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Special Issue Volume 10, Number 2, November 2018 pp 26 - 41

www.um.edu.mt/ijee

Promoting Emotional Intelligence in preschool education: A review of

programs

Pam Gershon 1

and John Pellitteri

a Queens College – City University New York (CUNY), New York, USA

This paper compares four selected social-emotional learning (SEL) curricula that have

empirical support for preschool students (Preschools PATHS, Incredible Years, Al’s

Pals, and Preschool RULER). First, meta-analytic studies of SEL programs in schools

and research on emotional intelligence (EI) of preschool children are reviewed as a

background for understanding the four programs. Preschool EI research is examined as

it relates to outcome variables such as school engagement, social adjustment, emotion

regulation and academics. The programs are critiqued and compared on the particular

SEL areas of focus, context of delivery, structure of delivery, and intervention strategies.

Research on cross cultural adaptation of programs is also examined. Areas for future

directions in EI preschool curricula research are identified.

Keywords: emotional intelligence, preschool, social-emotional learning curricula

First submission 18 th

October 2017; Accepted for publication 9 th

May 2018.

Introduction

The acquisition of emotional intelligence (EI) abilities in preschool children is an important foundation for

development. Effective social-emotional functioning not only facilitates optimal developmental trajectories

in the personal and interpersonal domains but extends into the academic domain. EI and the broader umbrella

term - social emotional learning (SEL) have been established as predictors of psychosocial adaptation and are

important factors in the prevention of academic difficulties, mental disorders, and psychosocial conflicts

(Cohen & Kauffman, 2005; Goldstein rooks, ; Perera iGiacomo, ; esurrecci n-Mena,

Salguero, Ruiz-Aranda, 2014). Several authors (Nix, Bierman, Domitrovich, & Gill, 2013; Rivers, Tominey,

O’ ryon rackett, a, b) have noted the importance of SEL at the preschool level. Research and

Corresponding author. Email address: [email protected]

http://www.um.edu.mt/ijee

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curricula for SEL programs at the preschool level is not as well developed as those for elementary and high

school levels, yet preschool interventions are as important if not more critical than those for the upper grades

(Weare & Nind, 2011).

This paper aims to examine SEL preschool curricula. The first part will review meta-analytic studies

that support the effectiveness of SEL programs in schools. Part two will review studies on preschool SEL

functioning and their predicted outcomes. The third section describes and compares four selected SEL

curricula that have been found to be efficacious at the preschool level (PATHS, Incredible Years, Al’s Pals,

and RULER). The conclusion section compares the four programs, their consistency with established

literature, and identifies future research needs.

The impact of SEL programs in schools

In a meta-analysis of school-based social, emotional and behavioral programs Sklad, Diekstra, De Ritter, Ben,

and Gravesteijn, (2012) identified seven major categories of outcome variables: social skills, antisocial

behavior, substance abuse, positive self-image, academic achievement, mental health, and prosocial behavior.

The most common outcome variables impacted in the studies were increases in social skills and decreases in

antisocial behaviors such as conduct problems or violence. Durlak, Weissberg and Pachan (2010) conducted a

meta-analysis of after school programs geared toward personal and social development of children and found

positive effects on four of the same variables (e.g. increases in self-perception, prosocial behaviors, and

academic grades and decreases in problem behaviors). They also found school bonding (also referred to as

school engagement) to be an outcome of these programs. Durlak et al. (2010) advocate for four essential

features that are necessary for skills training programs to be effective. Training that is Sequenced, Active,

Focused, and Explicit (using the acronym SAFE) tend to have greater effectiveness.

Taylor, Oberle, Durlak and Weissberg (2017) reviewed 82 school-based programs over a span of 33

years and aligned SEL programs with positive youth development. They found increases over control groups

in the areas of social-emotional skills, attitudes and well-being. Like Sklad et al. (2012), social skill

development emerged in the Taylor et al. (2017) analysis as a major outcome variable and was the strongest

predictor of well-being. A strength in the Taylor et al. (2017) analysis was the emphasis on follow up

measures of 6 months of more that support the impact of SEL programs in the longer-term trajectories of

child development. The youngest participants in the studies reviewed by Taylor et al. (2017) were 5 years old

which can have some direct relevance for preschool SEL programs. In fact, a notable finding was that the

greatest effect sizes (ES = .27) were found for the youngest groups of children. The long span of years

included in the analyses encompassed much older studies that may have built their curricula on distinctly

different social-emotional models that predated the emotional intelligence theory of the 1990s. Taylor et al

( 7) did find inconsistencies and variability of the programs’ effectiveness.

