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Chapter 13 - Motivation

Motivation

Learning Outcomes

Explain the basics of motivation

Use equity theory to explain how employees’ perceptions of fairness affect motivation

Use expectancy theory to describe how workers’ expectations about rewards, effort, and the link between rewards and performance influence motivation

LEARNING OUTCOMES

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Learning Outcomes (continued)

Explain how reinforcement theory works and how it can be used to motivate

Describe the components of goal-setting theory and how managers can use them to motivate workers

Discuss how the entire motivation model can be used to motivate workers

LEARNING OUTCOMES (continued)

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Motivation and Job Performance

Motivation

Set of forces that initiate, direct, and make people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal

Job performance

How well an individual performs the requirements of a job

Multiplicative function of motivation times ability times situational constraints

LO 1

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13.2 A Basic Model of Work Motivation and Performance

LO 1

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Exhibit

Needs

Physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being

Categories

Lower-order needs - Concerned with safety and physiological and existence requirements

Higher-order needs - Concerned with relationships; challenges and accomplishments; and influence

LO 1

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Types of Rewards

Tangible reward given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

Extrinsic reward

Natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake

Intrinsic reward

LO 1

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Steps Taken by Managers to Motivate Employees

Enquiring about people’s needs

Satisfying lower-order needs first

Expecting people’s needs to change

Creating opportunities for employees to satisfy higher-order needs

LO 1

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Equity Theory

States that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

Components

Inputs: Contributions made to the firm

Outcomes: Rewards received by employees for their contributions

Referents: Others with whom people compare themselves to ascertain if they have been treated fairly

LO 2

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Equity Theory (continued)

Outcome/input (O/I) ratio

Employee’s perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee’s contributions to that organization

Forms of inequity

Underreward: One's O/I ratio is worse than that of the referent

Overreward: One's O/I ratio is better than that of the referent

LO 2

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Reaction to Perceived Inequity

People who perceive that they have been underrewarded may try to restore equity by:

Reducing inputs

Increasing outcomes

Rationalizing inputs or outcomes

Changing the referent

Leaving

LO 2

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Motivating with Equity Theory

Enquiring about the needs of employees

Reducing employees’ inputs

Ensuring that decision-making processes are fair

Distributive justice: Perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed

Procedural justice: Perceived fairness of the procedures used to make reward allocation decisions

LO 2

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Expectancy Theory

People will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that:

Their efforts will lead to good performance

Good performance will be rewarded

They will be offered attractive rewards

Components

Valence

Expectancy

Instrumentality

LO 3

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Motivating with Expectancy Theory

Systematically gathering information to find out what employees want from their jobs

Taking specific steps to link rewards to individual performance in a clear and understandable manner

Empowering employees to make decisions

LO 3

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Reinforcement Theory

States that:

Behavior is a function of its consequences

Behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently

Behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

Reinforcement: Process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior

LO 4

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Reinforcement Theory (continued)

Divided into:

Reinforcement contingencies

Cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and consequences

Schedule of reinforcement: Specifies:

Which behaviors will be reinforced

Which consequences will follow behaviors

The schedule by which consequences will be delivered

LO 3

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Types of Reinforcement Contingencies

Strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences

Positive reinforcement

Strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when a specific behavior is performed

Negative reinforcement

Weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences

Punishment

Weakens behavior by not allowing positive consequences to follow a previously reinforced behavior

Extinction

LO 4

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Categories of Reinforcement Schedules

Requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Requires a consequence to be delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

LO 4

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13.7 Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

	Fixed	Variable
Interval (Time)	Consequences follow behavior after a fixed time has elapsed.	Consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specific average time.
Ratio (Behavior)	Consequences follow a specific number of behaviors.	Consequences follow a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specific average number of behaviors.

LO 4

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Exhibit

Ways to Motivate Employees Using Reinforcement Theory

Steps

Identify, measure, analyze, intervene, and evaluate

Avoid reinforcing the wrong behaviors

Correctly administer punishment at the right time

Choose the simplest and most effective schedule of reinforcement

LO 4

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Goal-Setting Theory

People will be motivated to the extent to which they:

Accept specific, challenging goals

Receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement

Components

Goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback

Goals create tension, energize behavior, and influence persistence

LO 5

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Motivating with Goal-Setting Theory

Assigning specific, challenging goals

Ensuring that workers truly accept organizational goals

Providing frequent and specific performance-related feedback

LO 5

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Motivating With the Integrated Model

Efforts to motivate differs for each employee

Managers should check their Review Card for a useful, theory-based starting point, if their employees are not motivated

LO 6

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Key Terms

Motivation

Needs

Extrinsic reward

Intrinsic reward

Equity theory

Inputs

Outcomes

Referents

Outcome/input (O/I) ratio

Underreward

Overreward

Distributive justice

Procedural justice

Expectancy theory

Valence

Expectancy

Instrumentality

Reinforcement theory

Reinforcement

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KEY TERMS

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Key Terms (continued)

Reinforcement contingencies

Schedule of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Punishment

Extinction

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule

Variable interval reinforcement schedule

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

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KEY TERMS (continued 1)

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Summary

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Goal

Goal-setting theory

Goal specificity

Goal difficulty

Goal acceptance

Performance feedback

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Reinforcement theory

Goal-setting theory

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KEY TERMS (continued 2)

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SUMMARY

Equity theory - People are motivated when they perceive fair treatment

Expectancy theory - People are motivated when efforts lead to good performance

Reinforcement theory - Behavior is a function of its consequences

Goal-setting theory - People are motivated when they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback

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SUMMARY

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