smaller graphic.

Note that the alley—the space between the two columns of text— need not be wide. Nor do you need to include a vertical rule to keep the columns separate. The human brain easily understands that each column is a separate space.

In this sample, the bar graph is exactly the width of the column in which it appears. But it doesn’t have to be. It could break the shape of the column and extend into the other column or even into the margin. Or it could be narrower than its column, with the text wrap- ping around it. The design you see here looks neat and professional. If the graph were wider or narrower than the column, the design might appear somewhat more creative.

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This page from a software com- pany’s white paper—a marketing document usually distributed on the web—shows one approach to a one-column design.

The main text column is relatively narrow, making the line easy to read.

The right margin is wide enough to accommodate text boxes, small graphics, or other items.

One goal of document design is to reduce the number of pages needed—but when you design a page, you want to make the text inviting and easy to read. Figuring out how to balance these two priorities is one of the major chal- lenges of designing a page.

FIGurE 7.19 A One-Column Design Source: PDF Tools AG.

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Designing Print Documents 7 183

FIGurE 7.20 A Magazine Page Design Source: U.S. Department of State, 2013: www.state.gov/documents/organization/205362.pdf.

This is a page from State, the magazine for employees of the U.S. State Department. Magazines for people who work together tend to include a lot of photographs, includ- ing many showing people from that organization.

The large photograph extends to the top edge and the left edge of the page. Eliminating the mar- gins in this way would be a mistake if the graphic were crammed with information that readers needed to study; a dense table of data, for instance, would be overwhelming. But in this case, the blue sky in the background acts as a decorative frame for the “information” in the bottom half of the photo.

Although this page uses a simple three-column design, note that one photo spans all three columns, another photo spans two columns, and the caption box spans one col- umn. This creative use of the multi- column design enables the designer to fill the page with content while keeping it visually interesting.

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FIGurE 7.21 A Poorly Designed Page Source: U.S. Department of Justice, 2010: www.justice.gov/uspc/rules_procedures/uspc-manual111507.pdf.

The writer of this document hasn’t designed the page. He or she has simply hit the Enter key repeatedly.

The full justification makes for a boxy appearance and irregular spacing between words.

The wide column results in long, difficult-to-read lines.

The two hierarchical levels — numbered and lettered — have the same design and therefore are dif- ficult to distinguish from each other.

In the table, the second column is misaligned.

The footer, which includes the date and the page number, is a useful design feature, however.

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Designing Print Documents 185

7

This page is from a government report. The questions below ask you to think about page design (as discussed on pp. 164–79).

1. How many levels of head- ings appear on this page? Are the different levels designed effectively so that they are easy to distinguish? If not, what changes would you make to the design?

2. How are rules used on this page? Are they effective? Would you change any of them?

3. Describe the design of the body text on this page, focusing on columns and alignment. Is the design of the body text effective? Would you change it in any way?

Analyzing a Page Design D O C u m E N T a N a LYS I S aC T I v I T Y

Source: U.S. Congressional Budget Office, 2013: www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/43907-BudgetOutlook .pdf.

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USe DeSiGN tO eMPhASize iMPOrtANt iNfOrMAtiON The smaller the screen, the more cluttered it can become, making it diffi‑ cult for readers to see what is truly important. In documents designed to be viewed on different‑sized screens, you want readers to be able to find what they want quickly and easily. As you begin planning a site, decide what types of information are most essential for your audience, and ensure that that content in particular is clearly accessible from the home screen. Give your buttons, tabs, and other navigational features clear, informative headings. For more guidance on emphasizing important information, see Chapter 6.

Once you have determined the information you want to emphasize, adhere to design principles rigorously so that users can easily identify key content. Use logical patterns of organization and the principles of proximity, alignment, repetition, and contrast so that readers know where they are and how to carry out the tasks they want to accomplish. Figure 7.22 shows a well‑ designed screen for a mobile phone.

CreAte iNfOrMAtiVe heADerS AND fOOterS Headers and footers help readers understand and navigate your document, and they help establish your credibility. You want readers to know that they are reading an official document from your organization and that it was cre‑ ated by professionals. Figure 7.23 shows a typical website header, and Figure 7.24 shows a typical footer.

helP reADerS NAViGAte the DOCUMeNt One important way to help readers navigate is to create and sustain a consistent visual design on every page or screen. Make the header, footer, background color or pattern, typography (typeface, type size, and color), and placement of the navigational links the same on every page. That way, read‑ ers will know where to look for these items.

iNClUDe extrA feAtUreS yOUr reADerS MiGht NeeD Because readers with a range of interests and needs will visit your site, con‑ sider adding some or all of the following five features:

• An FAQ page. A list of frequently asked questions helps new readers by providing basic information, explaining how to use the site, and directing them to more‑detailed discussions.

• A search page or engine. A search page or search engine enables readers to enter a keyword or phrase and find all the pages in the document that contain it.

• resource links. If one of the purposes of your document is to educate readers, provide links to other sites.

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7

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Designing Online Documents 7 187

FIGurE 7.22 Screen for a Mobile Application Sepsis Clinical Guide mobile app, Escavo, Inc. (www.escavo.com).

This app helps physicians diagnose sepsis quickly and effectively. The information most crucial to evaluating the condition is easily accessible on the home screen. At the top of the screen, where the reader’s eyes will initially fall, is an overview of the condition and, most importantly, the diag- nostic tool. Less-essential items, such as resources and references, are located at the bottom of the screen. Supplementary information, such as a call for authors and a feedback form, is deeper on the site, behind the “More” tab.

This simple screen uses the principle of contrast effectively to highlight key content. Each of the eight main content areas has its own color and its own icon to distinguish it from the seven other areas. In addition, the four navigation items at the bottom of the screen use contrast in that the name and icon for the screen the reader is now viewing—in this case, the home page—are pre- sented against a blue screen, whereas those for the other three navigation buttons are presented against a black screen.

FIGurE 7.23 Website header Notice that a header in a website provides much more accessing information than a header in a printed document. This header enables readers to search the site, as the header on almost every site does, but it also includes other elements that are particularly important to the Michael J. Fox Foundation. For instance, there is a link to drug trials that visitors might want to join, and there is a prominent link for donating to the foundation.

The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research. Grand Central Station, P.O. Box 4777, New York, NY 10163-4777. Tel: 1-800-708-7644

Copyright © 2013 Michael J. Fox Foundation. Privacy Policy | Terms & Conditions | Sitemap

FIGurE 7.24 Website footer This simply designed footer presents all the links as text. Readers with impaired vision who use text-to-speech devices will be able to understand these textual links; they would not be able to understand graphical links.

The top line of the footer contains the contact information for the site.

The bottom line contains the copyright notice, as well as links to the privacy policy, the terms and conditions for using the site, and a site map.

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• A printable version of your site. Online documents are designed for a screen, not a page. A printable version of your document, with black text on a white background and all the text and graphics consolidated into one big file, will save readers paper and toner.

• A text-only version of your document. Many readers with impaired vision rely on text because their specialized software cannot interpret graphics. Consider creating a text‑only version of your document for these readers, and include a link to it on your home page.

(continued)

Making Your Document Easy To Navigate Follow these five suggestions to make it easy for readers to find what they want in your document.

include a site map or index. a site map, which lists the pages on the site, can be a graphic or a textual list of the pages, classified according to logical categories. an index is an alphabetized list of the pages. Figure 7.25 shows a portion of a site map.

FIGurE 7.25 Site Map For large websites, help your readers by organizing the site map rather than just presenting an alphabetical list of the pages. In this portion of a site map, Micron Technology classifies the pages in logical categories to help visitors find the pages they seek. Source: Micron Technology, Inc.

use a table of contents at the top of long pages. if your page extends for more than a couple of screens, include a table of contents—a set of links to the items on that page—so that your readers do not have to scroll down to find the topic they want. Tables of contents can link to information farther down on the same page or to information on separate pages. Figure 7.26 shows an excerpt from the table of contents at the top of a frequently asked questions (FaQ) page.

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Designing Online Documents 7 189

FIGurE 7.26 table of Contents The table of contents is classified by topic (first all the topics about protecting your intellectual property in the United States, then all the topics about protecting it outside the United States). For any online document, large or small, use the principles of organizing information presented in Chapter 6. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013: www.stopfakes.gov/faqs.

help readers get back to the top of long pages. if a page is long enough to justify a table of contents, include a “Back to top” link (a textual link or a button or icon) before the start of each new chunk of information.

include a link to the home page on every page. This link can be a simple “Back to home page” textual link, a button, or an icon.

include textual navigational links at the bottom of the page. if you use buttons or icons for links, include textual versions of those links at the bottom of the page. readers with impaired vision might use special software that reads the information on the screen. This software interprets text only, not graphics.

helP reADerS CONNeCt With OtherS Organizations use their online documents, in particular their websites, to promote interaction with clients, customers, suppliers, journalists, govern‑ ment agencies, and the general public. For this reason, most organizations use their sites to encourage their various stakeholders to connect with them through social media such as discussion boards and blogs.

Use your online document to direct readers to interactive features of your own website, as well as to your pages on social‑media sites such as Facebook or Twitter. Figure 7.27 on page 190 shows a portion of NASA’s community page.

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DeSiGN fOr reADerS With DiSABilitieS The Internet has proved to be a terrific technology for people with disabilities because it brings a world of information to their devices, enabling them to work from home and participate in virtual communities. However, most sites on the Internet are not designed to accommodate people with disabilities.

The following discussion highlights several ways to make your online documents easier for people with disabilities to use. Consider three main types of disabilities as you design your site:

• vision impairment. People who cannot see, or cannot see well, rely on text‑ to‑speech software. Do not rely on color or graphics alone to communicate information—provide either a text‑only version of your document or textual equivalents of all your graphics. Use the “alt” (alternate) tag to create a textual label that appears when the reader holds the mouse over the graphic. For example, if you use a red icon to signal a warning, also use the word warning. Use 12‑point or larger type throughout your site, and provide audio feedback—for example, having a button beep when the reader presses it.

• hearing impairment. If you use video, provide captions and, if the video includes sound, a volume control. Also use visual feedback techniques; for example, make a button flash when the reader clicks on it.

FIGurE 7.27 Maintaining Communities As a federal agency with a mission that includes public education, NASA has a robust social-media presence. NASA has dozens of accounts on Facebook and the other popular social-media platforms, and it offers many opportunities for scientists and the general public alike to stay connected through blogs, podcasts, chat rooms, and educational programs and activities on such topics as how to view the International Space Station. Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2013: www.nasa.gov/socialmedia/.

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Analyzing Several Online-Document Designs 7 191

• mobility impairment. Some people with mobility impairments find it easier to use the keyboard than a mouse. Therefore, build in keyboard shortcuts wherever possible. If readers have to click on an area of the screen using a pointing device, make the area large so that it is easy to see and click on.

DeSiGN fOr MUltiCUltUrAl AUDieNCeS About 75 percent of the people using the Internet are nonnative speakers of English, and that percentage continues to grow as more people from develop‑ ing nations go online (Internet World Stats, 2013). Therefore, it makes sense in planning your online documents to assume that many of your readers will not be proficient in English.

Planning for a multicultural website is similar to planning for a multicul‑ tural printed document:

• use common words and short sentences and paragraphs.

• Avoid idioms, both verbal and visual, that might be confusing. For instance, don’t use sports metaphors, such as full-court press, or a graphic of an American‑style mailbox to suggest an email link.

• if a large percentage of your readers speak a language other than english, consider creating a version of your site in that language. The expense can be considerable, but so can the benefits.

E T H I C S N OT E

DeSiGNiNG leGAl AND hONeSt ONliNe DOCUMeNtS You know that the words and images that you see on the internet are covered by copyright, even if you do not see a copyright symbol. The only exception is information that is in the public domain either because it is not covered by copyright (such as information created by entities of the u.s. federal government), because copyright has expired (the author has been dead over 70 years), or because the creator of the information has explicitly stated that the information is in the public domain and you are free to copy it.

But what about the design of a site? almost all web designers readily admit to spending a lot of time looking at other sites and pages for inspiration. and they admit to looking at the computer code to see how that design was achieved. This is perfectly ethical. so is copying the code for routine elements such as tables. But is it ethical to download the code for a whole page, including the layout and the design, and then plug in your own data? no. Your responsi- bility is to create your own information, then display it with your own design.

AiM fOr SiMPliCity Well‑designed online documents are simple, with only a few colors and noth‑ ing extraneous. The text is easy to read and chunked effectively, and the links are written carefully so readers know where they are being directed.

Analyzing several online-document designs The best way to learn about designing websites and their pages is to study them. Figures 7.28 to 7.30 offer examples of good web page design.

For more about copyright law, see Ch. 2, p. 22.

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FIGurE 7.28 Making the Small Print a little larger Source: LinkedIn, 2013: http://www .linkedin.com/legal/user-agreement.

Nobody likes user agreements, and few people read them carefully. LinkedIn, the online professional network, uses a simple table design to make its user agreement a little easier to read.

In this excerpt, the left column pre- sents a simple overview of a portion of the agreement. The right column presents the “small print”: the specific provision, including links to even more detailed information.

The About NIH page on the National Institutes of Health website conveys its message simply but effectively.

The top row is reserved for the name of this government agency.

Below the agency’s name is the main navigation pane, beginning with “Health Information.”

Below the main navigation pane is the navigation pane for the section in which this page appears: “About NIH.” The About NIH page has 18 sections, beginning with “Mission.”

FIGurE 7.29 An About Us Page Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

(continued)

Designing Simple, Clear Web Pages Follow these eight suggestions to make your design attractive and easy to use.

use conservative color combinations to increase text legibility. The greater the contrast between the text color and the background color, the more legible the text. The most legible color combination is black text against a white back- ground. Bad idea: black on purple.

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Analyzing Several Online-Document Designs 7 193

Avoid decorative graphics. don’t waste space using graphics that convey no useful information. Think twice before you use clip art.

use thumbnail graphics. instead of a large graphic, which takes up space, requires a long time to download, and uses up your reader’s data-download allotment, use a thumbnail that readers can click on if they wish to open a larger version.

Keep the text short. Poor screen resolution makes reading long stretches of text difficult. in general, pages should contain no more than two or three screens of information.

Chunk information. When you write for the screen, chunk information to make it easier to understand. use frequent headings, brief paragraphs, and lists.

make the text as simple as possible. use common words and short sentences to make the information as simple as the subject allows.

structure your sentences as if there were no links in your text. awkward Click here to go to the rehabilitation Center page, which links

to research centers across the nation. smooth The rehabilitation Center page links to research centers across

the nation.

indicate what information a linked page contains. readers get frustrated if they wait for a web file to download and then discover that it doesn’t contain the information they expected.

uninformative see the rehabilitation Center. informative see the rehabilitation Center’s hours of operation.

For more about chunking, see p. 167.

FIGurE 7.30 An App Designed for a Small Screen Source: National Gallery of Art, 2013: http://apps.usa.gov/yourart.shtml.

Your Art, an app from the U.S. National Gallery of Art, enables museum visitors—and anyone with an Internet connection—to see and learn about many of the art treasures displayed in the museum. The app includes numerous features, including news about exhibitions, textual com- mentary, and audio commentary.

All of the paintings presented in the app are shown on screens with the same design, mak- ing it easy for people to learn how to find the information they seek. Note that the design of the screen is simple and familiar icons are used for manipulating the size of the text and of the image and for playing the audio. Despite the small size of the screen, users will find it easy to navigate and use the app.

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W r I T E r ’S C H E C K L I S T

Did you

analyze your audience: their knowledge of the subject, their attitudes, their reasons for reading, and the kinds of tasks they will be carrying out? (p. 160)

consider the purpose or purposes you are trying to achieve? (p. 160)

determine your resources in time, money, and equipment? (p. 161)

Designing Print Documents and Pages Did you

think about which accessing aids would be most appropriate, such as icons, color, dividers and tabs, and cross-reference tables? (p. 164)

use color, if available, to highlight certain items, such as warnings? (p. 165)

devise a style for headers and footers? (p. 166)

devise a style for page numbers? (p. 166)

draw thumbnail sketches and page grids that define columns and white space? (p. 168)

choose typefaces that are appropriate for your subject? (p. 172)

use appropriate styles from the type families? (p. 172)

use type sizes that are appropriate for your subject and audience? (p. 173)

choose a line length that is suitable for your subject and audience? (p. 174)

choose line spacing that is suitable for your line length, subject, and audience? (p. 174)

consider whether to use left-justified text or full-justified text? (p. 175)

design your title for clarity and emphasis? (p. 176)

devise a logical, consistent style for each heading level? (p. 176)

use rules, boxes, screens, marginal glosses, and pull quotes where appropriate? (p. 177)

Designing Online Documents Did you

create informative headers and footers? (p. 186)

include extra features your readers might need, such as an FAQ page, a search page or engine, resource links, a printable version of your site, or a text-only version? (p. 186)

help readers navigate the site by including a site map, a table of contents, “Back to top” links, and textual navigation buttons? (p. 188)

help readers connect with others through links to interactive portions of your site and to social-media sites? (p. 189)

design for readers with vision, hearing, or mobility impairment? (p. 190)

design for multicultural audiences? (p. 191)

aim for simplicity in web page design by using simple backgrounds and conservative color combinations and by avoiding decorative graphics? (p. 192)

make the text easy to read and understand by keeping it short, chunking information, and writing simply? (p. 193)

E x E r C I S E S

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Study the first and second pages of an article in a journal in your field. Describe ten design features on these two pages. Which design features are most effective for the audience and purpose? Which are least effective?

2. teAM exerCiSe Form small groups for this collaborative exercise in analyzing design. Photocopy or scan a page from a book or a magazine. Choose a page

that does not contain advertisements. Each person works independently for the first part of this project:

• One person describes the design elements.

• One person evaluates the design. Which aspects of the design are effective, and which could be improved?

• One person creates a new design using thumbnail sketches.

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exercises 7 Then meet as a group and compare notes. Do all

members of the group agree with the first member’s description of the design? With the second member’s evaluation of the design? Do all members like the third member’s redesign? What have your discussions taught you about design? Write a memo to your instructor presenting your findings, and include the photocopy or scan of the page with your memo.

3. Study the excerpt from this Micron data flyer (2012, p. 1). Describe the designer’s use of alignment as a design principle. How effective is it? How would you modify it? Present your analysis and recommendations in a brief memo to your instructor.

CSN 33: Micron BGA Manufacturer’s User Guide Introduction

Customer Service Note BGA Manufacturer’s User Guide for Micron BGA Parts

Introduction This customer service note provides information that will enable customers to easily integrate both leading-edge a n d legacy Micron® ball grid array (BGA) packages into their manufacturing processes. It is intended as a set of high-level guidelines and a refer- ence manual describing typical package-related and manufacturing process-flow prac- tices. The recommendations and suggestions provided in this customer service note serve as a guideline to help the end user to develop user-specific solutions. It is the responsibility of the end user to optimize the process to obtain the desired results.

Because the package landscape changes rapidly and information can become outdated very quickly, refer to the latest product specifications. Contact your sales representative for any additional questions not covered within this guide.

This document uses JEDEC terminology. JEDEC-based BGA devices in the semicon- ductor industry are identified by two key attributes: • Maximum package height (profile) • Ball pitch

Package descriptors F1 through F6 have been added to provide more detailed ball pitch information for devices with a ball pitch of less than 0.8mm. Within the industry, many memory manufacturers continue to use only the “F” descriptor for any ball pitch of 1.0mm or less (see JEDEC JESD30E for additional information). Maximum package height profile and ball pitch codes based on the JEDEC standard are shown in Tables 1

Products and specifications discussed herein are for evaluation and reference purposes only and are subject to change by Micron without notice. Products are only warranted by Micron to meet Micron’s production data sheet specifications. All information discussed herein is provided on an “as is” basis, without warranties of any kind.

PDF: 09005aef8479301f/Source: 09005aef84792f7e csn33_bga_user_guide.fm-Rev. A 12/12 EN1

Die attach layer or flip chip with

solder bumps

Solder ball

1

Silicon die Wire bond (typically gold)

Mold compound

PCB substrate

For example: TFBGA - 1.2m m package height and less than 1.0m m ball pitch.

An overview of a typical BGA package and its components are shown in Figure 1.

JEDEC Terminology

Figure 1: Ball Grid Array Package (Dual Die, Wire Bonded)

Micron Technology, Inc., reserves the right to change products or specifications without notice. ©2011 Micron Technology, Inc. All rights reserved.

Source: Micron Technology, Inc.

195

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DeSiGNiNG PriNt AND ONliNe DOCUMeNtS7 4. Find the websites of three manufacturers within a single

industry, such as personal watercraft, cars, computers, or medical equipment. Study the three sites, focusing on one of these aspects of site design:

• use of color

• quality of the site map or index

• navigation, including the clarity and placement of links to other pages in the site

• accommodation of multicultural readers

• accommodation of people with disabilities

• phrasing of the links

Which of the three sites is most effective? Which is least effective? Why? Compare and contrast the three sites in terms of their effectiveness.

5. Find a website that serves the needs of people with a physical disability (for example, the Glaucoma Foundation, www.glaucomafoundation.org). Have the designers tried to accommodate the needs of visitors to the site? How effective do you think those attempts have been?

C a S E 7 : designing a Flyer

As an employee in the educational information office in the U.S. Department of Education, you have been asked by your supervisor to design a flyer for international students hoping to complete graduate school in the United States. She has given you a text document with all of the relevant information; it’s your job to turn that information into a visually appealing flyer that will catch students’ attention. Your supervisor has asked you to write her a memo before you begin, describing and defending the design you have in mind. To get started designing your flyer, go to LaunchPad.

196

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The Functions of Graphics 198

ThinkinG Visually: Characteristics of an Effective Graphic 200

understanding the Process of Creating Graphics 201 Planning graPhics 201

■ EthiCs NotE: Creating honest Graphics 203

Producing graPhics 203 ■ tECh tip: how to insert and Modify Graphics 204 ■ GuidEliNEs: integrating Graphics and text 204

revising graPhics 205

citing sources of graPhics 205

using Color Effectively 206

Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 209 illustrating numerical information 209

■ ChoiCEs aNd stratEGiEs: Choosing the appropriate Kind of Graphic 211 ■ GuidEliNEs: Creating Effective tables 213 ■ GuidEliNEs: Creating Effective Bar Graphs 216 ■ GuidEliNEs: Creating Effective infographics 219 ■ tECh tip: how to use drawing tools 221 ■ GuidEliNEs: Creating Effective line Graphs 221 ■ GuidEliNEs: Creating Effective pie Charts 222

8Creating Graphics

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198

8 illustrating logical relationshiPs 224

illustrating Process descriPtions and instructions 224 ■ doCuMENt aNalysis aCtivity: analyzing a Graphic 226

■ doCuMENt aNalysis aCtivity: interactive Graphic 227 and

illustrating visual and sPatial characteristics 229 ■ tutorial: photo Editing Basics with GiMp ■ GuidEliNEs: presenting photographs Effectively 230 ■ tECh tip: how to Create and insert screen shots 233

Creating Effective Graphics for Multicultural Readers 234

WRiTER’s ChECklisT 235

ExERCisEs 236

CasE 8: Creating appropriate Graphics to accompany a report 238 and

GRAPHICS ARE THE vISuAlS in technical communication: drawings, maps, photographs, diagrams, charts, graphs, and tables. Graphics range from realistic, such as photographs, to highly abstract, such as organization charts. they range from decorative, such as clip art and stock photos that show people seated at a conference table, to highly informative, such as a schematic diagram of an electronic device.

Graphics are important in technical communication because they do the following:

• catch readers’ attention and interest • help writers communicate information that is difficult to communicate with words • help writers clarify and emphasize information • help nonnative speakers of English understand information • help writers communicate information to multiple audiences with different

interests, aptitudes, and reading habits

the functions of graphics We have known for decades that graphics motivate people to study docu- ments more closely. Some 83 percent of what we learn derives from what we see, whereas only 11 percent derives from what we hear (Gatlin, 1988). Because we are good at acquiring information through sight, a document that includes a visual element in addition to the words is more effective than one that doesn’t. People studying a document with graphics learn about one-third more than people studying a document without graphics (Levie & Lentz, 1982). And people remember 43 percent more when a document includes graphics (Morrison & Jimmerson, 1989). In addition, readers like graphics. According to one survey, readers of computer documentation consistently want more graphics and fewer words (Brockmann, 1990, p. 203).

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The Functions of Graphics 8 199

Graphics offer five benefits that words alone cannot:

• graphics are indispensable in demonstrating logical and numerical relationships. For example, an organization chart effectively represents the lines of authority in an organization. And if you want to communicate the number of power plants built in each of the last 10 years, a bar graph works better than a paragraph.

• graphics can communicate spatial information more effectively than words alone. If you want to show the details of a bicycle derailleur, a diagram of the bicycle with a close-up of the derailleur is more effective than a verbal description.

• graphics can communicate steps in a process more effectively than words alone. A troubleshooter’s guide, a common kind of table, explains what might be causing a problem in a process and how you might fix it. And a diagram can show clearly how acid rain forms.

• graphics can save space. Consider the following paragraph:

in the Wilmington area, some 80 percent of the population aged 18 to 24 have watched streamed movies on their computers. they watch an average of 1.86 movies a week. among 25- to 34-year-olds, the percentage is 72, and the average number of movies is 1.62. among 35- to 49-year-olds, the percentage is 62, and the average number of movies is 1.19. among the 50 to 64 age group, the percentage is 47, and the number of movies watched averages 0.50. Finally, among those people 65 years old or older, the percentage is 28, and the average number of movies watched weekly is 0.31.

Presenting this information in a paragraph is uneconomical and makes the information hard to remember. Presented as a table, however, the information is more concise and more memorable.

age Percentage Watching streaming Movies

number of Movies Watched per Week

18–24 80 1.86

25-34 72 1.62

35–49 62 1.19

50–64 47 0.50

65+ 28 0.31

• graphics can reduce the cost of documents intended for international readers. Translation costs more than 10 cents per word (ProZ.com, 2013). Used effectively, graphics can reduce the number of words you have to translate.

As you plan and draft your document, look for opportunities to use graph- ics to clarify, emphasize, summarize, and organize information.

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Characteristics of an Effective Graphic To be effective, graphics must be clear, understandable,

and meaningfully related to the larger discussion. Follow these five principles when creating them.

A graphic should serve a purpose. Don’t include a graphic unless it will help readers understand or remember information.

A graphic should be simple and uncluttereD. three-dimensional bar graphs are easy to make, but they are harder to understand than two-dimensional ones.

A graphic should present a mAnAgeAble amount of information. presenting too much information can confuse readers. consider what kinds of graphics your readers are familiar with, how much they already know about the subject, and what you want the document to do. consider creating several simple graphics rather than a single complicated one.

A graphic should meet readers’ formAt expectations. follow the conventions—for instance, use diamonds to represent decision points in a flowchart—unless you have a good reason not to.

A graphic should be clearly lAbeleD. give every graphic (except a brief, informal one) a unique, clear, informative title. fully label the columns of a table and the axes and lines of a graph. Don’t make readers guess whether you are using meters or yards, or whether you are also including statistics from the previous year.

uninsured and insured patients Visiting the crestwood urgent care center,

January–march 2016

January

insured uninsured

pe rc

en ta

g e

o f V

is it

s

75% 85% 60%

25% 15% 40%

February month

March

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

THINKING VISUALLY

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understanding the Process of Creating Graphics 8 201

understanding the Process of creating graphics Creating graphics involves planning, producing, revising, and citing.

PlanninG GRaPhiCs Whether you focus first on the text or the graphics, consider the following four issues as you plan your graphics.

• audience. Will readers understand the kinds of graphics you want to use? Will they know the standard icons in your field? Are they motivated to read your document, or do you need to enliven the text—for example, by adding color for emphasis—to hold their attention? General audiences know how to read common types of graphics, such as those that appear frequently in newspapers or on popular websites. A general audience, for example, could use this bar graph to compare two bottles of wine:

12

10

8

6

4

2

0 Color

Intensity Aroma

Intensity Trueness Overall

Quality

3.6

Wine 1 Wine 2

However, they would probably have trouble with the following radar graph:

Color Intensity

Aroma Intensity

Trueness

Overall Quality

Wine 1 Wine 2

10 8 6 4 2 0

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 202

• Purpose. What point are you trying to make with the graphic? Imagine what you want your readers to know and do with the information. For example, if you want readers to know the exact dollar amounts spent on athletics by a college, use a table:

year Men’s athletics ($)

Women’s athletics ($)

2013 38,990 29,305

2014 42,400 30,080

2015 44,567 44,213

If you want readers to know how spending on athletics is changing over time, use a line graph:

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

3.6

Men’s Athletics Women’s Athletics

A m

o u

n t

($ )

Year

2013 2014 2015

• the kind of information you want to communicate. Your subject will help you decide what type of graphic to include. For example, in writing about languages spoken by your state’s citizens, you might use a table for the statistical data, a map for the patterns of language use, and a graph for statistical trends over time.

• Physical conditions. The physical conditions in which readers will use the document—amount of lighting, amount of surface space available, the size of the screen on which the information will be displayed, and so forth—will influence the type of graphic as well as its size and shape, the thickness of lines, the size of type, and the color.

As you plan how you are going to create the graphics, consider four impor- tant factors:

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understanding the Process of Creating Graphics 8 203

• time. Because making a complicated graphic can take a lot of time, you need to establish a schedule.

• money. Creating a high-quality graphic can be expensive. How big is the project budget? How can you use that money effectively?

• equipment. Determine what tools and software you will require, such as spreadsheets for tables and graphs or graphics software for diagrams.

• expertise. How much do you know about creating graphics? Do you have access to the expertise of others?

E T H I C S N OT E

CREaTinG honEsT GRaPhiCs Follow these six suggestions to ensure that you represent data honestly in your graphics.

• If you did not create the graphic or generate the data, cite your source. If you want to publish a graphic that you did not create, obtain permission. For more on citing graphics, see page 205.

• Include all relevant data. For example, if you have a data point that you cannot explain, do not change the scale to eliminate it.

• Begin the axes in your graphs at zero—or mark them clearly—so that you represent quanti- ties honestly.

• Do not use a table to hide a data point that would be obvious in a graph.

• Show items as they really are. Do not manipulate a photograph of a computer monitor to make the screen look bigger than it is, for example.

• Do not use color or shading to misrepresent an item’s importance. A light-shaded bar in a bar graph, for example, appears larger and nearer than a dark-shaded bar of the same size.

Common problem areas are pointed out in the discussions of various kinds of graphics throughout this chapter.

PRoduCinG GRaPhiCs Usually, you won’t have all the resources you would like. You will have to choose one of the following four approaches:

• use existing graphics. For a student paper that will not be published, some instructors allow the use of photocopies or scans of existing graphics; other instructors do not. For a document that will be published, whether written by a student or a professional, using an existing graphic is permissible if the graphic is in the public domain (that is, not under copyright), if it is the property of the writer’s organization, or if the organization has obtained permission to use it. Be particularly careful about graphics you find on the web. Many people mistakenly think that anything on the web can be used without permission. The same copyright laws that apply to printed material apply to web-based material, whether words or graphics. For more on citing graphics, see page 205.

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 204

Aside from the issue of copyright, think carefully before you use existing graphics. The style of the graphic might not match that of the others you want to use; the graphic might lack some features you want or include some you don’t. If you use an existing graphic, assign it your own number and title.

• modify existing graphics. You can redraw an existing graphic or use a scanner to digitize the graphic and then modify it electronically with graphics software.

• create graphics on a computer. You can create many kinds of graphics using your spreadsheet software and the drawing tools on your word processor. Consult the Selected Bibliography, located in LaunchPad, for a list of books about computers and technical communication.

• have someone else create the graphics. Professional-level graphics software can cost hundreds of dollars and require hundreds of hours of practice. Some companies have technical-publications departments with graphics experts, but others subcontract this work. Many print shops and service bureaus have graphics experts on staff or can direct you to them.

