Power Dynamics and Change Management Plans

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Chapter 6: Navigating Organizational Politics and Culture

Chapter Overview

Change leaders need to understand the informal components of organizations—culture and power

Understanding the cultural and power dynamics in an organization is critical to a successful change

Force Field Analysis and Stakeholder Analysis are two key tools to analyze the informal organizational system and how to change it

Change leaders need to know themselves. They are both stakeholder and key actors in the process

The Change Path Model

Navigating Organizational Politics and Culture

Power Dynamics

Perception of change and the change equation

Force field analysis

Stakeholder analysis

Awakening

Chapter 4

Acceleration

Chapter 9

Institutionalization

Chapter 10

Mobilization

Chapters 5 through 8

Power Dynamics: Sources of Individual Power

Position or authority power

Network power

Knowledge power

Expert power

Information power

Personality power

Power Dynamics: Other Sources of Power

Ability to cope with and absorb environmental uncertainty

Low Substitutability

What you have to offer is scarce and not easy substituted for

Centrality to decision making, resources critical to strategy or survival, or to work that others rely on

Resource, Process & Meaning Power

Resource Power

The access to valued resources in an organization

Process Power

The control over formal decision making arenas and agendas

Meaning Power

The ability to define the meaning of things. Thus, the meaning of symbols and rituals and the use of language provide meaning power

Usage Frequency of Different Power Tactics

	When Managers Influence Superiors	When Managers Influence Subordinates
Most Popular Tactic Least Popular Tactic	Using & Giving Reasons	Using & Giving Reasons
	Developing Coalitions	Being Assertive
	Friendliness	Friendliness
	Bargaining	Developing Coalitions
	Being Assertive	Bargaining
	Referring to Higher Authority	Referring to Higher Authority
		Applying Sanctions

Toolkit Exercise 6.2 Assessing Your Power

What sources of power are you comfortable with and which do you have access to?

Consider a particular context that you regularly find yourself in. What could you do to increase the power you have available? What types of power are involved?

How do the key players, structures, and systems in the particular context influence the types and amount of power available to you? How could you change this?

Toolkit Exercise 6.2 Where Does Power Lie in Your Organization?

Pick an organization you know well:

What factors lead to power? Which departments carry more weight? What behaviors are associated with having power?

Think of a change situation it faced. What types of power were at play?

In Hardy’s terms, who controlled resources? Who had process power? Meaning power?

Who had “yea-saying” and “nay-saying” power? On what issues?

If you examine Table 6.1 in the book, what types of power were used most often? What types are you most comfortable using when you are attempting to influence others?

When Does Change Occur?

Change Occurs When:

Perceived Benefits

of Change

Perceived Cost

of Change

Modified Change Equation

Perception of Dissatisfaction

with the Status Quo

Perception of the Benefits

of Change

Perception of the Probability

of Success

Perceived Cost of Change

Change Occurs When:

Reactions to Change

People react to change for many reasons

Don’t equate support with friends and resistance with enemies

It may be ambivalence and not resistance you’re seeing

People experience ambivalence and/or resist for many reasons. Listen carefully so you can learn and refine initiatives

Don’t be blind to learning opportunities to refine analysis, avoid problems areas, and strengthen initiatives

The prospects of moving someone from resistance to support increase when they feel their concerns and insights have been understood and received

Resistance to Change

Resistance to change is normal and there are often good reasons for it

Don’t assume resistance is “bad” or “negative”. It might be helpful

Resistance usually contains information that is useful—people have reasons that they resist change

Reasons for Resistance

Self-interest

Misunderstanding and lack of trust

Different assessments of the consequences

Low tolerance for change

Organizational / Individual Consequences & Support for Change

Perceived Impact of the Change on the Organization	Perceived Impact of the Change on the Individual	Direction of Support of the Change
Positive	Positive	Strong support for change
Positive	Negative	Indeterminate, with possible resistance
Neutral	Positive	Support for change
Neutral	Negative	Resistance to change
Negative	Positive	Indeterminate support for change
Negative	Negative	Strong resistance to change

Perceived Impact of Change

Consider the impact of a change on an organization you know and consider the impact on the individuals concerned.

