Topic: Autobiographical Psychosocial History
tutorthammy
Memory_McAlhaney.pptMemory
Jim McAlhaney
Psy 150
South Piedmont Community College
Have you ever wondered how you manage to remember information for a test? The ability to create new memories, store them for periods of time, and recall them when they are needed allows us to learn and interact with the world around us. Consider for a moment how many times a day you rely on your memory to help you function, from remembering how to use your computer to recollecting your password to log-in to your online bank account.
The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive psychology. But what exactly is memory? How are memories formed? This week, we will take a look at what memory is, how it works, and how it is organized.
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Memory Processes
- Encoding--transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained in the the memory system
- Storage--retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
- Retrieval--recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.
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Three Stages of Memory
- Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
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While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory
- Function —process for basic physical characteristics
- Capacity—large
- can hold many items at once
- Duration—very brief retention of images
- .3 sec for visual info
- 2 sec for auditory info
- Divided into two types:
- iconic memory–visual information
- echoic memory– auditory information
- Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
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What Is Sensory Memory?
Sensory memory, refers to the first and most immediate form of memory you have. The sensory register is your ultra-short-term memory that takes in sensory information through your five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch) and holds it for no more than a few seconds. Our senses are engaged when we are exposed to a stimulus or something that causes a sensory response, such as a strong odor. It is the sensory register that enables you to remember sensory stimuli after your exposure to the stimuli has ended.
To make this clearer, imagine taking a five-minute walk through a downtown area. During that short stroll you might be exposed to buildings of varying sizes, cars of many shapes and colors, foliage growing or people talking to each other or on their phones. These are just a quick sample of all the potential sensory stimuli you might encounter during your walk. But, you will tend to ignore most of it because these things don't strike you as important and as a result you will not remember specific details about them.
You can't pay attention to all of the stimuli you are exposed to. The sensory information that you do pay attention to becomes part of your sensory register. For example, that beautiful flower arrangement outside the quaint café or the loud, irritating voice of the mobile phone user walking behind you or the rich aroma of freshly brewed coffee coming from the corner store. These and other sensory experiences that you attend to enter your sensory register and allow you to remember them after you leave the scene.
Sensory Memory
- Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an image or icon. Also called iconic memory.
- Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Also called echoic memory.
- Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories
There are two main parts of the sensory memory: visual memory (also called iconic memory) and auditory memory (also called echoic memory). These senses take in most of the stimuli you are exposed to. Visual memory holds images we see for less than a second before it fades. Auditory memory holds sound for a little longer: a few seconds. You also have sensory registers for touch (tactile memory), smell (olfactory memory) and taste (gustatory memory).
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Short Term or Working Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
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If you are exposed to something you consider important, you will pay attention to it and that information enters into your sensory register. But, to retain it you have to transfer the information from your sensory memory to your short-term memory, which can hold information for only a few minutes.
Short-Term Memory
- Function—conscious processing of information
- where information is actively worked on
- Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items)
- Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
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To make this transfer from sensory memory to STM you have to practice or rehearse it. For example, you are driving through town and along the side of the road is a sign that says, 'Need a job? Call: 882-4459.' You are out of work and would like to call this number but you're driving in heavy traffic that won't allow you to stop. So, you start repeating the number out loud to yourself until you can pull over and write it down. That is an example of moving the information from your sensory memory to your short-term memory.
Maintenance Rehearsal
- Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Maintenance Rehearsal
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Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal
Chunking
- Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
- expands working memory load
- Which is easier to remember?
- 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
- 483 792 516
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Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking
Long-Term Memory
- Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
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Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval
Long-Term Memory
- Function—organizes and stores information
- more passive form of storage than working memory
- Unlimited capacity
- Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
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If you continued to rehearse the information, whether it was a phone number, a set of facts or a speech you wrote, you could permanently retain the information by transferring it to your long-term memory. But it's important to remember that the entire memory process all starts with your sensory register.
Long-Term Memory
- Encoding—process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store
- Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
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So to summarize: Your sensory memory, is an ultra-short-term type of memory that is engaged when you encounter sensory stimuli that you consider important. The sensory register enables you to remember the image, sound, smell, taste or touch after you are no longer exposed to it. Sensory stimuli that you deem unimportant is ignored or immediately forgotten. At most, your sensory register holds the memory for only a few seconds unless the information is rehearsed in an effort to transfer it to short-term or long-term memory.
Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
- Automatic processing
- Unconscious encoding of information
- Examples:
- What did you eat for lunch today?
- Was the last time you studied during the day or night?
- You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?
Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
- Effortful processing
- Requires attention and conscious effort
- Examples:
- Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams
- Repeating a phone number in your head until
you can write it down
Types of Long-Term Memory
- Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory
- Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory
Explicit Memory
- Declarative or conscious memory
- Memory consciously recalled or declared
- Can use explicit memory to directly respond to a question
- Two subtypes of explicit memory
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When you are trying to intentionally remember something (like a formula for your statistics class or a list of dates for your history class), this information is stored in your explicit memory. We use these memories every day, from remembering information for a test to recalling the date and time of a doctor's appointment. This type of memory is also known as declarative memory, since you can consciously recall and explain the information.