Trentacosta and Fine (2010) conducted a meta-analysis of 63 SEL programs that examined a specific

element of emotional intelligence (e.g. emotional knowledge) and its relationship to social competence and to

internalizing and externalizing problems. Many of these studies included preschool students, ages 3 to 5

years. They found effect sizes for preschool students for all three of the outcome variables. In 42 of the 63

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studies, emotional knowledge had an average correlation of r = .21 with social competence. In 11 of the

studies the average correlation with internalizing disorders was r = -.17 for the preschool children group.

Twenty-one of the studies reviewed had an effect size of -.15 with externalizing problems for the preschool

students. In contrast to the Taylor et al. (2017) analysis that had larger effect sizes for younger students,

Trentacosta and Fine (2010) reported greater effect sizes for the oldest age group (9 – 15 years) on two

variables (-.27 for internalizing problems and -.34 for externalizing problems) and for the middle aged group

(6 – 11 years) on the social competence variable (.24).

Based on a meta-analysis of 52 programs focused on mental health in schools Weare and Nind (2011)

developed several suggestions for school-based programs. In agreement with Taylor et al. (2012), they

recommend that programs promoting mental health and problem preventions start early in the school grades,

suggesting that preschool is an especially critical period to target for interventions. Other recommendations

from their findings are to utilize a whole school approach to embed interventions in the educational ecology,

to adhere closely to the program methodology, and to involve school leaders and families. While the Weare

and Nind (2011) analysis focused on mental health outcomes, SEL research is closely aligned as many of the

outcome factors (i.e. self-esteem, well-being, social competence) are similar.

Notable themes in the SEL literature that warrant attention include the reports of inconsistent findings

across meta-analyses (Durlak et al. 2010; Sklad, et al. 2012; Taylor, et al. 2017). These may be due to

variable definitions of SEL factors, diverse methods of interventions and different measurement methods. A

consistent finding is that effect sizes tend to be small, however Durlak et al. (2010) argues that small effect

sizes be considered in the context of real world applications and in comparisons to other types of effects.

Gaps exist in international research on preschool SEL with most studies being conducted in North

America particularly the USA. An exception to this is Taylor et al. (2017) who reported that 38 of the 82

studies in the meta-analysis were conducted outside the USA. Another gap is that many of the SEL curricula

and research studies were designed with older elementary school students. This highlights the importance of

studying specific effects of SEL interventions with the preschool age group.

Importance of emotional intelligence in preschool education

The EI variables studied in preschool social-emotional development can generally be divided into two major

areas of emotion-based processes. The first is emotional knowledge that includes variables labeled as

emotional knowledge, emotional labeling, and emotional recognition. The second major area is emotional

regulation which refers to the management of affective states and the strategies used to alter emotional

intensity and valance. These two broad categories of EI abilities parallel what Mayer, Salovey, Caruso and

Sitarenios (2003) refer to respectively as experiential and strategic EI abilities. The former refers to the input

of emotional information (i.e. recognizing feelings in the self and others) and the latter regards the strategies

or actions taken in response to emotion information (i.e. the control and expression of feelings).

Preschool is vital for developing school readiness, facilitating school engagement and setting the

foundations for academic success. Numerous studies have supported the link between social-emotional

development in preschoolers and later academic and social functioning. Longitudinal studies that involved

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measures at both proximal and distal points in development and have found relationships between preschool

SEL and academic achievement (Denham et al., 2012a; Torres, Domitrovich, & Bierman, 2015), executive

functioning (Ferrier, Bassett & Denhamn, 2014), school engagement (Williford, Vick, Vitiello & Downer,

2013), school adjustment (Denham, et al. 2012a; Herndon, Bailey, Shewark, Denham & Bassett, 2013), and

social-emotional adjustment (Dennis & Kelemen, 2009).