For more about work made for hire, see Ch. 2, p. 23.

how to insert and modify graphics

to highlight, clarify, summarize, and organize information, you can insert and modify graphics by using the Picture but- ton and the Format tab.

to insert a graphic that you have on file — such as a photo- graph, drawing, chart, or graph — place your cursor where you want to insert the graphic and then select the Picture button in the illustra- tions group on the insert tab.

you can also insert clip art, shapes, charts, screenshots, and smartart.

to modify an image that is already in your document, double-click on it and then use the Picture Tools Format tab. this tab enables you to modify the appearance, size, and layout of a picture.

Buttons in the adjust group enable you to modify many aspects of the picture’s appearance.

Buttons in the arrange group enable you to position your graphic and control how text wraps around it.

KEYWORDS: format tab, arrange group, picture style, size, ad- just, insert picture, format picture, modify picture, picture style, picture toolbar

(continued)

Integrating Graphics and Text it is not enough to add graphics to your text; you have to integrate the two.

Place the graphic in an appropriate location. if readers need the graphic in order to understand the discussion, put it directly after the relevant point in the discus- sion or as soon after it as possible. if the graphic merely supports or elaborates a point, include it as an appendix.

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understanding the Process of Creating Graphics 8 205

REVisinG GRaPhiCs As with any other aspect of technical communication, build in enough time and budget enough money to revise the graphics you want to use. Create a checklist and evaluate each graphic for effectiveness. The Writer’s Checklist at the end of this chapter is a good starting point. Show your graphics to people whose backgrounds are similar to those of your intended readers and ask them for suggestions. Revise the graphics and solicit more reactions.

CiTinG souRCEs oF GRaPhiCs If you wish to publish a graphic that is protected by copyright (even if you have revised it), you need to obtain written permission from the copyright holder. Related to the issue of permission is the issue of citation. Of course, you do not have to cite the source of a graphic if you created it yourself, if it is not protected by copyright, or if your organization owns the copyright.

In all other cases, however, you should include a source citation, even if your document is a course assignment and will not be published. Citing the sources of graphics, even those you have revised substantially, shows your instructor that you understand professional conventions and your ethical responsibilities.

For more information about copyright, see Ch. 2, p. 22.

introduce the graphic in the text. Whenever possible, refer to a graphic before it appears (ideally, on the same page). refer to the graphic by number (such as “see Figure 7”). do not refer to “the figure above” or “the figure below,” because the graphic might move during the production process. if the graphic is in an ap- pendix, cross-reference it: “For complete details of the operating characteristics, see appendix B, page 19.”

explain the graphic in the text. state what you want readers to learn from it. sometimes a simple paraphrase of the title is enough: “Figure 2 compares the costs of the three major types of coal gasification plants.” at other times, however, you might need to explain why the graphic is important or how to interpret it. if the graphic is intended to make a point, be explicit:

as Figure 2 shows, a high-sulfur bituminous coal gasification plant is more expensive than either a low-sulfur bituminous or an anthracite plant, but more than half of its cost is for cleanup equipment. If these expenses could be eliminated, high-sulfur bituminous would be the least expensive of the three types of plants.

in addition to text explanations, graphics are often accompanied by captions, ranging from a sentence to several paragraphs.

make the graphic clearly visible. distinguish the graphic from the surrounding text by adding white space around it, placing rules (lines) above and below it, putting a screen behind it, or enclosing it in a box.

make the graphic accessible. if the document is more than a few pages long and contains more than four or five graphics, consider including a list of illustrations so that readers can find them easily.

For more about white space, rules, boxes, and screens, see Ch. 7, pp. 170 and 178. For more about lists of illustrations, see Ch. 13, p. 353.

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 206

If you are following a style manual, check to see whether it presents a format for citing sources of graphics. In addition to citing a graphic’s source in the reference list, most style manuals call for a source statement in the caption:

print source source: verduijn, 2015, p. 14. Copyright 2015 by tedopres international B.v. reprinted with permission.

online source source: Johnson space Center digital image Collection. Copyright 2015 by Nasa. reprinted with permission.

If your graphic is based on an existing graphic, the source statement should state that the graphic is “based on” or “adapted from” your source:

source: adapted from Jonklaas et al., 2011, p. 771. Copyright 2008 by american Medical association. reprinted with permission.

using color effectively Color draws attention to information you want to emphasize, establishes visual patterns to promote understanding, and adds interest. But it is also easy to misuse. The following discussion is based on Jan V. White’s excellent text Color for the Electronic Age (1990).

In using color in graphics and page design, keep these six principles in mind:

• don’t overdo it. Readers can interpret only two or three colors at a time. Use colors for small items, such as portions of graphics and important words. And don’t use colors where black and white will work better.

• use color to emphasize particular items. People interpret color before they interpret shape, size, or placement on the page. Color effectively draws readers’ attention to a particular item or group of items on a page. In Figure 8.1, for example, color adds emphasis to different kinds of information.

• use color to create patterns. The principle of repetition—readers learn to recognize patterns—applies in graphics as well as in document design. In creating patterns, also consider shape. For instance, use red for safety comments but place them in octagons resembling a stop sign. This way, you give your readers two visual cues to help them recognize the pattern. Figure 8.2 shows the use of color to establish patterns. Color is also an effective way to emphasize design features such as text boxes, rules, screens, and headers and footers.

• use contrast effectively. The visibility of a color is a function of the background against which it appears (see Figure 8.3 on page 208). The strongest contrasts are between black and white and between black and

For more about style manuals, see Appendix, Part A, p. 450.

For more about designing your document, see Ch. 7.

For more about presentation graphics, see Ch. 15, p. 429.

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using Color Effectively 8 207

yellow. The need for effective contrast also applies to graphics used in presentations, as shown in Figure 8.4 on page 208.

• take advantage of any symbolic meanings colors may already have. In American culture, for example, red signals danger, heat, or electricity; yellow signals caution; and orange signals warning. Using these warm colors in ways that depart from these familiar meanings could be confusing. The cooler colors—blues and greens—are more conservative and subtle. (Figure 8.5 illustrates these principles.) Keep in mind, however, that people in different cultures interpret colors differently.

For more about cultural patterns, see Ch. 4, p. 63.

FIGuRE 8.1 Color used for Emphasis

Source: From W. K. Purves, D. Sadava, G. H. Orians, and H. C. Heller, LIFE: THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY, Seventh Edition, Page 560.

Source: Bonneville, 2009: www.bpa.gov/Financial Information/Annual reports/Documents/AR2009.pdf

Color used to empha- size one item among others.

Color used to set off a title and the totals row in a table.

FIGuRE 8.2 Color used to Establish Patterns

■ Pyloric sphincter ■ Pylorus ■ Corpus or fundus ■ Esophagus ■ Forestomach or rumen

Kangaroo Mouse RuminantPigHuman

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 208

FIGuRE 8.3 The Effect of Background in Creating Contrast

Notice that a color washes out if the background color is too similar.

New Video Interfaces

Video Scope

Video Space Icon

Video Space Monitor

Paper Video

New Video Interfaces

Video Scope

Video Space Icon

Video Space Monitor

Paper Video

FIGuRE 8.4 Effective Contrast used in a Presentation slide

In graphic (a), the text is hard to read because of insufficient con- trast. The greater contrast in graphic (b) makes the text easier to read.

Audio navigation system

Regenerative braking system

Battery monitor system

Energy management system

Motor controller

Safety system

Battery pack Brushless DC motor

Inductive charging system

Variable- temperature seat

FIGuRE 8.5 Colors have Clear associations for Readers

The batteries are red. The warm red contrasts effectively with the cool green of the car body.

a. insufficient contrast b. Effective contrast

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 209

• Be aware that color can obscure or swallow up text.

Is this text the same size?

, even

.

Is this text the same size?

This line of type appears to reach out to the reader. This line of type appears to recede into the background.

choosing the appropriate Kind of graphic As Figure 8.6 (on page 210) shows, even a few simple facts can yield a number of different points. Your responsibility when creating a graphic is to deter- mine what point you want to make and how best to make it. Don’t rely on your software to do your thinking; it can’t.

Graphics used in technical documents are classified as tables or figures. Tables are lists of data, usually numbers, arranged in columns. Figures are everything else: graphs, charts, diagrams, photographs, and the like. Typically, tables and figures are numbered separately: the first table in a document is Table 1; the first figure is Figure 1. In documents of more than one chapter (like this book), the graphics are usually numbered within each chapter. That is, Figure 3.2 is the second figure in Chapter 3.

The discussion that follows is based on the classification system in William Horton’s “Pictures Please—Presenting Information Visually,” in Tech- niques for Technical Communicators (Horton, 1992). The Choices and Strategies box on page 211 presents an overview of the following discussion.

illusTRaTinG nuMERiCal inFoRMaTion The kinds of graphics used most often to display numerical values are tables, bar graphs, infographics, line graphs, and pie charts.

Tables Tables convey large amounts of numerical data easily, and they are often the only way to present several variables for a number of items. For example, if you wanted to show how many people are employed in six indus- tries in 10 states, a table would probably be most effective. Although tables lack the visual appeal of other kinds of graphics, they can handle much more information.

In addition to having a number (“Table 1”), tables are identified by an infor- mative title that includes the items being compared and the basis (or bases) of comparison:

table 3. Mallard population in rangeley, 2012–2015

table 4.7. the Growth of the robotics industry in Japan and the united states, 2015

Figure 8.7 (on page 213) illustrates the standard parts of a table.

If you are using print against a colored background, you might need to make the type a little big- ger, because color makes text look smaller.

Text printed against a white background looks bigger than the same-size text printed against a colored background. White letters counteract this effect.

a. insufficient contrast b. Effective contrast

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 210

0

50

Nov.

Rail Line

Bryn Mawr

Swarthmore

Manayunk

November

Disabled by electrical problems (%)

Total disabled

December January

19 (70)

12 (75)

22 (64)

27

16

34

Disabled by electrical problems (%)

Total disabled

17 (60)

9 (52)

26 (83)

28

17

31

Disabled by electrical problems (%)

Total disabled

20 (76)

13 (81)

24 (72)

26

16

33

10

20

30

40

60

70

80

a. Number of railcars disabled, November–January

Dec. Jan.

Bryn Mawr 8 27

Swarthmore

Manayunk

4 16

341222

12

19

electrical other b. Number of railcars disabled in November

electrical other

0

50

Nov.

10

20

30

40

60

70

100

d. Range in percentage of railcars, by line, disabled by electrical problems, November–January

Dec. Jan.

Bryn Mawr Manayunk

80

90

Swarthmore

0

25

Nov.

5

10

15

20

c. Number of railcars disabled by electrical problems, November–January

Dec. Jan.

Bryn Mawr

Manayunk

Swarthmore

FIGuRE 8.6 different Graphics Emphasizing different Points Each of these four graphs emphasizes a different point derived from the data in the table. Graph (a) focuses on the total number of railcars disabled each month, classified by cause; graph (b) focuses on the three rail lines during one month; and so forth. For information on bar graphs, see pages 215–18; for information on line graphs, see pages 221–22.

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 211

iF you WanT To . . . TRy This TyPE oF GRaPhiC WhaT This GRaPhiC doEs BEsT

illustrate numerical information

table East West South Total

Jan 14 12 9

35

Feb 14 8

15 37

Mar 10 14 18 42

Total 38 34 42

114

shows large amounts of numerical data, especially useful when there are several variables for a number of items

Bar graph shows the relative values of two or more items.

infographic Enlivens statistical information for the general reader.

line graph Shows how the quantity of an item changes over time. a line graph can present much more data than a bar graph can.

pie chart shows the relative sizes of the parts of a whole. pie charts are instantly familiar to most readers.

illustrate logical relationships

diagram Dimmer/ Switch/Fan-Speed Control

120VAC 60Hz

Neutral

Lighting Load of FanGreen

Red

RedHost Black

represents relationships among items or properties of items.

organization chart

Block-Diagram Version

DFC

COTADM

ADM Control

120 Protocol

TCG Module

TCG Module

shows the lines of authority and responsibility in an organization or hierarchical relationships among items.

illustrate process descriptions and instructions

Checklist Lists or shows what equipment or materials to gather or describes an action.

C H O I C E S A N D S T R A T E G I E S choosing the appropriate Kind of graphic

(continued)

Source: Whitehouse .gov, 2014: http://www .whitehouse.gov/share /current-minimum -wage-isn-t-enough -workers-get-outpoverty.

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 212

Based on W. Horton, “The Almost Universal Language: Graphics for International Documentation” from TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 40 (1993): 682–693.

iF you WanT To . . . TRy This TyPE oF GRaPhiC WhaT This GRaPhiC doEs BEsT

illustrate process descriptions and instructions (continued)

table PM (Months)

Light Use 3

Clean Exterior/Interior Clean Heads

Lubricate Transport Clean Rubber Parts

Clean Battery Clean Connectors

6 9 12 shows numbers of items or indicates the state (on/off ) of an item.

Flowchart Lorem ipsom... Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

Lorem ipsom...

shows the stages of a procedure or a process.

logic tree

Do the meeting times fit your schedule?

Have you completed the prerequisites?

Yes

No

Yes

No

shows which of two or more paths to follow.

illustrate visual and spatial characteristics

photograph shows precisely the external surface of objects.

screen shot shows what appears on a computer screen.

line drawing shows simplified representations of objects.

Map shows geographic areas.

choosing the appropriate Kind of graphic (continued)

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 213

FIGuRE 8.7 Parts of a Table This is an interactive table from the Energy Information Administration showing the amount of natural gas stocks in the United States over a six-month period. Note that you can use the radio buttons to show the data by location or product, and you can use the pull-down menu to specify a time frame. Even though this table is interactive, it functions much the way any table does. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2013: www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_stoc_gp_dcu_nus_m.htm.

Tables are usually titled at the top because readers scan them from top to bottom.

Some tables include a stub head. The stub—the left-hand column— lists the items for which data are displayed. Note that indentation in the stub helps show relationships. The heading “Natural Gas Liquids” is left-aligned. This row functions as a Totals row. Indented beneath this heading are the two categories that make up the totals: pentanes plus and liquefied petroleum gases. Beneath the heading are rows for the four kinds of liquefied petro- leum gases.

Note that the numbers are right- aligned.

Note that tables often contain one or more source statements and footnotes.

The data in this table consist of numbers, but tables can also present textual information or a combination of numbers and text.

Creating Effective Tables Follow these nine suggestions to make sure your tables are clear and professional.

indicate the units of measure. if all the data are expressed in the same unit, indicate that unit in the title:

Farm size in the Midwestern states (in hectares)

if the data in different columns are expressed in different units, indicate the units in the column heads:

population per Capita income (in Millions) (in thousands of u.s. dollars)

if all the data cells in a column use the same unit, indicate that unit in the column head, not in each data cell:

speed (in Knots)

15 18 14

(continued)

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 214

(continued)

you can express data in both real numbers and percentages. a column head and the first data cell under it might read as follows:

Number of students (percentage)

53 (83)

in the stub—the left-hand column—list the items being compared. arrange the items in a logical order: big to small, more important to less important, alphabeti- cal, chronological, geographical, and so forth. if the items fall into several catego- ries, include the names of the categories in the stub:

Snowbelt States . . . . . . . . . . . Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . New york . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sunbelt States . . . . . . . . . . . . . arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . .

if you cannot group the items in the stub in logical categories, skip a line after ev- ery five rows to help the reader follow the rows across the table. or use a screen (a colored background) for every other set of five rows. also useful is linking the stub and the next column with a row of dots called dot leaders.

in the columns, arrange the data clearly and logically. use the decimal-tab fea- ture to line up the decimal points:

3,147.4 365.7 46,803.5

In general, don’t vary the units used in a column unless the quantities are so dissimilar that your readers would have a difficult time understanding them if expressed in the same units.

3.4 hr 12.7 min 4.3 sec

this list would probably be easier for most readers to understand than one in which all quantities were expressed in the same unit.

do the math. if your readers will need to know the totals for the columns or the rows, provide them. if your readers will need to know percentage changes from one column to the next, present them:

Number of students (percentage Change from previous year)

2013 2014 2015

619 644 (+4.0) 614 (–4.7)

use dot leaders if a column contains a “blank” spot—a place where there are no appropriate data:

3,147 . . . 46,803

But don’t substitute dot leaders for a quantity of zero.

For more about screens, see Ch. 7, p. 179.

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 215

Bar Graphs Like tables, bar graphs can communicate numerical values, but they are better at showing the relative values of two or more items. Figure 8.8 shows typical horizontal and vertical bar graphs that you can make easily using your spreadsheet software. Figure 8.9 on page 216 shows an effective bar graph that uses grid lines.

don’t make the table wider than it needs to be. the reader should be able to scan across a row easily. as White (1984) points out, there is no reason to make a table as wide as the text column in the document. If a column head is long— more than five or six words—stack the words:

Computers sold Without a Memory-Card reader

minimize the use of rules. Grimstead (1987) recommends using rules only when necessary: to separate the title and the heads, the heads and the body, and the body and the notes. When you use rules, make them thin rather than thick.

Provide footnotes where necessary. all the information your readers need in order to understand the table should accompany it.

if you did not generate the information yourself, indicate your source. see the discussion of citing sources of graphics on pages 205–06.

E

Quantity

Figure 1. Vertical graph

Quantity

Items

A B C D E

Figure 1. Horizontal graph

D

C

B

A

Items

FIGuRE 8.8 structures of horizontal and Vertical Bar Graphs

Horizontal bars are best for show- ing quantities such as speed and distance. Vertical bars are best for showing quantities such as height, size, and amount. However, these distinctions are not ironclad; as long as the axes are clearly labeled, readers should have no trouble understanding the graph.

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0 J

Figure 1. Tri-County Inflation Rate This Year to Date

Inflation Rate (in percent)

0

6.3

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

J

3.8

4.6

F

4.5

M

5.9

A

5.3

M

FIGuRE 8.9 Effective Bar Graph with Grid lines

Creating Effective Bar Graphs make the proportions fair. Make your vertical axis about 25 percent

shorter than your horizontal axis. an excessively long vertical axis exaggerates the differences in quantities; an excessively long horizontal axis minimizes the differences. Make all the bars the same width, and make the space between them about half as wide as a bar. here are two poorly proportioned graphs:

a. Excessively long vertical axis

Q u

a n

ti ty

Items

b. Excessively long horizontal axis

Q u

a n

ti ty

Items

(continued)

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 217

if possible, begin the quantity scale at zero. doing so ensures that the bars accu- rately represent the quantities. Notice how misleading a graph can be if the scale doesn’t begin at zero.

a. Misleading

Item A

7

Item C

Units (in thousands) 6

Item B

b. Accurately representative

1

Units (in thousands) 5432 760

Item A

Item B

Item C

If it is not practical to start the quantity scale at zero, break the quantity axis clearly at a common point on all the bars.

Units 5,000 7,0006,0000

Item C

Item A

Item B

use tick marks — marks along the axis — to signal the amounts. use grid lines — tick marks that extend through the bars — if the table has several bars, some of which are too far away from the tick marks to enable readers to gauge the quantities easily. (see Figure 8.9.)

arrange the bars in a logical sequence. For a vertical bar graph, use chronology if possible. For a horizontal bar graph, arrange the bars in order of descending size, beginning at the top of the graph, unless some other logical sequence seems more appropriate.

Place the title below the figure. unlike tables, which are usually read from top to bottom, figures are usually read from the bottom up.

indicate the source of your information if you did not generate it yourself.

The five variations on the basic bar graph shown in Table 8.1 on page 218 can help you accommodate different communication needs. You can make all these types using your spreadsheet software.

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Quantity

Items

0

5

A B

2.3

3.3

C

3.5

2

D

1.7

2.4

Aspect I

Aspect II

2.5

3.6

Grouped bar graph. the grouped bar graph lets you compare two or three aspects for each item. Grouped bar graphs would be useful, for example, for showing the numbers of full-time and part-time students at several universities. one bar could represent full-time students; the other, part-time students. to distinguish between the bars, use hatching (striping), shading, or color, and either label one set of bars or provide a key.

Quantity

Items

0

5

A

3.4

1.4

B

2

1.7

C

4.5

0.7

D

1

2.2 Aspect I

Aspect II

4.8

3.7

5.2

3.2

subdivided bar graph. in the subdivided bar graph, aspect i and aspect ii are stacked like wooden blocks placed on top of each other. although totals are easy to compare in a subdivided bar graph, individual quantities are not.

Items

Quantity

A

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

B

C 25 46 29

30 20 50

42 30 28

Aspect I Aspect II Aspect III

100-percent bar graph. the 100-percent bar graph, which shows the relative proportions of the aspects that make up several items, is useful in portraying, for example, the proportion of full-scholarship, partial-scholarship, and no-scholarship students at a number of colleges.

Percent

Time

20

J F M A –20

–10

0

10

30

M J

deviation bar graph. the deviation bar graph shows how various quantities deviate from a norm. deviation bar graphs are often used when the information contains both positive and negative values, such as profits and losses. Bars on the positive side of the norm line (above it) represent profits; bars on the negative side (below it), losses.

0

5

J F M A M J

Quantity

Time

Item II

Item I

Item III

Item IV

stratum graph. the stratum graph, also called an area graph, shows the change in quantities of several items over time. Although stratum graphs are used frequently in business and scientific fields, general readers sometimes have trouble understanding how to read them.

TA B l E 8 . 1 variations on the Basic Bar graph

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 219

Creating Effective Infographics Follow these seven suggestions for making effective infographics.

Make a claim. A good infographic states—or at least implies—a claim and then presents evidence to support it. For instance, the claim might be that the num- ber of people accessing the internet in a language other than English is increas- ing at an accelerating rate, that the pace at which new drugs are coming onto the market is slowing, or that the cost of waging a campaign for a u.s. senate seat has increased tenfold in the last twenty years. the claim you present will suggest the theme of your graphics: you might consider maps, flowcharts, or statistics.

use accurate data. once you have settled on your claim, find facts to support it. use reputable sources, and then check and re-check them. Be sure to cite your sources on the infographic itself.

Follow the guidelines for the type of graphic you are creating. although you want to express your creativity when you create graphics, abide by the guidelines for that type of graphic. For instance, if you use a bar graph to present data on the number of zebras born in captivity, your first obligation is to make the length of each bar reflect the quantity it represents; don’t manipulate the lengths of the bars to make the graph look like a zebra.

Write concisely. if you need more than a paragraph to introduce a graphic, try revising the text to get the word count down or see if you can break the idea into several smaller ones.

don’t present too much information. it’s natural to want to include all the data you have found, but if the infographic is too tightly packed with text and graphics, readers will be intimidated. use white space to let the graphics breathe.

don’t go on forever. Your readers will want to spend a minute—maybe two—on the infographic. they won’t want to spend 15 minutes.

Test the infographic. as with any kind of technical document, the more you revise, evaluate, and test the infographic, the better it will be.

For more about research techniques, see Ch. 5.

infographics An infographic—short for information graphic—is a combina- tion of words and graphics used to present factual data about a subject in a visually interesting way.

Figure 8.10 (on page 220), a portion of an infographic about infographics, shows many of the techniques used in this type of display.

Infographics are also an effective way to communicate information through a visual/verbal argument.

Infographics are very popular, but many of them are of low quality. Before you create an infographic to communicate technical information, be sure you are not skewing your data or oversimplifying to promote an agenda. Doing so is unethical. In Figure 8.11 (on page 220), digital strategist Hervé Peitrequin offers a clever commentary on infographics.

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FIGuRE 8.10 an infographic about infographics Source: Ivan Cash/Cash Studios.

Designer Ivan Cash created this infographic by collecting data about infographics and then creating graphics to make the data interest- ing and visually appealing.

Infographics are built around basic types of graphical display: pie charts, line graphs, bar graphs, and diagrams. In an effective info- graphic, each visual display adheres to the conventions of the graphic on which it is based. For instance, in the “Countries Featured” bar graph, the length of each bar accurately reflects the quantity of the item it represents.

The art makes the data visually interesting, but the most important characteristic of an infographic is accuracy: the data must be accurate and presented fairly.

FIGuRE 8.11 a Critique of infographics Source: Hervé Peitrequin.

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 221

how to use drawing tools

although you can make many types of graphics using a spreadsheet, some types, such as pictographs, call for draw- ing tools. your word processor includes basic drawing tools.

to create shapes and smartart, use the illustrations group on the insert tab.

use the shapes drop-down menu to select a simple shape, such as a line, arrow, rectangle, or oval. then drag your cursor to create the shape.

you can select complex shapes from the smartart drop- down menu in the illustrations group.

once you have created a shape, you can position the shape on your document by selecting and dragging it.

to modify a shape, select it and use the drawing Tools Format tab.

Groups on the Format tab let you modify the appearance, size, and layout of a shape.

KEYWORDS: shapes, illustrations group, smartart, format tab

line Graphs Line graphs are used almost exclusively to show changes in quantity over time, for example, the month-by-month production figures for a product. A line graph focuses readers’ attention on the change in quan- tity, whereas a bar graph emphasizes the quantities themselves.

You can plot three or four lines on a line graph. If the lines intersect, use different colors or patterns to distinguish them. If the lines intersect too often, however, the graph will be unclear; in this case, draw separate graphs. Figure 8.12 (on page 222) shows a line graph.

Creating Effective Line Graphs Follow these three suggestions to create line graphs that are clear and easy to read.

if possible, begin the quantity scale at zero. doing so is the best way to portray the information honestly. if you cannot begin at zero, clearly indicate a break in the axis, if appropriate.

use reasonable proportions for the vertical and horizontal axes. as with bar graphs, make the vertical axis about 25 percent shorter than the horizontal axis.

use grid lines—horizontal, vertical, or both—rather than tick marks when your readers need to read the quantities precisely.

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Pie Charts The pie chart is a simple but limited design used for showing the relative sizes of the parts of a whole. You can make pie charts with your spreadsheet software. Figure 8.13 (on page 224) shows typical examples.

FIGuRE 8.12 line Graph Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012, p. 13: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/pdfs/climateindicators-full-2012.pdf.

Note that the title is lengthy because it specifically names the main variables presented in the graph. Name all the important data in the title; it is better for a title to be lengthy than to be imprecise or unclear.

The designer has included a caption that explains how to read the graph. Because this graph is illustrating several items that are measured in different units and therefore cannot be plotted on the same scale (including population and greenhouse gas emissions), the designer chose to have the y-axis express variations from a norm. In this case, the norm is represented by the quantity of each item in the year 1990. If this graph illustrated several items that were measured in the same units, such as the sales figures, in dollars, of several sales- persons, the designer would start the y-axis at zero.

Because the four data lines are sufficiently far apart, the designer placed the appropriate data label next to each line. Alternatively, the designer could have used a separate color-coded legend.

Each axis is labeled clearly.

Using different colors and thicknesses for the lines helps readers distinguish them.

The grid lines—both vertical and horizontal— help readers see the specific value for any data point on the graph.

(continued)

Creating Effective Pie Charts Follow these eight suggestions to ensure that your pie charts are easy to understand and professional looking.

Restrict the number of slices to no more than seven. as the slices get smaller, judging their relative sizes becomes more difficult.

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 223

Begin with the largest slice at the top and work clockwise in order of decreas- ing size, unless you have a good reason to arrange the slices otherwise.

if you have several very small quantities, put them together in one slice, to maintain clarity. Explain its contents in a footnote. this slice, sometimes called “other,” follows the other slices.

Place a label (horizontally, not radially) inside the slice, if space permits. include the percentage that each slice represents and, if appropriate, the raw number.

To emphasize one slice, use a bright, contrasting color or separate the slice from the pie. do this, for example, when you introduce a discussion of the item represented by that slice.

Check to see that your software follows the appropriate guidelines for pie charts. some spreadsheet programs add fancy visual effects that can impair comprehension. For instance, many programs portray the pie in three dimen- sions, as shown here.

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

33%18%

20%

29%

In this three-dimensional pie chart about the percentages of a college’s student body, by year, the sophomore slice looks bigger than the freshman slice, even though it isn’t, because it appears closer to the reader. To communicate clearly, make pie charts two-dimensional.

don’t overdo fill patterns. Fill patterns are patterns, shades, or colors that dis- tinguish one slice from another. in general, use simple, understated patterns or none at all.

Check that your percentages add up to 100. if you are doing the calculations yourself, check your math.

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illusTRaTinG loGiCal RElaTionshiPs Graphics can help you present logical relationships among items. For instance, in describing a piece of hardware, you might want to show its major components. The two kinds of graphics that best show logical relationships are diagrams and organization charts.

diagrams A diagram is a visual metaphor that uses symbols to represent relationships among items or their properties. In technical communication, common kinds of diagrams are blueprints, wiring diagrams, and schematics. Figure 8.14 is a diagram.

organization Charts A popular form of diagram is the organization chart, in which simple geometric shapes, usually rectangles, suggest logical rela- tionships, as shown in Figure 8.15. You can create organization charts with your word processor.

illusTRaTinG PRoCEss dEsCRiPTions and insTRuCTions Graphics often accompany process descriptions and instructions (see Chap- ter 14). The following discussion looks at some of the graphics used in writing about actions: checklists, flowcharts, and logic trees. It also discusses tech- niques for showing motion in graphics.

Defense 24%

Health 23%Social

Security 21%

Other 15%

Income Security

17%

Federal Government Spending, by Percentage, 2015

Defense 24%

Health 23%Social

Security 21%

Other 15%

Income Security

17%

Federal Government Spending, by Percentage, 2015

FIGuRE 8.13 Pie Charts

You can set your software so that the slices use different saturations of the same color. This approach makes the slices easy to distinguish from each other—without any distractions or misrepresentations caused by a rainbow of colors.

You can set your software to emphasize one slice by separating it from the rest of the pie.

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 225

FIGuRE 8.14 diagram Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 2014: http://energy.gov/energysaver/articles /tips-sealing-air-leaks.

The purpose of this diagram is to help people understand the differ- ent areas in their home that need to be insulated. In diagrams, items do not necesssarily look realistic. Here the designer is trying to represent logical relationships, not the physi- cal appearances of items.

An organization chart is often used to show the hierarchy in an organization, with the most senior person in the organization in the box at the top.

Alternatively, an organization chart can show the functional divisions of a system, such as the human nervous system.

FIGuRE 8.15 organization Chart Source: Adapted from “US Navy Organization—An Overview,” United States Department of the Navy: http:// www.navy.mil/navydata/organization /org-over.asp.

Secretary of the Navy

Support

Chief of Naval Operations

Shore Establishment Operating Forces

Commandant of the Marine Corps

Operating Forces

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This diagram is from a govern- ment report. The questions below ask you to think about diagrams, as discussed on page 224.

1. This design resembles a pie chart, but it does not have the same function as a pie chart. What message does this design communicate? Is it effective?

2. Do the colors communicate any information, or are they merely decorative? If you think they are decorative, would you revise the design to change them in any way?

3. What does the phrase “Future Environment,” above the graphic, mean? Is it meant to refer only to the “Technol- ogy” and “Process” shapes?

4. Is the explanation below the graphic clear? Would you change it in any way? Source: Defense Intelligence Agency, 2003: www.dia.mil/thisisdia/DIA_Workforce_of_the_Future.pdf.

Analyzing a Graphic D O C u m E N T A N A lYS I S AC T I v I T Y

CREaTinG GRaPhiCs 226

8

Checklists In explaining how to carry out a task, you often need to show the reader what equipment or materials to gather, or describe an action or a series of actions to take. A checklist is a list of items, each preceded by a check box. If readers might be unfamiliar with the items you are listing, include drawings of the items, as shown in Figure 8.16. You can use the list function in your word processor to create checklists.

Often you need to indicate that readers are to carry out certain tasks at certain intervals. A table is a useful graphic for this kind of information, as shown in Figure 8.17.

Flowcharts A flowchart, as the name suggests, shows the various stages of a process or a procedure. Flowcharts are useful, too, for summarizing

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Tools Required

Pliers

Flat-tip screwdriver

Adjustable crescent wrench

FIGuRE 8.16 Checklist

Regular Maintenance, First 40,000 Miles

Mileage

5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000

Change oil, replace filter

Rotate tires

Replace air filter

Replace spark plugs

Replace coolant fluid

Replace ignition cables

Replace timing belt

FIGuRE 8.17 a Table used To illustrate a Maintenance schedule

To analyze an interactive graphic, go to LaunchPad.

D O C u m E N T A N A lYS I S AC T I v I T Y

How Hard the Wind Will Hit Your Area, and When Source: Tom Giratikanon and David Schutz, “How Hard the Wind Will Hit Your Area, and When,” Boston Globe, August 26, 2011.

Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 227

8

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Write the requisition.

Engineering Staff

No

Engineering Manager

Send the requisition to Accounting.

Authorize the

requisition?

Yes

No

Fill out and submit the purchase order.

Requisition meets capital requirements?

Yes

Accounting FIGuRE 8.19 deployment Flowchart

A deployment flowchart shows who is responsible for carrying out which tasks. Here the engineering staff writes the requisition, then sends it to the Engineering Manager.

FIGuRE 8.18 Flowcharts

Participants 210 college students

Random assignment to experimental conditions

Independent variable:

Dependent variable:

Groups compared

Control group

Session 1: 30 minutes nonviolent video game play: Myst

Session 2: 15 minutes nonviolent video game play: Myst

Noise-blasting opponent during “Competitive Reaction Time Task”

Debriefing

Experimental group

Session 1: 30 minutes violent video

game play: Wolfenstein 3D

Session 2: 15 minutes violent video

game play: Wolfenstein 3D

Noise-blasting opponent during “Competitive Reaction Time Task”

Debriefing

1 week interval 1 week interval

a. open-system flowchart Source: Don Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury, DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY, Sixth Edition, Figure 1.3. Copyright ©2014.

The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis.

4

Spores germinate and divide to form the haploid gametophyte.

5 Haploid gametes are produced by mitosis.

1

Gametes fuse to form a zygote.

2

The zygote develops into a diploid sporophyte.

3

START

DIPLOID (2n)

HAPLOID (n) Meiosis Fertilization

Multicellular haploid

organism (n) (gametophyte)

Multicellular diploid

organism (2n) (sporophyte)

Mitosis Mitosis

Mitosis

b. Closed-system flowchart Source: W. K. Purves, D. Sadava, G. H. Orians, and H. C. Heller, LIFE: THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY, Eighth Edi- tion, Fig. 27.14, p. 594. Copyright ©2007.

instructions. On a basic flowchart, stages are represented by labeled geomet- ric shapes. Flowcharts can portray open systems (those that have a start and a finish) or closed systems (those that end where they began). Figure 8.18

shows an open-system flowchart and a closed-system flowchart. Figure 8.19 shows a deployment flowchart, which you can make using the drawing tools in your word processor.

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Choosing the appropriate kind of Graphic 8 229

logic Trees Logic trees use a branching metaphor. The logic tree shown in Figure 8.20 helps students think through the process of registering for a course.

Techniques for showing action or Motion In some types of process descriptions and instructions, you will want to show action or motion. For instance, in an instruction manual for helicopter technicians, you might want to illustrate the process of removing an oil dipstick or tightening a bolt, or you might want to show a warning light flashing. Although animation and video are frequently used to illustrate action or motion in online documents, such processes still need to be communicated in static graphics for print documents.

If the reader is to perform the action, show the action from the reader’s point of view, as in Figure 8.21.

Figure 8.22 (on page 230) illustrates four additional techniques for showing action. These techniques are conventional but not universal. If you are addressing readers from another culture, consult a qualified person from that culture to make sure your symbols are clear and inoffensive.

illusTRaTinG Visual and sPaTial ChaRaCTERisTiCs To illustrate visual and spatial characteristics, use photographs, screen shots, line drawings, and maps.

Photographs Photographs are unmatched for reproducing visual detail. Sometimes, however, a photograph can provide too much information. In a sales brochure for an automobile, a glossy photograph of the dashboard might be very effective. But in an owner’s manual, if you want to show how to use the trip odometer, use a diagram that focuses on that one item.

Sometimes a photograph can provide too little information. The item you want to highlight might be located inside the mechanism or obscured by another component.

For a tutorial on photo editing, go to LaunchPad.

Do the meeting times fit your schedule?

Have you completed the prerequisites? Has the

instructor waived the prerequisites? Choose

another course.

Choose another course.

Register online.

Register online.Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

FIGuRE 8.20 logic Tree

set

1 2 3

Temp-Right

9:31

FIGuRE 8.21 showing action from the Reader’s Perspective In many cases, you need to show only the person’s hands, not the whole body.

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FIGuRE 8.22 showing action or Motion

a. use arrows or other symbols to suggest the direction in which something is moving or should be moved.

b. starburst lines suggest a blinking light.

c. shake lines suggest vibration.

d. an image of an object both before and after the action suggests the action.

Presenting Photographs Effectively Follow these five suggestions to make sure your photographs are clear, honest, and easy to understand.

eliminate extraneous background clutter that can distract readers. Crop the photograph to delete unnecessary detail. Figure 8.23 shows examples of cropped and uncropped photographs.

do not electronically manipulate the photograph. there is nothing unethical about removing blemishes or cropping a digital photograph. however, manipu- lating a photograph—for example, enlarging the size of the monitor that comes with a computer system—is unethical.

help readers understand the perspective. Most objects in magazines and journals are photographed at an angle to show the object’s depth as well as its height and width.

if appropriate, include some common object, such as a coin or a ruler, in the photograph to give readers a sense of scale.

if appropriate, label components or important features.

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screen shots Screen shots—images of what appears on a computer moni- tor or some other screen—are often used in manuals to show users what the screen will look like as they perform tasks with the device. Readers who see that the screen shot accurately portrays what appears on their own devices are reassured and therefore better able to concentrate on the task they are trying to perform. Figure 8.24 (on page 232) is an example of how screen shots are used.

line drawings Line drawings are simplified visual representations of objects. Line drawings offer three possible advantages over photographs:

• Line drawings can focus readers’ attention on desired information better than a photograph can.

• Line drawings can highlight information that might be obscured by bad lighting or a bad angle in a photograph.

• Line drawings are sometimes easier for readers to understand than photographs are.

Figure 8.25 (on page 232) shows the effectiveness of line drawings. You have probably seen the three variations on the basic line drawing

shown in Figure 8.26 on page 233.

FIGuRE 8.23 Cropping a Photograph Sometimes, writers and designers crop photographs to save space. Ideally, you should crop a photo because it helps you make your point. If you want to show how vulnerable to natural forces the structure in the photograph is, the left-hand version is better because it emphasizes the vastness of the sea. But if you want to discuss the ways the structure has been designed and built to resist natural forces, the right-hand version is better. Kenneth Wiedemann/Getty Images

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FIGuRE 8.24 screen shot Source: NASA, 2013: http://www.nasa.gov/connect /sounds/iphone_install_directions.html.

This screen shot, from a user guide on NASA’s website, shows users how to select a ringtone.

FIGuRE 8.25 line drawing Source: U.S. Department of Justice, 2010: www.ada.gov/stadium.pdf.

This drawing, which accompanies a manual about the Americans with Disabilities Act, illustrates the idea that “wheelchair seating locations must provide lines of sight comparable to those provided to other spectators.” A photograph could not show this concept as clearly as this drawing does.

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how to create and insert screen shots

to show your reader what appears in a window on your com- puter monitor, you can insert a screen shot.

select screenshot from the illustrations group on the insert tab. you will see a small version of each window you have open on your desktop. Click the screen you want to show your readers, and Word will insert the picture into your document.

if your active screen has a dialog box open, you will see it pictured under available Windows. Click on the picture of the dialog box to insert it.

to insert part of an active screen other than a dialog box, select screen Clipping. you will see the active screen with a white shade over it. use your cursor to draw a rectangular box around the part that you want in your screen shot.

you can modify screen shots by using the Picture Tools For- mat tab. For example, you can use the Crop tool in the size group to hide unnecessary details.

if you plan to create many screen shots, consider using soft- ware designed to capture and edit screen images efficiently. search the internet for “screen capture software,” such as techsmith’s snagit.

KEYWORDS: screen shot, screen capture, format tab, crop

FIGuRE 8.26 Phantom, Cutaway, and Exploded Views

a. Phantom drawings show parts hidden from view by outlining external items that would ordinarily obscure them.

b. Cutaway drawings “remove” a part of the surface to expose what is underneath.

c. Exploded drawings separate components while maintaining their physical relationship.

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Maps Maps are readily available as clip art that can be modified with a graphics program. Figure 8.27 shows a map derived from clip art.

creating effective graphics for multicultural readers Whether you are writing for people within your organization or outside it, con- sider the needs of readers whose first language is different from your own. Like words, graphics have cultural meanings. If you are unaware of these meanings, you could communicate something very different from what you intend. The following guidelines are based on William Horton’s article “The Almost Univer- sal Language: Graphics for International Documents” (1993).

• Be aware that reading patterns differ. In some countries, people read from right to left or from top to bottom. In some cultures, direction signifies value: the right-hand side is superior to the left, or the reverse. You need to think about how to sequence graphics that show action or where to put “before” and “after” graphics. If you want to show a direction, as in an informal flowchart, consider using arrows to indicate how to read the chart.

• Be aware of varying cultural attitudes toward giving instruction. Instructions for products made in Japan are highly polite and deferential: “Please

Northeast

TX Texas

OK Oklahoma AR

Arkansas GA

Georgia

FL Florida

AL Alabama

MS Mississippi

LA Louisiana

TN Tennessee NC North Carolina

KY Kentucky

VA Virginia

SC South Carolina

AZ Arizona

WA Washington

OR Oregon

HI Hawaii

AK Alaska

MT Montana

WY Wyoming

CO Colorado

NM New Mexico

ID Idaho

UT Utah

NV Nevada

CA California

KS Kansas

NE Nebraska

MO Missouri

SD South Dakota

ND North Dakota

IA Iowa

MN Minnesota

WI Wisconsin

MI Michigan

OH Ohio

IN Indiana

IL Illinois

MD Maryland

DE Delaware

WV West Virginia

ME Maine

NY New York

PA Pennsylvania

VT Vermont

NH New Hampshire

MA Massachusetts

RI Rhode Island

CT Connecticut

NJ New Jersey

MidwestW est

South

FIGuRE 8.27 Map

Include a scale and a legend if the map is one that is not thoroughly familiar to your readers. Also, use conventional colors, such as blue for water.

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8 235

Writer’s Checklist

attach the cable at this time.” Some cultures favor spelling out general principles but leaving the reader to supply the details. To people in these cultures, instructions containing a detailed close-up of how to carry out a task might appear insulting.

• deemphasize trivial details. Because common objects, such as plugs on the ends of power cords, come in different shapes around the world, draw them to look generic rather than specific to one country.

• avoid culture-specific language, symbols, and references. Don’t use a picture of a mouse (the furry rodent) to symbolize a computer mouse because the device is not known by that name everywhere. Avoid the casual use of national symbols (such as the maple leaf or national flags); any error in a detail might offend your readers. Use colors carefully: red means danger to most people from Western cultures, but it is a celebratory color to the Chinese.

• Portray people very carefully. Every aspect of a person’s appearance, from clothing to hairstyle to physical features, is culture- or race-specific. A photograph of a woman in casual Western attire seated at a workstation would be ineffective in an Islamic culture where only a woman’s hands and eyes may be shown. Horton (1993) recommends using stick figures or silhouettes that do not suggest any one culture, race, or sex.

• Be particularly careful in portraying hand gestures. Many Western hand gestures, such as the “okay” sign, are considered obscene in other cultures, and some people consider long red fingernails inappropriate. Use hands in graphics only when necessary—for example, to illustrate carrying out a task—and obscure the person’s sex and race.

Cultural differences are many and subtle. Learn as much as possible about your readers and about their culture and outlook, and have your graphics reviewed by a native of the culture.

W R I T E R ’S C H E C K l I S T

Does the graphic have a purpose? (p. 200)

Is the graphic simple and uncluttered? (p. 200)

Does the graphic present a manageable amount of information? (p. 200)

Does the graphic meet readers’ format expectations? (p. 200)

Is the graphic clearly labeled? (p. 200)

If you want to use an existing graphic, do you have the legal right to do so? (p. 205) If so, have you cited its source appropriately? (p. 206)

Is the graphic honest? (p. 203)

Does the graphic appear in a logical location in the document? (p. 204)

Is the graphic introduced clearly in the text? (p. 205)

Is the graphic explained in the text? (p. 205)

Is the graphic clearly visible in the text? (p. 205)

Is the graphic easily accessible to readers? (p. 205)

Is the graphic inoffensive to your readers? (p. 234)

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8

E x E R C I S E S

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Find out from the admissions department at your college or university the number of students enrolled from the different states or from the different counties in your state. Present this information in four different kinds of graphics:

a. map

b. table

c. bar graph

d. pie chart

In three or four paragraphs, explain why each graphic is appropriate for a particular audience and purpose and how each emphasizes different aspects of the information.

2. Design a flowchart for a process you are familiar with, such as applying for a summer job, studying for a test, preparing a paper, or performing some task at work. Your audience is someone who will be carrying out the process.

3. The following table provides statistics on federal research and development expenditures (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013, Table 815). Study the table, and then perform the following tasks:

a. Create two different graphics, each of which compares federal R&D funding in 2011 and 2012.

b. Create two different graphics, each of which compares defense and nondefense R&D funding in either 2011 or 2012.

236

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Exercises 8 4. For each of the following four graphics, write a

paragraph evaluating its effectiveness and describing how you would revise it.

a. Majors 2012 2013 2014

Civil Engineering 236 231 253 Chemical Engineering 126 134 142 Comparative literature 97 86 74 Electrical Engineering 317 326 401 English 714 623 592 Fine arts 112 96 72 Foreign languages 608 584 566 Materials Engineering 213 227 241 Mechanical Engineering 196 203 201 other 46 42 51 philosophy 211 142 151 religion 86 91 72

b. Number of Members of the U.S. Armed Forces in 2012 (in Thousands)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 Army Navy Air Force Marines Coast

Guard

c. Expenses at Hillway Corporation

Overhead Miscellaneous Insurance Bene�ts Research Insurance Salaries

d. Costs of the Components of a PC

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 monitor RAM power

supply keyboard memory remote

storage

237

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CREaTinG GRaPhiCs8 5. The following three graphs illustrate the sales of two

products—Series 1 and Series 2—for each quarter of 2016. Which is the most effective in conveying the information? Which is the least effective? What additional information would make the most-effective graph better?

6000

4000

2000

0

Quarters

1 2 3 4

2016 Sales of Series 1 and 2, by Quarters

Series 1

Series 2S1

a.

6000

4000

2000

0

Quarters

1 2 3 4

Series 1

Series 2

2016 Sales of Series 1 and 2, by Quarters

b.

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000

0

Quarters 1 2 3 4

2016 Sales of Series 1 and 2, by Quarters

Series 1

Series 2

c.

6. Search for “infographics college tuition.” Find two infographics that present information on similar topics, such as tuition costs for public and private colleges and universities, average tuition costs in each of the fifty states, or the relationship between tuition costs and future earnings potential. Write a 1,000-word memo to your instructor in which you identify the audience and purpose of the infographics and compare and contrast them using such criteria as audience, purpose, clarity, visual appeal, use of different types of graphics, and citation of the data sources. Which infographic do you think is better? Why?

7. Locate a graphic on the web that you consider inappropriate for an international audience because it might be offensive or unclear to readers in some cultures. Imagine an intended audience for the graphic, such as people from the Middle East, and write a brief statement explaining the potential problem. Finally, revise the graphic so that it would be appropriate for its intended audience.

C A S E 8 : creating appropriate graphics to accompany a report

Following a series of texting-related driving accidents, a representative in your state legislature has decided to introduce legislation restricting the use of cell phones while driving. As an assistant to the state’s insurance commissioner, you have been asked to collect data on how cell-phone use affects driving. The representative hopes to use these data to make his case for the legislation. When you present your findings to your supervisor, she asks that you pare them down to the facts most relevant to the representative. She also asks that you consider presenting some of the data graphically. To get to work improving your research, go to LaunchPad.

238

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Learning Important Applications

Part 4

© Getty Images/John Rensten

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240

Understanding the Process of Writing Correspondence 241

FoCUs on ProCess: Writing Correspondence 241 ■ ChoiCes and strategies: Choosing a type of Correspondence 242

Presenting Yourself effectively in Correspondence 242 Use the AppropriAte LeveL of formALity 242

CommUniCAte CorreCtLy 243

projeCt the “yoU AttitUde” 243

Avoid CorrespondenCe CLiChés 244

CommUniCAte honestLy 245 ■ ethiCs note: Writing honest Business Correspondence 245

Writing Letters 245 eLements of A Letter 245

Common types of Letters 247

Writing Memos 253 ■ guidelines: organizing a Memo 255

Writing emails 255 ■ guidelines: Following netiquette 256 ■ doCuMent analysis aCtivity: Following netiquette in an email Message 259

Writing Microblogs 258 ■ guidelines: representing your organization on a Microblog 260

9Writing Correspondence

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241

9 Writing Correspondence to Multicultural readers 261

Writer’s CheCkList 262

exerCises 263

Case 9: setting up and Maintaining a Professional Microblog account 264 and

REGARDLESS OF thE AppLicAtiOn you use, you will communicate in writing every day on the job. this chapter discusses the four major formats used for producing workplace correspondence: letters, memos, emails, and microblog posts. throughout this chapter, the word correspondence refers to all these forms.

Understanding the process of Writing Correspondence The process of writing correspondence is essentially like that of writing any other kind of workplace document. The Focus on Process box below presents an overview of this process, focusing on letters, memos, and emails. The more formal the correspondence, the more time you are likely to spend on each of these steps.

When you need to correspond with others in the workplace, your first task is to decide on the appropriate application. You have four major choices: let- ters, memos, emails, and microblogs.

When writing correspondence, pay special attention to these steps of the writing process.

pLAnning you will need to choose the appropriate type of correspondence for your writing situation.

drAfting For letters, memos, and email, clearly state your purpose, use headings to help your readers, summarize your message, provide adequate background, organize the discussion, and highlight action items. For microblogs, state your message or question clearly.

revising

editing

proofreAding

you might need to write correspondence quickly, but you still need to write carefully. revise, edit, and proofread everything before you publish or send it. see appendix, Part B, p. 485, for help.

F O c u S O n p R O c E S S Writing Correspondence

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 242

presenting yourself effectively in Correspondence When you write business correspondence, follow these five suggestions for presenting yourself as a professional:

• Use the appropriate level of formality.

• Communicate correctly.

• Project the “you attitude.”

• Avoid correspondence clichés.

• Communicate honestly.

Use the aPProPriate LeveL oF ForMaLitY People are sometimes tempted to use informal writing in informal digital applications such as email and microblogs. Don’t. Everything you write on the job is legally the property of the organization for which you work, and messages are almost always archived digitally, even after recipients have deleted them. Your documents might be read by the company president, or they might appear in a newspaper or in a court of law. Therefore, use a mod- erately formal tone to avoid potential embarrassment.

too informal our meeting with united went south right away when they threw a hissy fit, saying that we blew off the deadline for the progress report.

iF the sitUation is . . . anD YoU are WritinG to . . . trY this tYPe oF CorresPonDenCe

Formal People outside or within your organization Letters. Because letters use centuries-old conventions such as the salutation and complimentary close, they are the most formal of the four types of correspondence.

Moderately formal People outside your organization Letters or email. letters are more formal than email, but consider how your readers will need to use the information. recipients can store and forward an email easily, as well as capture the text and reuse it in other documents. in addition, you can attach other files to an email.

Moderately formal People within your organization Memos or email. Memos are moderately formal and can be sent in the body of an email or as an attachment.

informal People outside or within your organization email or microblogs. email is good for quick, relatively informal communication with one or many recipients. Micro blog posts such as twitter tweets or Facebook status up dates can be useful for quick questions addressed to a group. Microblogs are the most informal type of correspondence.

c h O i c E S A n D S t R A t E G i E S Choosing a type of Correspondence

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Presenting Yourself effectively in Correspondence 9 243

moderately formal in our meeting, the united representative expressed concern that we had missed the deadline for the progress report.

However, you don’t want to sound like a dictionary.

too formal it was indubitably the case that our team was successful in presenting a proposal that was characterized by quality of the highest order. My appreciation for your industriousness is herewith extended.

moderately formal i think we put together an excellent proposal. thank you very much for your hard work.

CoMMUniCate CorreCtLY One issue closely related to formality is correctness. Correct writing is free of grammar, punctuation, style, usage, and spelling errors. Correctness prob- lems occur most often in email and microblogs.

Some writers mistakenly think that they do not need to worry about cor- rectness because these digital applications are meant for quick communica- tion. They are wrong. You have to plan your digital correspondence just as you plan any other written communication, and you should revise, edit, and proofread it. Sending correspondence that contains language errors is unpro- fessional because it suggests a lack of respect for your reader—and for your- self. It also causes your reader to think that you are careless about your job.

ProjeCt the “YoU attitUDe” Correspondence should convey a courteous, positive tone. The key to accom- plishing this task is using the “you attitude”—looking at the situation from the reader’s point of view and adjusting the content, structure, and tone to meet his or her needs. For example, if you are writing to a supplier who has failed to deliver some merchandise by the agreed-on date, the “you attitude” dictates that you not discuss problems you are having with other suppliers; those problems don’t concern your reader. Instead, concentrate on explain- ing clearly and politely that the reader has violated your agreement and that not having the merchandise is costing you money. Then propose ways to expedite the shipment.

Following are two examples of thoughtless sentences, each followed by an improved version that shows the “you attitude.”

accusing you must have dropped the engine. the housing is badly cracked.

better the badly cracked housing suggests that the engine must have fallen onto a hard surface from some height.

sarcastic you’ll need two months to deliver these parts? Who do you think you are, the post office?

better surely you would find a two-month delay for the delivery of parts unacceptable in your business. that’s how i feel, too.

A calm, respectful tone makes the best impression and increases the chances that you will achieve your goal.

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 244

avoiD CorresPonDenCe CLiChés Over the centuries, a group of words and phrases have come to be associated with business correspondence; one common example is as per your request. These phrases sound stilted and insincere. Don’t use them. Figure 9.1 is a list of common clichés and their plain-language equivalents. Figure 9.2 shows two versions of the same letter: one written in clichés, the other in plain language.

For more about choosing the right words and phrases, see Ch. 6, p. 140.

Letter Cliché Plain-Language equivalent

attached please find attached is

enclosed please find enclosed is

pursuant to our agreement as we agreed

referring to your (“referring to your letter of March 19, the shipment of pianos . . .”)

“as you wrote in your letter of March 19, the . . .” (or subordinate the reference at the end of your sentence)

wish to advise (“We wish to advise that . . .”)

(the phrase doesn’t say anything. Just say what you want to say.)

the writer (“the writer believes that . . .”) “i believe . . .”

FiGuRE 9.1 Letter Clichés and Plain- Language equivalents

Letter Containing Clichés Letter in Plain Language

dear Mr. smith:

referring to your complaint regarding the problem encountered with your new trailrider snowmobile, our Customer service department has just submitted its report.

it is their conclusion that the malfunction is caused by water being present in the fuel line. it is our conclusion that you must have purchased some bad gasoline. We trust you are cognizant of the fact that while we guarantee our snowmobiles for a period of not less than one year against defects in workmanship and materials, responsibility cannot be assumed for inadequate care. We wish to advise, for the reason mentioned hereinabove, that we cannot grant your request to repair the snowmobile free of charge.

Permit me to say, however, that the writer would be pleased to see that the fuel line is flushed at cost, $30. your trailrider would then give you many years of trouble-free service.

enclosed please find an authorization card. should we receive it, we shall perform the above-mentioned repair and deliver your snowmobile forthwith.

sincerely yours,

dear Mr. smith:

thank you for letting us know about the problem with your new trailrider snowmobile.

our Customer service department has found water in the fuel line. apparently some of the gasoline was bad. While we guarantee our snowmobiles for one year against defects in workmanship and materials, we cannot assume responsibility for problems caused by bad gasoline. We cannot, therefore, grant your request to repair the snowmobile free of charge.

however, no serious harm was done to the snowmobile. We would be happy to flush the fuel line at cost, $30. your trailrider would then give you many years of trouble-free service. if you will authorize us to do this work, we will have your snowmobile back to you within four working days. Just fill out the enclosed authorization card and drop it in the mail.

sincerely yours,

FiGuRE 9.2 sample Letters with and Without Clichés The letter on the right avoids clichés and shows an understanding of the “you attitude.” Instead of focusing on the violation of the warranty, it presents the conclusion as good news: the snowmobile is not ruined, and it can be repaired and returned in less than a week for a small charge.

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Writing Letters 9 245

CoMMUniCate honestLY You should communicate honestly when you write any kind of document, and business correspondence is no exception. Communicating honestly shows respect for your reader and for yourself.

E t h i c S n Ot E

WritinG honest BUsiness CorresPonDenCe Why is dishonesty a big problem in correspondence? Perhaps because the topics discussed in business correspondence often relate to the writer’s professionalism and the quality of his or her work. For instance, when a salesperson working for a supplier writes to a customer explain- ing why a product did not arrive on time, he is tempted to make it seem as if his company— and he personally—is blameless. similarly, when a manager has to announce a new policy that employees will dislike, she might be tempted to distance herself from the policy.

the professional approach is to tell the truth. if you mislead a reader in explaining why the shipment didn’t arrive on time, the reader will likely double-check the facts, conclude that you are trying to avoid responsibility, and end your business relationship. if you try to convince readers that you had nothing to do with a new, unpopular policy, some of them will know you are being misleading, and you will lose your most important credential: your credibility.

Writing Letters Letters are still a basic means of communication between organizations, with millions written each day. To write effective letters, you need to understand the elements of a letter, its format, and the common types of letters sent in the business world.

eLeMents oF a Letter Most letters include a heading, inside address, salutation, body, complimen- tary close, and signature. Some letters also include one or more of the fol- lowing: attention line, subject line, enclosure line, and copy line. Figure 9.3 on page 246 shows the elements of a letter.

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 246

DAVIS TREE CARE

1300 Lancaster Avenue Berwyn, PA 19092 www.davisfortrees.com

May 11, 2016

Fairlawn industrial Park 1910 ridgeway drive Berwyn, Pa 19092

attention: director of Maintenance

subject: Fall pruning

dear director of Maintenance:

do you know how much your trees are worth? that’s right—your trees. as a maintenance director, you know how much of an investment your organization has in its physical plant. and the landscaping is a big part of your total investment.

Most people don’t know that even the hardiest trees need periodic care. like shrubs, trees should be fertilized and pruned. and they should be protected against the many kinds of diseases and pests that are common in this area.

at davis tree Care, we have the skills and experience to keep your trees healthy and beautiful. our diagnostic staff is made up of graduates of major agricultural and forestry universities, and all of our crews attend special workshops to keep current with the latest information on tree maintenance. add to this our proven record of 43 years of continuous service in the Berwyn area, and you have a company you can trust.

Heading. Most organizations use letterhead stationery with their heading printed at the top. This preprinted information and the date the letter is sent make up the heading. If you are using blank paper rather than letterhead, your address (without your name) and the date form the heading. Whether you use letterhead or blank paper for the first page, do not number it. Use blank paper for the second and all subsequent pages.

Inside Address. If you are writing to an individual who has a professional title—such as Professor, Dr., or, for public officials, Honorable—use it. If not, use Mr. or Ms. (unless you know the recipient prefers Mrs. or Miss). If the reader’s position fits on the same line as the name, add it after a comma; otherwise, drop it to the line below. Spell the name of the organization the way the organization itself does: for example, International Business Machines calls itself IBM. Include the complete mailing address: street number and name, city, state, and zip code.

Attention Line. Sometimes you will be unable to address a letter to a particular person because you don’t know (and cannot easily find out) the name of the individual who holds that position in the company.

Subject Line. The subject line is an optional element in a letter. Use either a project number (for example, “Subject: Project 31402”) or a brief phrase defining the subject (for example, “Subject: Price quotation for the R13 submersible pump”).

Salutation. If you decide not to use an attention line or a subject line, put the salutation, or greeting, two lines below the inside address. The traditional salutation is Dear, followed by the reader’s courtesy title and last name and then a colon (not a comma):

Dear Ms. Hawkins:

FiGuRE 9.3 elements of a Letter

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Writing Letters 9 247

letter to Fairlawn industrial Park Page 2 May 11, 2016

May we stop by to give you an analysis of your trees— absolutely without cost or obligation? spending a few minutes with one of our diagnosticians could prove to be one of the wisest moves you’ve ever made. Just give us a call at 610-555-9187, and we’ll be happy to arrange an appointment at your convenience.

sincerely yours,

Jasmine Brown President

enclosure: davis tree Care brochure

c: darrell davis, vice President

FiGuRE 9.3 elements of a Letter (continued )

Header for second page.

Body. In most cases, the body contains at least three paragraphs: an introductory paragraph, a concluding paragraph, and one or more body paragraphs.

Complimentary Close. The conventional phrases Sin- cerely, Sincerely yours, Yours sincerely, Yours very truly, and Very truly yours are interchangeable.

Signature. Type your full name on the fourth line below the complimentary close. Sign the letter, in ink, above the printed name. Most organizations prefer that you include your position under your printed name.

Copy Line. If you want the primary recipient to know that other people are receiving a copy of the letter, include a copy line. Use the symbol c (for “copy”) followed by a colon and the names of the other recipients (listed either alphabetically or according to organizational rank). If appropriate, use the symbol cc (for “courtesy copy”) followed by the names of recipients who are less directly affected by the letter.

Enclosure Line. If the envelope contains documents other than the letter, include an enclosure line that indicates the number of enclosures. For more than one enclosure, add the number: “Enclosures (2).” In determining the number of enclosures, count only separate items, not pages. A three-page memo and a 10-page report constitute only two enclosures. Some writers like to identify the enclosures:

Enclosure: 2015 Placement Bulletin Enclosures (2): “This Year at Ammex” 2015 Annual Report

CoMMon tYPes oF Letters Organizations send out many different kinds of letters. This section focuses on four types of letters written frequently in the workplace: inquiry, response to an inquiry, claim, and adjustment.

inquiry Letter Figure 9.4 shows an inquiry letter, in which you ask questions.

Two other types of letters are discussed in this book: the job- application letter in Ch. 10, p. 286, and the transmittal letter in Ch. 13, p. 360.

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 248

14 hawthorne ave. Belleview, tX 75234

november 2, 2016

dr. andrea shakir director of technical services orion Corporation 721 West douglas avenue Maryville, tn 31409

dear dr. shakir:

i am writing to you because of orion’s reputation as a leader in the manufacture of adjustable x-ray tables. i am a graduate student in biomedical engineering at the university of texas, and i am working on an analysis of diagnostic equipment for a seminar paper. Would you be able to answer a few questions about your Microspot 311?

1. Can the Microspot 311 be used with lead oxide cassettes, or does it accept only lead-free cassettes?

2. are standard generators compatible with the Microspot 311? 3. What would you say is the greatest advantage, for the operator, of using

the Microspot 311? For the patient?

Because my project is due on January 15, i would greatly appreciate your assistance in answering these questions by January 10. of course, i would be happy to send you a copy of my report when it is completed.

yours very truly,

albert K. stern

FiGuRE 9.4 inquiry Letter

You write an inquiry letter to acquire information. Explain who you are and why you are writing. Make your questions precise and clear, and therefore easy to answer. Explain what you plan to do with the information and how you can compensate the reader for answer- ing your questions.

This writer’s task is to motivate the reader to provide some information. That information is not likely to lead to a sale because the writer is a graduate student doing research, not a potential customer.

Notice the flattery in the first sentence.

The writer presents specific questions in a list format, making the questions easy to read and understand.

In the final paragraph, the writer politely indicates his schedule and requests the reader’s response. Note that he offers to send the reader a copy of his report.

If the reader provides information, the writer should send a thank-you letter.

response to an inquiry Figure 9.5 shows a response to the inquiry letter in Figure 9.4.

Claim Letter Figure 9.6 (on page 250) is an example of a claim letter that the writer scanned and attached to an email to the reader. The writer’s deci- sion to pre sent his message in a letter rather than an email suggests that he wishes to convey the more-formal tone associated with letters—and yet he wants the letter to arrive quickly.

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Writing Letters 9 249

ORION

721 WEST DOUGLAS AVE. (615) 619-8132 MARYVILLE, TN 31409 www.orioninstruments.com

november 7, 2016

Mr. albert K. stern 14 hawthorne ave. Belleview, tX 75234

dear Mr. stern:

i would be pleased to answer your questions about the Microspot 311. We think it is the best unit of its type on the market today.