Were the impacts on the organization and affected individuals both positive? Were they perceived that way?

What were the perceived costs of change? Were the perceptions accurate? How could they be influenced?

What were the perceived benefits? What was the probability of achieving these benefits? Were people dissatisfied with the present state? What were the costs of not changing?

Were significant costs incurred prior to gaining benefits? Why did they take the risk (incurring definite costs but indefinite benefits)?

Force Field Analysis

Desired State

Current State

Restraining Forces

Driving Forces

Forces For and Against Change

No change

Strong

Weak

CHANGE FORCE

Change

Sporadic

Change

Discontinuous

Change

(Breakpoints)

Continuous

Change

Status Quo

Dominates

Change

Dominates

Stakeholder Analysis

A stakeholder is…

Anyone who is influenced or could influence the change you wish to make happen.

A stakeholder analysis is…

The process of understanding of the motives, power base, alliances, goals, etc. of all crucial stakeholders.

Stakeholder Analysis (cont.)

Who are the stakeholders?

What do they want?

Do they support you? Why? Why not?

What prevents them from supporting you?

Who influences these stakeholders? Can you influence the influencers?

Can stakeholders be co-opted or involved in a positive way?

Stakeholder Management: Savage et al.

High

Low

Stakeholder Potential Threat

Stakeholder

Potential

For

Cooperation

Mixed Blessing:

Collaborate

Supportive:

Involved

Non-Supportive:

Defend

Marginal:

Monitor

Stakeholder Map

Stakeholder # 1

(issues, needs, etc.)

Stakeholder # 2

(issues, needs, etc.)

Stakeholder # 3

(issues, needs, etc.)

Stakeholder # 4

(issues, needs, etc.)

Stakeholder # 5

(issues, needs, etc.)

Stakeholder # 6

(issues, needs, etc.)

Stakeholder # 7

Stakeholder # 8

Change Agent

Stakeholder Roles in Networks

Central Connectors

People who link most people in an informal network with each other

Boundary Spanners

Who connect an informal network with other parts of the organization or other organizations

Information Brokers

Who join the different sub-groups together (and prevent fragmentation)

Peripheral Specialists

Who have specialized expertise (and need freedom from connections to maintain that expertise)

Dimensions of Networks

Source of information

Inside or outside of the functional area

Social restrictions

Tenure, hierarchy, and location determining the network

Source of connections

Planned interactions or happenstance hallway encounters

Quality of the connections

Relationship quality (short vs. long term, level of trust and confidence in the information, etc.)

Stages in the Change Process

Initial Awareness

Interested in the Change

Wanting the Change to Happen

Ready to Take Action

General Orientation Towards Change

Innovators

Early Adopters

Early Majority

Late Majority

Late Adopters

Non-adopters

Similar to consumer adaptation profiles in marketing, except you are urging the adoption of a change, not a product or service

Type of Commitment Exhibited

Opposed to the change

Let it happen

Help it happen

Make it happen

Managing the Strategic Consensus

	High Understanding of the Change	Low Understanding of the Change
High, Positive Commitment to the Change	Strong Consensus	Blind Devotion
Low, Positive Commitment to the Change	Informed Sceptics	Weak Consensus
Negative Commitment to the Change	Informed Opponents	Fanatical Opponents

Analysis of the Stakeholders’ Readiness to Take Action

Jones

Smith

Douglas

Green

Etc.

Stakeholder’s

Name

Aware

Interested

Desiring Change

Taking Action

Predisposition to Change: innovator, early adopter, early majority, late majority, laggard

Current Commitment Profile: resistant, ambivalent, neutral, supportive or committed

Toolkit Exercise 6.3 Force Field Analysis

Consider an organization change situation you are familiar with:

What are the forces for change? Who is championing the change? How strong and committed are these forces (Who will let it happen; who will help it happen; who will make it happen)?

How could these forces be augmented or increased? What forces could be added to those that exist?

