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Mass-Communication-Living-in-a-Media-World-6th-Edition-by-Hanson.pdf

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MAKE YOUR COURSE FRESH AND ENGAGING!

KEEP YOUR COURSE CURRENT!

New sections on critical theory, communicating in the age of emoji, Amazon’s impact on the publishing industry, and more!

New original infographics that highlight data and trends in media transformations.

Eleven new chapter-opening vignettes including PewDiePie, the Wild Ponies, Marvel’s Black Panther comics, and Caitlyn Jenner’s Vanity Fair magazine cover.

Seven Secrets “They” Don’t Want You To Know About The Media has been updated to reflect the growing importance of mobile and social media.

Increased global coverage using new data for social and legacy media in the Middle East and North Africa.

SAGE PREMIUM VIDEO Boost comprehension. Bolster analysis.

Mass Communication, Sixth Edition by Ralph E.

Hanson offers premium video, curated specifically for the text, to make learning more effective for all types of students. Accessed through a FREE Interactive eBook (when purchased with a new copy of the text), students go way beyond highlighting and note-taking.

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INTRIGUING REAL WORLD EXAMPLES!

IMPROVE STUDENTS’ CRITICAL- THINKING SKILLS THROUGH APPLICATION

Test Your Media Literacy boxes ask students to read about current research, interviews, data, or events, and then answer questions that encourage critical thinking.

Test Your Visual Media

Literacy boxes showcase images from various media, seeking instinctive reactions from readers, before providing context and questions that encourage critical assessment.

Questioning the Media: These critical thinking questions, in the margin of every main section of the text, provide useful moments to stop and think, addressing current media issues and encouraging students to consider how we use and consume media.

CAPTURE YOUR STUDENTS’ ATTENTION WITH COMPELLING STORIES Capture your students’ attention with compelling stories about people at the center of newsworthy events by assigning chapter-opening vignettes

reflecting the latest media news.

The media’s role in the Flint Water Crisis

How Serial shook up the podcasting industry

Yik Yak’s influence on college campuses

Mad Max: Fury Road on real actors doing their action scenes

Mizzou campus protests

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PRAISE FOR MASS COMMUNICATION: LIVING IN A MEDIA WORLD

“It is a PERFECT TEXT in that it covers everything related to mass communication but more importantly focuses on the importance of media literacy in understanding one’s world and one’s thoughts.”

—Kim Mac Innis Bridgewater State University

“This is a great text. The topics are presented in a very thoughtful order. The chapters are thorough, yet very MANAGEABLE to cover during class lectures on a tight semester timeframe.”

—Rick Bebout Reed College of Media, West Virginia

University

“I have really liked this text. It’s easy to teach, FRESH, CURRENT, and features graphics that I feel reflect the material and the current state of media comm as it stands.”

—Christopher T. Gullen Westfield State University

“This is a QUALITY INTRODUCTION and overview to a sprawling field that involves many disciplines.”

—Tim J. Anderson Old Dominion University

“This has it ALL! I can’t think of anything else I want in a textbook.”

—Karl Babij DeSales University

“The Hanson text’s narrative approach allows the work to be both ACCESSIBLE AND THOROUGH. From the opening vignettes through the multiple ‘added’ content in the form of secrets, media literacy sections, and media transformation cutouts, Hanson’s text manages to weave complex mass communication phenomena into coherent story about how the media came to look the way it does.”

—Aaron Heresco California Lutheran University

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To Matt, Howard and Mike Let’s go ride

SAGE was founded in 1965 by Sara Miller McCune to support the dissemination of usable knowledge by publishing innovative and high-quality research and teaching content. Today, we publish over 900 journals, including those of more than 400 learned societies, more than 800 new books per year, and a growing range of library products including archives, data, case studies, reports, and video. SAGE remains majority-owned by our founder, and after Sara’s lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures our continued independence.