1. the 311 can handle lead oxide or lead-free cassettes. 2. at the moment, the 311 is fully compatible only with our duramatic generator.

however, special wiring kits are available to make the 311 compatible with our earlier generator models—the olympus and the saturn. We are currently working on other wiring kits.

3. For the operator, the 311 increases the effectiveness of the radiological procedure while at the same time cutting down the amount of film used. For the patient, it reduces the number of repeat exposures and therefore reduces the total dose.

i am enclosing a copy of our brochure on the Microspot 311. if you would like additional information, please visit our website at www.orioninstruments.com /products/microspot311. i would be happy to receive a copy of your analysis when it is complete. good luck!

sincerely yours,

andrea shakir, M.d. director of technical services

enclosure

c: robert anderson, executive vice President

FiGuRE 9.5 response to an inquiry

In responding to an inquiry letter, answer the questions if you can. If you cannot, either because you don’t know the answers or because you cannot divulge proprietary information, explain the reasons and offer to assist with other requests.

The writer responds graciously.

The writer answers the three ques- tions posed in the inquiry letter.

The writer encloses other information to give the reader a fuller understanding of the product.

The writer uses the enclosure notation to signal that she is attaching an item to the letter.

The writer indicates that she is for- warding a copy to her supervisor.

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 250

255 Robbins Place, Centerville, MO 65101 [417] 555-1850 robbinsconstruction.com

august 17, 2016

Mr. david larsyn larsyn supply Company 311 elmerine avenue anderson, Mo 63501

dear Mr. larsyn:

as steady customers of yours for over 15 years, we came to you first when we needed a quiet pile driver for a job near a residential area. on your recommendation, we bought your vista 500 Quiet driver, at $14,900. We have since found, much to our embarrassment, that it is not substantially quieter than a regular pile driver.

We received the contract to do the bridge repair here in Centerville after promising to keep the noise to under 90 dB during the day. the vista 500 (see enclosed copy of bill of sale for particulars) is rated at 85 dB, maximum. We began our work and, although one of our workers said the driver didn’t seem sufficiently quiet to him, assured the people living near the job site that we were well within the agreed sound limit. one of them, an acoustical engineer, marched out the next day and demonstrated that we were putting out 104 dB. obviously, something is wrong with the pile driver.

i think you will agree that we have a problem. We were able to secure other equipment, at considerable inconvenience, to finish the job on schedule. When i telephoned your company that humiliating day, however, a Mr. Meredith informed me that i should have done an acoustical reading on the driver before i accepted delivery.

i would like you to send out a technician—as soon as possible—either to repair the driver so that it performs according to specifications or to take it back for a full refund.

yours truly,

Jack robbins, President

enclosure

RC ROBBINS CONSTRUCTION, INC.

A claim letter is a polite, reasonable complaint. If you purchase a defec- tive or falsely advertised product or receive inadequate service, you write a claim letter. If the letter is convincing, your chances of receiv- ing a satisfactory settlement are good because most organizations realize that unhappy customers are bad for business. In addition, claim letters help companies identify weaknesses in their products or services.

The writer indicates clearly in the first paragraph that he is writing about an unsatisfactory product. Note that he identifies the product by model name.

The writer presents the background, filling in specific details about the problem. Notice how he supports his earlier claim that the problem embarrassed him professionally.

The writer states that he thinks the reader will agree that there was a problem with the equipment.

Then the writer suggests that the reader’s colleague did not respond satisfactorily.

The writer proposes a solution: that the reader take appropriate action. The writer’s clear, specific account of the problem and his professional tone increase his chances of receiv- ing the solution he proposes.

FiGuRE 9.6 Claim Letter

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Writing Letters 9 251

adjustment Letter Figures 9.7 and 9.8 show “good news” and “bad news” adjustment letters. The first is a reply to the claim letter shown in Figure 9.6.

311 Elmerine Avenue Anderson, MO 63501 (417) 555-2484 larsynsupply.com

august 22, 2016

Mr. Jack robbins, President robbins Construction, inc. 255 robbins Place Centerville, Mo 65101

dear Mr. robbins:

i was very unhappy to read your letter of august 17 telling me about the failure of the vista 500. i regretted most the treatment you received from one of my employees when you called us.

harry rivers, our best technician, has already been in touch with you to arrange a convenient time to come out to Centerville to talk with you about the driver. We will of course repair it, replace it, or refund the price. Just let us know your wish.

i realize that i cannot undo the damage that was done on the day that a piece of our equipment failed. to make up for some of the extra trouble and expense you incurred, let me offer you a 10 percent discount on your next purchase or service order with us, up to a $1,000 total discount.

you have indeed been a good customer for many years, and i would hate to have this unfortunate incident spoil that relationship. Won’t you give us another chance? Just bring in this letter when you visit us next, and we’ll give you that 10 percent discount.

sincerely,

dave larsyn, President

Larsyn Supply Company

FiGuRE 9.7 “Good news” adjustment Letter

An adjustment letter, a response to a claim letter, tells the customer how you plan to handle the situation. Your purpose is to show that your organization is fair and reasonable and that you value the customer’s business.

If you can grant the request, the letter is easy to write. Express your regret, state the adjustment you are going to make, and end on a positive note by encouraging the customer to continue doing busi- ness with you.

The writer wisely expresses regret about the two problems cited in the claim letter.

The writer describes the actions he has already taken and formally states that he will do whatever the reader wishes.

The writer expresses empathy in making the offer of adjustment. Doing so helps to create a bond: you and I are both professionals who rely on our good reputations.

This polite conclusion appeals to the reader’s sense of fairness and reflects good business practice.

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 252

If you are writing a “bad news” adjustment letter, salvage as much goodwill as you can by showing that you have acted reasonably. In denying a request, explain your side of the matter, thus educating the customer about how the problem occurred and how to prevent it in the future.

The writer does not begin by stat- ing that he is denying the reader’s request. Instead, he begins politely by trying to form a bond with the reader. In trying to meet the customer on neutral ground, be careful about admitting that the customer is right. If you say “We are sorry that the engine you purchased from us is defective,” it will bolster the customer’s claim if the dispute ends up in court.

The writer summarizes the facts of the incident, as he sees them.

The writer explains that he is unable to fulfill the reader’s request. Notice that the writer never explicitly denies the request. It is more effective to explain why granting the request is not appropriate. Also notice that the writer does not explicitly say that the reader failed to make a backup copy of the plan and therefore the problem is her fault.

The writer shifts from the bad news to the good news. The writer explains that he has already responded appropriately to the reader’s request.

The writer ends with a polite con- clusion. A common technique is to offer the reader a special discount on another, similar product.

Quality Storage Media

2077 Highland, Burley, ID 84765 208 • 555 • 1613 qualstorage.com

February 3, 2016

Ms. dale devlin 1903 highland avenue glenn Mills, ne 69032

dear Ms. devlin:

thank you for writing us about the external hard drive you purchased on January 11, 2016. i know from personal experience how frustrating it is when a drive fails.

according to your letter, you used the drive to store the business plan for your new consulting business. When you attempted to copy that file to your internal hard drive, the external drive failed, and the business plan was lost. you have no other copy of that file. you are asking us to reimburse you $1,500 for the cost of re-creating that business plan from notes and rough drafts.

as you know, our drives carry a lifetime guarantee covering parts and workmanship. We will gladly replace the defective external drive. however, the guarantee states that the manufacturer and the retailer will not assume any incidental liability. thus we are responsible only for the retail value of the external drive, not for the cost of duplicating the work that went into making the files stored on the drive.

however, your file might still be recoverable. a reputable data-recovery firm might be able to restore the data from the file at a very reasonable cost. to prevent such problems in the future, we always recommend that you back up all valuable files periodically.

We have already sent out your new external drive by overnight delivery. it should arrive within the next two days.

Please contact us if we can be of any further assistance.

sincerely yours,

Paul r. Blackwood, Manager Customer relations

FiGuRE 9.8 “Bad news” adjustment Letter

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Writing Memos 9 253

Writing Memos Even in the age of email and microblogs, memos are likely to survive because sometimes writers want a slightly more formal document. Like letters, memos have a characteristic format, which consists of the elements shown in Figure 9.9.

Write out the month instead of using the all-numeral format (6/12/16); multicultural readers might use a different notation for dates and could be confused.

List the names of persons receiving copies of the memo, either alpha- betically or in descending order of organizational rank.

Most writers put their initials or signature next to the typed name (or at the end of the memo) to show that they have reviewed the memo and accept responsibility for it.

AMRO MEMO

To: B. Pabst From: J. Alonso J. A. Subject: MIXER RECOMMENDATION FOR PHILLIPS Date: 12 June 2016

INTEROFFICE

To: C. Cleveland c: B. Aaron From: H. Rainbow H. R. K. Lau Subject: Shipment Date of Blueprints J. Manuputra to Collier W. Williams Date: 2 October 2016

NORTHERN PETROLEUM COMPANY INTERNAL CORRESPONDENCE

Date: January 3, 2016 To: William Weeks, Director of Operations From: Helen Cho, Chemical Engineering Dept. H. C. Subject: Trip Report—Conference on Improved Procedures

for Chemical Analysis Laboratory

Figure 9.9 Identifying Information in a Memo Some organizations prefer the full names of the writer and reader; others want only the first initials and last names. Some prefer job titles; others do not. If your organization does not object, include your job title and your reader’s. The memo will then be informative for anyone who refers to it after either of you has moved on to a new position, as well as for others in the organization who do not know you.

Print the second and all subsequent pages of a memo on plain paper rather than on letterhead. Include three items in the upper right-hand or left-hand corner of each subsequent page: the name of the recipient, the date of the memo, and the page number. See the header in Figure 9.3 on page 247.

Figure 9.10 (on page 254), a sample memo, is a trip report, a record of a business trip written after the employee returned to the office. Readers are

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 254

Dynacol Corporation interoFFiCe CoMMUniCation

to: g. granby, r&d From: P. rabin, technical services P.R. subject: trip report—Computer dynamics, inc. date: september 21, 2016

the purpose of this memo is to present my impressions of the Computer dynamics technical seminar of september 19. the goal of the seminar was to introduce their new PQ-500 line of high-capacity storage drives.

summary in general, i was impressed with the technical capabilities and interface of the drives. of the two models in the 500 series, i think we ought to consider the external drives, not the internal ones. i’d like to talk to you about this issue when you have a chance.

Discussion Computer dynamics offers two models in its 500 series: an internal drive and an external drive. Both models have the same capacity (1t of storage), and they both work the same way: they extend the storage capacity of a server by integrating an optical disk library into the file system. the concept is that they move files between the server’s faster, but limited-capacity, storage devices (hard disks) and its slower, high-capacity storage devices (magneto- optical disks). this process, which they call data migration and demigration, is transparent to the user.

For the system administrator, integrating either of the models would require no more than one hour. the external model would be truly portable; the user would not need to install any drivers, as long as his or her device is docked on our network. the system administrator would push the necessary drivers onto all the networked devices without the user having to do anything.

although the internal drive is convenient—it is already configured for the computer—i think we should consider only the external drive. Because so many of our employees do teleconferencing, the advantage of portability outweighs the disadvantage of inconvenience. the tech rep from Computer dynamics walked me through the process of configuring both models. a second advantage of the external drive is that it can be salvaged easily when we take a computer out of service.

recommendation i’d like to talk to you, when you get a chance, about negotiating with Computer dynamics for a quantity discount. i think we should ask McKinley and rossiter to participate in the discussion. give me a call (x3442) and we’ll talk.

FiGuRE 9.10 sample Memo

The subject line is specific: the reader can tell at a glance that the memo reports on a trip to Com- puter Dynamics, Inc. If the subject line read only “Computer Dynamics, Inc.,” the reader would not know what the writer was going to discuss about that company.

The memo begins with a clear statement of purpose, as discussed in Ch. 4, p. 56.

Note that the writer has provided a summary, even though the memo is only one page long. The summary gives the writer an opportunity to convey his main request: he would like to meet with the reader.

The main section of the memo is the discussion, which conveys the detailed version of the writer’s message. Often the discussion begins with the background: the facts that readers will need to know to understand the memo. In this case, the background consists of a two-paragraph discussion of the two models in the company’s 500 series. Presumably, the reader already knows why the writer went on the trip.

Note that the writer ends this dis- cussion with a conclusion, or state- ment of the meaning of the facts. In this case, the writer’s conclusion is that the company should consider only the external drive.

A recommendation is the writer’s statement of what he would like the reader to do next. In this case, the writer would like to sit down with the reader to discuss how to proceed.

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Writing emails 9 255

less interested in an hour-by-hour narrative of what happened than in a carefully structured discussion of what was important. Although writer and reader appear to be relatively equal in rank, the writer goes to the trouble of organizing the memo to make it easy to read and refer to later.

Organizing a Memo When you write a memo, organize it so that it is easy to follow. Consider these five organizational elements.

A specific subject line. “Breast Cancer Walk” is too general. “Breast Cancer Walk rescheduled to May 14” is better.

A clear statement of purpose. as discussed in Chapter 4 (p. 74), the purpose statement is built around a verb that clearly states what you want the readers to know, believe, or do.

A brief summary. even if a memo fits on one page, consider including a sum- mary. For readers who want to read the whole memo, the summary is an advance organizer; for readers in a hurry, reading the summary substitutes for reading the whole memo.

informative headings. headings make the memo easier to read by enabling readers to skip sections they don’t need and by helping them understand what each section is about. in addition, headings make the memo easier to write be- cause they prompt the writer to provide the kind of information readers need.

A prominent recommendation. Many memos end with one or more recom- mendations. sometimes these recommendations take the form of action steps: bulleted or numbered lists of what the writer will do or what the writer would like others to do. here is an example:

action items: i would appreciate it if you would work on the following tasks and have your results ready for the meeting on Monday, June 9. • Henderson: recalculate the flow rate. • Smith: set up meeting with the regional EPA representative for some time

during the week of May 13. • Falvey: ask Armitra in Houston for his advice.

Writing emails Before you write an email in the workplace, find out your organization’s email policies. Most companies have written policies that discuss circum- stances under which you may and may not use email, principles you should use in writing emails, and the monitoring of employee email. Figure 9.11 on page 256 shows the basic elements of an email.

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WRITING CORRESPONDENCE9 256

Julie, Bob, and Rajiv-

As I mentioned at our meeting last week, I want to get your response to an idea about changing the way we distribute print docs with our systems. I’ll be meeting with Ann in Marketing next week and I want to be sure I can represent our views effectively.

The idea is to stop including the Getting Started brochure and the User’s Guide in the box. Instead we’ll include a post card that customers can use to request these two docs, at no cost. Of course, the two docs will remain up on the site as PDFs. And we’ll still include the setup instructions on the poster.

A recent thread on TECHWR-L on this technique suggests that it can reduce the number of docs that we need to print by 70-85%. That’s good, of course, in terms of print runs, as well as shipping costs. Before I run the numbers on cost savings, however, I want to get a sense of what you think about the idea from the perspective of the customer. Do you think that not including the docs will make a bad impression? Will it increase problems when they set up the printers?

We won’t have final say on whether to adopt this idea, I’m afraid, but I want to make sure our voices are heard. After all, we know more about the customer experience than anyone else at the company.

Please respond by email to all of us by Friday at noon. Thanks very much.

Regards,

Melissa

Melissa Cartright, Senior Documentation Specialist Print Pro Systems voice: 216.555.3407 fax: 216.555.3400

Melissa Cartright

Doc Team

Input re Policy on Including Print Doc

Bob Halloran

Cindy Belloc

Figure 9.11 Elements of an Email

“CC” stands for courtesy copy. All of your recipients will know that you are sending a copy to this person or group.

“BC” or “Bcc” stands for blind copy or blind courtesy copy. None of your readers will know that you are send- ing a copy to this person or group.

You can create a “group” for people whom you email frequently.

Like a memo, an email should have a specific subject line.

By naming her readers at the start, the writer is showing respect for them.

The first paragraph of the email clarifies the writer’s purpose.

The second paragraph describes the idea. You want to be sure your read- ers understand the context.

Notice that paragraphs are relatively brief and that the writer skips a line between paragraphs.

The writer explains what she would like her readers to do, and she states a deadline.

The writer ends politely.

The writer has created a signature, which includes her contact informa- tion. This signature is attached automatically to her emails.

(continued)

Following Netiquette When you write email in the workplace, adhere to the following netiquette guide- lines. Netiquette refers to etiquette on a network.

Stick to business. Don’t send jokes or other nonbusiness messages.

Don’t waste bandwidth. Keep the message brief. When you reply to another email, don’t quote long passages from it. Instead, establish the context of the original email by paraphrasing it briefly or by including a short quotation from

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Writing emails 9 257

Figure 9.12a shows an email that violates netiquette guidelines. The writer is a technical professional working for a microchip manufacturer. Figure 9.12b shows a revised version of this email message.

it. When you quote, delete the routing information from the top as well as the sig- nature block from the bottom. and make sure to send the email only to people who need to read it.

Use the appropriate level of formality. as discussed on page 242, avoid informal writing.

Write correctly. as discussed on page 243, remember to revise, edit, and proof- read your emails before sending them.

don’t flame. to flame is to scorch a reader with scathing criticism, usually in response to something that person wrote in a previous message. When you are angry, keep your hands away from the keyboard.

make your message easy on the eyes. use uppercase and lowercase letters, and skip lines between paragraphs. use uppercase letters or boldface (sparingly) for emphasis.

don’t forward a message to an online discussion forum without the writer’s permission. doing so is unethical and illegal; the email is the intellectual prop- erty of the writer or (if it was written as part of the writer’s work responsibilities) the writer’s company.

don’t send a message unless you have something to say. if you can add some- thing new, do so, but don’t send a message just to be part of the conversation.

a. email that violates netiquette guidelines

To: Supers and Leads Subject:

LATELY, WE HAVE BEEN MISSING LASER REPAIR FILES FOR OUR 16MEG WAFERS. AFTER BRIEF INVESTIGATION, I HAVE FOUND THE MAIN REASON FOR THE MISSING DATA. OCCASIONALLY, SOME OF YOU HAVE WRONGLY PROBED THE WAFERS UNDER THE CORRELATE STEP AND THE DATA IS THEN COPIED INTO THE NONPROD STEP USING THE QTR PROGRAM. THIS IS REALLY STUPID. WHEN DATE IS COPIED THIS WAY THE REPAIR DATA IS NOT COPIED. IT REMAINS UNDER THE CORRELATE STEP. TO AVOID THIS PROBLEM, FIRST PROBE THE WAFERS THE RIGHT WAY. IF A WAFER MUST BE PROBED UNDER A DIFFERENT STEP, THE WAFER IN THE CHANGE FILE MUST BE RENAMED TO THE ** FORMAT. EDITING THE WAFER DATA FILE SHOULD BE USED ONLY AS A LAST RESORT, IF THIS BECOMES A COMMON PROBLEM, WE COULD HAVE MORE PROBLEMS WITH INVALID DATA THAT THERE ARE NOW. SUPERS AND LEADS: PLEASE PASS THIS INFORMATION ALONG TO THOSE WHO NEED TO KNOW.

ROGER VANDENHEUVAL

FiGuRE 9.12 netiquette

The writer does not clearly state his purpose in the subject line and the first paragraph.

Using all uppercase letters gives the impression that the writer is yelling at his readers.

The writer’s tone is hostile.

The writer has not proofread.

With long lines and no spaces between paragraphs, this email is difficult to read.

(continued)

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 258

Writing microblogs As discussed earlier in this chapter, microblog posts are different from let- ters, memos, and email in that they are often extremely brief and quite informal in tone. Usually, you do not revise microblog posts extensively. You just proofread and send them.

However, the fact that microblog posts are fast and informal does not mean that anything goes. When you write microblog posts, you are creating communication that will be archived and that will reflect on you and your organization. In addition, anything you write is subject to the same laws and regulations that pertain to all other kinds of documents. Many of the guide- lines for following netiquette (see p. 256) apply to microblog posts as well as email. Take care, especially, not to flame. Become familiar with your micro- blog’s privacy settings, and be aware of which groups of readers may view and share your posts.

The best way to understand your responsibilities when you write a micro- blog post at work is to study your organization’s guidelines.

b. email that adheres to netiquette guidelines

To: Supers and Leads Subject: Fix for Missing Laser Repair Files for 16MB Wafers

Supers and Leads:

Lately, we have been missing laser repair files for our 16MB wafers. In this e-mail I want to briefly describe the problem and recommend a method for solving it.

Here is what I think is happening. Some of the wafers have been probed under the correlate step; this method copies the data into the nonprod step and leaves the repair data uncopied. It remains under the correlate step.

To prevent this problem, please use the probing method outlined in Spec 344-012. If a wafer must be probed using a different method, rename the wafer in the CHANGE file to the *.* format. Edit the wafer data file only as a last resort.

I'm sending along copies of Spec 344-012. Would you please pass along this e-mail and the spec to all of your operators.

Thanks. Please get in touch with me if you have any questions.

Roger Vandenheuval

The writer has edited and proofread the email.

The subject line and first paragraph clearly state the writer’s purpose.

Double-spacing between para- graphs and using short lines make the email easier to read.

The writer concludes politely.

FiGuRE 9.12 netiquette (continued )

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This message was written in response to a question emailed to several colleagues by a technical communicator seeking advice on how to write meeting minutes effectively. A response to an email message should adhere to the principles of effective emails and proper netiquette. The questions below ask you to think about these principles (explained on pp. 255–58).

1. How effectively has the writer conserved bandwidth?

2. How effectively has the writer stated her purpose?

3. How effectively has the writer projected a “you atti- tude” (explained on p. 243)?

4. How effectively has the writer made her message easy to read?

Following Netiquette in an Email Message D o c u m e n t A n A lys i s Ac t i v i t y

[email protected]

Re: meeting minutes

<<For the past several months, I have been trying to capture the meeting minutes for the McKinley documentation team's weekly meetings. These meetings are well attended (about 10-15 participants) and are fast-paced, with a number of key participants talking very fast and interrupting each other. At first I tried to capture these exchanges with a paper and pen. Sadly, I don't know shorthand. It was impossible.

Now I use a recorder and transcribe the conversations after each meeting. Unfortunately, the recorder I currently use doesn't always pick up low voices but easily picks up rustling papers. The transcription is very time intensive: I spend a lot of time pushing the playback button. My supervisor keeps telling me to stop relying on the recorder and to go back to taking minutes by hand. I totally DISAGREE with her.

Do any of you take minutes and, if so, do you have any suggestions for how to deal with my situation? Your thoughts are most welcomed.

Jessi Jensen Documentation Specialist II ProCom, Inc. [email protected] (619) 692-1234>>

I always try to avoid taking minutes--it's a SECRETARY'S JOB. It's definitely not something a TECHNICAL COMMUNICATOR--especially a female tech communicator (we don't want to encourage gender stereotyping)--should be wasting time with. I think it's STUPID to transcribe WORD-FOR-WORD the talk that occurs in meetings. Is even 5% of the talk of value? I AGREE with your supervisor: you are WASTING a ton of time.

When I can't avoid taking meeting minutes, I bring my laptop to the meeting. I try to have the meeting agenda already open on my word processor. Then I enter points under those headings instead of having to type the headings. I note meeting details (date, team name, names of attendees, etc.), changes to (or approval of) previous meeting's minutes, main topics of discussion, and decisions/action items. If I miss something or am unclear whether a decision was made, I interrupt and ask, "So, let me confirm that I've got this straight." Later, I edit my notes into coherent minutes. Kelly

Writing Microblogs 259

9

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WritinG CorresPonDenCe9 260

Representing Your Organization on a Microblog

if you use a microblog at work to communicate with people outside your own organization, such as vendors and customers, you want to use it in such a way that people are encouraged to like, respect, and trust you. these ten suggestions can help.

decide on your audience and your purpose. are you connecting with clients, providing customer service, helping people understand your company’s goals and vision? you might want to have different accounts if you have several differ- ent audiences and purposes.

Learn the technology. Know how to use hashtags, how to mention other users in your tweets, how to reply publicly and privately, how to integrate images and videos, and how to cross-post to your other social-media accounts should you need to.

Learn the culture of the community. listen and learn before you post. Most communities have a distinct culture, which influences how and when people post, link, and reply. For instance, in some communities, people stick close to the technical topic; in others, they roam more freely and include personal comments.

share, don’t sell. Post about incidents and developments that reinforce your organization’s core principles, such as environmental awareness or making technology available around the world. talk about leadership, teamwork, and cooperation. don’t try to sell products.

help educate readers and solve their problems. regardless of whether you’re responding to individual questions and complaints or helping people under- stand your company’s culture or goals, focus on helping people learn and solve problems.

sound like a person. use an informal tone. readers are especially pleased when high-ranking employees show their human side, such as when the Zappos Ceo posted, “dropped my laptop on floor this morning. i usually drop my phone, so good to know i’m moving on to bigger and better things” (hall, 2009).

Apologize when you make a mistake. some years ago, Pepsi ran a marketing campaign about a one-calorie product in which the cartoon calorie was so lonely it was considering suicide. after someone complained about the ad’s insensitiv- ity, a Pepsi representative tweeted her (and the rest of the world) to apologize. using his own name, he agreed with her that the ad was inappropriate and said he had taken it down (stibel, 2011).

Link generously. When you want to talk about something you’ve learned online, don’t paraphrase. rather, link back to the original source. use a url shortener such as Bitly or tinyurl so that the link won’t take up too many of your 140 characters.

get your facts right. like anything online, your post is permanent. double-check your facts before you post. otherwise, you could embarrass yourself and erode people’s trust in your professionalism.

edit and proofread before you post. you should be informal, but you shouldn’t be sloppy. it sends the wrong message.

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Writing Correspondence to Multicultural readers 9 261

Writing Correspondence to multicultural readers The four types of business correspondence discussed in this chapter are used in countries around the world. The ways they are used, however, can differ significantly from the ways they are used in the United States. These differ- ences fall into three categories:

• Cultural practices. As discussed in Chapter 4, cultures differ in a number of ways, such as whether they focus on individuals or groups, the distance between power ranks, and attitudes toward uncertainty. Typically, a culture’s attitudes are reflected in its business communication. For example, in Japan, which has a high power distance—that is, people in top positions are treated with great respect by their subordinates—a reader might be addressed as “Most Esteemed Mr. Director.” Some cultural practices, however, are not intuitively obvious even if you understand the culture. For example, in Japanese business culture, it is considered rude to reply to an email by using the reply function in the email software; it is polite to begin a new email (Sasaki, 2010).

• Language use and tone. In the United States, writers tend to use contractions, the first names of their readers, and other instances of informal language. In many other countries, this informality is potentially offensive. Also potentially offensive is U.S. directness. A writer from the United States might write, for example, that “14 percent of the products we received from you failed to meet the specifications.” A Korean would more likely write, “We were pleased to note that 86 percent of the products we received met the specifications.” The writer either would not refer to the other 14 percent (assuming that the reader would get the point and replace the defective products quickly) or would write, “We would appreciate replacement of the remaining products.” Many other aspects of business correspondence differ from culture to culture, such as preferred length, specificity, and the use of seasonal references in the correspondence.

• Application choice and use. In cultures in which documents tend to be formal, letters might be preferred to memos, or face-to-face meetings to phone calls or email. In Asia, for instance, a person is more likely to walk down the hall to deliver a brief message in person because doing so shows more respect. In addition, the formal characteristics of letters, memos, and emails are different in different cultures. The French, for instance, use indented paragraphs in their letters, whereas in the United States, paragraphs are typically left-justified. The ordering of the information in the inside address and complimentary close of letters varies widely. In many countries, emails are structured like memos, with the “to,” “from,” “subject,” and “date” information added at the top, even though this information is already present in the routing information.

For more about cultural variables, see Ch. 4, p. 63.

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Try to study business correspondence written by people from the culture you will be addressing. When possible, have important documents reviewed by a person from that culture before you send them.

W R i t E R ’S c h E c k L i S t

Letter Format

Is the first page printed on letterhead stationery? (p. 246)

Is the date included? (p. 246)

Is the inside address complete and correct? (p. 246)

Is the appropriate courtesy title used? (p. 246)

If appropriate, is an attention line included? (p. 246)

If appropriate, is a subject line included? (p. 246)

Is the salutation appropriate? (p. 246)

Is the complimentary close typed with only the first word capitalized? (p. 247)

Is the signature legible, and is the writer’s name typed beneath the signature? (p. 247)

If appropriate, is an enclosure line included? (p. 247)

If appropriate, is a copy and/or courtesy-copy line included? (p. 247)

types of Letters Does the inquiry letter

explain why you chose the reader to receive the inquiry? (p. 248)

explain why you are requesting the information and how you will use it? (p. 248)

specify the date when you need the information? (p. 248)

list the questions clearly and, if appropriate, provide room for the reader’s responses? (p. 248)

offer, if appropriate, the product of your research? (p. 248)

Does the response to an inquiry letter

answer the reader’s questions? (p. 249)

explain why, if any of the reader’s questions cannot be answered? (p. 249)

Does the claim letter

identify specifically the unsatisfactory product or service? (p. 250)

explain the problem(s) clearly? (p. 250)

propose an adjustment? (p. 250)

conclude courteously? (p. 250)

Does the “good news” adjustment letter

express your regret about the problem? (p. 251)

explain the adjustment you will make? (p. 251)

conclude on a positive note? (p. 251)

Does the “bad news” adjustment letter

meet the reader on neutral ground, expressing regret for the problem but not apologizing? (p. 252)

explain why the company is not at fault? (p. 252)

clearly imply that the reader’s request is denied? (p. 252)

attempt to create goodwill? (p. 252)

Memos

Does the identifying information adhere to your organization’s standards? (p. 253)

Did you include a specific subject line? (p. 254)

Did you clearly state your purpose at the start of the memo? (p. 254)

If appropriate, did you summarize your message? (p. 254)

Did you provide appropriate background for the discussion? (p. 254)

Did you organize the discussion clearly? (p. 255)

Did you include informative headings to help your readers? (p. 255)

Did you highlight items requiring action? (p. 255)

email

Did you refrain from sending jokes or other nonbusiness messages? (p. 256)

Did you keep the email as brief as possible and send it only to appropriate people? (p. 256)

Did you use the appropriate level of formality? (p. 257)

Did you write correctly? (p. 257)

262 WritinG CorresPonDenCe9

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Did you avoid flaming? (p. 257)

Did you write a specific, accurate subject line? (p. 257)

Did you use uppercase and lowercase letters? (p. 257)

Did you skip lines between paragraphs? (p. 257)

Did you check with the writer before forwarding his or her message? (p. 257)

Microblogs

Did you study your organization’s policy on which microblog sites you may use and how you should use them? (p. 258)

E x E r c i s E s

1. You are the head of research for a biological research organization. Six months ago, you purchased a $2,000 commercial refrigerator for storing research samples. Recently, you suffered a loss of more than $600 in samples when the thermostat failed and the temperature in the refrigerator rose to more than 48 degrees over the weekend. Inventing any reasonable details, write a claim letter to the manufacturer of the refrigerator.

2. As the recipient of the claim letter described in Exercise 1, write an adjustment letter granting the customer’s request.

3. You are the manager of a private swimming club. A member has written saying that she lost a contact lens (value $75) in your pool and she wants you to pay for a replacement. The contract that all members sign explicitly states that the management is not responsible for the loss of personal possessions. Write an adjustment letter denying the request. Invent any reasonable details.

4. As the manager of a retail electronics store, you guarantee that the store will not be undersold. If a customer finds another retailer selling the same equipment at a lower price within one month of his or her purchase, you will refund the difference. A customer has written to you and enclosed an ad from another store showing that it is selling a router for $26.50 less than he paid at your store. The advertised price at the other store was a one-week sale that began five weeks after the date of his purchase. He wants a $26.50 refund. Inventing any reasonable details, write an adjustment letter denying his request. You are willing, however, to offer him an 8-GB USB drive worth $9.95 if he would like to come pick it up.