School engagement (previously referred to as school bonding) at all grades is linked with self-

efficacy and successful learning (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003) and is a component of school adjustment. In

examining components of preschooler’s EI, Herndon et al. (2013) identified three components of school

adjustment: positive engagement, independence-motivation, and prosocial connections. In their study,

preschool students high in emotional regulation had better ratings of prosocial connections with peers and

those low in emotional regulation had lower ratings of positive engagement, independence-motivation, and

overall school adjustment. Williford et al. (2013) found student engagement with teachers to relate to

compliance with classroom structure and with student executive functioning. They also found student’s

behavioral engagement with the classroom learning tasks to relate to student emotion regulation. Both

emotional regulation and executive functioning have similar neurological roots in the prefrontal cortex brain

regions (Calkins & Hill, 2007). In a longitudinal study Ferrier et al. (2014) found that executive functioning

and emotional regulation were predictive of each other suggesting a close correspondence of these two

processes.

Cole, Dennis, Smith-Simon & Cohen (2009) examined 3 and 4-year old’s understanding of emotional

regulation strategies and compared their abilities to recognize and generate strategies for managing feelings of

anger and sadness in puppet scenarios. They found significant correlations between generating and

recognizing strategies for anger but not for sadness suggesting that preschoolers may use different methods to

manage distinct emotions. 4-year olds were capable of generating more strategies than 3-year olds for dealing

with the anger scenarios; however both age groups were comparable with regard to strategies for sadness.

This suggests that emotional regulation develops with age and that emotion-specific strategies develop at

different rates. The authors suggest that the period between ages 3 and 5 is significant for the development of

children’s capacity to understand their own strategies and co-occurs with other cognitive milestones such as

executive functioning and theory of mind.

In a similar focus on preschool children’s understanding of their own emotional regulation strategies,

ennis and Kelemen ( 9) compared children’s endorsements of effective verse ineffective regulation

strategies. They found that children identified the three effective strategies (cognitive distraction, behavioral

distraction and situation repair) as effective methods of emotional regulation but also endorsed ineffective

strategies (such as ruminating and venting). This contrasts with adult ratings of the effective verses

ineffective strategies indicating that preschool children have not yet learned which strategies do not work

well.

Torres et al. (2015) found that preschool interpersonal relationships with teachers and peers predicted

kindergarten academic success and was mediated by increases in emotional knowledge. This finding is

consistent with results of Trentacosta and Fine (2010) linking emotional knowledge and social competence.

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Denham et al. (2012b) also found emotional knowledge to be predictive of academic success and school

adjustment. They identified advanced emotional knowledge in preschool students as associated with higher

ratings of self-regulation. In a separate study, Denham et al. (2012a) found that emotional knowledge and

executive functioning predicted school outcomes and that these relationships were mediated by social-

emotional behavior which were defined somewhat more broadly than emotional regulation.

In sum, emotional regulation is closely associated with executive functioning and predicts school

engagement and school adjustment. Children’s understanding of their own emotional regulation strategies

emerges over time, may be emotion-specific, and will include ineffective strategies. Children’s emotional

knowledge predicts school outcomes, mediates the predictive association between interpersonal relationships

and academics, and is mediated by social-emotional behaviors in its prediction of school outcomes.

Taken together these studies support the link between emotional intelligence and school outcomes

(both academic and school adjustment). There is a reciprocal relationship between emotional knowledge and

regulation, as deficits in emotional labeling and poor understanding of emotions may be detrimental for the

development of EI. Regarding EI in preschool education, both classes of abilities - emotional knowledge and

emotional regulation- are vital for any comprehensive SEL program.

Review of Preschool EI /SEL Programs

Though there are a variety of social-emotional curriculums available for use with preschool classes (Powell &

Dunlap, 2009), far more research has focused on the efficacy of programs targeting elementary school age

students than preschoolers (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2012). McClelland,

Tominey, Schmitt, & Duncan (2017) identify four different SEL intervention models: those based on social

learning theory, coercion theory, pretend play, and cognitive regulation. While social learning theory models

tend to emphasize social/interpersonal skills and the reading of social cues, models based on coercion theory

stress working with teachers on classroom management and strategies for de-escalating strong emotions of

students. In contrast, pretend play models concentrate on rehearsal of social roles during play and cognitive

regulation models work to improve cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, mindfulness, and working

memory. Lynch, Geller, & Schmidt (2004) describe primary prevention SEL programs based on resiliency

research, which focus on building social competence and enhancing protective factors, such as parent-child

and teacher-child relationships.