What are the forces that oppose change?

How could these forces be weakened or removed? What things might create major resentment in these forces?

Can you identify any points of leverage you could employ to advance the change?

Stakeholder Analysis Checklist

Who are the key stakeholders?

Is there a formal decision-maker with authority to authorize or deny the change project? What are his/her attitudes to the project?

What is the commitment profile of stakeholders? Do a commitment analysis for each stakeholder.

Are they typically initiators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, or laggards when it comes to change?

Why do stakeholders respond as they do? Does the reward system drive them to support or oppose your proposal? What consequences does your change have on each stakeholder? Do the stakeholders perceive these as positive, neutral or negative?

Stakeholder Analysis Checklist (cont.)

What would change the stakeholders’ views? Can the reward system be altered? Would information or education help?

Who influences the stakeholders? Can you influence the influencers? How might this help?

What coalitions might be formed amongst stakeholders? What alliances might you form? What ones might form to prevent the change you wish?

By altering your position, can you keep the essentials of your change and yet satisfy some of the needs of those opposing change?

Can you appeal to higher order values and/or goals which will make others view their opposition to the change as petty or selfish?

Chapter 7: Managing Recipients of Change and Influencing Internal Stakeholders

Chapter Overview

This chapter deals with those on the receiving end of change

View recipients as stakeholders and revisit assumptions and approaches to ambivalence and resistance if or when it occurs

Changes that alter people’s sense of their psychological contract need to be approached with care

When disruptive change occurs, recipient stakeholders go through a predictable series of reactions to change

Recipients often respond emotionally to change and their view of change are influenced by their personalities, experiences, their peers, and by the change leaders

The present-day challenge is to make change the norm and encourage recipients to be change leaders and implementers

The Change Path Model

Recipients and Internal Stakeholders

Responses to change: +ve, ambivalence, and –ve

Psychological contract

Stages of reaction to change

Impact of personality, experience on change

Managing forward with recipients and internal stakeholders

Awakening

Chapter 4

Acceleration

Chapter 9

Institutionalization

Chapter 10

Mobilization

Chapters 5 through 8

Recipients

Reactions vary from positive to negative, and ambivalence often comes first

Recipients do not always react negatively—it depends on how they perceive the change

Recipients will have questions and concerns, as they attempt to make sense of the change

Resistance is not inevitable—listen, work to understand and respond in ways that build understanding and support

Do this early and often—don’t wait for ambivalence to become resistance

Channeling Feelings for the Change

Channel energy in positive ways, not letting enthusiasm overwhelm legitimate concerns

Recognize mixed feelings and seek to understand them

Use respected, positively oriented individuals in positions of influence concerning the change

Pace the change. Remember that going too slow can lose enthusiastic support and going too fast will choke those who are doubtful.

Ambivalence to Change Is No Surprise

Mixed feelings are common as recipients try to make sense of the change

Ambivalence generates discomfort as they seek to resolve a multitude of issues about the change:

People find it easier to voice concerns about conflicting beliefs than about conflicting emotions

Once they resolve their ambivalence, feelings solidify and subsequent change to attitudes become more difficult to change again

Invest the time needed at the front end of the change to respond to ambivalence positively—or prepare to face a more difficult task later, when it turns to resistance

Responding to Mixed Feelings About the Change

Focus on helping people make sense of the proposed organizational change

Listen for information that may be helpful in achieving the change

Constructively reconcile their ambivalence

Sort out what actions are now needed

Common Causes of Negative Reactions

Negative consequences perceived to outweigh the benefits

Flawed communication process

Concern that the change has been ill conceived

Lack of experience with change or locked into old habits

Prior negative experience with a similar change

Prior negative experience with those advocating change

The negative reactions of others that recipients trust and/or with whom they will have to work in the future

The change process seen to lack procedural or distributive justice and breaching their “contract”

Fear that they lack skills they’ll need to perform well

Perceptions of Fairness & Justice

Will influence how recipients view and react to the change

Procedural Justice

Was the process managed in a fair and equitable way?