5. TEAM EXERCISE Form small groups for this exercise on claim and adjustment letters. Have each member of your group study the following two letters. Then

meet and discuss your reactions to the two letters. How effectively does the writer of the claim letter present his case? How effective is the adjustment letter? Does its writer succeed in showing that the company’s procedures for ensuring hygiene are effective? Does its writer succeed in projecting a professional tone? Write a memo to your instructor discussing the two letters. Attach a revision of the adjustment letter to the memo.

Seth Reeves 19 Lowry’s Lane

Morgan, TN 30610

April 13, 2016

Sea-Tasty Tuna Route 113 Lynchburg, TN 30563

Gentlemen:

I’ve been buying your tuna fish for years, and up to now it’s been OK.

But this morning I opened a can to make myself a sandwich. What do you think was staring me in the face? A fly. That’s right, a housefly. That’s him you see taped to the bottom of this letter.

What are you going to do about this?

Yours very truly,

Exercises 9 263

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264 WritinG CorresPonDenCe9

Sea-Tasty Tuna Route 113 Lynchburg, TN 30563 www.seatastytuna.com

April 20, 2016

Mr. Seth Reeves 19 Lowry’s Lane Morgan, TN 30610

Dear Mr. Reeves:

We were very sorry to learn that you found a fly in your tuna fish.

Here at Sea-Tasty we are very careful about hygiene at our plant. The tuna are scrubbed thoroughly as soon as we receive them. After they are processed, they are inspected visually at three different points. Before we pack them, we rinse and sterilize the cans to ensure that no foreign material is sealed in them.

Because of these stringent controls, we really don’t see how you could have found a fly in the can. Nevertheless, we are enclosing coupons good for two cans of Sea-Tasty tuna.

We hope this letter restores your confidence in us.

Truly yours,

To: Paul From: Louise

Sometimes I just have to wonder what you’re thinking, Paul.

>Of course, it’s not possible to expect perfect resumes. But I >have to screen them, and last year I had to read over 200. I’m >not looking for perfection, but as soon as I spot an error I >make a mental note of it and, when I hit a second and >then a third error I can’t really concentrate on the writer’s >credentials. Listen, Paul, you might be a sharp editor, but the rest of us have a different responsibility: to make the products and move them out as soon as possible. We don’t have the luxury of studying documents to see if we can find errors. I suggest you concentrate on what you were hired to do, without imposing your “standards” on the rest of us.

>From my point of view, an error can include a >misused tradmark.

Misusing a “tradmark,” Paul? Is that Error Number 1?

c A S E 9 : setting Up and maintaining a professional microblog Account

As the editor-in-chief of your college newspaper, you have recently been granted permission to create a Twitter account. The newspaper’s faculty advisor has requested that, before you set up the account, you develop a statement of audience and purpose based on your school’s own social-media policy statement and statements from other schools, newspapers, and organizations. To begin putting together a bibliography to guide your research and craft your statement, go to LaunchPad.

6. Louise and Paul work for the same manufacturing company. Louise, a senior engineer, is chairing a committee to investigate ways to improve the hiring process at the company. Paul, a technical editor, also serves on the committee. The excerpts quoted in Louise’s email are from Paul’s email to all members of the committee in response to Louise’s request that members describe their approach to evaluating job- application materials. How would you revise Louise’s email to make it more effective?

7. Because students use email to communicate with other group members when they write collaboratively, your college or university would like to create a one-page handout on how to use email responsibly. Using a search engine, find three or four netiquette guides on the Internet that focus on email. Study these guides and write a one-page student guide to using email to communicate with other students. Somewhere in the guide, be sure to list the sites you studied, so that students can visit them for further information about netiquette.

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Establishing Your Professional Brand 266 ■ Guidelines: Building the Foundation of Your Professional Brand 267 ■ Guidelines: Presenting Your Professional Brand 268 ■ TuTorial: Building Your Professional Brand with linkedin, Twitter, and More ■ eThics noTe: Writing honest Job-application Materials 269

Understanding Four Major Ways To Look for a Position 269 ■ Guidelines: using linkedin’s employment Features 272

Writing Résumés 270 ElEmEnts of thE ChronologiCal résumé 273

■ Guidelines: elaborating on Your education 274

ElEmEnts of thE skills résumé 280

PrEParing a Plain-tExt résumé 280 ■ Guidelines: Formatting a Plain-Text résumé 281 ■ docuMenT analYsis acTiviTY: Preparing a résumé 285 ■ docuMenT analYsis acTiviTY: online Portfolio 286 and

Writing Job-Application Letters 286

Writing Follow-up Letters or Emails After an Interview 286

WRITER’s ChECkLIsT 289

ExERCIsEs 290

CAsE 10: identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-search sites 291 and

10Writing Job-Application Materials

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GETTING HIRED has always involved writing. Whether you apply online through a company’s website, reply to a post on linkedin, or send a formal letter and résumé through the mail, you will use words to make the case that the organization should offer you a position.

You will probably make that case quite a few times. according to the u.s. department of labor (2012), the typical american worker holds more than 11 different jobs while he or she is between the ages of 18 and 40. obviously, most of those jobs don’t last long. even when american workers begin a new job between the ages of 40 and 46, a third of those workers will no longer be with that company at the end of one year, and two-thirds will no longer be there in five years.

For most of you, looking for professional work is the first nonacademic test of your technical-communication skills. and it’s an important test. Kyle Wiens, ceo of two tech companies, iFixit and dozuki, requires all new employees to pass a writing test. his reason? “if it takes someone more than 20 years to notice how to properly use ‘it’s,’ then that’s not a learning curve i’m comfortable with” (Bowers, 2013).

Establishing Your Professional Brand Being a successful job seeker requires a particular frame of mind. Think of yourself not as a student at this college or an employee of that company but rather as a professional with a brand to establish and maintain. For instance, say your name is Amber Cunningham, and you work as a human-resources officer for Apple. Don’t think of yourself as an Apple human-resources officer. Instead, think of yourself as Amber Cunningham, a human-resources spe- cialist who has worked for several companies (including Apple) and who has a number of marketable skills and a substantial record of accomplishments. Your professional brand (sometimes referred to as a “personal brand”) is Amber Cunningham.

To present your professional brand successfully, you need to understand what employers are looking for, and then you need to craft the materials that will present that brand to the world.

There is really no mystery about what employers want in an employee. Across all fields, employers want a person who is honest, hard-working, tech- nically competent, skilled at solving problems, able to work effectively alone and in teams, willing to share information with others, and eager to keep learning.

You need to find the evidence that you can use to display these qualities. Begin by thinking about everything you have done throughout your college career (courses, projects, service-learning experiences, organizations, leader- ship roles) and your professional career (job responsibilities, supervision of others, accomplishments, awards). And don’t forget your volunteer activi- ties; through these activities, many people acquire what are called transfer- able skills—skills that are useful or even necessary in seemingly unrelated jobs. For instance, volunteering for Habitat for Humanity says something important not only about your character but also about your ability to work

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Establishing Your Professional Brand 10 267

effectively in a team and to solve problems. Even if you will never swing a hammer on the job, you will want to refer to this experience. Make a list—a long list—of your experiences, characteristics, skills, and accomplishments that will furnish the kinds of evidence that you can use in establishing your professional brand.

With your long list of characteristics, experiences, skills, and accomplish- ments in hand, it’s time to start creating the materials—primarily online materials—that will display your professional brand.

According to a 2014 study (Guerin, 2014), almost half of employers research job applicants using social media. And although some of those companies find positive information that makes them want to pursue the applicant, many find negative information, such as unprofessional photos or text about drug use, negative comments about current or former employers, and discriminatory comments about race, gender, or religion.

Building the Foundation of Your Professional Brand

Follow these six guidelines in developing your professional brand.

research what others have done. What kinds of information do they present about themselves online? on which social-media sites are they active? What kinds of comments and questions do they post? how do they reply to what oth- ers have posted?

tell the truth. statistics about how many people lie and exaggerate in describing themselves in the job search vary, but it is probably between a third and a half. companies search online themselves or hire investigators to verify the informa- tion you provide about yourself, to see if you are honest.

Communicate professionally. show that you can write clearly and correctly, and remember that it is inappropriate (and in some cases illegal) to divulge trade secrets or personal information about colleagues.

highlight your job skills. employers want to see that you have the technical skills that the job requires. They look for degrees, certifications, speeches and publica- tions, and descriptions of what you do in your present position and have done in previous positions.

focus on problem-solving and accomplishments. The most compelling evi- dence that you would be a good hire is a solid record of identifying problems and devising solutions that met customers’ needs, reduced costs, increased revenues, improved safety, and reduced environmental impact. numbers tell the story: try to present your accomplishments as quantifiable data.

Participate actively online. one way to show you are a professional who would generously and appropriately share information and work well in a team is to display those characteristics online. Participate professionally through sites such as linkedin, Facebook, and Twitter.

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Presenting Your Professional Brand The following six guidelines can help you display your professional brand.

Create a strong online presence. The best online presence is your own web- site, which functions as your online headquarters. all your other online activi- ties will link back to this one site, the only site on the internet that is all about you. register a site and try to name it yourname.com (you will be required to pay a small fee to secure the domain name). if you aren’t experienced designing and creating sites, try a drag-and-drop site builder like Weebly or squarespace, or use a template from a free blogging site such as WordPress. upload to your site everything you want potential employers to see: contact information, a professional history, work samples, documents, and links to your accounts on social-media sites.

Participate on linkedin. linkedin is the major social-media site used by employers to find employees. set up a linkedin account and create a profile that includes the keywords that will attract potential employers. rather than calling yourself a “programmer at adP,” which describes your current situation, call yourself “an experienced programmer in various programming languages (Java, c, c++, and PhP) and scripting languages (Javascript, Perl, Wsh, and uniX shells) who understands interactive web pages and web-based applications, including Javaserver Pages (JsP), Java servlets, active server Pages (asP), and activeX controls.” including keywords makes it easier for potential employers to find you when they search for employees. in addition, remember to list spe- cific skills in the “skills and abilities” section of your profile. Potential employers searching for specific skills can then locate you more easily, and colleagues who know your work can endorse you for various skills. Participate actively on linkedin by linking to articles or videos you find useful and contributing to discussion forums. Make connections with people and endorse them honestly.

Participate on facebook. You probably already have a Facebook account. Within your account, you have the option to create separate Pages for specific interests. create a public Facebook Page and use it only for professional activities. share information that will be interesting and useful to other professionals.

Participate on twitter. Follow influential people in your industry on Twitter to see the kinds of activities, conferences, and publications that interest them. com- ment on and retweet useful tweets, link to the best items you see in the media, and reply when others send you messages.

Create a business card. having a business card if you’re a student might seem odd, but a card is the best way to direct people to your website when you meet them in person. Your card should have your contact information, a few phrases highlighting your skills, and the url of your website. some people add a Qr code (a Quick response code, the square barcode that smartphones can read) to allow others to link to their websites instantly. (search for “Qr code generator” to find free sites that will help you generate a Qr code.)

Practice an “elevator pitch.” an elevator pitch is a brief oral summary of your credentials. at less than 20 seconds long, it’s brief enough that you can say it if you find yourself in an elevator with a potential employer. after the pitch, you hand the person your business card, which contains all the information he or she needs to get to your website.

To watch a tutorial on crafting your professional brand, go to

LaunchPad.

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However, some employers are cutting back on their use of social media in researching applicants. Another 2014 study (Tysiac and Amato, 2014) sug- gests that employers are becoming aware that, in doing their research, they might discover protected information about applicants—such as their age, race, religion, or sexual orientation—and, in so doing, become vulnerable to discrimination lawsuits by applicants.

Still, the best advice is to act professionally on all your social-media accounts to increase the chances that employers will like what they see if they do research your online presence.

Start by searching online for your own name. Look at what potential employers will see and ask yourself whether your online personal brand is what you want to display. If it isn’t, start to change it.

E T H I C S N OT E

WRITING hONEsT JOB-APPLICATION MATERIALs Many résumés contain lies or exaggerations. Job applicants say they attended colleges they didn’t and were awarded degrees they weren’t, give themselves inflated job titles, say they were laid off when they were really fired for poor performance, and inflate their accomplish- ments. a careerBuilder survey found that 38 percent of employees have embellished their job responsibilities at some point, and 18 percent have lied about their skills (lorenz, 2012). economist steven d. levitt, co-author of Freakonomics, concludes that more than 50 percent of job applicants lie on their résumés (isaacs, 2012).

companies take this problem seriously. They hire agencies that verify an applicant’s education and employment history and check for a criminal record. They do their own research online. They phone people whose names the candidate has provided. if they find any discrepancies, they do not offer the candidate a position. if the person is already working for the company when discrepancies arise, they fire the employee.

understanding four major Ways to look for a Position Once you have established your personal brand, you can start to look for a position. There are four major ways to find a job.

• through an organization’s website. Most organizations list their job offerings in a careers section on their websites and explain how to apply. If you are interested in a particular organization, start with its own site.

• through a job site on the internet. Job boards are sites sponsored by federal agencies, Internet service providers, and private organizations. Some sites merely list positions; you respond to such listings by email. Other sites let you upload your résumé electronically, so that employers can get in touch with you. Some job boards offer resources on how to prepare job-application materials; others do not. Among the biggest job boards are the following:

— AfterCollege

— CareerBuilder

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— CareerMag

— CareerOneStop (sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor)

— Indeed.com (a metasearch engine for job seekers)

— Monster

One caution about using job boards: once you upload your résumé to an Internet site, you probably have lost control of it. Here are four questions to consider before you post to a job board:

— Who has access to your résumé? You might want to remove your home address and phone number from it if anyone can view it.

— How will you know if an employer requests your résumé? Will you be notified by the job board?

— Can your current employer see your résumé? If your employer discovers that you are looking for a new job, your current position could be in jeopardy.

— Can you update your résumé at no cost? Some job boards charge you each time you update your résumé.

• through your network. A relative or an acquaintance can exert influence to help you get a job, or at least point out a new position. Other good contacts include past employers and professors. Also consider becoming active in the student chapter of a professional organization in your field, through which you can meet professionals in your local area. Many people use Twitter, Facebook, and—in particular—LinkedIn to connect with their contacts, as well as to try to identify hiring officers and other professionals who can help them apply. Figure 10.1 shows an excerpt from one professional’s LinkedIn profile.

• through a college or university placement office or professional placement bureau. College and university placement offices bring companies and students together. Student résumés are made available to representatives of business, government, and industry, who arrange on-campus interviews. Students who do well in the campus interviews are then invited by the representatives to visit the organization for a tour and another interview. A professional placement bureau offers essentially the same service but charges a fee (payable by either the employer or the person who is hired for a job). Placement bureaus cater primarily to more- advanced professionals who are changing jobs.

Writing résumés Although you will present your credentials on LinkedIn and other sites, you will also need to create a résumé, which you will upload to a job board or a company’s website, email to the company, or paste into a web-based form.

Many students wonder whether to write their résumés themselves or use a résumé-preparation agency. It is best to write your own résumé, for three reasons:

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FIGuRE 10.1 Excerpts from a Professional’s LinkedIn Profile Reprinted by permission of Joseph Cauteruccio.

Everything in this excerpt from Joseph Cauteruccio’s LinkedIn profile makes the argument that he is talented, hard-working, and ambitious.

Although the photograph was not taken by a professional, Joseph dressed professionally and looks as if he’s eager to get into the office and get to work.

The summary statement includes a paragraph describing his major responsibilities and a summary of his educational credentials. Note that Joseph also includes a number of keywords categorized under “Specialties” and “Programming Languages.” These keywords will help potential employers locate his profile more easily.

• You know yourself better than anyone else does. No matter how professional the work of a résumé-preparation agency is, you can do a better job communicating important information about yourself.

• Employment officers know the style of the local agencies. Readers who recognize that you did not write your own résumé might wonder whether you are hiding any deficiencies.

• if you write your own résumé, you will be more likely to adapt it to different situations. You are unlikely to return to a résumé-preparation agency and pay an additional fee to make a minor revision.

Because most companies use résumé-application software to scan résumés into databases and search for keywords, a good résumé includes the right key- words. Only after a résumé has made it through that initial electronic pass will it be read by a person. Résumé consultant Ramsey Penegar puts it this way: “If your résumé doesn’t have the keywords that match their job requirements, your résumé may hit the ‘no’ pile early in the process” (Auerbach, 2012).

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The best way to be sure you have the appropriate keywords in your résumé is to study the job description in the actual job posting you want to respond to. Then find ten other ads for similar positions and identify the terms that come up frequently. Think in terms of job titles, names of prod- ucts, companies, technologies, and professional organizations. For instance, if the job is to develop web pages, you will likely see many references to “web page,” “Internet,” “XHTML,” “HTML5,” “Java,” “W3C,” and “CSS.” Also include keywords that refer to your communication skills, such as “public speaking,” “oral communication,” and “communication skills.”

But don’t just list the keywords. Instead, integrate them into sentences about your skills and accomplishments. For instance, a computer-science

Using LinkedIn’s Employment Features some 93 percent of hiring officers use linkedin to search for candidates (Fottrell, 2014). The following five guidelines can help you take advantage of the employment features on the world’s most influential networking site for professionals.

use the profile section fully. The profile section includes information from your résumé, but unlike a résumé, which needs to be concise and contains only words, the profile section can include any kind of digital file, such as presentation slides or videos. describe your education and important jobs in detail; remember that the keywords in your descriptions will enable potential employers to find you as they search for employees. if you add “skills” to your profile, others have an op- portunity to “endorse” those skills, adding credibility to your profile.

include a picture. a picture increases by sevenfold the chances that a reader will read your profile (halzack, 2013).

Post updates. Post information about interesting articles you have read, confer- ences you are attending, and other professional activities. Be generous in prais- ing co-workers and others you follow on the internet. Mention your volunteer activities. nicole Williams, a career expert at linkedin, writes that posting an update once a week makes you 10 times more likely to have your profile viewed by a hiring manager (halzack, 2013).

Write unique invitation requests. You can ask one of your connections to intro- duce you to someone who is not one of your connections. in doing so, explain why you want to be introduced (“i plan to relocate to Bill’s city later this year and want to describe the services i offer”), give your connection the opportunity to say no gracefully (“Would you be willing to help me make this introduction? if not, i understand”), and thank your connection (“i really appreciate your taking the time to consider my request”).

Write unique invitations to connect. When you want to connect with another linkedin member, especially one whom you do not know well in person, avoid the template invitation, “i’d like to add you to my professional network.” explain how you know the other person: “as a fellow aggie who’s admired your com- pany’s strategy for some time, i’d like to connect.”

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student might write, “Wrote applications for migrating data between systems/ databases using C#, XML, and Excel Macros.” A chemical engineer might write, “Worked with polymers, mixing and de-gassing polydimethylsiloxane.”

How long should a résumé be? It should be long enough to include all pertinent information but not so long that it bores or irritates the reader. Although some hiring consultants have guidelines (such as that a student’s résumé should be no longer than one page, or that applicants who are vice presidents at companies can write two-page résumés), the consensus is that length is unimportant. If an applicant has more experience, the résumé will be longer; if an applicant has less experience, it will be shorter. If all the information in the résumé helps make the case that the applicant is an excellent fit for the position, it’s the right length.

The information that goes into a résumé is commonly ordered either chron- ologically or by skills. In a chronological résumé, you use time as the organizing pattern for each section, including education and experience, and discuss your responsibilities for each job you have held. In a skills résumé (sometimes called a functional résumé), you merely list your previous jobs but include a skills sec- tion in which you describe your talents, skills, and achievements.

A chronological résumé focuses on the record of employment, giving an applicant the opportunity to describe the duties and accomplishments related to each job. The skills résumé highlights the skills (such as supervis- ing others, managing a large department, reducing production costs) that the candidate demonstrated at several different companies. The skills résumé is a popular choice for applicants who have a gap in their employment history, who are re-entering the workforce, or who have changed jobs frequently.

In both types of résumé, you use reverse chronology; that is, you present the most recent jobs and degrees first, to emphasize them.

ELEMENTs OF ThE ChRONOLOGICAL RésUMé Most chronological résumés have five basic elements: identifying informa- tion, summary of qualifications, education, employment history, and inter- ests and activities. Sometimes writers include a sixth section: references. In filling in these basic sections, remember that you want to include the key- words that will attract employers.

Identifying Information If you are submitting your résumé directly to a company, include your full name, address, phone number, and email address. Use your complete address, including the zip code. If your address during the academic year differs from your home address, list both and identify them clearly. An employer might call during an academic holiday to arrange an interview.

However, if you are posting your résumé to an Internet job board, where it can be seen by anyone, you will be more vulnerable to scammers, spammers, and identity thieves. Don’t include a mailing address or phone number, and use an email address that does not identify you.

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summary statement After the identifying information, add a summary statement, a brief paragraph that highlights three or four important skills or accomplishments. For example:

summary six years’ experience creating testing documentation to qualify production programs that run on automated Test and handling equipment. Four years’ experience running Qa tests on software, hardware, and semiconductor products. Bilingual english and italian. secret security clearance.

Education If you are a student or a recent graduate, place the educa- tion section next. If you have substantial professional experience, place the employment-history section before the education section.

Include at least the following information in the education section:

• Your degree. After the degree abbreviation (such as BS, BA, AA, or MS), list your academic major (and, if you have one, your minor)—for example, “BS in Materials Engineering, minor in General Business.”

• the institution. Identify the institution by its full name: “Louisiana State University,” not “LSU.”

• the location of the institution. Include the city and state.

• the date of graduation. If your degree has not yet been granted, add “Anticipated date of graduation” or a similar phrase.

• information about other schools you attended. List any other institutions you attended beyond high school, even those from which you did not earn a degree. The description for other institutions should include complete information, as in the main listing. Arrange entries in reverse chronological order: that is, list first the school you attended most recently.

(continued)

Elaborating on Your Education The following four guidelines can help you develop the education section of your résumé.

list your grade-point average. if your average is significantly above the median for the graduating class, list it. or list your average in your major courses, or all your courses in the last two years. calculate it however you wish, but be honest and clear.

Compile a list of courses. include courses that will interest an employer, such as ad- vanced courses in your major or courses in technical communication, public speak- ing, or organizational communication. For example, a list of business courses on an engineer’s résumé might show special knowledge and skills. But don’t bother list- ing required courses; everyone else in your major took the same courses. include the substantive titles of listed courses. employers won’t know what “chemistry 450” is; call it by its official title: “chemistry 450. organic chemistry.”

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The education section is the easiest part of the résumé to adapt in apply- ing for different positions. For example, a student majoring in electrical engi- neering who is applying for a position requiring strong communication skills can emphasize communication courses in one version of the résumé and advanced electrical engineering courses in another version. As you compose the education section, emphasize those aspects of your background that meet the requirements for the particular job.

Employment history Present at least the basic information about each job you have held: the dates of employment, the organization’s name and location, and your position or title. Then add carefully selected details. Read- ers want to know what you did and accomplished. Provide at least a two- to three-line description for each position. For particularly important or rel- evant jobs, write more, focusing on one or more of the following factors:

• skills. What technical skills did you use on the job?

• Equipment. What equipment did you operate or oversee? In particular, mention computer equipment or software with which you are familiar.

• money. How much money were you responsible for? Even if you considered your data-entry position fairly easy, the fact that the organization grossed, say, $2 million a year shows that the position involved real responsibility.

• Documents. What important documents did you write or assist in writing, such as brochures, reports, manuals, proposals, or websites?

• Personnel. How many people did you supervise?

• Clients. What kinds of clients, and how many, did you do business with in representing your organization?

Describe a special accomplishment. if you completed a special senior design or research project, present the title and objective of the project, any special or advanced techniques or equipment you used, and, if you know them, the major results: “a study of shape Memory alloys in Fabricating actuators for underwa- ter Biomimetic applications—a senior design project to simulate the swimming styles and anatomy of fish.” a project description makes you seem more like a professional: someone who designs and carries out projects.

list honors and awards you received. scholarships, internships, and academic awards suggest exceptional ability. if you have received a number of such hon- ors, or some that were not exclusively academic, you might list them separately (in a section called “honors” or “awards”) rather than in the education section. decide where this information will make the best impression.

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Whenever possible, emphasize accomplishments. If you reorganized the shifts of the weekend employees you supervised, state the results:

reorganized the weekend shift, resulting in a cost savings of more than $3,000 per year.

Wrote and produced (with adobe indesign) a 56-page parts catalog that is still used by the company and that increased our phone inquiries by more than 25 percent.

When you describe positions, functions, or responsibilities, use the active voice (“supervised three workers”) rather than the passive voice (“three work- ers were supervised by me”). The active voice highlights action. Note that writers often omit the I at the start of sentences: “Prepared bids,” rather than “I prepared bids.” Whichever style you use, be consistent. Figure 10.2 lists some strong verbs to use in describing your experience.

Here is a sample description from an employment history:

June–september 2016: student dietitian

Millersville General hospital, Millersville, TX

Gathered dietary histories and assisted in preparing menus for a 300-bed hospital.

received “excellent” on all seven items in evaluation by head dietitian.

In just a few lines, you can show that you sought and accepted responsibility and that you acted professionally. Do not write, “I accepted responsibility”; instead, present facts that lead the reader to that conclusion.

Naturally, not all jobs entail professional skills and responsibilities. Many students find summer work as laborers, sales clerks, and so forth. If you have not held a professional position, list the jobs you have held, even if they were unrelated to your career plans. If the job title is self-explanatory, such as restaurant server or service-station attendant, don’t elaborate. If you can write that you contributed to your tuition or expenses, such as by earning 50 percent of your annual expenses through a job, employers will be impressed by your self-reliance.

For more about using strong verbs, see Ch. 6, p. 136.

FIGuRE 10.2 strong Action Verbs Used in Résumés

administered coordinated evaluated maintained provided

advised corresponded examined managed purchased

analyzed created expanded monitored recorded

assembled delivered hired obtained reported

built developed identified operated researched

collected devised implemented organized solved

completed directed improved performed supervised

conducted discovered increased prepared trained

constructed edited instituted produced wrote

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If you have held a number of nonprofessional as well as several profes- sional positions, group the nonprofessional ones:

other employment: cashier (summer 2014), salesperson (part-time, 2015), clerk (summer 2016)

This strategy prevents the nonprofessional positions from drawing the reader’s attention away from the more important positions.

If you have gaps in your employment history—because you were raising children, attending school, or recovering from an accident, or for other reasons—consider using a skills résumé, which focuses more on your skills and less on your job history. You can explain the gaps in the job-application letter (if you write one) or in an interview. For instance, you could say, “I spent 2014 and part of 2015 caring for my elderly parent, but during that time I was able to do some substitute teaching and study at home to prepare for my A+ and Network+ certification, which I earned in late 2015.” Do not lie or mislead about your dates of employment.

If you have had several positions with the same employer, you can pre- sent one description that encompasses all the positions or present a separate description for each position.

presenting one description

Blue Cross of Iowa, ames, iowa (January 2011–present) • Internal Auditor II (2015–present) • Member Service Representative/Claims Examiner II (2013–2015) • Claims Examiner II (2011–2013)

as claims examiner ii, processed national account inquiries and claims in accordance with . . . . after promotion to Member service representative/claims examiner ii position, planned policies and procedures . . . . as internal auditor ii, audit claims, enrollment, and inquiries; run dataset population and sample reports . . . .

This format enables you to mention your promotions and to create a clear narrative that emphasizes your progress within the company.

presenting separate descriptions

Blue Cross of Iowa, ames, iowa (January 2011–present) • Internal Auditor II (2015–present) audit claims, enrollment, and inquiries . . . • Member Service Representative/Claims Examiner II (2013–2015) Planned policies and procedures . . . • Claims Examiner II (2011–2013)

Processed national account inquiries and claims in accordance with . . .

This format, which enables you to create a fuller description of each position, is effective if you are trying to show that each position is distinct and you wish to describe the more-recent positions more fully.

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Interests and Activities The interests-and-activities section of the résumé is the appropriate place for several kinds of information about you:

• participation in community-service organizations, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters or volunteer work in a hospital

• hobbies related to your career (for example, electronics for an engineer)

• sports, especially those that might be socially useful in your professional career, such as tennis, racquetball, and golf

• university-sanctioned activities, such as membership on a team, work on the college newspaper, or election to a responsible position in an academic organization or a residence hall

Do not include activities that might create a negative impression, such as gambling or performing in a death-metal rock band. And always omit such activities as meeting people and reading. Everybody does these things.

References Potential employers will want to learn more about you from your professors and previous employers. These people who are willing to speak or write on your behalf are called references.

Some applicants list their references on their résumé. The advantage of this strategy is that the potential employer can contact the references with- out having to contact the applicant. Other applicants prefer to wait until the potential employer has asked for the list. The advantage of this strategy is that the applicant can assemble a different set of references for each position without having to create different résumés. Although applicants in the past added a note stating “References available upon request” at the end of their résumés, many applicants today do not do so because they think the com- ment is unnecessary: employers assume that applicants can provide a list of references—and that they would love to do so.

Regardless of whether you list your references on your résumé, choose your references carefully. Solicit references only from those who know your work best and for whom you have done your best work—for instance, a previous employer with whom you worked closely or a professor from whom you received A’s. Don’t ask prominent professors who do not know your work well; they will be unable to write informative letters.

Do not simply assume that someone is willing to serve as a reference for you. Give the potential reference writer an opportunity to decline grace- fully. The person might not have been as impressed with your work as you think. If you simply ask the person to serve as a reference, he or she might accept and then write a lukewarm letter. It is better to ask, “Would you be able to write an enthusiastic letter for me?” or “Do you feel you know me well enough to write a strong recommendation?” If the person shows any signs of hesitation or reluctance, withdraw the request. It may be a little embarrass- ing, but it is better than receiving a weak recommendation.

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In listing their references, some applicants add, for each reference, a sen- tence or two describing their relationship with the person, as shown in this sample listing for a reference.

dr. dale cletis Professor of english Boise state university Boise, id 83725 208.555.2637 [email protected]

dr. cletis was my instructor in three literature courses, as well as my adviser.

Other Elements The sections discussed so far appear on almost every- one’s résumé. Other sections are either optional or appropriate for only some job seekers.

• Computer skills. Classify your skills in categories such as hardware, software, languages, and operating systems. List any professional certifications you have earned.

• military experience. If you are a veteran, describe your military service as if it were a job, citing dates, locations, positions, ranks, and tasks. List positive job-performance evaluations.

• language ability. A working knowledge of another language can be very valuable, particularly if the potential employer has international interests and you could be useful in translation or foreign service. List your proficiency, using terms such as beginner, intermediate, and advanced. Some applicants distinguish among reading, writing, and speaking abilities. Don’t overstate your abilities; you could be embarrassed—and without a job—when the potential employer hands you a business letter written in the language you say you know, or invites a native speaker of that language to sit in on the interview.

• Willingness to relocate. If you are willing to relocate, say so. Many organizations will find this flexibility attractive.

Among the issues that can pose challenges for applicants who are prepar- ing their résumés are questions of race, religion, and sexual orientation and questions about criminal records.

Many applicants wonder whether to include information—about jobs, colleges, associations, and other topics—that a potential employer might use against them. For instance, if you attend Brigham Young University, most people will know that you are likely a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Being president of the LGBT association on campus probably signals something about your sexual identity.

You are not obligated to reveal anything you do not wish to reveal (although you can’t hide the name of your college or university). If you want,

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you can write that you are the president of a campus student organization and not specify the name of that organization. If the potential employer wants to talk about it in more detail in an interview, you can decide how forthcoming you want to be.

Many applicants don’t bother trying to conceal factors unrelated to the job. If a potential employer is going to discriminate based on religion, sexual orientation, or race, these applicants reason, there’s no sense wasting time trying to get that job because they wouldn’t want to work there, anyway.

The question of a criminal record is more challenging for applicants. An applicant with a criminal record probably has a gap in his or her employment record, but a skills résumé can make that gap less obvious. An applicant is under no obligation to mention a criminal record in a résumé or letter, but if the potential employer asks in the application itself or in an interview, it is best to tell the truth. Lying would be cause for dismissal—and employers are very likely to discover a criminal record during a background check. Some applicants with criminal records try to delay divulging that information until the interview, at which point they can explain the circumstances directly: they made a mistake, paid the penalty, and now are working hard to contrib- ute positively. Some applicants even figure out ways to discuss skills they acquired—or lessons they learned—that have made them better employees.