The four SEL curriculums reviewed address some of the seven outcomes variables identified in the

meta-analysis by Sklad et al. (2012) and show promise in terms of primary prevention with a preschool

population. The programs were chosen based on the following criteria: (1) They are specifically intended to

impact the social-emotional skills of children aged 2-5. (2) The programs are delivered within a whole

classroom environment to all students. (3) They are considered comprehensive and are designed to provide

opportunities for practice of social-emotional competence. (4) The programs have one or more efficacy

studies that yield positive social-emotional outcomes associated with resiliency and/or prevention of

emotional and behavioral problems for children 5 years and younger (Collaborative for Academic, Social and

Emotional Learning, 2013; Powell & Dunlap, 2009,). Table I presents a summary of the major components

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of the four preschool programs reviewed. Notably, all of the programs reviewed originate in the USA and

therefore findings may not be generalizable to other contexts. However, research examining cross cultural

transferability and implementation of programs outside the USA is highlighted.

Table I. A Review of EI/SEL Curricula for Preschoolers

Focus of

Program

Target Group Contexts of

Delivery

Structure of

curriculum

Strategies and

Techniques

Preschool

PATHS

 Emotion

knowledge

 Social problem-

solving

 Friendship skills

 Self-control

 Preschool

children aged 3-5

 Whole classroom

 Teacher training

in curriculum

 33 weekly

lessons

 Modelling stories

 Emotional

coaching

 Puppets

 Role-play

 Games

 Discussion

Preschool

RULER

 Emotional

Intelligence

(recognizing,

understanding,

labelling,

expressing and

regulating

emotions)

 Emotional

Literacy

(emotion

vocabulary)

 Preschool

children aged 3-5

 Adults in

children’s lives

 School-wide

 Whole classroom

 Teacher training

in emotional

skills

 Social-emotional

learning is

embedded

throughout each

preschool day.

 Mood meter

 Blueprint

 Meta-moment

 Feelings word

curriculum

 Role-play

 Creative art

activities

 Storybooks

Incredible

Years

 Emotional

awareness

 Empathy/

perspective

taking

 Friendship skills

 Anger

management

 Social-problem-

solving

 Emphasizes

school rules and

coping in a

school setting

 PreK-2 nd

grade  Whole classroom

 Teacher training

in class

management

 Parent

reinforcement

 60 lessons that

are delivered 1 to

3 times per week

for 45 minutes

 Video

 Puppets

 Games

 Interactive

activities

Al’s Pals  Resiliency  Self-control

 Problem-solving,

Conflict

resolution

 Healthy

decision-making

 Addresses

bullying/drug

and alcohol use

 Children aged 3-8  Whole classroom

 Teacher training

in curriculum

 Parent education

 2 lessons per

week for 15-20

minutes for 23

weeks. (In

between lessons,

children practice

skills in daily

classroom

interactions)

 Puppets

 Books

 Original music

Based on: Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2013; Joseph & Strain, 2003; Lynch et al.,

2004; Powell & Dunlap, 2009; Powell, & Payne, 2014; Rivers et al., 2013; Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004.

Preschool PATHS Curriculum:

Preschool PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies), developed by the Prevention Research Center

at Pennsylvania State University, is based on social learning theory and focuses on enhancing the emotions

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knowledge, social problem-solving skills, and self-control of children aged 3-5 years old (Joseph & Strain,

2003). It consists of 33 weekly lessons that address friendship skills, awareness and communication of

children’s own and other’s emotions, strategies for self-control, and skills for interpreting and coping with

difficult situations. Activities within lessons include modeling stories, emotional coaching, puppets, role-

play, games, and discussion (Powell & Dunlap, 2009). Specifically, the Turtle Technique is utilized to teach

stopping and thinking to develop better self-control (Joseph & Strain, 2003).