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CONTENTS

Preface Acknowledgments About the Author

PART I: INTRODUCTION TO THE MEDIA

AP/Hannah McKay

Chapter 1. Living in a Media World

Levels of Communication Intrapersonal Communication Interpersonal Communication Group Communication Mass Communication A Mix of Levels

Elements of Mass Communication The Players in the Mass Communication Process

• Media Transformations: When Media Connect Us to the Most Remote Places on Earth

Contemporary Models of Mass Communication Evolution of the Media World

Before Print: Pre–Mass Media Communication Networks Print: Arrival of the Book Electronic Networks: Telegraph, Gramophone, Radio, Movi

es, and Television

• Test Your Media Literacy: Can Television Take Anything Seriously?

Online and Mobile Media: Interactive Communication Understanding the Media World Defining Media Literacy The New Seven Secrets About the Media “They” Don’t Wan

t You to Know

• Test Your Media Literacy: What Did the Media’s Future Look Like in the Past?

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Chapter 2. Mass Communication Effects: How Society and Media Interact

History of Media Effects Research Rise of Mass Society Propaganda and the Direct Effects Model

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Voter Studies and the Limited Effects Model

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: The Messages in Propa ganda

The Importance of Meaning and the Critical/Cultural Model Effects of the Media in Our Lives Message Effects Medium Effects Ownership Effects Active Audience Effects

Theories of Media and Society Functional Analysis

Agenda Setting Uses and Gratifications Theory Social Learning Symbolic Interactionism

• Test Your Media Literacy: Where Are the Rey Star Wars Toys?

Spiral of Silence Media Logic

• Media Transformations: Cultivation Theory Cultivation Analysis

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Wild Ponies

Chapter 3. The Media Business: Consolidation, Globali zation, and the Long Tail

The Development of the Media Business in the United States A Tradition of Private Ownership The Growth of National News

Big Media: The Legacy Conglomerates Disney: The Mouse That Grew News Corporation and 21st Century Fox: A Worldwide G iant Splits in Two

Time Warner: Starting the Trend That Smaller Is Better Viacom and CBS: A Generational Change

Bertelsmann: The World’s Largest Publisher Big Media: The New Players Comcast/NBC Universal: Cable Buys Broadcaster Alphabet: Google and Company

• Test Your Media Literacy: Google’s Core Principles • Media Transformations: Who Are Our Media? Apple: Reinventing the Media

Media Economics and the Long Tail The Short Head Versus the Long Tail Characteristics of the Long Tail

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Consequences of the Long Tail Big Players in the Long Tail

Who Controls the Media? Owners Advertisers Government Special Interest Groups News Sources Audiences

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

PART II: PRINT MEDIA

Kathy Willens/AP Images

Chapter 4. Books: The Birth of the Mass Media

The Development of the Book and Mass Communication Early Books and Writing

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Emojis Bring Back Pict ure Writing

The Development of the Printing Press The Invention of Mass Culture

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: How Do Words Get Int o the Dictionary?

Books in the New World The Development of Large-Scale, Mass-Produced Books

Buying and Selling Books Publishers Authors Booksellers Books and the Long Tail The Textbook Business

Books and Culture The Importance of Blockbuster Books Books and Censorship

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Comics Don’t Have to Be Funny

The Future of Books

• Media Transformations: Can Paper Books and e-Books Coexist?

Electronic Publishing and Print on Demand Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

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Chapter 5. Magazines: The Power of Words and Image

The Development of a National Culture Early Magazines The Saturday Evening Post The Birth of Photojournalism

The Magazine Business The Economics of Magazine Publishing Trade Magazines Literary and Commentary Magazines Newsmagazines Women’s Magazines Men’s Magazines

Magazines and Modern Society Magazines and Body Image

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Presenting a Broader R ange of Beauty

Who’s in Control? Advertising Versus Editorial The Importance of Magazine Covers

The Future of Magazines Magazines for the Twenty-First Century Magazines in the Digital Age

• Media Transformations: Going From Paper to Digital Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Jake May/The Flint Journal via AP/AP Images

Chapter 6. Newspapers and the News: Reflection of a Democratic Society

Inventing the Modern Press Colonial Publishing: A Tradition of Independence The Penny Press: Newspapers for the People Pulitzer, Hearst, and the Battle for New York City The Tabloids Broadcast News

The News Business Newspaper Conglomerates—Consolidation and Profitabilit

y National Newspapers The Metropolitan Press

• Test Your Media Literacy: Truth-Telling as a Journalistic Priority

Community and Suburban Papers News, Politics, and Society Sources, Advertisers, and Readers—Whom Do You Please?