Distributive Justice

Was the end decision a fair one?

Is It Resistance... or Is Something Else Going On?

We often misinterpret impediments to change as caused by resistant recipients

Impediments are much more likely to come from problems related to the misalignment of structures and systems than from individuals engaged in resistance

Blaming individuals rather than addressing misaligned structures and systems will worsen the situation

Managers as Recipients

Recipients of change are not just those in front-line roles

Supervisors, middle, and even senior managers are often recipients of the organizational change

Managers often try to manage up, down, and laterally to cope with change; they try to shape it and deal with implementation on their own terms

Coping with change while trying to link, influence, and implement is difficult

If you are a change recipient in these middle roles, be aware of how this can affect your judgment

Toolkit Exercise 7.3 Personal Reactions to Change

Think about times when you have been a recipient of change:

What was the change and how was it introduced?

What was the impact on you?

What was your initial reaction?

Did your attitudes change over time? Why or why not?

Was there a pattern to your response?

Under what circumstances did you support the change? When did you resist? What can you generalize from your reactions?

If you experienced ambivalence, how did you resolve it and what happened to your attitudes toward the change?

Have your experiences with change been largely positive, negative, or mixed? Have they colored your expectations about the future?

Psychological Contract

The psychological contract represents the sum of the implicit and explicit agreements we believe we have with our organization

It defines our perceptions of the terms of our employment relationship and includes our expectations for ourselves and for the organization, including organizational norms, rights, rewards, and obligations

Changes often disrupt recipients’ psychological contracts

When unilateral changes are made to psychological contracts, negative reactions can be expected

Toolkit Exercise 7.5—Disruption of the Psychological Contract

Think about a change initiative that you are aware of:

What was the psychological contract?

How did the change disrupt the psychological contract?

What were the reactions to these disruptions to the contract?

What steps could have reduced the negative effects stemming from the disruption?

How should a new psychological contract have been developed with affected individuals?

If you were a recipient, what steps could you take to better manage your way through the development of a new contract?

Stages of Reaction to Change

Before the Change	During the Change	After the Change
Anticipation & Anxiety Phase	Shock, Denial, & Retreat Phase	Acceptance Phase
Issues: Coping with uncertainty and rumors Pre-change Anxiety	Issues: Coping with the announcement and associated fallout, reacting to the new “reality” Shock Defensive Retreat Bargaining Depression, Guilt, and/or Alienation	Issues: Putting effects of change behind you, acknowledging the change, achieving closure, and moving on to new beginnings— adaptation and change Acknowledgment Adaptation & Change

In the Midst of Change, Change Is About...

Ambiguity

Risk

Denial

Anger

Fear

Resentment

Excitement

Exploration

Determination & Commitment

Tension

Satisfaction

Pride

Lots of Other Potentially Conflicting Emotions

Toolkit Exercise 7.4—Your Normal Reaction to Innovation & Change

When you find yourself dealing with matters of innovation and change, how do you typically react?

Do you fall into the category of innovator or early adopter?

Or do you generally fit into the early majority category? If the experiences of early adopters are positive, you take the risk.

Or are you in the category of the late majority? You wait until the innovation has been tried and tested by many before adopting.

Or do you avoid adopting until the vast majority have done so? In other words are you a late adopter or even a non-adopter, until forced to do so?

Recipient’s Past Experience with Change & Perceived Risk

Personality and the Change Experience

	Change Experience Little Some Frequent Chaos
Individuals with High Tolerance for Ambiguity and Change
Individuals with Low Tolerance for Ambiguity and Change

Boredom

Energized

Negative Stress Effects

Comfort

Stress Discomfort Rises

Severe Distress

Personality & Change

PERFORMANCE

Low AMOUNT OF CHANGE High

High Need for Change Individuals

Low Need for Change Individuals

What Is Your Tolerance for Change?

What is your tolerance for change? What level of turbulence and ambiguity at work do you find most stimulating and satisfying?

How do you react when the rate of change is likely to remain quite low?

How do you react when the rate of change is moderate? What constitutes a moderate for you? Are your tolerance levels lower or higher than others you know?