A number of studies have focused on the efficacy of Preschool PATHS. Findings from a randomized

study overseen by Head Start CARES Demonstration indicated that Preschool PATHS showed improvement

in children’s understanding of emotion, social problem-solving skills, and social behaviors. In addition,

Preschool PATH teachers were rated higher than teachers in the control group in social-emotional instruction

skills. However, based on parent and teacher reports, these outcomes did not appear to continue in

kindergarten (Morris, Mattera, Castells, Bangser, Bierman, & Raver, 2014). The authors point out that there

was limited measurement of child outcomes in kindergarten and that future studies must include more

comprehensive follow-up. In a randomized trial of Preschool PATHS, Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg

(2007) found that preschoolers who participated in the program had higher emotion knowledge skill, were

rated by parents and teachers as more socially competent compared to controls, and were rated by teachers as

less socially withdrawn at the end of school year compared to students that did not participate in the program.

However, the authors utilized behavior ratings rather than direct observation of children’s behavior, which

could have skewed results. In addition, there was a lack of follow-up to determine if intervention effects

persisted as children moved to kindergarten. The Preschool PATHS curriculum was also studied as part of an

integrated social-emotional/early literacy intervention, called the Head Start REDI (Research-based,

Developmentally Informed) intervention. In a randomized study, Nix, et al., (2013) found that students who

had participated in the Head Start REDI intervention showed significantly higher emotion understanding,

competent social-problem-solving, and positive social behavior at the end of Head Start. The study assessed a

large sample of ethnically diverse children living in poverty in both rural and urban settings and utilized direct

assessments, as well as parent, teacher, and observer rating scales to assess child skills. Follow-up indicated

that students continued to demonstrate significantly more positive social behavior at the end of kindergarten.

The authors suggest that sustained intervention effects in kindergarten may be specific to children attending

lower quality elementary schools.

The 2013 CASEL Guide of Effective Social and Emotional Learning Programs classified Preschool

PATHS as effective in increasing positive social behavior and reducing emotional distress based on

randomized, controlled trial with African-American and Caucasian students. Powell and Dunlap (2009)

indicated that when Preschool PATHS was used with children aged 3-4 in Head Start, positive outcomes were

noted not only in an increase in emotional understanding and social problem-solving, but in a decrease in

aggressive behavior displayed. Moreover, they classified Preschool PATHS as efficacious for treatment

fidelity, treatment generalization and for use with ethnically and racially diverse groups.

With regard to cross cultural transferability, Inam, Tariq, & Zaman (2014) examined the process of

adapting Preschool PATHS to the cultural and linguistic needs of young children in Pakistan. Using a

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heuristic framework, modifications to the curriculum were made to address variations in vocabulary and

expression of language between English and Urdu, differences in depiction of gender, ethnic and religious

perspectives between cultures, and disparities in school environments in terms of opportunities for training

and use of specific activities. The authors indicate that most changes were related to surface structure rather

than to core concepts and that cultural equivalence was achieved. Based on the adaptation process, they

conclude that key elements of the PATHS curriculum are universal and can be applied to non-Western

cultures. As the study was descriptive in nature, the effectiveness of the program for Pakistani children

requires further evaluation.

Mihic, Novak, Basic & Nix (2016) used a quasi-experimental design to evaluate the use of Preschool

PATHS with 3-6 year olds in 12 preschools in Croatia. ased on teacher rated assessments of children’s

social and emotional skills at the beginning and end of preschool, significant improvements were found in

children’s prosocial behavior, and emotional regulation. In addition, a decrease in emotional symptoms, peer

conflicts, conduct problems, relational aggression, and hyperactive-impulsive behavior was noted.

However, the study did not include a control group and the teachers who rated the students were the same

teachers who implemented the program. Therefore, results should be interpreted with caution.