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Media and Political Bias Patriotism and the Press—Reporters Risk Their Lives to R eport the News

• Test Your Media Literacy: Living in Different Media Wor lds

The Alternative Press

• Media Transformations: News in the Age of Mobile Med ia

The Future of News Are Newspapers a Dying Medium? The Future Is Mobile and Social

• Test Your Media Literacy: Journalists and Social Media Chapter Summary Key Terms

Review Questions

PART III: ELECTRONIC MEDIA

Monika Skolimowska/AP Images

Chapter 7. Audio: Music and Talk Across Media

History of Sound Recording and Transmission Storing Musical Performances: The Development of the Re

cording Industry Transmitting Music and Talk: The Birth of Radio From the Golden Age to the Television Age

• Test Your Media Literacy: When Is a Radio Show Racist? Radio’s New Look: HD and Satellite Streaming/Downloads: Online and Mobile Audio

Music, Youth Culture, and Society Rock ’n’ Roll and the Integration of Music The Changing Face of Popular Music Country: Pop Music for Adults Finding a Niche: Popular Radio Formats

• Test Your Media Literacy: When Is Recycled Music Origi nal? Mash-ups and Covers

Talk Radio: Politics, News, Shock Jocks, and Sports Public Radio Concerns About Effects of Music on Young People Changing the Musical Experience: From Social Music to Per

sonal Soundtracks

From Singles to Digital Downloads: Making Money in the Rec ording Industry LPs Versus 45s CDs and Digital Recording Economics of Streaming and Downloads Radio Consolidates and Goes High-Tech

• Test Your Media Literacy: Who Is Being Hurt by Declini ng Sales of Recorded Music?

The Future of Sound

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Music and the Long Tail: Alternatives to Broadcasting New Economic Models for the Music Industry

• Media Transformations: Creating a Radio Show Withou t a Radio Station

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

The White Hosuse/ www.flickr.com

Chapter 8. Movies: Mass Producing Entertainment

The Development of Movies The First Moviemakers The Studio System The Blacklist Television and the Movies

The Movie Business

The Blockbuster Era

• Media Transformations: As You Like It: Movie Viewershi p in the Digital Era

Home Video Digital Production and Projection What Makes a Movie Profitable?

Movies and Society How Much Influence Do Movies Have? Diversity in the Movies

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Does It Look Like Wom en Have Major Film Roles?

The Production Code: Protecting the Movies From Censors hip

The Ratings System

• Test Your Media Literacy: Movie Ratings The Future of Movies Movies as a Brand Movie Promotion on the Internet Movies and the Long Tail

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Chapter 9. Television: Broadcast and Beyond

Television: Broadcast and Cable/Satellite Broadcast Television Cable and Satellite Television Digital Television

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From Broadcasting to Narrowcasting: The Changing Business of Television Networks and Affiliates Educational Broadcasting Becomes Public Broadcasting The Fox Network

Defining Ratings An Earthquake in Slow Motion Diversity on Television

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: What Does a TV Show Look Like?

Television and Society Television as a Major Social Force How Do Viewers Use Television? Standards for Television

• Test Your Media Literacy: No Sense of Place The Problem of Decency

The Future of Television Interactive Television

• Media Transformations: Defining Television in the Twen ty-First Century

The Earthquake in Slow Motion Continues Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Bloomberg/Getty Images

Chapter 10. Online Media: The Internet, Social Media, and Video Games

The Development of the Internet Packet Switching: Letting Computers Talk to Each Other ARPAnet

Connecting Incompatible Networks What Are Online/Mobile Media? E-mail Instant Messaging and SMS The World Wide Web Search as a Medium Mobile Apps Blogs

• Media Transformations: Going Mobile Podcasts and Streaming Media

Social Media: Sharing Our Lives Online What Makes Media Social? Who Are Our Social Media?