Some tasks that require the use of explicit memory include remembering what you learned in your psychology class, recalling your phone number, identifying who the current President is, writing a research paper, and remembering what time you are meeting a friend to go to a movie.
Explicit Memory
- Episodic information—information about events or “episodes”
- Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work
There are two major types of explicit memory:
Episodic memory: These are your long-term memories of specific events, such as what you did yesterday or your high school graduation.
Semantic memory: These are memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge information.
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Episodic Memory
- Memory tied to your own personal experiences
- Examples:
- What month is your birthday?
- Do you like to eat caramel apples?
- Q: Why are these explicit memories?
- A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions
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Episodic memory: These are your long-term memories of specific events, such as what you did yesterday or your high school graduation.
Semantic Memory
- Memory not tied to personal events
- General facts and definitions about
the world - Examples:
- How many tires on a car?
- What is a cloud?
- What color is a banana?
- Does NOT depend on tying the item to your past
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Semantic memory: These are memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge information.
Implicit Memory
- Nondeclarative memory
- Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness
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Implicit Memory
Things that we don't purposely try to remember are stored in implicit memory. This kind of memory is both unconscious and unintentional. This type of memory is also known as nondeclarative memory, since you are not able to consciously bring it into awareness. Procedural memories, such as how to perform a specific task like swinging a baseball bat or making toast, are one type of implicit memory since you don't have to consciously recall how to perform these tasks. While implicit memories are not consciously recalled, they still have an influence on how you behave as well as your knowledge of different tasks.
Some examples of implicit memory include singing a familiar song, typing on your computer keyboard, daily habits, and driving a car. Riding a bicycle is another great example. Even after going years without riding one, most people are able to hop on a bike and ride it effortlessly.
Here's a quick demonstration that you can try to show how implicit memory works. Type the following sentence without looking down at your hands: "Every red pepper is tantalizing." Now, without looking, try naming the ten letters that appear in the top row of your keyboard.
Since most students are good typists, you probably found it quite easy to type the above sentence without having to consciously think about where each letter appears on the keyboard. That task requires implicit memory. Having to recall which letters appear in the top row of your keyboard, however, is something that would require explicit memory. Since you have probably never sat down and intentionally committed the order of those keys to memory, it is not something that you are able to easily recall.
Procedural Memory
- Memory that enables you to perform specific
learned skills or habitual responses - Examples:
- Riding a bike
- Using the shift stick while driving
- Tying your shoe laces
- Q: Why are these procedural memories implicit?
- A: Don’t have to consciously remember the steps involved in these actions to perform them
- Try to explain to someone how to tie a shoelace
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Procedural memories, such as how to perform a specific task like swinging a baseball bat or making toast, are one type of implicit memory since you don't have to consciously recall how to perform these tasks. While implicit memories are not consciously recalled, they still have an influence on how you behave as well as your knowledge of different tasks.
How are memories organized?
Clustering--organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
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Clustering is used to organize related information into groups. Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall. For example, consider the following group of words:
Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow
Spend a few seconds reading them, then look away and try to recall and list these words.
How did you group the words when you listed them? Most people will list using three different categories: color, furniture and fruit.
Semantic Network Model
- Mental links between concepts
- common properties provide basis for mental link
- Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory
- Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts
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One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. A memory of a specific place might activate memories about related things that have occurred in that location. For example, thinking about a particular campus building might trigger memories of attending classes, studying, and socializing with peers.
Why do we forget?
- Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Retrieval from long-term memory
Depending on interference, retrieval
cues, moods, and motives, some
things get retrieved, some don’t
Long-term storage
Some items are altered or lost
Short-term memory
A few items are both noticed
and encoded
Sensory memory
The senses momentarily register
amazing detail
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Have you ever felt like a piece of information has just vanished from memory? Or maybe you know that it's there, you just can't seem to find it. The inability to retrieve a memory is one of the most common causes of forgetting.
Flashbulb Memories
- Recall of very specific images or details about a vivid, rare, or significant event
- May seem very vivid and specific, but they are not more accurate than ordinary memories
Flashbulb memories are distinctly vivid, precise, concrete, long-lasting memories of a personal circumstance surrounding a person�s discovery of shocking events.� People remember with almost perceptual clarity details of the context in which they first heard about the news, such as what they were doing, with whom they were with and where they were.
These flashbulb memories are not as accurate or permanent as photographic memories but the flashbulb memories� forgetting curve is far less affected by time than is the case for other types of memories studied in basic memory research.
The flashbulb memories are stored on one occasion and retained for a lifetime.� These memories are associated with important historical or autobiographical events.� Such events could include, for example, the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. or the attack on Pearl Harbor.
What makes the flashbulb memory special is the emotional arousal at the moment that the event was registered to the memory.� It is the emotions elicited by a flashbulb memory event that increase the ability to recall the details of the event.�
One reason that the flashbulb memories are remembered is because these memories tend to be retold over and over again.� Sometimes, though, these memories are not necessarily accurate.� Accuracy reduces during the first 3 months and levels at about 12 months.