ELEMENTs OF ThE skILLs RésUMé A skills résumé differs from a chronological résumé in that it includes a sepa- rate section, usually called “Skills” or “Skills and Abilities,” that emphasizes job skills and knowledge. In a skills résumé, the employment section becomes a brief list of information about your employment history: companies, dates of employment, and positions. Here is an example of a skills section.

skills and Abilities

Management served as weekend manager of six employees in a retail clothing business. also trained three summer interns at a health-maintenance organization.

Writing and Editing Wrote status reports, edited performance appraisals, participated in assembling and producing an environmental impact statement using desktop publishing.

Teaching and Tutoring Tutored in the university writing center. Taught a two-week course in electronics for teenagers. coach youth basketball.

In a skills section, you choose the headings, the arrangement, and the level of detail. Your goal, of course, is to highlight the skills an employer is seeking.

PREPARING A PLAIN-TExT RésUMé Most companies use computerized applicant-tracking systems, such as RESU- Mate, Bullhorn, or HRsmart, to evaluate the dozens, hundreds, or even thou-

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Formatting a Plain-Text Résumé start with the résumé that you prepared in Word or with some other word- processing software. save it as “Plain text” and then paste it into notepad or another text editor. revise the notepad version so that it has these five characteristics:

it has no special characters. it uses only the letters, numbers, and basic punc- tuation marks visible on your keyboard. That is, it does not use boldface, italics, bullets, or tabs.

it has a line length of 65 or fewer characters. use the space bar to break longer lines or, in notepad, set the left and right margins (in File/Page setup) to 1.5 inches.

it uses a non-proportional typeface such as Courier. (a non-proportional type- face is one in which each letter takes up the same amount of space on the line; narrow letters are surrounded by a lot of space, whereas wider letters are sur- rounded by a smaller space.) using a non-proportional typeface makes it easier to keep the line length to 65 characters.

most of the information is left justified. if you want, you can use the space bar (not the Tab key) to move text to the right. For instance, you might want to center the main headings.

it uses all uPPErCasE or repeated characters for emphasis. For example, a series of equal signs or hyphens might signal a new heading.

sands of job applications they receive every day. The information from these applications is stored in databases, which can be searched electronically for keywords to generate a pool of applicants for specific positions. Once a pool of candidates has been generated, someone at the company reads their résumés. Prepare a plain-text résumé so that you can survive this two-stage process.

A plain-text résumé, also called a text résumé, ASCII résumé, or electronic résumé, is a résumé that uses a very limited character set and has little for- matting so that it can be stored in any database and read by any software. It will not be as attractive as a fully formatted document created with a word processor, but if you prepare it carefully it will say what you want it to say and be easy to read.

You might want to create two versions of your plain-text résumé: a ver- sion using Word Wrap (in Notepad’s Format tab) to be attached to an email, and a version not using Word Wrap to be pasted into the body of an email.

Check each new version to be sure the information has converted prop- erly. Copy and paste the version not using Word Wrap into an email and send it to yourself, and then review it. Attach the new file using Word Wrap to an email, open it in your text editor, and review it.

Figures 10.3 and 10.4 show a plain-text chronological résumé and a plain- text skills résumé.

Many of the job sites listed on p. 269 include samples of résumés.

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FIGuRE 10.3 Chronological Résumé of a Traditional student

CARL OPPENHEIMER 3109 Vista Street Philadelphia, PA 19136 (215) 555-3880 [email protected] ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ SUMMARY Recent BSEE graduate with experience as an electrical engineer intern for RCA Advanced Technology Laboratory. Analytical, technical, and communication skills for labo- ratory and customer-facing applications. Strong under- standing of large-scale integrated systems and CMOS appli- cations. ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ EDUCATION BS in Electrical Engineering 6/2016 Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA Grade-Point Average: 3.67 (on a scale of 4.0) Senior Design Project: “Enhanced Path-Planning Software for Robotics” +++Advanced Engineering Courses Digital Signal Processing Computer Hardware Introduction to Operating Systems I, II Systems Design Digital Filters Computer Logic Circuits I, II ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ EMPLOYMENT 6/2013-1/2014 Electrical Engineering Intern II RCA Advanced Technology Laboratory, Moorestown, NJ Designed ultra-large-scale integrated circuits using VERILOG and VHDL hardware description languages. Assisted senior engineer in CMOS IC layout, modeling, parasitic capacitance extraction, and PSPICE simulation operations. +++6/2012-1/2013 Electrical Engineering Intern I RCA Advanced Technology Laboratory, Moorestown, NJ Verified and documented several integrated circuit designs. Used CAD software and hardware to simulate, check, and evaluate these designs. Gained experience with Mathcad. ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ HONORS AND ORGANIZATIONS Eta Kappa Nu (Electrical Engineering Honor Society) Tau Beta Pi (General Engineering Honor Society) IEEE

This plain-text résumé uses only plus signs to signal new headings. Notice that all information is left- justified.

The writer presents a summary statement. Some applicants find it awkward to praise themselves, describing their skills, but it is important to have keywords such as “analytical skills” in the résumé, particularly if the job ad mentioned them.

The writer chooses to emphasize his advanced engineering courses. For another job, he might emphasize other courses.

The writer wisely creates a category that calls attention to his academic awards and his membership in his field’s major professional organiza- tion.

The writer does not include his references or write “References available upon request.” If the reader invites him to proceed to the next step in the process, Carl will send a list of references, with their contact information.

The writer provides his contact information, including his email address.

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FIGuRE 10.4 skills Résumé of a Nontraditional student

Alice P. Linder 1781 Weber Road Rawlings, MT 59211 (406) 555-3999 [email protected] ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SUMMARY Biotechnology major with broad laboratory experience at Glaxo- SmithKline, analyzing molecular data and writing C# programs. Working toward Certification in laboratory specialty through ASCP. Strong written and oral communication skills. Extensive volunteer experience in physical therapy for children. Experi- ence managing business office. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SKILLS AND ABILITIES Laboratory Skills -Analyzed molecular data on E&S PS300, Macintosh, and IBM PCs. Wrote programs in C#. -Have taken 12 credits in biology and chemistry labs. Communication Skills -Wrote a user’s guide for an instructional computing package. -Trained and consulted with scientists and delivered in-house briefings. Management Skills -Managed 12-person office in $1.2 million company. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, EDUCATION Central Montana State University, Rawlings, MT BS in Bioscience and Biotechnology Expected Graduation Date: 6/2016 Related Course Work General Chemistry I, II, III Biology I, II, III Organic Chemistry I, II Calculus I, II Statistical Methods for Research Physics I, II Technical Communication ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE 6/2013-present (20 hours per week): Laboratory Assistant Grade 3 GlaxoSmithKline, Rawlings, MT 8/2011-present: Volunteer, Physical Therapy Unit Rawlings Regional Medical Center, Rawlings, MT 6/2012-1/2013: Office Manager Anchor Products, Inc., Rawlings, MT ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, HONORS Awarded three $5,000 tuition scholarships (2012-2014) from the Gould Foundation. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Member, CMSU Biology Club, Yearbook Staff Raising three school-age children Tuition 100% self-financed

In a skills résumé, you present the skills section at the start. This orga- nization lets you emphasize your professional attributes. Notice that the writer uses specific details— names of software, number of credits, types of documents, kinds of activities—to make her case.

The employment section contains a list of positions rather than descrip- tions of what the writer did in each position.

The volunteer position says some- thing about the writer’s character.

The writer believes that the skills required in raising children are relevant in the workplace. Other applicants might think that because a résumé describes job credentials, this information should be omitted.

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Although fewer and fewer employers request a formatted résumé, some still do. Some applicants send formatted résumés in addition to their plain- text résumés. Figure 10.5 shows a formatted version of the résumé presented in Figure 10.4.

Alice P. Linder 1781 Weber road (406) 555-3999 rawlings, MT 59211 [email protected]

Summary Biotechnology major with broad laboratory experience at GlaxosmithKline, analyzing molecular data and writing c# programs. Working toward certification in laboratory specialty through ascP. strong written and oral communication skills. extensive volunteer experience in physical therapy for children. experience managing business office.

Skills and Abilities Laboratory Skills •   Analyzed molecular data on E&S PS300, Macintosh, and IBM PCs. 

Wrote programs in c#. •   Have taken 12 credits in biology and chemistry labs.

Communication Skills •   Wrote a user’s guide for an instructional computing package. •   Trained and consulted with scientists and delivered in-house 

briefings.

Management Skills •   Managed 12-person office in a $1.2 million company.

Education central Montana state university, rawlings, MT Bs in Bioscience and Biotechnology expected Graduation date: June 2016

Related Course Work General chemistry i, ii, iii Biology i, ii, iii organic chemistry i, ii statistical Methods for research Physics i, ii Technical communication calculus i, ii

Employment Experience

6/2013–present (20 hours/week) GlaxoSmithKline, Rawlings, MT laboratory assistant Grade 3

8/2011–present Rawlings Regional Medical Center, Rawlings, MT volunteer, Physical Therapy unit

6/2012–1/2013 Anchor Products, Inc., Rawlings, MT office Manager

Honors awarded three $5,000 tuition scholarships (2012–2014) from the Gould Foundation.

Additional Information

Member, cMsu Biology club, Yearbook staff raising three school-age children Tuition 100 percent self-financed

FIGuRE 10.5 Formatted Version of a skills Résumé

You have many more formatting options when you present your résumé on paper.

This writer has used a two-column table to organize the information. The left column presents the head- ings; the right column presents the data. The advantage of using a table rather than moving text using tabs is that you can use different text attributes (for instance, the head- ings can be boldfaced, set in a dif- ferent typeface, or set in a different size) without having to worry about whether the different attributes will alter the line spacing. In addition, if you use a table, you can easily revise and edit; with tabs, your editing will create awkward line breaks and alignment.

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10

This résumé was written by a graduating college senior who wanted to work for a wildland firefighting agency such as the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage- ment or U.S. Forest Service. The writer plans to save the résumé as a .txt file and enter it directly into these agencies’ employ- ment databases. The ques- tions below ask you to think about electronic résumés (as discussed on pp. 280–81).

1. How effectively has the writer formatted this résumé?

2. What elements are likely to be problematic when the writer saves this résumé as a .txt file?

3. What is the function of the industry-specific jargon in this résumé?

4. Why does the writer place the education section below the sections on career history and fire and aviation qualifications?

Preparing a Résumé D O C u m E N T A N A lyS I S AC T I v I T y

BURTON L. kREBs

34456 West Jewell st. 208-555-9627

Boise, id 83704 [email protected]

Objective

lead crew position on rappel crew.

Career history

•  senior Firefighter, Moyer rappel crew, 05/16-present •  senior Firefighter, Boise helitack, 05/15-10/15 •  hotshot crew Member, Boise interagency hotshot crew, 07/14-

09/14 •  helirappel crew Member, Moyer rappel crew, 06/10-09/13

Fire and Aviation Qualifications

crew Boss (T ) helicopter Manager helicopter rappeller helirappel spotter helispot Manager Type 2 helibase Manager (T ) incident commander Type 4 (T )

Education

Bachelor of Arts in Communication Training and Development, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho, GPA 3.57, May 2016

skills

•  excellent oral and written communication skills •  Proficient in Word, excel, and PowerPoint •  Knowledgeable of helicopter contract administration •  Perform daily and cumulative flight invoice cost summaries

Awards

“outstanding Performance” recognition, u.s. Bureau of land Management, 2015

“outstanding Performance” recognition, u.s. Forest service, 2012, 2013, 2014

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Writing Job-application letters Some experts argue that the job-application letter (sometimes called a cover letter) is obsolete, but opinions vary widely. The Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM) surveyed over 400 human-resources professionals and found that more than 40 percent consider a cover letter “important” or “very important.” Organizations with fewer than 500 employees in particular con- tinue to value a cover letter (SHRM, 2014). Applicants can explain more clearly in a letter than in a résumé how their qualifications match the employer’s requirements. They can explain their professional relationship with someone in the employer’s organization or gaps in their employment history. Perhaps most important, applicants can show that they can write well.

Figure 10.6 shows a job-application letter.

Writing follow-up letters or Emails after an interview After an interview, you should write a letter or email of appreciation. If you are offered the job, you also might have to write a letter accepting or reject- ing the position.

• letter of appreciation after an interview. Thank the organization’s representative for taking the time to see you, and emphasize your particular qualifications. You can also restate your interest in the position and mention a specific topic of conversation you found particularly interesting or a fact about the position you found exciting. A follow-up letter can do more good with less effort than any other step in the job-application procedure because so few candidates take the time to write one.

Many of the job sites listed on p. 269 include samples of job-application letters.

Many of the job sites listed on p. 269 include samples of follow-up letters for different situations that occur during a job search.

To analyze an online professional portfolio, go to

LaunchPad.

D O C u m E N T A N A lyS I S AC T I v I T y

WRITING JOB-APPLICATION MATERIALs10 286

Blane C. Holden’s Online Portfolio Used by permission of Blane Holden.

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10

3109 vista street Philadelphia, Pa 19136

January 20, 2016

Mr. stephen spencer, director of Personnel department 411 Boeing naval systems 103 industrial drive Wilmington, de 20093

dear Mr. spencer:

i am writing in response to your advertisement in the January 16 Philadelphia Inquirer. Would you please consider me for the position in signal Processing? i believe that my academic training in electrical engineering at drexel university, along with my experience with the rca advanced Technology laboratory, qualifies me for the position.

My education at drexel has given me a strong background in computer hardware and system design. i have concentrated on digital and computer applications, developing and designing computer and signal- processing hardware in two graduate-level engineering courses. For my senior design project, i am working with four other undergraduates in using oo programming techniques to enhance the path-planning software for an infrared night-vision robotics application.

While working at the rca advanced Technology laboratory, i was able to apply my computer experience to the field of dsP. i designed ultra-large- scale integrated circuits using veriloG and vhdl hardware description languages. in addition, i assisted a senior engineer in cMos ic layout, modeling, parasitic capacitance extraction, and PsPice simulation operations.

The enclosed résumé provides an overview of my education and experience. could i meet with you at your convenience to discuss my qualifications for this position? Please leave a message any time at (215) 555-3880 or email me at [email protected].

Yours truly,

carl oppenheimer

enclosure (1)

FIGuRE 10.6 Job-Application Letter

For information about letter format- ting, see Ch. 9, p. 246.

Notice that the writer’s own name does not appear at the top of his letter.

In the inside address, he uses the reader’s courtesy title, “Mr.”

The introductory paragraph identi- fies the writer’s source of informa- tion about the job, identifies the position he is applying for, states that he wishes to be considered, and forecasts the rest of the letter.

In a letter, you can’t discuss every- thing in the résumé. Rather, you select a few key points from the résumé to emphasize.

Note that both the education paragraph and the employment paragraph begin with a clear topic sentence.

The writer points out that he has taken two graduate courses, and he discusses his senior design project, which makes him look more like an engineer solving a problem than a recent graduate.

Notice how the writer makes a smooth transition from the discus- sion of his college education to the discussion of his internship experience.

A concluding paragraph usually includes a reference to the résumé, a polite but confident request for an interview, and the writer’s contact information.

The enclosure notation refers to the writer’s résumé. Do not use an enclosure notation unless you are literally enclosing something along with the letter in the envelope.

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WRITING JOB-APPLICATION MATERIALs10 288

dear Mr. Weaver:

Thank you for taking the time yesterday to show me your facilities and to introduce me to your colleagues.

Your company’s advances in piping design were particularly impressive. as a person with hands-on experience in piping design, i can appreciate the advantages your design will have.

The vitality of your projects and the good fellowship among your employees further confirm my initial belief that cynergo would be a fine place to work. i would look forward to joining your staff.

sincerely yours,

harriet Bommarito

• letter accepting a job offer. This one is easy: express appreciation, show enthusiasm, and repeat the major terms of your employment.

dear Mr. Weaver:

Thank you very much for the offer to join your staff. i accept.

i look forward to joining your design team on Monday, July 19. The salary, as you indicate in your letter, is $48,250.

as you have recommended, i will get in touch with Mr. Matthews in Personnel to get a start on the paperwork.

i appreciate the trust you have placed in me, and i assure you that i will do what i can to be a productive team member at cynergo.

sincerely yours,

Mark Greenberg

• letter rejecting a job offer. If you decide not to accept a job offer, express your appreciation for the offer and, if appropriate, explain why you are declining it. Remember, you might want to work for this company at some time in the future.

dear Mr. Weaver:

i appreciate very much the offer to join your staff.

although i am certain that i would benefit greatly from working at cynergo, i have decided to take a job with a firm in Baltimore, where i have been accepted at Johns hopkins to pursue my Master’s degree at night.

again, thank you for your generous offer.

sincerely yours,

cynthia o’Malley

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10 289

Writer’s Checklist

• letter acknowledging a rejection. Why write back after you have been rejected for a job? To maintain good relations. You might get a phone call the next week explaining that the person who accepted the job has had a change of plans and offering you the position.

dear Mr. Weaver:

i was disappointed to learn that i will not have a chance to join your staff, because i feel that i could make a substantial contribution. however, i realize that job decisions are complex, involving many candidates and many factors.

Thank you very much for the courtesy you have shown me.

sincerely yours,

Paul Goicochea

W R I T E R ’S C H E C k l I S T

Establishing Your Professional Brand Did you

research how others in your field developed and maintain their online presence? (p. 267)

ensure that all information you present about yourself online is accurate and honest? (p. 267)

communicate clearly and professionally, maintaining confidentiality when necessary? (p. 267)

clearly present your skills, degrees, certifications, and other evidence of your qualifications? (p. 267)

actively participate on LinkedIn and other social networks? (p. 267)

Have you

created a website? (p. 268)

created a business card? (p. 268)

developed and practiced an elevator pitch? (p. 268)

Résumé

Does the résumé include appropriate keywords? (p. 271)

Does the identifying information contain your name, address(es), phone number(s), and email address(es)? (p. 273)

Does the résumé include a clear summary of your qualifications? (p. 274)

Does the education section include your degree, your institution and its location, and your (anticipated) date of graduation, as well as any other information that will help a reader appreciate your qualifications? (p. 274)

Does the employment section include, for each job, the dates of employment, the organization’s name and location, and (if you are writing a chronological résumé) your position or title, as well as a description of your duties and accomplishments? (p. 275)

Does the interests-and-activities section include relevant hobbies or activities, including extracurricular interests? (p. 278)

Does the résumé include any other appropriate sections, such as skills and abilities, military service, language abilities, or willingness to relocate? (p. 279)

Have you omitted any personal information that might reflect poorly on you? (p. 279)

Job-Application Letter

Does the letter look professional? (p. 287)

Does the introductory paragraph identify your source of information and the position you are applying for, state that you wish to be considered, and forecast the rest of the letter? (p. 287)

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Does the education paragraph respond to your reader’s needs with a unified idea introduced by a topic sentence? (p. 287)

Does the employment paragraph respond to your reader’s needs with a unified idea introduced by a topic sentence? (p. 287)

Does the concluding paragraph include a reference to your résumé, a request for an interview, your phone number, and your email address? (p. 287)

Does the letter include an enclosure notation? (p. 287)

Follow-up Letters

Does your letter of appreciation for a job interview thank the interviewer and briefly restate your qualifications? (p. 288)

Does your letter accepting a job offer show enthusiasm and repeat the major terms of your employment? (p. 288)

Does your letter rejecting a job offer express your appreciation for the offer and, if appropriate, explain why you are declining it? (p. 288)

Does your letter acknowledging a rejection have a positive tone that will help you maintain good relations? (p. 289)

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Browse a job-search website such as Indeed.com. Then, list and briefly describe five positions being offered in a field that interests you. What skills, experience, and background does each position require? What is the salary range for each position?

2. Locate three job-search websites that provide interactive forms for creating a résumé automatically. In a brief memo to your instructor, note the three URLs and describe the strengths and weaknesses of each site. Which job board appears to be the easiest to use? Why?

3. The following résumé was submitted in response to this ad: “CAM Technician to work with other technicians and manage some GIS and mapping projects. Also perform updating of the GIS database. Experience required.” In a brief memo to your instructor, analyze the effectiveness of the résumé. What are some of its problems?

Kenneth Bradley 530 Maplegrove Bozeman, Mont. 59715 (406)-484-2916

Objective Entry level position as a CAM Technician. I am also interested in staying with the company until after graduation, possibly moving into a position as a Mechanical Engineer.

Education Enrolled at Montana State University August 2016-Present

Employment Fred Meyer 65520 Chinden Garden City, MT (208)-323-7030 Janitor- 7/15-6/16 Responsible for cleaning entire store,

as well as equipment maintenance and floor maintenance and repair.

Assistant Janitorial Manager- 6/16-9/16 Responsible for cleaning entire store, equipment maintenance, floor maintenance and repair, scheduling, and managing personnel Head of Freight- 9/16-Present

In charge of braking down all new freight, stocking shelves, cleaning the stock room, and managing personnel

Montana State University Bozeman, MT Teachers Aide ME 120- 1/15-5/15 Teachers Aide ME 120 In charge of keeping students in line

and answering any questions related to drafting.

References Timothy Rayburn Janitorial Manager (406)-555-8571 Eduardo Perez Coworker (406)-555-2032

E x E R C I S E S

290 WRITING JOB-APPLICATION MATERIALs10

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4. The following job-application letter responds to this ad: “CAM Technician to work with other technicians and manage some GIS and mapping projects. Also perform updating of the GIS database. Experience required.” In a brief memo to your instructor, analyze the effectiveness of the letter and suggest how it could be improved.

530 Maplegrove Bozeman, Mont. 59715 November 11, 2016

Mr. Bruce Hedley Adecco Technical Bozeman, Mont. 59715

Dear Mr. Hedley,

I am writing you in response to your ad on Monsterjobs .com. Would you please consider me for the position of CAM technician? I believe that my academic schooling at Montana State University, along with my work experience would make me an excellent candidate for the position.

While at Montana State University, I took one class in particular that applies well to this job. It was a CAD drafting class, which I received a 97% in. The next semester I was a Teachers Aid for that same class, where I was responsible for answering questions about drafting from my peers. This gave me a much stronger grasp on all aspects of CAD work than I could have ever gotten from simply taking the class.

My employment at Fred Meyer is also a notable experience. While there is no technical aspects of either positions I have held, I believe that my experience there will shed light on my work ethic and interpersonal skills. I started out as a graveyard shift janitor, with no previous experience. All of my coworkers were at least thirty years older than me, and had a minimum of five years of janitorial experience. However after working there for only one year I was promoted to assistant manager. Three months after I received this position, I was informed that Fred Meyer was

going to contract out the janitorial work and that all of us would be losing our jobs. I decided that I wanted to stay within the company, and I was able to receive a position as head of freight.

The enclosed resumé provides an overview of my education and work experience. I would appreciate an opportunity to meet with you at your convience to disscuss my qualifications for this position. Please write me at the above address or leave a message any time. If you would like to contact me by email, my email address is kbradley@ montanastate.edu.

Yours truly, Ken Bradley

5. How effective is the following letter of appreciation? How could it be improved? Present your findings in a brief memo to your instructor.

914 Imperial Boulevard Durham, NC 27708 November 13, 2016

Mr. Ronald O’Shea Division Engineering Safeway Electronics, Inc. Holland, MI 49423

Dear Mr. O’Shea:

Thanks very much for showing me around your plant. I hope I was able to convince you that I’m the best person for the job.

Sincerely yours, Robert Harad

6. In a newspaper or journal or on the Internet, find an ad for a position in your field for which you might be qualified. Write a résumé and a job-application letter in response to the ad; include the job ad or a photocopy. You will be evaluated not only on the content and appearance of the materials, but also on how well you have targeted them to the job ad.

291 10Case 10: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-search sites

C A S E 1 0 : identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-search sites

After the director of the Career Center at your school visits one of your classes, you decide to visit the Career Center’s website. You study the available resources, but you find that they don’t offer as much support as you and your classmates need navigating the online job-search environment for the first time. You decide to write the director to express your concerns. She agrees with your critique and asks you to research online information about job searching and begin putting together a new job-search resource for seniors at your college. To get started with your project, go to LaunchPad.

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292

Focus on Process: Writing Proposals 293

The Logistics of Proposals 294 Internal and external ProPosals 294

solIcIted and UnsolIcIted ProPosals 295

The “Deliverables” of Proposals 295 research ProPosals 295

Goods and servIces ProPosals 297

Persuasion and Proposals 298 UnderstandInG readers’ needs 298

descrIbInG What YoU Plan to do 299

demonstratInG YoUr ProfessIonalIsm 299 ■ Guidelines: demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal 300 ■ ethics note: Writing honest Proposals 300

The structure of the Proposal 301 sUmmarY 301

IntrodUctIon 301 ■ Guidelines: introducing a Proposal 302

ProPosed ProGram 301 ■ document AnAlYsis ActivitY: Writing the Proposed Program 303 ■ document AnAlYsis ActivitY: Proposal delivered as a Prezi Presentation 304 and

QUalIfIcatIons and exPerIence 304

11Writing Proposals

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293

11 bUdGet 305

aPPendIxes 305 ■ tech tiP: how to create a Gantt chart 307

sample Internal Proposal 308

WrITer’s checkLIsT 316

exercIses 316

case 11: Revising a Brief Proposal 317 and

A PROPOSAL IS an offer to carry out research or to provide a product or service. For instance, a physical therapist might write a proposal to her supervisor for funding to attend a convention to learn about current rehabilitation practices. A defense contractor might submit a proposal to design and build a fleet of drones for the Air Force. A homeless shelter might submit a proposal to a philanthropic organization for funding to provide more services to the homeless community. Whether a project is small or big, within your own company or outside it, it is likely to call for a proposal.

When writing a proposal, pay special attention to these steps in the writing process.

PlannInG consider your readers’ knowledge about and attitudes toward what you are proposing. use the techniques discussed in chapters 4 and 5 to learn as much as you can about your readers’ needs and about the subject. Also consider whether you have the personnel, facilities, and equipment to do what you propose.

draftInG collaboration is critical in large proposals because no one person has the time and expertise to do all the work. see chapter 3 for more about collaboration. in writing the proposal, follow the instructions in any request for proposal (RFP) or information for bid (iFB) from the prospective customer. if there are no instructions, follow the structure for proposals outlined in this chapter.

revIsInG

edItInG

ProofreadInG

F O c u S O n P R O c e S S Writing Proposals

external proposals usually have a firm deadline. Build in time to revise, edit, and proofread the proposal thoroughly and still get it to readers on time. see the Writer’s checklist on page 316.

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WrITInG ProPosaLs11 294

the logistics of Proposals Proposals can be classified as either internal or external; external proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. Figure 11.1 shows the relationships among these four terms.

Proposals

External

Internal

Solicited

Unsolicited

FIguRe 11.1 The Logistics of Proposals

InTernaL anD exTernaL ProPosaLs Internal proposals are submitted to the writer’s own organization; external proposals are submitted to another organization.

Internal Proposals An internal proposal is an argument, submitted within an organization, for carrying out an activity that will benefit the organization. An internal proposal might recommend that the organization conduct research, purchase a product, or change some aspect of its policies or procedures.

For example, while working on a project in the laboratory, you realize that if you had a fiber-curl measurement system, you could do your job better and faster. The increased productivity would save your company the cost of the system in a few months. Your supervisor asks you to write a memo describing what you want, why you want it, how you plan to use it, and what it costs; if your request seems reasonable and the money is available, you’ll likely get the new system.

Often, the scope of a proposal determines its format. A request for a small amount of money might be conveyed orally or by email or a brief memo. A request for a large amount, however, is likely to be presented in a formal report.

external Proposals No organization produces all the products or pro- vides all the services it needs. Websites need to be designed, written, and maintained; inventory databases need to be created; facilities need to be constructed. Sometimes projects require unusual expertise, such as sophisti- cated market analyses. Because many companies supply these products and

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The “Deliverables” of Proposals 11 295

services, most organizations require a prospective supplier to compete for the business by submitting a proposal, a document arguing that it deserves the business.

soLIcITeD anD unsoLIcITeD ProPosaLs External proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. A solicited proposal is submitted in response to a request from the prospective customer. An unso- licited proposal is submitted by a supplier who believes that the prospective customer has a need for goods or services.

solicited Proposals When an organization wants to purchase a product or service, it publishes one of two basic kinds of statements:

• An information for bid (IFB) is used for standard products. When a state agency needs desktop computers, for instance, it informs computer manufacturers of the configuration it needs. All other things being equal, the supplier that offers the lowest bid for a product with that configuration wins the contract. When an agency solicits bids for a specific brand and model, the solicitation is sometimes called a request for quotation (RFQ).

• A request for proposal (RFP) is used for more-customized products or services. For example, if the Air Force needs an “identification, friend or foe” system, the RFP it publishes might be a long and detailed set of technical specifications. The supplier that can design, produce, and deliver the device most closely resembling the specifications—at a reasonable price—will probably win the contract.

Most organizations issue IFBs and RFPs in print and online. Govern- ment solicitations are published on the FedBizOpps website. Figure 11.2 on page 296 shows a portion of an RFQ.

unsolicited Proposals An unsolicited proposal is like a solicited proposal except that it does not refer to an RFP. In most cases, even though the poten- tial customer did not formally request the proposal, the supplier was invited to submit the proposal after people from the two organizations met and discussed the project. Because proposals are expensive to write, suppliers are reluctant to submit them without assurances that they will be considered carefully. Thus, the word unsolicited is only partially accurate.

the “deliverables” of Proposals A deliverable is what a supplier will deliver at the end of a project. Deliverables can be classified into two major categories: research or goods and services.

research ProPosaLs In a research proposal, you are promising to perform research and then provide a report about it. For example, a biologist for a state bureau of land

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WrITInG ProPosaLs11 296

solicitation number: nihccoPc13014476

the clinical center at the national institutes of health (nih) in Bethesda, maryland, is one of the 27 institutes and centers that comprise nih. the nih clinical center is the nation’s largest hospital devoted entirely to clinical research. With patients from all over the united states and some from abroad, the clinical center provides medical care and research services to support patients participating in over 1500 active protocols sponsored by the nih institutes. the office of Patient Recruitment (oPR) reports to the clinical center office of the director. oPR is responsible for supporting the nih intramural program by providing patient recruitment services for institutes, staffing a call center to receive public inquiries, providing services to support the clinical research volunteer program, and serving as the nih intramural liaison for Research match (Rm), an on-line recruitment tool.

the nih has a requirement for call center services. Please see the attached statement of Work. this is anticipated for up to four (4) full time positions onsite at the nih clinical center. offerors are to submit resumes with documentation for medical terminology training. offerors may submit multiple resumes for positions.

evaluation criteria approach 30%: Proposal meets requirements and indicates an exceptional approach and understanding of the requirements. Risk of unsuccessful performance is very low. Adequacy of ability to meet the volume of contacts. Ability to provide consistent staffing and standards of staff performance.

staffing 30%: evidence of a broad pool of applicants that have been placed in the metropolitan dc area with the skill set desired within the last 2 years. Proposed staff meets the requirements (experience and credentialing) as stated in the statement of Work. staff has relevant experience with volume of contacts. staff are recruited and retained. Ability to meet the 48 hours replacement time.

corporate experience 25%: Adequacy of the contractor’s prior experience in providing support. the information shall include sufficient information to demonstrate previous effectiveness of staffing and oversight on performance.

Past Performance 15%: the quotation will be evaluated on 3 recent references (within the last 5 years).

Price Best Value the government will evaluate the total price contained in the contractor’s proposal. With the understanding and ability to project costs which are reasonable and indicates that the contractor understands the nature and extent of the work to be performed.

Period of Performance is one year september, 2013 to september, 2014 with up to 4 successive options.

FIguRe 11.2 excerpt from an rFQ Source: FedBizOpps.gov, 2013: https:// www.fbo.gov/index?s=opportunity &mode=form&id=56fb1ee0948a2f565 f2529a117e2affd&tab=core&_cview=0.

This is an excerpt from an RFQ from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NIH is seeking to hire up to four call-center personnel. The specific details of the skills and experience required for the four persons are provided in a separate file.

This RFQ spells out the evaluation criteria by which the “offerors” will be judged.