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Video Games as Mass Communication

• Test Your Media Literacy: How Much Privacy Do You Ha ve With Your Social Media Accounts?

Video Games as a Spectator Sport Diversity and Representation in Video Games

The Internet and Society The Hacker Ethic The Notion of Cyberspace Broadening Our Online World Conflicts Over Digital Media Convergence of Old and New Media

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Humans of New York Everything Is Data

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

PART IV: STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION

The Ladies Home Journal/Kellogg’s Rice Krispies

Chapter 11. Advertising: Selling a Message

The Development of the Advertising Industry The Birth of Consumer Culture The Growth of Brand Names Advertising-Supported Media

The Advertising Business The Client The Agency The Media The Audience

• Test Your Media Literacy: Advertising to Targeted Mark ets

Advertising in Contemporary Culture The Problem of Clutter Debunking Subliminal Advertising When Advertisements Are More Important Than the Progr

am Advertising to Children

• Test Your Media Literacy: Limits on Advertising Food to Children

The Future of Advertising Integrated Marketing Communication

• Media Transformations: From Advertorials to Native Ad vertising

Is Anyone Watching Television Ads? Product Placement

The Long Tail of Advertising Social Marketing

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Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Jon Rawlinson

Chapter 12. Public Relations: Interactions, Relationshi ps, and the News

From Press Agentry to Professionalism The Origins of Public Relations

• Test Your Media Literacy: False Reports Garner Publicit y

World War I: The Federal Government Starts Using Public Relations

Public Relations Becomes a Profession The Business of Public Relations What Is Public Relations? The Public Relations Process Who Are the Publics? Crisis Communication Public Relations Goes Online

• Media Transformations: Old and New Tools for Integrat ed Marketing Communication

Public Relations and Society Journalism and Public Relations Public Relations and the Government Spin Control: A More Personal Form of Public Relations Public Relations and Political Activism Public Relations and the Civil Rights Movement

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

PART V: REGULATION AND CONTROL OF THE MEDIA

Chapter 13. Media Law: Free Speech and Fairness

The Development of a Free Press The First Amendment: “Congress Shall Make No Law” The Roots of American Free Speech Limits on Free Speech in the Post-9/11 Era

Protection of Individuals Libel Invasion of Privacy Free Press/Fair Trial

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• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Should Legal Protectio ns Extend to Offensive Speech?

Controlling the Press Honesty and the Press Prior Restraint Free Speech and Students Journalists Going to Jail Obscenity

• Test Your Media Literacy: Citizens United v. Federal Ele ction Commission

Regulation of the Media Industry Copyright and Fair Use The Rise and Fall of Broadcast Regulation Mandating Fairness on the Air

• Media Transformations: Who Owns Your Social Media Content?

The Telecommunications Act of 1996 Net Neutrality

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Alex Wong/Getty Images

Chapter 14. Media Ethics: Truthfulness, Fairness, and S tandards of Decency

Ethical Principles and Decision Making Aristotle: Virtue and the Golden Mean Kant: The Categorical Imperative John Stuart Mill: The Principle of Utility

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Horrific Sports Injuries John Rawls: The Veil of Ignorance Hutchins Commission: Social Responsibility Ethics The Bok Model for Ethical Decision Making

Ethics and News Truthfulness

• Test Your Media Literacy: When Is Arresting Reporters

Considered Acceptable? Corporate Conflict of Interest Sensationalism Going Too Far: The News of the World Hacking Scandal When and How Do You Apologize? There Is No “They”: The Sago Mine Disaster Photography Enforcing Ethics

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Ethics and Persuasive Communication Advertising

• Test Your Media Literacy: The Unabomber's Manifesto Raises Questions

• Media Transformations: Cookie Monsters: Online Priva cy and Data Gathering

Ethics in Public Relations Attacks on Women Through Online Media Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Subhendu Sarkar/Getty Images

Chapter 15. Global Media: Communication Around the World

Media Ideals Around the World

Authoritarian Theory Communist Theory Libertarian Theory Social Responsibility Theory Norms for the Press in the Twenty-First Century

• Test Your Media Literacy: Updating the Four Theories The Internet in the Twenty-First Century Going Global: Media Standards Around the World Canada, Western Europe, and Great Britain

• Test Your Visual Media Literacy: Are There Limits to What Media Images Should Display?