What price do you find you pay when the rate of turbulence and ambiguity exceed what you are comfortable with?

Have you had to cope with prolonged periods of serious upheaval? Have these affected your acceptance of change?

Influence of Coworkers on Change Recipients

Coworkers and Work Teams will greatly influence Change Recipients’ views toward the organizational change.

Coworkers who are trusted will have greater influence.

Cohesive teams will tend to become more cohesive when threatened.

Cohesive teams will be influential.

How Trusted Peers Influence Recipients

Opinions of Those Trusted by Recipients*	Recipients' Initial Attitude to the Change	Possible Implication
Positive Toward the Change	Positive Toward the Change	Very motivated to support
	Negative Toward the Change	Initially opposed but may move to support due to new information from trusted others + peer pressure
Negative Toward the Change	Positive Toward the Change	Support of the change may be weakened or silenced due to information offered by trusted peers + peer pressure
	Negative Toward the Change	Opposition to the change is reinforced by the views of trusted peers

* As the cohesion of coworkers increases, so too does their influence

Feelings About Change Leaders Matter

How people react to change is also influenced by their perceptions of the change leader

They are more likely to respond positively to the change if:

they trust and respect these leaders

they believe their perspectives and interests are recognized

Minimizing Cynicism Toward Change

Meaningful engagement of recipients with decisions that affect them

Emphasize and reward supervisors who foster two-way communications, good working relationships, and show consideration and respect for employees

Timely, authentic communications—keep people informed and include honest appraisals of risks, costs, benefits, and consequences

Keep surprises to a minimum via regular communications about changes, anticipating questions and concerns

Minimizing Cynicism Toward Change (cont..)

Enhance credibility by:

using credible spokespersons who are liked and trusted

using positive messages that appeal to logic and consistency

using multiple channels and repetition

Acknowledge mistakes and make amends

Publicize successful changes and progress

Use 2-way communications to see change from employees’ perspective—this will aid planning & future communications

Provide opportunities for employees to express feelings, receive validation and reassurance. Address their concerns

Toolkit Exercise 7.6—Leadership & Change Recipients

Think of an example of change leadership:

How was leadership exercised?

Was the leader trusted?

Did he/she deserve the trust given?

What kind of power did the leader use?

How were change messages conveyed? Were they believable?

Toolkit Exercise 7.6—Leadership & Change Recipients (cont..)

Did systems and processes support, or at minimum, not impair the change leader’s messages?

Was there a sense of continuity between the past and anticipated future? How was this developed and communicated? Impact?

What can you learn about the impact of the leader on people and stakeholders as a result of your responses to the above?

What can you learn about the impact of organizational systems and processes on the people and stakeholders?

Talk to others about their experiences. Can you generalize? In what way? What cannot be generalized?

Strategies for Coping with Change

Recipients’ Strategies	Change Leaders’ Strategies
Accepting Feelings as Natural Managing Stress Exercising Responsibility	Rethinking Resistance Giving First Aid Creating Capability for Change

Strategies for Coping with Change (cont..)

Recipients’ Strategies	Change Leaders’ Strategies
Accepting Feelings as Natural Self-permission to feel and mourn Taking time to work through feelings Tolerating ambiguity	Rethinking Resistance As natural as self-protection As a positive step toward change As energy to work with As information critical to the change process
Managing Stress Maintaining physical well-being Seeking information about the change Limiting extraneous stressors Taking regular breaks Seeking support	Giving First Aid Accepting emotions Listening Providing safety Marking endings Providing resources and support

Strategies for Coping with Change (cont..)

Recipients’ Strategies	Change Leaders’ Strategies
Exercising Responsibility Identifying options and gains Learning from losses Participating in the change Inventorying strengths Learning new skills Diversifying emotional investing	Creating Capability for Change Making organizational support of risks clear Providing a continuing safety net Emphasizing continuities, gains of change Helping employees explore risks, options Suspending judgment Involving people in decision making Teamwork Providing opportunities for individual growth

Roles for Middle Managers

Linking—with Above, Below, and Across

Offering—as a Top, Bottom, and a Link

Influence Up

Championing Strategic Alternatives

Synthesizing Information

Influence Down

Facilitating Adaptability

Implementing Strategy

Working Through the Phases of Change

Consider a significant and disruptive change situation. Can you identify the different phases of change? What phases are you aware of?