The RFQ states that the solicitation is for “price best value.” In other words, the contract will not neces- sarily be awarded to the lowest bidder. It will be awarded to the bidder that offers what the evalua- tors consider to be the best value, regardless of price.

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The “Deliverables” of Proposals 11 297

management writes a proposal to the National Science Foundation request- ing resources to build a window-lined tunnel in the forest to study tree and plant roots and the growth of fungi. The biologist also wishes to investigate the relationship between plant growth and the activity of insects and worms. The deliverable will be a report submitted to the National Science Foundation and, perhaps, an article published in a professional journal.

Research proposals often lead to two other applications: progress reports and recommendation reports.

After a proposal has been approved and the researchers have begun work, they often submit one or more progress reports, which tell the sponsor of the project how the work is proceeding. Is it following the plan of work outlined in the proposal? Is it going according to schedule? Is it staying within budget?

At the end of the project, researchers prepare a recommendation report, often called a final report, a project report, a completion report, or simply a report. A recommendation report tells the whole story of a research project, begin- ning with the problem or opportunity that motivated it and continuing with the methods used in carrying it out, the results, and the researchers’ conclu- sions and recommendations.

People carry out research projects to satisfy their curiosity and to advance professionally. Organizations often require that their professional employees carry out research and publish in appropriate journals or books. Government researchers and university professors, for instance, are expected to remain active in their fields. Writing proposals is one way to get the resources—time and money for travel, equipment, and assistants—to carry out research.

GooDs anD serVIces ProPosaLs A goods and services proposal is an offer to supply a tangible product (a fleet of automobiles), a service (building maintenance), or some combination of the two (the construction of a building).

A vast network of goods and services contracts spans the working world. The U.S. government, the world’s biggest customer, spends more than $300 bil- lion per year buying military equipment from organizations that submit pro- posals (U.S. Department of Defense, 2015). But goods and services contracts are by no means limited to government contractors. An auto manufacturer might buy its engines from another manufacturer; a company that makes spark plugs might buy its steel and other raw materials from another company.

Another kind of goods and services proposal requests funding to support a local organization. For example, a women’s shelter might receive some of its funding from a city or county but might rely on grants from private philan- thropies. Typically, an organization such as a shelter would apply for a grant to fund increased demand for its services due to a natural disaster or an eco- nomic slowdown in the community. Or it might apply for a grant to fund a pilot program to offer job training at the shelter. Most large corporations have philanthropic programs offering grants to help local colleges and universi- ties, arts organizations, and social-service agencies.

For more about progress reports and recommendation reports, see Ch. 12, p. 324, and Ch. 13.

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WrITInG ProPosaLs11 298

Persuasion and Proposals A proposal is an argument. You must convince readers that the future ben- efits will outweigh the immediate and projected costs. Basically, you must persuade your readers of three things:

• that you understand their needs

• that you have already determined what you plan to do and that you are able to do it

• that you are a professional and are committed to fulfilling your promises

unDersTanDInG reaDers’ neeDs The most crucial element of the proposal is the definition of the problem or opportunity to which the proposed project responds. Although this point seems obvious, people who evaluate proposals agree that the most common weakness they see is an inadequate or inaccurate understanding of the prob- lem or opportunity.

readers’ needs in an Internal Proposal Writing an internal proposal is both simpler and more complicated than writing an external one. It is simpler because you have greater access to internal readers than you do to external readers and you can get information more easily. However, it is more compli- cated because you might find it hard to understand the situation in your orga- nization. Some colleagues will not tell you that your proposal is a long shot or that your ideas might threaten someone in the organization. Before you write an internal proposal, discuss your ideas with as many potential readers as you can to learn what those in the organization really think of them.

readers’ needs in an external Proposal When you receive an RFP, study it thoroughly. If you don’t understand something in it, contact the orga- nization. They will be happy to clarify it: a proposal based on misunderstood needs wastes everyone’s time.

When you write an unsolicited proposal, analyze your audience carefully. How can you define the problem or opportunity so that readers will under- stand it? Keep in mind readers’ needs and, if possible, their backgrounds. Concentrate on how the problem has decreased productivity or quality or how your ideas would create new opportunities. When you submit an unsolicited proposal, your task in many cases is to convince readers that a need exists. Even if you have reached an understanding with some of your potential customer’s representatives, your proposal will still have to persuade other officials in the company. Most readers will reject a proposal as soon as they realize that it doesn’t address their needs.

When you are preparing a proposal to be submitted to an organization in another culture, keep in mind the following six suggestions (Newman, 2011):

• Understand that what makes an argument persuasive can differ from one culture to another. Paying attention to the welfare of the company or the

For more about analyzing your audience, see Ch. 4.

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Persuasion and Proposals 11 299

community might be more persuasive than offering a low bottom-line price. Representatives of an American company were surprised to learn that the Venezuelan readers of their proposal had selected a French company whose staff “had been making personal visits for years, bringing their families, and engaging in social activities long before there was any question of a contract” (Thrush, 2000).

• budget enough time for translating. If your proposal has to be translated into another language, build in plenty of time. Translating long technical documents is a lengthy process because, even though some of the work can be done by computer software, the machine translation needs to be reviewed by native speakers of the target language.

• Use simple graphics, with captions. To reduce the chances of misunderstand- ing, use a lot of simple graphics, such as pie charts and bar graphs. Include captions so that readers can understand the graphics easily, without having to look through the text to see what each graphic means.

• Write short sentences, using common vocabulary. Short sentences are easier to understand than long sentences. Choose words that have few meanings. For example, use the word right as the opposite of left; use correct as the opposite of incorrect.

• Use local conventions regarding punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. Be aware that these conventions differ from place to place, even in the English-speaking world.

• ask if the prospective customer will do a read-through. A read-through is the process of reading a draft of a proposal to look for any misunderstandings due to language or cultural differences. Why do prospective customers do this? Because it’s in everyone’s interest for the proposal to respond clearly to the customer’s needs.

DescrIBInG WhaT You PLan To Do Once you have shown that you understand what needs to be done and why, describe what you plan to do. Convince your readers that you can respond effectively to the situation you have just described. Discuss procedures and equipment you would use. If appropriate, justify your choices. For example, if you say you want to do ultrasonic testing on a structure, explain why, unless the reason is obvious.

Present a complete picture of what you would do from the first day of the project to the last. You need more than enthusiasm and good faith; you need a detailed plan showing that you have already started to do the work. Although no proposal can anticipate every question about what you plan to do, the more planning you have done before you submit the proposal, the greater the chances you will be able to do the work successfully if it is approved.

DemonsTraTInG Your ProFessIonaLIsm Once you have shown that you understand readers’ needs and can offer a well-conceived plan, demonstrate that you are the kind of person (or that yours

For more about graphics, see Ch. 8.

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WrITInG ProPosaLs11 300

is the kind of organization) that is committed to delivering what you promise. Convince readers that you have the pride, ingenuity, and perseverance to solve the problems that are likely to occur. In short, show that you are a professional.

Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal

in your proposal, demonstrate your ability to carry out the project by providing four kinds of information:

credentials and work history. show that you know how to do this project be- cause you have done similar ones. Who are the people in your organization with the qualifications to carry out the project? What equipment and facilities do you have that will enable you to do the work? What management structure will you use to coordinate the activities and keep the project running smoothly?

Work schedule. sometimes called a task schedule, a work schedule is a graph or chart that shows when the various phases of the project will be carried out. the work schedule reveals more about your attitudes toward your work than about what you will be doing on any given day. A detailed work schedule shows that you have tried to foresee problems that might threaten the project.

Quality-control measures. describe how you will evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of your work. Quality-control procedures might consist of technical evaluations carried out periodically by the project staff, on-site evaluations by recognized authorities or by the prospective customer, or progress reports.

budget. most proposals conclude with a detailed budget, a statement of how much the project will cost. including a budget is another way of showing that you have done your homework on a project.

e T H I c S n OT e

WrITInG honesT ProPosaLs When an organization approves a proposal, it needs to trust that the people who will carry out the project will do it professionally. over the centuries, however, dishonest proposal writers have perfected a number of ways to trick prospective customers into thinking the project will go smoothly:

• saying that certain qualified people will participate in the project, even though they will not

• saying that the project will be finished by a certain date, even though it will not

• saying that the deliverable will have certain characteristics, even though it will not

• saying that the project will be completed under budget, even though it will not

copying from another company’s proposal is another common dishonest tactic. Proposals are protected by copyright law. An employee may not copy from a proposal he or she wrote while working for a different company.

there are three reasons to be honest in writing a proposal:

• to avoid serious legal trouble stemming from breach-of-contract suits

• to avoid acquiring a bad reputation, thus ruining your business

• to do the right thing

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The structure of the Proposal 11 301

the structure of the Proposal Proposal structures vary greatly from one organization to another. A long, complex proposal might have 10 or more sections, including introduction, problem, objectives, solution, methods and resources, and management. If the authorizing agency provides an IFB, an RFP, an RFQ, or a set of guidelines, follow it closely. If you have no guidelines, or if you are writing an unsolicited proposal, use the structure shown here as a starting point. Then modify it according to your subject, your purpose, and the needs of your audience. An example of a proposal is presented on pages 309–15.

summarY For a proposal of more than a few pages, provide a summary. Many organiza- tions impose a length limit—such as 250 words—and ask the writer to pre- sent the summary, single-spaced, on the title page. The summary is crucial, because it might be the only item that readers study in their initial review of the proposal.

The summary covers the major elements of the proposal but devotes only a few sentences to each. Define the problem in a sentence or two. Next, describe the proposed program and provide a brief statement of your qualifi- cations and experience. Some organizations wish to see the completion date and the final budget figure in the summary; others prefer that this informa- tion be presented separately on the title page along with other identifying information about the supplier and the proposed project.

InTroDucTIon The purpose of the introduction is to help readers understand the context, scope, and organization of the proposal.

ProPoseD ProGram In the section on the proposed program, sometimes called the plan of work, explain what you want to do. Be specific. You won’t persuade anyone by say- ing that you plan to “gather the data and analyze it.” How will you gather and analyze the data? Justify your claims. Every word you say—or don’t say—will give your readers evidence on which to base their decision.

If your project concerns a subject written about in the professional litera- ture, show your familiarity with the scholarship by referring to the pertinent studies. However, don’t just string together a bunch of citations. For exam- ple, don’t write, “Carruthers (2012), Harding (2013), and Vega (2013) have all researched the relationship between global warming and groundwater con- tamination.” Rather, use the recent literature to sketch the necessary back- ground and provide the justification for your proposed program. For instance:

carruthers (2012), harding (2013), and vega (2013) have demonstrated the relationship between global warming and groundwater contamination. none of

For more about summaries, see Ch. 13, p. 355.

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these studies, however, included an analysis of the long-term contamination of the aquifer. the current study will consist of . . . .

You might include only a few references to recent research. However, if your topic is complex, you might devote several paragraphs or even several pages to recent scholarship.

Whether your project calls for primary research, secondary research, or both, the proposal will be unpersuasive if you haven’t already done a sub- stantial amount of research. For instance, say you are writing a proposal to do research on purchasing new industrial-grade lawn mowers for your company. Simply stating that you will visit Wal-Mart, Lowe’s, and Home Depot to see what kinds of lawn mowers they carry would be unpersuasive for two reasons:

• You need to justify why you are going to visit those three retailers rather than others. Anticipate your readers’ questions: Why did you choose these three retailers? Why didn’t you choose specialized dealers?

For more about researching a subject, see Ch. 5.

Introducing a Proposal the introduction to a proposal should answer the following seven questions:

What is the problem or opportunity? describe the problem or opportunity in specific monetary terms, because the proposal itself will include a budget, and you want to convince your readers that spending money on what you propose is smart. don’t say that a design problem is slowing down production; say that it is costing $4,500 a day in lost productivity.

What is the purpose of the proposal? the purpose of the proposal is to describe a solution to a problem or an approach to an opportunity and propose activities that will culminate in a deliverable. Be specific in explaining what you want to do.

What is the background of the problem or opportunity? Although you probably will not be telling your readers anything they don’t already know, show them that you understand the problem or opportunity: the circumstances that led to its discovery, the relationships or events that will affect the problem and its solution, and so on.

What are your sources of information? Review the relevant literature, ranging from internal reports and memos to published articles or even books, so that readers will understand the context of your work.

What is the scope of the proposal? if appropriate, indicate not only what you are proposing to do but also what you are not proposing to do.

What is the organization of the proposal? explain the organizational pattern you will use.

What are the key terms that you will use in the proposal? if you will use any specialized or unusual terms, define them in the introduction.

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1. The writer has used a letter- ing system to describe the four main tasks that will be undertaken if the project receives funding. What are the advantages of a lettering system?

2. How effective is the description of Task A? What factors contribute to the description’s effectiveness or lack of effectiveness?

3. The descriptions of the tasks do not include cost esti- mates. Where would those estimates be presented in the proposal? Why would they be presented there?

4. How effective is the descrip- tion of Task D? What addi- tional information would improve its effectiveness?

Writing the Proposed Program The following project description is excerpted from a sample grant proposal seeking funding to begin a project to help police officers stay healthy (Ohio Office of Criminal Justice Services, 2003). The questions in the margin ask you to think about how to describe the project in a proposal.

ProJecT DescrIPTIon the proposed project is comprised of several different, but related activities:

a. Physical evaluation of the officers

the first component of this project is the physical examination of all summerville P.d. sworn employees. of special interest for purposes of the project are resting pulse rate, target pulse rate, blood pressure, and percentage of body fat of the program participants. dr. Feinberg will perform the physical examinations of all participating officers. the measurement of body fat will be conducted at the university of summerville’s health center under the direction of dr. Farron updike.

B. renovation of Basement

Another phase of this project involves the renovation of the basement of police headquarters. the space is currently being used for storing christmas decorations for city hall.

the main storage room will be converted into a gym. this room will accommodate the universal weight machine, the stationary bike, the treadmill and the rowing machine. Renovation will consist of first transferring all the christmas decorations to the basement of the new city hall. once that is accomplished, it will be necessary to paint the walls, install indoor/outdoor carpeting and set up the equipment.

A second, smaller room will be converted into a locker room. Renovation will include painting the floors and the installation of lockers and benches.

to complete the fitness center, a third basement room will be equipped as a shower room. A local plumber will tap into existing plumbing to install several showerheads.

c. Purchase of Fitness equipment

the department of Public safety has identified five vendors of exercise equipment in the greater summerville area. each of these vendors submitted bids for the following equipment:

• Universal Weight Machine • Atlas Stationary Bike • Yale Rowing Machine • Speedster Treadmill

D. Training of officers

Participating officers must be trained in the safe, responsible use of the exercise equipment. dr. updike of the university of summerville will hold periodic training sessions at the department’s facility.

D O c u m e n T A n A LyS I S Ac T I v I T y

Source: Ohio Office of Criminal Justice Services, 2003.

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11

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To analyze a proposal delivered as a Prezi presentation,

go to LaunchPad.

D O c u m e n T A n A LyS I S Ac T I v I T y

Marketing Proposal Presentation Used by permission of Andrew Washuta.

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• You should already have determined what stores carry what kinds of lawn mowers and completed any other preliminary research. If you haven’t done the homework, readers have no assurance that you will in fact do it or that it will pay off. If your supervisor authorizes the project and then you learn that none of the lawn mowers in these stores meets your organization’s needs, you will have to go back and submit a different proposal—an embarrassing move.

Unless you can show in your proposed program that you have done the research—and that the research indicates that the project is likely to succeed—the reader has no reason to authorize the project.

QuaLIFIcaTIons anD exPerIence After you have described how you would carry out the project, show that you can do it. The more elaborate the proposal, the more substantial the discussion of your qualifications and experience has to be. For a small project, include a few paragraphs describing your technical credentials and those of your co-workers. For larger projects, include the résumés of the project leader, often called the principal investigator, and the other primary participants.

External proposals should also discuss the qualifications of the sup- plier’s organization, describing similar projects the supplier has completed successfully. For example, a company bidding on a contract to build a large suspension bridge should describe other suspension bridges it has built. It should also focus on the equipment and facilities the company already has and on the management structure that will ensure the project will go smoothly.

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BuDGeT Good ideas aren’t good unless they’re affordable. The budget section of a pro- posal specifies how much the proposed program will cost.

Budgets vary greatly in scope and format. For simple internal proposals, add the budget request to the statement of the proposed program: “This study will take me two days, at a cost of about $400” or “The variable-speed recorder currently costs $225, with a 10 percent discount on orders of five or more.” For more-complicated internal proposals and for all external propos- als, include a more-explicit and complete budget.

Many budgets are divided into two parts: direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include such expenses as salaries and fringe benefits of program personnel, travel costs, and costs of necessary equipment, materials, and supplies. Indirect costs cover expenses that are sometimes called overhead: general secretarial and clerical expenses not devoted exclusively to any one project, as well as operating expenses such as costs of utilities and mainte- nance. Indirect costs are usually expressed as a percentage—ranging from less than 20 percent to more than 100 percent—of the direct expenses.

aPPenDIxes Many types of appendixes might accompany a proposal. Most organiza- tions have boilerplate descriptions of the organization and of the projects it has completed. Another item commonly included in an appendix is a sup- porting letter: a testimonial to the supplier’s skill and integrity, written by a reputable and well-known person in the field. Two other kinds of appendixes deserve special mention: the task schedule and the description of evaluation techniques.

Task schedule A task schedule is almost always presented in one of three graphical formats: as a table, a bar chart, or a network diagram.

Tables The simplest but least informative way to present a schedule is in a table, as shown in Figure 11.3. As with all graphics, provide a textual reference that introduces and, if necessary, explains the table.

Task schedule

activity start date Finish date

design the security system 4 oct. 15 19 oct. 15

Research available systems 4 oct. 15 3 Jan. 16

etc.

FIguRe 11.3 Task schedule Presented as a Table

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Although displaying information in a table is better than writing it out in sentences, readers still cannot “see” the information. They have to read the table to figure out how long each activity will last, and they cannot tell whether any of the activities are interdependent. They have no way of determining what would happen to the overall project schedule if one of the activities faced delays.

Bar Charts Bar charts, also called Gantt charts after the early twentieth- century civil engineer who first used them, are more informative than tables. The basic bar chart shown in Figure 11.4 allows readers to see how long each task will take and whether different tasks will occur simultaneously. Like tables, however, bar charts do not indicate the interdependence of tasks.

Number

Schedule for Parking Analysis Project

1 Perform research

2 Identify options

3 Analyze options

4 Test options

5 Collect and analyze data

6 Formulate recommendations

7 Prepare report

Task 1/21 1/28 2/4 2/111/14

FIguRe 11.4 Task schedule Presented as a Bar chart

Finalize the design Produce the diagrams

Research the HVAC systems

Develop the team plan

Select the team leader

Establish work procedures

Lease the equipment Install the system

Hire workers

Train workers

4 6

5

2 4 10

15

5

71 3

6 7

7

4 6

Approximate length of time (in days)

Activity

3

FIguRe 11.5 Task schedule Presented as a network Diagram A network diagram provides more useful information than either a table or a bar chart.

Network Diagrams Network diagrams show interdependence among various activities, clearly indicating which must be completed before others can begin. However, even a relatively simple network diagram, such as the one shown in Figure 11.5, can be difficult to read. You would probably not use this type of diagram in a document intended for general readers.

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3. to differentiate completed tasks (dark bars) from tasks yet to be completed (lighter bars) or to hide borders, select the cells you wish to modify and then choose the Borders button on the Table Tools Design tab. then select Borders and shading.

the Borders and shading dialog box will appear.

the Borders tab allows you to hide borders of selected cells.

the shading tab allows you to shade selected cells.

enter the tasks in rows.

enter the dates in columns.

if you need to add or remove rows or columns, you can use the buttons in the rows & columns group on the Table Tools Layout tab.

2. to create cells that span several columns, select the cells you wish to merge, right-click, and then select merge cells on the pop-up menu.

to create column headings, first merge the cells that will contain the column heading. then type in your heading in the expanded cell. to add a horizontal rule below the heading, select the cell that contains it and choose Borders and shading from the Format tab.

KeyWORDS: table, cells, merge cells, borders, shading

how to create a Gantt chart

if you want to show how activities occur over time, you can create a simple Gantt chart using the Table feature in Word.

1. create a table with enough cells to include your tasks and dates.

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Description of evaluation Techniques Although evaluation can mean different things to different people, an evaluation technique typically refers to any procedure used to determine whether the proposed program is both effective and efficient. Evaluation techniques can range from writing simple progress reports to conducting sophisticated statistical analyses. Some pro- posals call for evaluation by an outside agent, such as a consultant, a testing laboratory, or a university. Other proposals describe evaluation techniques that the supplier will perform, such as cost-benefit analyses.

The issue of evaluation is complicated by the fact that some people think in terms of quantitative evaluations—tests of measurable quantities, such as production increases—whereas others think in terms of qualita- tive evaluations—tests of whether a proposed program is improving, say, the workmanship on a product. And some people include both qualita- tive and quantitative testing when they refer to evaluation. An additional complication is that projects can be tested while they are being carried out (formative evaluations) as well as after they have been completed (summative evaluations).

When an RFP calls for “evaluation,” experienced proposal writers contact the prospective customer to determine precisely what the word means.

sample Internal Proposal The following example of an internal proposal has been formatted as a memo rather than as a formal proposal. (See Chapter 12, pp. 327–34, for the progress report written after this project was under way and Chapter 13, pp. 360–83, for the recommendation report.)

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date: october 6, 2013 to: Jill Bremerton, m.d. chief executive officer Rawlings Regional medical center From: Jeremy elkins, director of information technology eloise carruthers, director of nursing Rawlings Regional medical center subject: Proposal for the tablet study at RRmc

Purpose

the purpose of our proposal is to request authorization to conduct a study to determine the best course of action for integrating tablet computers into the RRmc clinical setting.

summary

on september 16, 2013, dr. Jill Bremerton, RRmc chief executive officer, asked us to develop a plan to study national trends on tablet use, determine clinical-staff knowledge of and attitudes toward tablets, examine administrative models for tablet use, devise criteria for assessing tablets, and present our findings, including a recommendation.

currently, RRmc has no formal policy on tablet usage by clinical staff. By default, we are following a bring-your-own-device (BYod) approach. more than half of our clinical staff use their personal tablets in their work. this situation is not ideal because not all clinical staff are taking advantage of the enormous potential for improving patient care and reducing costs by using tablets, and it is struggling to keep up with the work needed to ensure that all the different tablets are working properly and that information-security protocols required by hiPAA and the Affordable care Act are not being violated.

In most professional settings, writers use letterhead stationery for memos.

Proposals can be presented as memos or as reports. Memos are more popular for brief documents (fewer than five pages), whereas reports are more popular for longer documents.

The writers include their titles and that of their primary reader. This way, future readers will be able to readily identify the reader and writers.

The subject heading indicates the subject of the memo (the tablet study at Rawlings Regional Medical Center) and the purpose of the memo (proposal).

As discussed in Ch. 9, memos of more than one page should begin with a clear statement of purpose. Here, the writers communicate the primary purpose of the document in one sentence.

Memos of more than one page should contain a summary to serve as an advance organizer or to help readers who want only an overview of the document.

Although the writers are writing to Dr. Bremerton, they refer to her in the third person to suggest the formality of their relationship.

The background of the problem. Don’t assume that your reader knows what you are discussing, even if it was the reader who suggested the project in the first place.

The problem at the heart of the project.

Rawlings Regional Medical Center 7500 Bannock Avenue Rawlings, MT 59211Ra

w li

n gs

R

eg ional Medical C

en ter

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memo to Jill Bremerton, m.d. october 6, 2013 Page 2

therefore, dr. Bremerton wanted us to determine the best approach to making tablets available to all our clinical staff. specifically, dr. Bremerton asked that we develop a plan to determine how tablets are being used by clinical staff across the nation, determine the RRmc clinical staff’s current knowledge of and attitudes toward tablet use, determine how hospitals administer the use of tablets in a clinical setting, establish criteria by which we might evaluate tablets for RRmc, and assess available tablets based on our criteria.

We propose to research tablet use in clinical settings and present our findings to dr. Bremerton. to perform these tasks, we would carry out secondary and primary research. We would study the literature on tablet use, distribute a questionnaire to RRmc clinical staff, and interview dr. Bremerton. then, we would collect and analyze our data and write the report.

to perform this research and present a recommendation report, we estimate that we would each require approximately 40 hours over the next two months, at a cost of $2,680. Jeremy elkins, director of information technology, has been with RRmc for 9 years and has overseen numerous it feasibility studies. eloise carruthers has been with RRmc for 13 years, the last 8 of which have been as director of nursing.

if this proposal is authorized, we would begin our research immediately, submitting to dr. Bremerton a progress report on november 14, 2013, and a recommendation report on december 14, 2013. the recommendation report would include the details of our research and recommendations regarding how to proceed with the feasibility study.

Introduction

on september 16, 2013, dr. Jill Bremerton, RRmc chief executive officer, asked us to develop a plan to determine the best course of action for integrating tablet computers into the RRmc clinical setting.

currently, RRmc has no formal policy on tablet usage by clinical staff. By default, we are following a bring-your-own-device (BYod) approach. more than half of our clinical staff use their personal tablets in their work. this situation is not ideal because not all clinical staff are taking advantage of the enormous potential for improving patient care and reducing costs

The proposal. The writers have already begun to plan what they will do if the proposal is accepted, but they use the conditional tense (“would”) because they cannot assume that their proposal will be approved.

A summary of the schedule and the credentials of the writers. Because the reader will likely want to read this entire proposal, the summary functions as an advance organizer.

A brief statement of the context for the proposal.

An explanation of the problem: the current situation is inadequate because the medical center is not taking full advantage of tablets and because IT is spending a lot of time ensuring that the tablets in use are in compliance with federal requirements.

This same paragraph appeared in the “Summary” section of the proposal. In technical communica- tion, writers often present the same information several times because some readers will read only selected portions of the document.

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.d. october 6, 2013 Page 2

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sample Internal Proposal

by using tablets, and it is struggling to keep up with the work needed to ensure that all the different tablets are working properly and that information-security protocols required by hiPAA and the Affordable care Act are not being violated.

therefore, dr. Bremerton wanted us to determine the best approach to making tablets available to all our clinical staff. specifically, dr. Bremerton asked that we develop a plan to perform five tasks: • Determine how tablets are being used by clinical staff across the nation. • Determine the RRMC clinical staff’s current knowledge of and attitudes

toward tablet use. • Determine how hospitals administer the use of tablets in a clinical setting. • Establish criteria by which we might evaluate tablets for RRMC. • Assess available tablets based on our criteria.

in the following sections, we provide additional details about the proposed tasks, schedule, and budget, as well as our credentials and references.

Proposed Tasks

With dr. Bremerton’s approval, we would perform the following six tasks to help determine the best course of action for integrating tablet computers into the RRmc clinical setting.

Task 1. Acquire a basic understanding of tablet use by clinical staff across the nation We have already begun our research by interviewing dr. Bremerton, who emphasized that we need to maintain our focus on our priorities—patient care and service to the community—and not let technical questions about the tablets distract us from the needs of our clinical staff. “We’re not going to do anything without the approval of the doctors and nurses,” she said.

We also discovered an article that corroborated what dr. Bremerton had told us (narisi, 2013). two keys to doing the research were to focus on security features—data-privacy issues mandated in hiPAA and in the Affordable care Act—and to get the clinical staff’s input.

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.d. october 6, 2013 Page 3

The writers paraphrase text from a memo Dr. Bremerton had written to them. Often in technical communi- cation, you will quote or paraphrase your reader’s words to remind him or her of the context and to show that you are carrying out your tasks professionally—and to give the reader the opportunity to change the direction of the study before it officially begins.

The introduction concludes with an advance organizer for the rest of the proposal.

By presenting the project as a set of tasks, the writers show that they are well organized. This organization by tasks will be used in the progress report (see Ch. 12, pp. 327–34) and the recommendation report (see Ch. 13, pp. 360–83).

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dr. Bremerton pointed us to a number of resources on tablet use in clinical settings. in addition, we have begun to conduct our own literature review. most of the research we studied falls into one of four categories: • general introductions to tablet use in trade magazines and general-

interest periodicals • more-focused articles about tablets used in health care • technical specifications of tablets provided in trade magazines and on

manufacturers’ websites • trade-magazine articles about best practices for managing the use of

tablets in clinical settings

As we expected, the information we acquired is a mix of user opinions, benchmark-test results, and marketing. We would rely most heavily on case studies from hospital administrators and technical specialists in health it. Because of the unreliability of information on manufacturers’ websites, we are hesitant to rely on claims about product performance.

Task 2. Determine the RRMC clinical staff’s knowledge of and attitudes toward tablet use next week, we propose to send all clinical staff members an email linking to a four-question Qualtrix survey. the email would explain that we were seeking opinions about tablet use by clinical-staff members who already own tablets and would make clear that the survey would take less than two minutes to complete.

Task 3. Assess the BYOD and hospital-owned tablet models our research has already revealed that hospitals currently use one of two models for giving clinical staff access to tablets: the bring-your-own- device (BYod) approach and purchasing tablets to distribute to staff. We have found literature that assesses the advantages and disadvantages of each of these models (Jackson, 2011a, 2011b).

For statistics on the popularity of each of these administrative models, we would rely on a survey (terry, 2011).

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.d. october 6, 2013 Page 4

The proposal sounds credible because the writers have already begun their secondary research. Readers are reluctant to approve proposals unless they are sure that the writers have at least begun their research.

Following the recommendation from Dr. Bremerton, the writers start by outlining the secondary research they plan to do. The logic is obvi- ous: if they are to present sensible recommendations, they need to understand their subject.

By stating that they know that their sources are a mixture of different kinds of information, not all of which are equally useful for every kind of question that needs to be answered, the writers suggest that they are careful analysts.

The writers show that they have applied the insights they gathered from their secondary research. Now they propose doing primary research to determine whether the RRMC clinical staff share the attitudes of clinical staff across the country. The logic is clear: if they do, the hospital administrators will know that they can rely on the national data.

The writers cite their sources throughout the proposal.

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Task 4. Establish criteria for evaluating tablets

We (Jeremy elkins and eloise carruthers) have both begun to study the voluminous literature on tablets. Jeremy elkins has met informally with his five it colleagues to discuss the data, and eloise carruthers has met informally with her nursing staff and with selected physicians, including several who already own tablets and use them in the clinic.

We would begin with the first criterion: cost. dr. Bremerton told us in our interview that the budget for the project (assuming that RRmc would supply a tablet to each member of the clinical staff ) would be $800 per device, fully configured with any commercial software needed to operate it. For this reason, we would not thoroughly examine any tablets that do not meet this criterion.

in addition, we would pay particular attention to the complexities of the current tablet market, focusing on whether the various devices would work seamlessly with our health-records system and other security features (“top Five,” 2013), on the need to be able to disinfect the tablets (carr, 2011), and on durability (narisi, 2013). Furthermore, we know from experience with all kinds of portable information technology that the question of battery life would be problematic because it can vary so much depending on load and other factors.

We anticipate that two factors might be critically important: operating system and availability of relevant apps.

Task 5. Assess available tablets based on our criteria We would begin our study of the tablets by examining trade magazines. We realize, however, that several of our likely criteria—namely, the ability to disinfect the tablet, as well as durability and battery life—might not be addressed adequately in the literature because each hospital has its own specific needs. if the literature cannot help us complete our assessments, we would need to carry out on-site evaluations at RRmc.

Task 6. Analyze our data and prepare a recommendation report We would draft our recommendation report and upload it to a wiki to make it convenient for the other it staff members and interested clinical staff members to help us revise it. We would then incorporate our

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Often you will begin your project with a cost criterion: your recom- mended solution must not cost more than a certain amount.

Preparing the recommendation report is part of the project because the report is the deliverable.

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colleagues’ suggestions and present a final draft of the report on the wiki to gather any final editing suggestions.

schedule

Figure 1 is a schedule of the tasks we would complete for this project.

Tasks Date of Tasks (by Weeks)

task 1: Research tablet use

task 2: determine staff knowledge and attitudes

task 3: Research management models

task 4: establish criteria

task 5: Assess tablets based on criteria

task 6: Prepare report

10 17 24 31 7 14 21 28 5 12

oct. nov. dec.