Central and Latin America Islamic Countries and the Middle East Africa Russia and the Former Soviet Republics Asia

• Test Your Media Literacy: How Free Are the World’s Media to Report the News?

• Media Transformations: Are We Really Living in a Me dia World?

Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions

Notes Glossary Index

Video

Case

Open Access

Video

Audio Web

Quiz

media library

Media Library

Chapter 1: Living in a Media World

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 1.1: Facebook reaches one billion users in a d ay.

Video Case 1.2: Donald Trump and media control.

Video Case 1.3: Media literacy research.

Video Case 1.4: Social media in college admissions.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

See footage from Paul McCartney’s baseball stadium tou r.

Experience the difference between watching and reading two speeches.

Clips from John Oliver’s Last Week Tonight.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/09/29/link-ch-1-paul-mccartneys-baseball-stadium-concerts/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/12/15/ch-1-link-hearing-a-speech-v-reading-a-speech/

https://www.youtube.com/user/LastWeekTonight

Nepal earthquake footage.

Neil Postman talks about his book Amusing Ourselves to Death.

WEB

One of Time’s 100 Most Influencial People: Felix Kjellber g.

Read how SCOTUSblog scooped both CNN and Fox New s on coverage of Obamacare Supreme Court Decision.

Get the latest on Super Bowl advertising and coverage.

Read more on media access to Everest climbing and disas ters.

Read more about how the ritual model applies to the new s coverage around the death of bin Laden.

Dealing with FCC decency rules in the years since Janet J ackson’s wardrobe malfunction.

other important Midwest stories.9

While Sullivan acknowledges that the paper does have limited reporting resources, she also notes that “enough Times firepower somehow has been found to document Hillary Clinton’s every sneeze, Donald Trump’s latest bombast, and Marco Rubio’s shiny boots . . . Imagine if the Times really had taken on the Flint outrage with energy and persistence many months ago. With its powerful pulpit and reach, the Times could have held public officials accountable and prevented human suffering. That’s what journalistic watchdogs are supposed to do.”10

Some media observers have questioned whether the news business has any future, given the challenges involved in getting people to pay for their news media. But as can be seen by coverage of the Flint water crisis, there are a variety of ways for people to get news, even when major journalistic organizations like the New York Times fail to give a story the attention it deserves. In this chapter, we look at how journalism and the press developed in the United States, how newspapers and other news organizations operate today, and how the news business is being transformed in the digital age.

Inventing the Modern Press

Newspapers first appeared soon after Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of movable type. The first English- language newspaper was Curanto, which was published in Amsterdam in June 1618. This was not a newspaper as we would recognize it today, but rather a single broadsheet filled with both British and foreign news. By 1622, similar papers (or newsbooks, as they were called) were being published in Britain. The government attempted to control these papers, which were empowering the new capitalist class at the expense of the aristocracy, but the papers were still distributed through places such as coffeehouses.11

SECRET 4 If you look ahead to the 1960s and 1970s in

the United States, this is not all that different from how the early gay and alternative newspapers were distributed, thus illustrating Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again.

Among those publishing broadsheets were church reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin, and their religious writings also helped bring about some of the earliest attempts at censorship.1 2

Colonial Publishing: A Tradition of Independence

Publick Occurrences is frequently cited as the first newspaper in the American colonies; its first and only issue was published in 1690. As happened with many papers of the era, the government promptly shut it down. In this case, the government objected to the paper’s disparaging remarks about the king of France, along with the fact that Harris had failed to obtain a license to publish. The first paper to publish multiple issues was the Boston News-Letter, which was founded in 1704.