Can you identify strategies that recipients used or could have used to help them work their way through the different phases?

Can you identify strategies that change leaders used or could have used to help recipients work their way through the different phases?

Working Through the Phases of Change (cont..)

Aware Strategies Strategies Change

Yes/No Recipients Can Use Leaders Can Use

Pre-change Anxiety
Shock
Defensive Retreat
Bargaining
Depression, Guilt, and Alienation
Acknowledgment
Adaptation and Change

Does the model hold? Why or why not?

What other consequences of change can you identify?

Closing Advice for Change Leaders Thinking About Recipients

Avoid coercion as a change strategy, if at all possible

Align systems & processes with the change— when not aligned they can send conflicting signals

Reduce the intensity of change by making change the norm

Work to increase your tolerance for change, become a change agent yourself, and avoid the recipient traps

Walking the Talk—Why?

It’s all about trust and authenticity in the person’s competence and character!

Trust in change leaders creates confidence in the proposed path

Trust provides an environment for others to take risks

Remember—every change is a risk!

Walking the Talk – How?

Get out there—don’t hide!

Act as if you’re always on display

Communicate clearly the why, what, how, when & who of the change

Talk about your personal responses to the changes

It’s ok to be excited, uncertain, determined, frustrated, relieved

Acknowledge missteps & mistakes—they will happen

Be empathetic—actively support and coach others, show your willingness to listen and learn

Assessing Recipient Openness to Change

Think of change you know of or are involved with. How are the recipients likely to rate the following factors?	Score
Past experience with change, particularly changes similar to that advocated	Very -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Very ___ -ve +ve
Normal rate of change that has been experienced by the organization	Very Low -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Mod ___ or Very High High
Recipients' general predisposition to change as reflected in their personality	Late -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Early ___ Adopter Adopter
Recipients believe they understand nature of the change and the reasons for it	Low -10 -5 0 +5 +10 High ___

Assessing Recipient Openness to Change (cont..)

	Score
Recipient’s personal belief about the need for this particular change	Very -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Very ___ -ve +ve
(a) Reactions of coworkers to the change (b) Strength of coworker relations (norms)	Very -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Very -ve +ve Multiply #6a by #6b Weak 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 Strong ___
Leader credibility	Low -10 -5 0 +5 +10 High ___
Leader gains compliance through fear versus gains commitment through understanding & empathy	Fear -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Support ___

Assessing Recipient Openness to Change (cont..)

	Score
Organizational credibility (i.e., will it follow through on commitments related to change)	Low -10 -5 0 +5 +10 High ___
Congruence of systems and processes with the proposed change (or confidence that they will be brought into congruence)	Very -10 -5 0 +5 +10 Very ___ Incongruent Congruent
Predisposition to Change Index: Scores can range from -100 to +100	Overall Score ___

Summary

This chapter deals with how recipients respond to change.

Resistance isn’t inevitable —don’t assume as much

Ambivalence often precedes resistance & influence is easier at this point

Understand reasons for resistance & put knowledge to work (e.g., the impact of change on the psychological contract)

Factors affecting how recipients view change & their change reaction to disruptive change are discussed

The chapter considers how recipients & change leaders can better manage the process & minimize the negative effects

Degree of

Perceived

Risk

Associated

with the Particular

Change

HighLowLong Period

of Minimal

ChangeModerate

Rates of

ChangeProlonged Periods

of Upheaval or

Extreme Change

Normal Rate of Change in the Organization

Degree of Perceived Risk Associated with the Particular Change

High

Low

Long Period of Minimal Change

Moderate Rates of Change

Prolonged Periods of Upheaval or Extreme Change

Normal Rate of Change in the Organization