Preschool PATHS was also studied in Turkey with a quasi-experimental design. Seyhan, Karabay,

Tuncdemir, Greenberg, & Domitrovich (2017) examined the impact of implementing Preschool PATHS in

the classrooms of 285 children aged 4-6 in Izmir, Turkey with 280 children of the same age range in the

comparison group. Based upon classroom room observations, intervention teacher ratings, and child

interviews, improvements were found in children’s emotional regulation, interpersonal relationship skills,

prosocial behavior, and problem-solving skills. In addition, higher levels of compliance and more positive

feelings were observed and teachers reported more positive relationships with children. However, the study

lacked randomization, observers blind to treatment conditions, and follow-up beyond preschool.

Nevertheless, results of this study, along with those found in the study conducted in Croatia, suggest that

Preschool PATHS shows promise in terms of cross cultural usage and warrants further research. Notably, a

reduced version of PATHS for school-age children was adapted for first graders in three elementary schools

in Hong Kong. Though the intervention was enacted for only 4 months, results of the pilot study showed

improvement in students’ emotion understanding and regulation and prosocial behavior (Kam, Wong,

Fung, 2011). PATHS (Preschool and School-age) appears to have been adapted and studied internationally

more frequently than other SEL programs.

Incredible Years: Dina Dinosaur Classroom Curriculum-Preschool/Kindergarten:

The Incredible Years Dinosaur Social Skills and Problem-Curriculum, developed by Dr. Carolyn Webster-

Stratton, is based on coercion theory and focuses on enhancing classroom management and climate and

children’s ability to self-regulate (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). It is targeted for students in Pre-K

through 2 nd

grade. Like Preschool PATHS, it teaches emotional awareness, empathy and perspective taking,

friendship skills, anger management, and social-problem-solving, but also emphasizes teacher management

skills, school rules and how to cope and succeed in a school setting (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). When

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implemented in whole classrooms, it consists of 60 lessons that are delivered 1 to 3 times per week for 45

minutes (Joseph & Strain, 2003). DVDs, puppets, games, and interactive activities are utilized in lessons. In

addition, parent reinforcement of children’s social-emotional skills is a key aspect of the program (Webster-

Stratton & Reid, 2004).

Several studies have evaluated the efficacy of Incredible Years with preschoolers. In a randomized

trial involving 1768 students enrolled in Head Start, kindergarten, and first grade classrooms in areas of high

poverty, Webster-Stratton, Reid, & Stoolmiller (2008) found that students who participated in the program

showed greater social competence and emotional self-regulation and fewer conduct problems. Students were

observed by blinded observers at the beginning and end of the school year and effect sizes were particularly

strong for children with the lowest initial scores. However, the students were not followed beyond the initial

school year to determine if treatment effects were maintained. Head Start CARES Demonstration (2014)

also evaluated Incredible Years as part of its randomized study and found that the program significantly

reduced problem behaviors among the highest-risk children and showed a statistically significant

improvement in children’s knowledge of emotions, social-problem-solving, and prosocial behaviors. In

addition, Incredible Years teachers received higher ratings than teachers in the control group on components

of social emotional instruction. Surprisingly, given that Incredible Years is based upon coercion theory,

impact on classroom climate was not found. Also, as noted previously, the study did not follow students’

progress in kindergarten.

The 2013 CASEL Guide of Effective Social and Emotional Learning Programs deemed the Incredible

Years Series effective in both increasing positive social behavior and reducing conduct problems based on

randomized, controlled trial with diverse populations. Powell & Dunlap (2009) indicated similar results,

noting that the Incredible Years Dinosaur Classroom Curriculum produced increased social competence and

emotional self-regulation and decreased behavioral problems for children in Head Start. Additionally, they

classified Incredible Years as efficacious in terms of treatment fidelity, replication across settings, and for use

with ethnically and racially diverse groups.

In terms of cross cultural research of the Incredible Years Program, Posthumus, Raaijmakers,

Maassen, van Engeland, & Matthys (2011) used a matched controlled design to evaluate the preventive

impact on preschoolers in the Netherlands of the Incredible Years program for parents. 72 parents of children

at risk for chronic conduct problems were compared to 72 families who received alternate treatment care. A

decrease in observed conduct problems was found, which was maintained two years after the program had

ended. However, as randomization was not possible, observed effects may have been due to variables other

than participation in the program. In addition, the Incredibles Years Classroom Curriculum for Preschoolers

was not included in the research and to date there have been no other cross cultural studies on the Incredibles

Year Program. This is an area which requires further examination.