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Memory Distortion
- Memory can be distorted as people try
to fit new info into existing schemas - Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information
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Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas
Loftus Experiment
- Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
- Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
- Others asked: How fast were the cars going when the hit each other?
Accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each other?”
Memory construction
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Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information
Forgetting Theories
- Encoding failure
- Interference theories
- Motivated forgetting
- Decay
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Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding; decay theories; interference theories; retrieval cues
Forgetting as encoding failure
- Info never encoded into LTM
Encoding
X
Long-term
memory
Encoding failure
leads to forgetting
Short-term
memory
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Sometimes, losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long-term memory.
In one well-known experiment, researchers asked participants to identify the correct U.S. penny out of a group of incorrect pennies (Nickerson & Adams). Try doing this experiment yourself by attempting to draw a penny from memory, and then compare your results to an actual penny.
Which is the real penny?
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
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How well did you do? Chances are that you were able to remember the shape and color, but you probably forgot other minor details. The reason for this is that only details necessary for distinguishing pennies from other coins were encoded into your long-term memory.
Encoding Failures
Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features
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key words: forgetting; encoding
Interference Theories
- “Memories interfering with memories”
- Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
- Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory
- Two types of interference
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Another theory known as interference theory suggests that some memories compete and interfere with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur.
There are two basic types of interference:
Two Types of Interference
Types of Interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Interference
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Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference
Retroactive Interference
- When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information
- Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number
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Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned information.
Retroactive Interference
- Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember
old language
F-
French 101
Mid-term
exam
Study French
papier
livre
plume
école
Study Spanish
papel
libro
pluma
escuela
retroactive interference
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Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference
Notes:
This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.
Proactive Interference
- Opposite of retroactive interference
- When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
- Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today
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Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory.
Motivated Forgetting
Undesired memory is held back form awareness
- Suppression—conscious forgetting
- Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian)
Sometimes, we may actively work to forget memories, especially those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are: suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.
However, the concept of repressed memories is not universally accepted by all psychologists. One of the problems with repressed memories is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to scientifically study whether or not a memory has been repressed. Also note that mental activities such as rehearsal and remembering are important ways of strengthening a memory, and memories of painful or traumatic life events are far less likely to be remembered, discussed, or rehearsed.
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Decay Theories
- Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
- Time plays critical role
- Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding
20
mins
1
hr
8
hrs
24
hrs
2
days
6
days
31
days
Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test
100%
Average
percentage of information
retained
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So why are we often unable to retrieve information from memory. One possible explanation of retrieval failure is known as decay theory. According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new theory is formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to fade and disappear. If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost.
Decay Theories
- Biology-based theory
- When new memory formed, it creates a memory trace
- a change in brain structure or chemistry
- If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace
- Theory not widely favored today
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key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories; memory trace
Amnesia
- Amnesia—severe memory loss
- Retrograde amnesia—inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consolidation
- Anterograde amnesia—inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage
Amnesia is the general term for a condition in which memory (either stored memories or the process of committing something to memory) is disturbed or lost, to a greater extent than simple everyday forgetting or absent-mindedness. Amnesia may result either from organic or neurological causes (damage to the brain through physical injury, neurological disease or the use of certain drugs), or from functional or psychogenic causes (psychological factors, such as mental disorder, post-traumatic stress or psychological defence mechanisms).
Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia resulting from brain injury in which the individual loses memories for the time period just prior to the injury. This time period may stretch from a few minutes to several years, and typically it is worst for event which occurred just before the injury.
Very rarely, there have been reported cases in which an individual sustains pure retrograde amnesia as a result of a physical brain injury. More often, retrograde amnesia occurs in an individual who also has anterograde amnesia. In this case, the individual will have near total loss of memory for events occurring after the injury, and some loss of memory for events which occurred before the injury.
Anterograde amnesia is a selective memory deficit, resulting from brain injury, in which the individual is severely impaired in learning new information. Memories for events that occurred before the injury may be largely spared, but events that occurred since the injury may be lost. In practice, this means that an individual with amnesia may have good memory for childhood and for the years before the injury, but may remember little or nothing from the years since. Short-term memory is generally spared, which means that the individual may be able to carry on a conversation; but as soon as he is distracted, the memory of the conversation fades.
It is now becoming apparent that while anterograde amnesia devastates memory for facts or events, it may spare memory for skills or habits. Thus, an individual with amnesia can be taught a new skill, such as how to play a game or how to write backwards. The next day, the amnesic individual will claim to have no memory of the prior session, but when asked to try executing the skill, can often perform quite well - indicating that some memories have been formed. It is an important area of current research to document exactly which kinds of memory can be formed in amnesia, and how this may be used to help rehabilitate amnesic individuals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehtk3NfnX4A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfwX9fjacSQ
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References
- Psychology: An Introduction. 12th Edition. Morris and Maisto. Pearson Publishing
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