Benjamin and James Franklin. Just as media dynasties exist today, they existed in the American colonies, with Benjamin and James Franklin having their hands in just about every medium available at the time. Starting in 1721, James, the elder of the two brothers, published the New-England Courant, the first newspaper to be published without the explicit approval of the British Crown. When James was thrown into prison for irritating the authorities, sixteen-year-old Benjamin, who had been working as a printer’s apprentice, took over the paper. By 1729, he had purchased the Pennsylvania Gazette and began turning it into the most influential paper in the colonies. Franklin published the colonies’ first political cartoon, the oft-reprinted “Join, or Die” cartoon, and he introduced the weather report as a regular feature.13

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Library of Congress

Newsboys sold newspapers on the streets of New York and other major cities for one or two cents a copy during the penny press era of the nineteenth century.

The Penny Press: Newspapers for the People

The newspapers of the American colonies had little in common with newspapers today. Before the 1830s, daily papers contained shipping news and political essays. Designed primarily for the wealthy elite, these papers were often underwritten by political parties, and their content was determined by the editors’ opinions. Although we might consider this biased coverage, these early papers made no pretense of objectivity. Why should they? Each political party had its own paper, and the small number of subscribers (two thousand at most) tended to share similar viewpoints. Battles between rival newspapers could get quite heated, even extending to physical violence.

Colonial newspapers were quite expensive, costing as much as six cents a day at a time when a worker might make eighty-five cents a day. Papers were typically available only by annual subscription, which had to be paid in advance. These papers showed their business bias with names like the Advertiser or the Commercial. They typically consisted of four pages, with the front and back filled primarily with advertising and the inside pages with news and editorial content.14

Benjamin Day and the New York Sun. In the 1830s, Benjamin Day conceived a new type of newspaper, one that would sell large numbers of copies to the emerging literate public. On September 3, 1833, he started publishing the New York Sun. The paper’s motto was “It shines for all.” The newly developed steam engine made the Sun possible. Hand-powered presses, which hadn’t changed much since Gutenberg’s time, could print no more than 350 pages a day, but a steam-powered rotary press could print as many as sixteen thousand sections (not just pages) in the same amount of time (see Chapter 4).15

THINK YOU’VE MASTERED THE CONTENT?

CHECK YOUR COMPREHENSION ON THE STUDY SITE WITH:

• eFlashcards to strengthen your understanding of key terms.

• Practice quizzes to test your knowledge of key concepts.

The Sun emphasized facts over opinion. Papers that followed in its wake had names like Critic, Herald, or Star. These inexpensive papers sold for a penny or two on the street, so they soon earned the name penny press. Instead of being subsidized by political parties, the penny papers were supported by circulation and advertising revenues. They also didn’t have to worry about subscribers who wouldn’t pay their bills, since they were all sold on the street for cash.16

Now that publishers could economically print large numbers of papers, they could command a big enough circulation to attract advertising. As a result, their profits came primarily from advertising revenues, not from subscriptions or subsidies. The makers of patent medicines, which often consisted largely of alcohol or narcotics, were the biggest advertisers. Want ads (today’s classifieds) also became a prominent feature of the papers.

Penny papers were typically independent rather than being the voice of a particular political party. In fact, they tended to ignore politics altogether because their readers weren’t interested in political issues. As an example, one day the Sun’s congressional news column reported: “The proceedings of Congress thus far, would not interest our readers.”17

The concept of “news” was invented by the penny press: These papers emphasized news—the newest developments from the police, courts, and the streets. The traditional papers called the penny papers sensationalistic, not because they ran big headlines or photos— neither existed at the time— but because they were printing “news” instead of political arguments or debates. The penny press also moved toward egalitarianism in the press. The affairs of ordinary

• Videos and multimedia content to enhance your exploration of key topics.

edge.sagepub.com/ha nson6e

people were as much news as accounts of rich aristocrats.18

The British press went through a similar period of change, moving from the highly partisan press of the 1700s to a more “objective” focus on news by the end of the nineteenth century— again a change largely in response to the rise of a literate working class and the desire to reach a large audience for the paper’s advertising.19

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A Modern Democratic Society. The 1830s were a period of intense growth for the United States—in industry, in the economy, and in political participation. The penny newspaper was a vital part of this growth, providing the information the public needed to make democracy work. In 1830, there were 650 weeklies and 65 dailies in the United States, but in just ten years, those numbers had doubled to 1,241 weeklies and 138 dailies.20 It was a period when more people were working for wages outside the home and were starting to use consumer goods purchased with cash. The penny press provided a means for advertising these goods, which in turn expanded the market for them.