Preschool RULER:

Preschool RULER, developed at the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, was adapted from RULER, a

school-wide intervention/ primary prevention program for elementary and middle schools aimed at

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developing emotional intelligence in children and important adults in their lives, including parents and

teachers. It integrates best practices that were determined from field tests and randomized controls of

ULE , adjusting it to meet the needs of younger learners ( ivers, Tominey, O’ ryon Brackett, 2013a,

2013b). Preschool RULER emphasizes the development of trusting relationships between children and

caregivers, explicit teaching of social and emotional skills with opportunities for real life practice, and

exposure to strong teacher and parent modeling of these skills. Five key emotional skills are highlighted:

recognizing, understanding, labeling, expressing, and regulating emotions. Preschool RULER is an approach

in which social-emotional learning is embedded throughout the preschool day rather than featuring discrete

weekly lessons. A feelings vocabulary is embedded into curricula and strategies for expressing emotions are

role-played. Emotions of characters are highlighted when reading storybooks and personal stories are shared

with students to highlight teachers’ experiences with emotion. Emotion-focused discussions are incorporated

into learning centers and creative art activities (Rivers, et al., 2013a, 2013b). The program employs several

key tools to help young children with emotional self-regulation, including the mood meter, the blueprint, and

the meta-moment (Rivers, et al., 2013a, 2013b).

RULER, the kindergarten through 8 th grade counterpart to Preschool RULER, has been integrated

into hundreds of schools (Brackett, Rivers, Reyes, & Salovey et al., 2012). It has also undergone rigorous

field testing and results of a randomized controlled trial indicate that RULER resulted in improved school

climate, increased warmth and connectedness between teachers and students, and greater leadership among

students (Rivers, Brackett, Reyes, Elbertson, Salovey, 2012). However, follow-up beyond the school year was

not conducted. In addition, a quasi-experimental design found that RULER produced improved academic

performance and increased positive social behavior (Brackett, et al., 2012). However, results should be

interpreted with caution since the authors note that schools not students were assigned to treatment and

control groups, but analyses were done at the student level. The 2013 CASEL Guide of Effective Social and

Emotional Learning Programs classified RULER as effective in both improving academic skills and

increasing prosocial behavior based on quasi-experimental design with diverse elementary school

populations.

A pilot study of Preschool RULER was conducted in several early childhood centers of 156

preschoolers aged 3-5 of ethnically diverse backgrounds. Their social emotional skills were assessed at the

beginning and the end of the school year and compared to a control group using the mood meter and tests of

emotional labeling and recognition. Specifically, children’s mood meter scores were associated significantly

with social and emotional skills. In addition, children at a treatment site using Preschool RULER during a

second year of implementation exhibited significantly higher scores on both emotional labeling and

recognition than children at the control site ( ivers, Tominey, ailey, O’ ryon, Olsen, Sneeden, Peisch, Gal,

& Brackett, 2015). While these results are promising and suggest that additional research of Preschool

RULER would be beneficial, it should be noted that the study lacked randomization and follow-through into

kindergarten and did not include direct observation of children’s classroom behaviors or a measure of

academic achievement.

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There have been no cross cultural studies of Preschool RULER. However, Castillo, Fernandez-

Berrocal, & Brackett (2013) conducted a pilot study in Spain of RULER for school-aged students.

Participants were teachers from public schools in Spain who participated either in training on RULER or

eLearning. Some teachers in the study worked in pre-kindergarten classrooms. Results indicated that teachers

who attended RULER training had significantly more positive scores on measures assessing teacher

engagement, positive teacher-student interactions, and burnout. Notably, the study did not examine student

outcomes. Moreover, the sample was rather small (47 teachers), randomization was not possible, and there

was no comparison group in which teachers received no training at all. Nevertheless, this pilot study

represents an attempt to address the significant gap in cross cultural research of RULER programs and

suggests that further research in this area would be beneficial.