Figure 1. schedule of Project Tasks

Budget

Following is an itemized budget for our proposed research.

name hours hourly rate ($)

cost ($)

Jeremy elkins 40 28 1,120

eloise carruthers 40 39 1,560

Total: $2,680

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.d. october 6, 2013 Page 6

Organizing the project by tasks makes it easy for the writers to present a Gantt chart. In addition, the task organization will help the writers stay on track if the proposal is approved and they continue their research.

Each task is presented with parallel grammar, which shows that the writers are careful and professional.

Some tasks overlap in time: researchers often work on several tasks simultaneously.

The Tech Tip on p. 307 explains how to create a Gantt chart.

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references carr, d. F. (2011, may 21). healthcare puts tablets to the test.

InformationWeek Healthcare. Retrieved october 1, 2013, from http:// www.informationweek.com/healthcare/mobile-wireless/healthcare -puts-tablets-to-the-test/229503387

Jackson, s. (2011a, August 15). Five reasons hospitals should buy tablets for physicians. FierceMobileHealthcare. Retrieved october 2, 2013, from http://www.fiercemobilehealthcare.com/story/5-reasons-why -hospitals-should-buy-tablets-physicians/2011-08-15

Jackson, s. (2011b, August 3). Why physicians should buy their own mobile devices. FierceMobileHealthcare. Retrieved october 4, 2013, from http:// www.fiercemobilehealthcare.com/story/why-physicians-should -buy-their-own-mobile-devices/2011-08-03

narisi, s. (2013, April 24). choosing the best tablets for doctors: 3 keys. Healthcare Business & Technology. Retrieved october 3, 2013, from http://www.healthcarebusinesstech.com/best-tablets-for-doctors

terry, K. (2011, dec. 9). Apple capitalizes on doctors’ iPad romance. InformationWeek Healthcare. Retrieved october 2, 2013, from http:// www.informationweek.com/healthcare/mobile-wireless/apple -capitalizes-on-doctors-ipad-roman/232300218

top Five tablet security Features. (2013). Healthcare Data Solutions. Retrieved october 2, 2013, from http://www.healthcaredatasolutions .com/top-five-tablet-security-features.html

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sample Internal Proposal

experience We are experienced professionals who have participated in numerous studies both here at RRmc and elsewhere. • Jeremy Elkins, Director of Information Technology, has chaired the

technology infrastructure committee and served as ad hoc member of the steering committee at RRmc for 9 years. he has designed the current it infrastructure at RRmc, oversees the purchase of all it equipment, and is currently implementing RRmc’s electronic health records software.

• Eloise Carruthers, Director of Nursing at RRMC, holds bachelor’s and master’s degrees in nursing and has earned over 100 ceus in virtually every aspect of the profession, including budgeting and management. she has administrative responsibility for all the registered and licensed nurses, as well as all nursing assistants. she has provided leadership in every aspect of patient care at RRmc for the last 13 years.

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.d. october 6, 2013 Page 7

The writers summarize their credentials. Strong credentials help reinforce the writers’ professionalism.

This list of references follows the APA documentation style, which is discussed in Appendix, Part A, p. 454. The APA documentation system calls for References to begin on a new page. Check with your instructor.

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W R I T e R ’S c H e c K L I S T

The following checklist covers the basic elements of a proposal. Guidelines established by the recipient of the proposal should take precedence over these general suggestions.

Does the summary provide an overview of

the problem or the opportunity? (p. 301)

the proposed program? (p. 301)

your qualifications and experience? (p. 301)

Does the introduction indicate

the problem or opportunity? (p. 302)

the purpose of the proposal? (p. 302)

the background of the problem or opportunity? (p. 302)

your sources of information? (p. 302)

the scope of the proposal? (p. 302)

the organization of the proposal? (p. 302)

the key terms that you will use in the proposal? (p. 302)

Does the description of the proposed program provide a clear, specific plan of action and justify the tasks you propose performing? (p. 301)

Does the description of qualifications and experience clearly outline

your relevant skills and past work? (p. 304)

the skills and background of the other participants? (p. 304)

your department’s (or organization’s) relevant equipment, facilities, and experience? (p. 305)

Is the budget

complete? (p. 305)

correct? (p. 305)

accompanied by an in-text reference? (p. 305)

Do the appendixes include the relevant supporting materials, such as a task schedule, a description of evaluation techniques, and evidence of other successful projects? (p. 305)

e x e R c I S e S

For more about memos, see Ch. 9, p. 253.

1. Study the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) Grant Proposal Guide (http://www.nsf.gov/publications/pub _summ.jsp?ods_key=gpg). In what important ways does the NSF’s guide differ from the advice provided in this chapter? What accounts for these differences? Present your findings in a 500-word memo to your instructor.

2. Team exercIse Form groups according to major. Using the FedBizOpps website (https://www.fbo.gov), find and study an RFP for a project related to your academic field. What can you learn about the needs of the organization that issued the RFP? How effectively does it describe what the issuing organization expects to see in the proposal? Is it relatively general or specific? What sorts of evaluation techniques does it call for? In your response, include a list of questions that you would ask the issuing organization if you were considering responding to the RFP. Present your results in a memo to your instructor.

3. Write a proposal for a research project that will constitute a major assignment in this course. Your instructor will tell you whether the proposal is to be written individually or collaboratively. Start by defining a technical subject that interests you. (This subject could be one that you are involved with at work or in another course.) Using abstract services and other bibliographic tools, compile a bibliography of articles and books on the subject. (See Chapter 5 for a discussion of finding information.) Create a reasonable real-world context. Here are three common scenarios from the business world:

• Our company uses Technology X to perform Task A. Should we instead be using Technology Y to perform Task A? For instance, our company uses traditional surveying tools in its contracting business. Should we be using GPS surveying tools instead?

316 WrITInG ProPosaLs11

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• Our company has decided to purchase a tool to perform Task A. Which make and model of the tool should we purchase, and from which supplier should we buy it? For instance, our company has decided to purchase 10 multimedia computers. Which brand and model should we buy, and from whom should we buy them? Is leasing the tool a better option than purchasing?

• Our company does not currently perform Function X. Is it feasible to perform Function X? For instance, we do not currently offer day care for our employees. Should we? What are the advantages and disadvan- tages of doing so? What forms can day care take? How is it paid for?

Following are some additional ideas for topics:

• the value of using social media to form ties with students in a technical-communication class on another campus

• the need for expanded opportunities for internships or service-learning in your major

• the need to create an advisory board of industry professionals to provide expertise about your major

• the need to raise money to keep the college’s computer labs up to date

• the need to evaluate the course of study offered by your university in your major to ensure that it is responsive to students’ needs

• the advisability of starting a campus branch of a professional organization in your field

• the need to improve parking facilities on campus

• the need to create or improve organizations for minorities or women on campus

c A S e 1 1 : revising a brief Proposal

You work for an educational software company. Because most school districts are facing tough economic times, they need financial assistance in order to buy your company’s products. The company has prepared a proposal guide for schools to use in applying for grants that will enable them to purchase the company’s products. Your supervisor notes that this information hasn’t been updated in a few years. He asks you to take a look at the effectiveness of the current sample proposal letter and suggest ways it could be improved. He’d also like you to annotate the letter to explain its various sections. To get started revising the letter, go to LaunchPad.

317 11case 11: revising a Brief Proposal

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318

12 Focus on Process: Writing Informational Reports 319

Writing Directives 320 ■ Document AnAlysIs ActIvIty: Report Presented as a Website 321 and ■ Document AnAlysIs ActIvIty: Informational Report Presented

through an Interactive Graphic 321 and ■ Document AnAlysIs ActIvIty: Writing a Persuasive Directive 322

Writing Field reports 323 ■ GuIDelInes: Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report 324

Writing Progress and status reports 324 ■ ethIcs note: Reporting your Progress honestly 325

Organizing PrOgress and status rePOrts 325

COnCluding PrOgress and status rePOrts 326 ■ GuIDelInes: Projecting an Appropriate tone in a Progress or status Report 326

sample Progress report 326

Writing Incident reports 335

Writing Meeting Minutes 337

WrIter’s checklIst 339

exercIses 339

case 12: Writing a Directive About using Agendas for meetings 339 and

Writing Informational Reports

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319

COMPLEX, EXPENSIVE PROJECTS call for a lot of documents. Before a project begins, a vendor might write a proposal to interest prospective clients in its work. After a project is completed, an organization might write a completion report to document the project or a recommendation report to argue for a future course of action. In between, many people will write various informational reports.

Whether they are presented as memos, emails, reports, or web pages, informational reports share one goal: to describe something that has happened or is happening now. their main purpose is to provide clear, accurate, specific information to an audience. sometimes, informational reports also analyze the situation. An analysis is an explanation of why something happened or how it happened. For instance, in an incident report about an accident on the job, the writer might speculate about how and why the accident occurred.

12

In writing informational reports, pay special attention to these steps in the writing process.

Planning In some cases, determining your audience and to whom to address the report is difficult. choosing the appropriate format for your report can also be difficult. consider whether your organization has a preferred format for reports and whether your report will be read by readers from other cultures who might expect a formal style and application. see chapter 4 for more about analyzing your audience.

draFting some informational reports are drafted on site. For instance, an engineer might use a tablet computer to “draft” a report as she walks around a site. For routine reports, you can sometimes use sections of previous reports or boilerplate. In a status report, for instance, you can copy the description of your current project from the previous report and then update it as necessary. see chapter 2, page 24, for more about boilerplate.

reVising

editing

PrOOFreading

For more about analyzing an audience from another culture, see Ch. 4, p. 63.

F O C u S O N P R O C E S S Writing informational reports

Informal does not mean careless. Revise, edit, and proofread. even informal reports should be free of errors.

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WrItInG InForMatIonal rePorts 12 320

this chapter discusses five kinds of informational reports:

• A supervisor writes a directive explaining a company’s new policy on recycling and describing informational sessions that the company will offer to help employees understand how to implement the policy.

• An insurance adjuster writes a field report presenting the results of his inspection of a building after a storm caused extensive damage.

• A research team writes a progress report explaining what the team has accomplished in the first half of the project, speculating on whether it will finish on time and within budget, and describing how it has responded to unexpected problems.

• A worker at a manufacturing company writes an incident report after a toxic- chemical spill.

• A recording secretary writes a set of meeting minutes that will become the official record of what occurred at a meeting of the management team of a government agency.

Another type of informational report is the recommendation report (see chapter 13).

Writing directives In a directive, you explain a policy or a procedure you want your readers to follow. Even though you have the authority to require your readers to follow the policy, you want to explain why the policy is desirable or at least neces- sary. You will be most persuasive if you present clear, compelling evidence (in the form of commonsense arguments, numerical data, and examples); con- sider opposing arguments effectively; and present yourself as cooperative, moderate, fair-minded, and modest. Figure 12.1 is an example of a directive.

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To analyze a report presented as a website and a report presented through an interactive graphic, go to LaunchPad.

D O C u M E N T A N A LyS I S AC T I V I T y

High Plains Water-Level Monitoring Study Source: United States Geological Survey, 2014: http://ne.water.usgs .gov/ogw/hpwlms/.

“Global Forest Change” Interactive Map Source: Hansen/UMD/Google/ USGS/NASA. Hansen, M. C., P. V. Potapov, R. Moore, M. Hancher, S. A. Turubanova, A. Tyukavina, D. Thau, S. V. Stehman, S. J. Goetz, T. R. Loveland, A. Kommareddy, A. Egorov, L. Chini, C. O. Justice, and J. R. G. Townshend. 2013. “High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st- Century Forest Cover Change.” Science 342 (15 November): 850–53. Data available online from: http:// earthenginepartners.appspot.com /science-2013-global-forest.

Writing Directives 321

12

notIce to eMPloYees Research has shown that minors find it easy to buy tobacco products even though state law prohibits sales to anyone under 18. to stop the sale of tobacco to minors and to comply with state law, we are implementing the following policy immediately:

thIs coMPanY WIll not sell cIGarettes, cheWInG toBacco, sMokeless toBacco, or sMokInG ParaPhernalIa to anYone unDer the aGe oF 18.

You can Be FIneD $100 Plus court costs anD Fees For sellInG anY oF these ProDucts to anYone unDer the aGe oF 18.

under this new policy, you are required to request valid photo identification for anyone attempting to purchase tobacco products who appears to be under the age of 27.

If a customer questions this policy, please explain that state law prohibits the sale of tobacco products to those under the age of 18, and therefore we refuse to sell to minors.

A copy of the law is posted near the cash register. Please read the law carefully and, if you have questions, confer with your supervisor.

Any employee who does not follow this policy will be subject to disciplinary action. thank you for your cooperation.

The writer, the owner of a convenience store, begins with a clear explanation of the problem the directive addresses. Present- ing the reasons for the new policy shows respect for the readers and therefore makes the directive more persuasive.

The writer uses a polite but official tone because the new policy is a policy, not a request. Notice that the directive specifies a penalty for not adhering to the policy and directs readers to their supervisors if they have questions.

FIguRE 12.1 a Directive

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This directive was sent to the members of a Montana government department. The questions below ask you to think about the process of writing persuasive directives (as discussed on p. 320).

1. How would you describe the tone used by the writer? Provide an example to sup- port your claim.

2. The writer presents examples of what he calls violations of the state travel policy. Do these examples provide solid evidence that violations of the policy have in fact occurred?

3. How effectively has the writer encouraged his staff to abide by the travel policy? How might he improve the persuasiveness of the directive?

Writing a Persuasive Directive

to: members, Budget Allocation office From: harold J. Jefferson, Director subject: travel Policy Date: January 23, 2016

It has come to my attention that certain members of this office are not abiding by the travel policies approved by the state. let me offer a few examples.

the montana Revised code includes this statement in its introduction:

Persons who travel on state business are encouraged to incur the lowest practical and reasonable expense while still traveling in an efficient and timely manner. those traveling on state business are expected to avoid impropriety, or the appearance of impropriety, in any travel expense. they must conduct state business with integrity, in compliance with applicable laws, and in a manner that excludes consideration of personal advantage.

yet I have learned from official sources that on four occasions in the last fiscal year, employees of this office have acted in flagrant violation of this policy. two occasions involved choosing a flight that left at a more convenient time in the morning but that cost almost $160 more. one involved selecting a cab, rather than a shuttle bus, for a trip from the airport to downtown (a $24 difference), and one involved using room service when the motel has a café (a $14 difference).

Another provision of the travel policy that has been violated on more than one occasion is the following:

travel expenses are not paid in advance except for airfare charged to the state air travel card, for online (Internet) air or train ticket purchases, and for conference registrations.

two employees have on more than three occasions each received reimbursements for air and/or train reservations made using their personal credit cards. As you know, using personal credit cards leaves the state without official documentation of the expense and gives the traveler bonus miles and/or cash back that properly belongs to the state.

these are just two of the kinds of irregularities that have been brought to my attention. I do not need to tell you that these violations constitute serious breaches of public ethics. If they recur, they will be dealt with harshly. I sincerely hope that I do not have to address this issue again.

D O C u M E N T A N A LyS I S AC T I V I T y

322 WrItInG InForMatIonal rePorts 12

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Writing Field reports 12 323

Writing Field reports A common kind of informational report describes inspections, maintenance, and site studies. Such reports, often known as field reports, explain problems, methods, results, and conclusions, but they deemphasize methods and can include recommendations. The report in Figure 12.2 illustrates a possible variation on this standard report structure.

The writer states the purpose of the inspection.

The word visual describes the methods.

Because the writer and the reader work for different companies, a let- ter is the appropriate format for this brief informational report.

The writer has chosen to incorpo- rate the words summary and conclu- sion in the body of the letter rather than use headings as a method of organization.

Lobate ConstruCtion 3311 Industrial Parkway Speonk, NY 13508 Quality Construction Since 1957

April 11, 2016

Ms. Christine Amalli, Head Civil Engineering New York Power Smithtown, NY 13507

Dear Ms. Amalli:

We are pleased to report the results of our visual inspection of the Chemopump after Run #9, a 30-day trial on Kentucky #10 coal.

The inspection was designed to determine if the new Chemopump is compatible with Kentucky #10, the lowest-grade coal that you anticipate using. In preparation for the 30-day test run, the following three modifications were made by your technicians:

•   New front-bearing housing buffer plates of tungsten carbide were installed. •   The pump-casting volute liner was coated with tungsten carbide. •   New bearings were installed.

Our summary is as follows. A number of small problems with the pump were observed, but nothing serious and nothing surprising. Normal break-in accounts for the wear. The pump accepted the Kentucky #10 well.

The following four minor problems were observed: •   The outer lip of the front-end bell was chipped along two-thirds of its 

circumference. •    Opposite the pump discharge, the volute liner received a slight wear groove along 

one-third of its circumference. •   The impeller was not free-rotating. •   The holes in the front-end bell were filled with insulating mud.

The following three components showed no wear:

•   51/2” impeller •   suction neck liner •   discharge neck liner

Our conclusion is that the problems can be attributed to normal break-in for a new Chemopump. The Kentucky #10 coal does not appear to have caused any extraordinary problems. In general, the new Chemopump seems to be operating well.

FIguRE 12.2 a Field report

(continued)

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WrItInG InForMatIonal rePorts 12 324

Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report

When you write a field report, be sure to answer the following six questions:

What is the purpose of the report?

What are the main points covered in the report?

What were the problems leading to the decision to perform the procedure?

What methods were used?

What were the results?

What do the results mean?

If appropriate, also discuss what you think should be done next.

We would recommend, however, that the pump be modified as follows:

1. Replace the front-end bell with a tungsten carbide-coated front-end bell. 2. Replace the bearings on the impeller. 3. Install insulation plugs in the holes in the front-end bell.

Further, we recommend that the pump be reinspected after another 30-day run on Kentucky #10.

If you have any questions or would like to authorize these modifications, please call me at 555-1241. As always, we appreciate the trust you have placed in us.

Sincerely,

Marvin Littridge Director of Testing and Evaluation

page 2

Informational reports sometimes include recommendations.

The writer concludes politely.

FIguRE 12.2 a Field report (continued)

Writing Progress and status reports A progress report describes an ongoing project. A status report, sometimes called an activity report, describes the entire range of operations of a depart- ment or division. For example, the director of marketing for a manufacturing company might submit a monthly status report.

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Writing Progress and status reports 12 325

A progress report is an intermediate communication between a proposal (the argument that a project be undertaken) and a completion report (the comprehensive record of a completed project) or a recommendation report (an argument to take further action). Progress reports let you check in with your audience.

Regardless of how well the project is proceeding, explain clearly and fully what has happened and how those activities or events will affect the overall project. Your tone should be objective, neither defensive nor casual. Unless your own ineptitude or negligence caused a problem, you’re not to blame. Regardless of the news you are delivering—good, bad, or mixed—your job is the same: to provide a clear and complete account of your activities and to forecast the next stage of the project.

When things go wrong, you might be tempted to cover up problems and hope that you can solve them before the next progress report. This course of action is unwise and unethical. Chances are that problems will multiply, and you will have a harder time explaining why you didn’t alert your readers earlier.

E T H I C S N OT E

rePortInG Your ProGress honestlY Withholding bad news is unethical because it can mislead readers. As sponsors or supervisors of the project, readers have a right to know how it is going. If you find yourself faced with any of the following three common problems, consider responding in these ways:

• the deliverable—the document or product you will submit at the end of the project— won’t be what you thought it would be. Without being defensive, describe the events that led to the situation and explain how the deliverable will differ from what you described in the proposal.

• You won’t meet your schedule. explain why you are going to be late, and state when the project will be complete.

• You won’t meet the budget. explain why you need more money, and state how much more you will need.

orGanIzInG ProGress anD status rePorts The time pattern and the task pattern, two organizational patterns fre- quently used in progress and status reports, are illustrated in Figure 12.3.

For more about proposals, see Ch. 11. For more about recommendation reports, see Ch. 13.

The task pattern enables you to describe, in order, what has been accomplished on each task. Often a task-oriented structure incorporates the chronological structure.

In the time pattern, you describe all the work that you have com- pleted in the present reporting period and then sketch in the work that remains. Some writers include a section on present work, which enables them to focus on a long or complex task still in progress.

the time pattern the task pattern

Discussion A. Past Work B. Future Work

Discussion A. task 1 1. Past work 2. Future work B. task 2 1. Past work 2. Future work

FIguRE 12.3 organizational Patterns in reports

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WrItInG InForMatIonal rePorts 12 326

A status report is usually organized according to task; by its nature, this type of report covers a specified time period.

concluDInG ProGress anD status rePorts In the conclusion of a progress or status report, evaluate how the project is proceeding. In the broadest sense, there are two possible messages: things are going well, or things are not going as well as anticipated.

If appropriate, use appendixes for supporting materials, such as computa- tions, printouts, schematics, diagrams, tables, or a revised task schedule. Be sure to cross-reference these appendixes in the body of the report, so that readers can find them easily.

Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status Report

Whether the news is positive or negative, these two suggestions will help you sound like a professional.

if the news is good, convey your optimism but avoid overstatement. overstated We are sure the device will do all that we ask of it, and more.

realistic We expect that the device will perform well and that, in addition, it might offer some unanticipated advantages.

Beware of promising early completion. such optimistic forecasts rarely prove accurate, and it is embarrassing to have to report a failure to meet an optimistic deadline.

don’t panic if the preliminary results are not as promising as you had planned or if the project is behind schedule. even the best-prepared proposal writers cannot anticipate all problems. As long as the original proposal was well planned and contained no wildly inaccurate computations, don’t feel responsible. Just do your best to explain unanticipated problems and the status of the project. If your news is bad, at least give the reader as much time as possible to deal with it effectively.

sample Progress report The following progress report was written for the project proposed on pages 309–15 in Chapter 11. (The recommendation report for this study is on pages 360–83 in Chapter 13.)

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sample Progress report 12 327

Date: november 14, 2013 to: Jill Bremerton, m.D. chief executive officer Rawlings Regional medical center From: Jeremy elkins, Director of Information technology eloise carruthers, Director of nursing Rawlings Regional medical center subject: Progress Report for the tablet study at RRmc

Purpose

this is a progress report on our study to recommend the best course of action for integrating tablet computers into the RRmc clinical setting.

summary

on october 8, 2013, Dr. Jill Bremerton, RRmc chief executive officer, approved our proposal to study national trends in tablet use, determine clinical-staff knowledge of and attitudes toward tablets, examine administrative models for tablet use, devise criteria for assessing tablets, and present our findings, including a recommendation.

We have completed tasks 1 and 2 (understanding tablet use in a clinical setting and determining the clinical staff’s knowledge of and attitudes toward tablet use), as well as part of task 3 (assessing the bring-your-own- device and hospital-owned tablet models).

our study is currently on schedule, and we expect to submit a recommendation report on December 14, 2013, as indicated in our proposal dated october 6, 2013.

Rawlings Regional Medical Center 7500 Bannock Avenue Rawlings, MT 59211Ra

w li

n gs

R

eg ional Medical C

en ter

In most professional settings, writ- ers use letterhead stationery for memos.

Progress reports can be presented as memos or as reports.

The writers include their titles and that of their primary reader. This way, future readers will be able to readily identify the reader and writers.

The subject heading indicates the subject of the memo (the tablet study at Rawlings Regional Medical Center) and the purpose of the memo (progress report).

Memos of more than one page should begin with a clear statement of purpose. Here, the writers com- municate the primary purpose of the document in one sentence.

Memos of more than one page should contain a summary to serve as an advance organizer or to help readers who want only an overview of the document.

Readers of progress reports want to know whether the project is proceeding according to schedule and (if applicable) on budget.

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Introduction

on october 8, 2013, Dr. Jill Bremerton, RRmc chief executive officer, approved our proposal to determine the best course of action for integrating tablet computers into the RRmc clinical setting.

currently, RRmc has no formal policy on tablet usage by clinical staff. By default, we are following a bring-your-own-device (ByoD) approach. more than half of our clinical staff use their personal tablets in their work. this situation is not ideal because not all clinical staff are taking advantage of the enormous potential for improving patient care and reducing costs by using tablets, and It is struggling to keep up with the work needed to ensure that all the different tablets are working properly and that information-security protocols required by hIPAA and the Affordable care Act are not being violated.

Dr. Bremerton approved our proposal to determine the best approach to take in making tablets available to all our clinical staff. specifically, Dr. Bremerton asked us to perform five tasks: • Determine how tablets are being used by clinical staff across the nation. • Determine the RRMC clinical staff’s knowledge of and attitudes toward

tablet use. • Determine how hospitals administer the use of tablets in a clinical

setting. • Establish criteria by which we might evaluate tablets for RRMC. • Assess available tablets based on our criteria.

In the following sections, we present the results of our research to date, followed by an updated task schedule and references.

results of research

In this progress report, we present our completed work on tasks 1–2 and our status on task 3. then we discuss our future work: tasks 4–6.

Task 1. Acquire a basic understanding of tablet use by clinical staff across the nation since the introduction of the Apple iPad in 2010, the use of tablets by clinical staff in hospitals across the country has been growing steadily. Although there are no precise statistics on how many hospitals either distribute tablets to clinical staff or let them use their own devices in

A brief statement of the context for the proposal. Note that the writers refer to the reader’s having autho- rized the proposal.

An explanation of the problem: the current situation is inadequate because the medical center is not taking full advantage of tablets and because IT is spending a lot of time ensuring that the tablets in use are in compliance with federal requirements.

A formal statement of the task that Dr. Bremerton asked the writers to perform.

Most of the information in the introduction is taken directly from the proposal. This reuse of text is ethical because the writers created it for that earlier document.

The introduction concludes with an advance organizer for the rest of the proposal.

The writers begin by describing the organization of the results section. For a progress report, a chronologi- cal organization—completed work, then future work—makes good sense.

The writers follow the task structure that they used in the proposal.

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.D. november 14, 2013 Page 2

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sample Progress report 12 329

their work, the number of articles in trade magazines, exhibits at medical conferences, and discussions on discussion boards suggests that tablets are quickly becoming established in the clinical setting. And many hundreds of apps have already been written to enable users to carry out health-care-related tasks on tablets.

the most extensive set of data on tablets in hospitals relates to the use of the iPad, the first tablet on the market. ottawa hospital has distributed more than 1,000 iPads to clinical staff; california hospital is piloting a program with more than 100 iPads for hospital use; Kaiser Permanente is testing the iPad for hospital and clinical workflow; and cedars-sinai medical center is testing the iPad in its hospital. the university of chicago’s Internal medicine Residency Program uses the iPad; the iPad is also being distributed to first-year medical students at stanford, university of california–Irvine, and university of san Francisco. In addition, there are reports of Windows-based and Android-based tablets being distributed at numerous other hospitals and medical schools (husain, 2011).

today, tablets have five main clinical applications (carr, 2011): • Monitoring patients and collecting data. clinical staff connect tablets to

the hospital’s monitoring instruments to collect patient information and transfer it to patients’ health records without significant human intervention. In addition, staff access patient information on their tablets.

• Ordering prescriptions, authorizations, and refills. clinical staff use tablets to communicate instantly with the hospital pharmacy and off-site pharmacies, as well as with other departments within the hospital, such as the Imaging Department.

• Scheduling appointments. clinical staff use tablets to schedule doctor and nurse visits and laboratory tests, to send reminders, and to handle re-scheduling and cancellations.

• Conducting research on the fly. clinical staff use tablets to access medication databases and numerous reference works.

• Educating patients. clinical staff use videos and animations to educate patients on their conditions and treatment options.

tablets provide clinical staff with significant advantages. staff do not need to go back to their offices to connect to the Internet or to the hospital’s own medical-record system. staff save time, reduce paper usage, and reduce transcription errors by not having to enter nearly as much data by hand.

memo to Jill Bremerton, m.D. november 14, 2013 Page 3

The writers skillfully integrate their secondary research into their discussion of the task. By doing so, they enhance their credibility.

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Task 2. Determine the RRMC clinical staff’s knowledge of and attitudes toward tablet use on october 14, 2013, we sent all 147 clinical staff members an email linking to a four-question Qualtrix survey. In the email, we said that we were seeking opinions about tablet use by clinical-staff members who already own tablets and made clear that the survey would take less than two minutes to complete. (the questionnaire, including the responses, appears in the Appendix, page 9.)

We received 96 responses, which represents 65 percent of the 147 staff members. We cannot be certain that all 96 respondents who indicated that they are tablet owners in fact own tablets. We also do not know whether all those staff members who own a tablet responded. however, given that some 75 percent of physicians in a 2013 poll own tablets, we suspect that the 96 respondents accurately represent the proportion of our clinical staff who own tablets (Drinkwater, 2013).

here are the four main findings from the survey of tablet owners: • Some 47 percent of respondents own an Apple iPad, and 47 percent

own either a samsung Galaxy or another tablet that uses the Android operating system. only 6 percent use the microsoft surface, one of the several Windows-based tablets.

• Some 58 percent of the respondents strongly agree with the statement that they are expert users of their tablets. overall, 90 percent agree more than they disagree with the statement.

• Some 63 percent of respondents use their tablets for at least one clinical application. they have either loaded apps on their tablets themselves or had It do so for them.

• Some 27 percent of the respondents would prefer to continue to use their own tablets for clinical applications, whereas 38 percent would prefer to use a tablet supplied by RRmc. some 35 percent had no strong feelings either way. none of the respondents indicated that they would prefer not to use a tablet at all for clinical applications.

Task 3. Assess the BYOD and hospital-owned tablet models currently, hospitals use one of two models for giving clinical staff access to tablets: the bring-your-own-device (ByoD) model and the purchase model, whereby the hospital purchases tablets to distribute to staff. In this section, we will present our findings on the relative advantages of each model.

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the ByoD model is based on the fact that, nationally, some three-quarters of physicians already own tablets (with the Apple iPad the single most popular model) (Drinkwater, 2013). We could find no data on how many nurses own tablets.

the main advantage of the ByoD model is that clinical staff already know and like their tablets; therefore, they are motivated to use them and less likely to need extensive training. In addition, the hardware costs are eliminated (or almost eliminated, since some hospitals choose to purchase some tablets for staff who do not have their own). todd Richardson, cIo with Deaconess health system, evansville, Indiana (Jackson, 2011), argues that staff members who own their own tablets use and maintain them carefully: they know how to charge, clean, store, and protect them. In addition, the hospital doesn’t have to worry about the question of liability if staff members lose them during personal use. And if the staff member moves on to a new position at a different hospital, there is no dispute about who owns the information on the tablet. All the hospital has to do is disable the staff member’s account.

however, there are three main disadvantages to the ByoD model: • Some clinical staff do not have their own tablets, and some who do

don’t want to use them at work; to make the advantages of tablet use available to all the clinical staff, therefore, the hospital needs to decide whether to purchase tablets and distribute them to these staff members.

• Labor costs are high because each tablet needs to be examined carefully by the hospital It department to ensure that it contains no software that might interfere with or be incompatible with the health-care software that needs to be loaded onto it. this labor-intensive assessment by It can seriously erode the cost savings from not having to buy the tablet itself.

• Chances of loss increase because the staff member is more likely to use the tablet at home as well as in the hospital.

currently, we are studying the advantages and disadvantages of the other model for making tablets available to clinical staff: for the hospital to purchase the same tablet for each staff member.

We are now completing task 3 and beginning work on task 4. The writers explain that they are in the process of completing Task 3.

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Task 4. Establish criteria for evaluating tablets We will study the voluminous literature on tablets. We have already determined our first criterion: a cost of no more than $800 per device, fully configured with any commercial software needed to operate it. We will then determine the additional criteria to use in our study.

Task 5. Assess available tablets based on our criteria We will study reviews in trade magazines and, if necessary, carry out on- site evaluations at RRmc.

Task 6. Analyze our data and prepare a recommendation report We will draft our recommendation report and edit it in response to suggestions from interested readers among the clinical staff. then, we will solicit one more round of edits and revise the report. Finally, we will present the report to Dr. Bremerton on December 14, 2013.

updated schedule

Figure 1 is an updated task schedule. the light blue bars represent tasks yet to be completed.

tasks Date of tasks (by Weeks)

task 1: Research tablet use

task 2: Determine staff knowledge and attitudes

task 3: Research management models

task 4: establish criteria

task 5: Assess tablets based on criteria

task 6: Prepare report