Al’s Pals: Kids Making Healthy Choices

Al’s Pals is an early childhood prevention program and comprehensive social-emotional curriculum for

children aged 3-8 years-old that was developed at the Virginia Institute for Developmental Disabilities at

Virginia Commonwealth University (Al's Pals: Kids Making Healthy Choices, 2015). The curriculum is

based on resiliency research and aims to foster social-emotional skills such as self-control, problem-solving,

conflict resolution, and healthy decision-making. Teachers are trained to create nurturing classroom

environments that strengthen children’s personal and social skills and support the development of behaviors

related to resiliency (Lynch, et al., 2004). Specifically, Al’s Pals curriculum teaches young children to

regulate their feelings and behaviors, engage in peaceful problem-solving and conflict resolution, and

appreciate differences in others. It also seeks to prevent and address bullying and convey to young children

the dangers of alcohol and drug use. A variety of materials are utilized during lessons, including puppets,

books, and original music. Parent education is also incorporated into the program (Al's Pals: Kids Making

Healthy Choices, 2015). Lessons consist of two 15-20 minute interventions per week for 23 weeks in total.

Al’s Pals social-emotional curriculum has been implemented in 700 early childhood centers,

preschools, daycare centers, and Head Start programs in 34 states in the USA (Al's Pals: Kids Making

Healthy Choices, 2015). In addition, several studies have assessed the effectiveness of Al’s Pals. Lynch et a1.

(2004) conducted a multi-year, multi-state evaluation of Al’s Pals using first a pre-experimental and later a

true experimental design. Findings indicated that Al’s Pals strengthened children’s social-emotional

competence and positive coping skills and suppressed the development of antisocial behavior. These findings

were observed across a number of different early childhood programs in a variety of geographic locations in

the USA and were replicated over several years. However, a limitation of the study is that child outcome data

is based primarily on teacher ratings, which could be subject to bias.

The CASEL Guide of Effective Social and Emotional Learning Programs deemed Al’s Pals

effective in increasing social behavior, reducing conduct problems, and reducing emotional distress based on

quasi-experimental design with African-American and Caucasian students. Moreover, Powell & Dunlap

(2009) noted similar child outcomes, including increased prosocial behavior and decreased problem behavior.

They classified Al’s Pals as efficacious in terms of treatment fidelity, replication across investigators and

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settings, and for use with ethnically and racially diverse groups. There have been no cross-cultural studies

conducted with the Al’s Pals program.

Conclusion

How do these four programs compare to the SEL meta-analyses and the research on preschool emotional

development? Consistent with the findings of the meta-analytic studies, all four programs increase SEL

skills. Three of the programs (PATHS, Als Pals, Incredible Years) reduced conduct problems. RULER was

effective for increasing academic achievement. Regarding the two major areas that are predictive of

preschooler’s academic and social-emotional development, three of the four programs (RULER, PATHS,

Incredible Years) have components of emotional knowledge/recognition and all four have components of

emotional regulation/self-control. These results suggest that the four programs have promise in promoting

preschool development and future academic and personal-social success.

Regarding implementation, Humphrey, Lendrum, & Wigelsworth (2013) examined the findings of

several studies of the social and emotional aspects of learning program (SEAL) in England and recommend

that research be used to improve program design. Specifically, they note the recommendations by Durlak &

Depre (2008) that programs which are sequenced, active, focused, and explicit have better student outcomes

than those that were not. Both Humphrey, Barlow, & Lendrum, (2017) and Reyes, Brackett, Rivers,

Elbertson, & Salovey, (2012) note that high quality implementation of the programs leads to better student

outcomes and emphasize the importance of teachers’ openness and buy-in with the curriculum.

One major limitation in the field of preschool SEL programs is the reliance on programs and research

only in the USA. There is a need for more non-USA, international studies that can examine effective

adaptations of SEL programs in specific countries and cultural contexts as well as identify the most universal

components. Future research on preschool SEL programs would also benefit from longitudinal designs that

can examine long-term effects as well as implementation with particular populations based on socio-

economic factors, ethnic-differences and special needs. Nix, et al. (2013) recommends sustained

interventions especially for students in lower socio-economic conditions in both rural and urban areas. Odom

and Wolery (2003) note the importance of early interventions for students at risk for academic, social and

behavioral problems and emphasize that preschool special education interventions to be grounded in

empirically supported evidence.

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