The United States was being transformed from a rural community to an urban society, from an agricultural nation to an industrial one, from self-sufficient families to a market-based economy. Michael Schudson argues that the penny papers were a strong force in this change:

These papers, whatever their political preferences, were spokesmen for egalitarian ideals in politics, economic life, and social life through their organization of sales, their solicitation of advertising, their emphasis on news, their catering to large audiences, their decreasing concern with the editorial.

http://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

The penny papers expressed and built the culture of a democratic market society, a culture which had no place for social or intellectual deference.21

SECRET 1 During the Civil War era, the press continued its move toward being independent from political parties. The press provided people with news about the war and whether the nation would continue to exist. Following the war, newspapers continued to grow and began to be an important part of people’s everyday lives. This was the establishment of Secret 1—The media are essential components of our lives. Hazel Dicken-Garcia, in her history of the nineteenth-century press, wrote,

The press became a “habit” as Americans, perhaps for the first time, recognized a vital need for it and established it as [a] part of their lives in a way that was unprecedented. Families sought news of relatives fighting in the war, and national leaders needed information about events as a basis for making decisions and forming policies for conducting the war. . . . Since everyone had a stake in the war and thus a driving need to know about events, the newspaper became primary reading material as never before.22

Pulitzer, Hearst, and the Battle for New York City

If the penny papers of the first half of the nineteenth century gave birth to modern journalism, the battles between New York publishers Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst in the 1880s and 1890s provided journalism’s turbulent adolescence.

Pulitzer and the New York World. Joseph Pulitzer came to the United States from Austria in 1864 at the age of seventeen to fight in the Civil War. He survived the war, studied law, and went

on to become a reporter for a German-language newspaper. In 1878, he bought the St. Louis Post and Dispatch and became its publisher, editor, and business manager.

In 1883, Pulitzer bought the failing New York World, and in just three years, he boosted its circulation from 15,000 to more than 250,000. High circulation was critical because large readership numbers attracted advertisers who were willing to pay premium prices. Twelve years after Pulitzer bought the paper, it had a daily circulation of 540,000.23

Pulitzer changed the appearance of the paper’s front page, replacing dense type with huge multicolumn pictures and big headlines. He brought to journalism a sense of drama and style that appealed immensely to his turn-of-the-century audience. Author and press critic Paul Weaver credits Pulitzer with the invention of the modern newspaper’s front page. Before Pulitzer, the front page was no different from any other page in the paper. Pulitzer started the practice of giving the most important story the biggest and widest headline and running that story above the fold of the paper, where it would be immediately visible to anyone looking at the paper on a newsstand. Thus, above the fold came to refer to a prominent story.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch an interview with Paul Weaver. CLICK TO SHOW

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Pulitzer made many other innovations. He changed headlines so that they said something more specific about the story. For example, a pre-Pulitzer New York paper ran the story about President Lincoln’s assassination under the headline “Awful Event.” Pulitzer required his editors to use headlines containing a subject and an active verb, so that the Lincoln assassination might have run under the headline “Lincoln Shot.” Pre-Pulitzer stories told readers what they needed to know in a formal, structured way. Pulitzer presented the news as a story that people wanted to read; journalists went from just being reporters to being storytellers as well.24

http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Newsan

New York Library Public Archives

Pioneering woman journalist Nellie Bly created a sensation in the late 1800s with her “stunt journalism” written for Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World.

New Readers: Immigrants and Women. The New York City of the 1880s and 1890s was a city of immigrants— people who wanted to learn to speak and read English—and the city’s newspapers were important teachers. Pulitzer’s New York World used big headlines, easy words, and many illustrations, all of which helped the paper appeal to the immigrant community. This was also the period when the modern Sunday paper got its start. In 1889, half of all New Yorkers bought Sunday papers. To make his Sunday editions more appealing, Pulitzer started trying out illustrations, comic strips, and color comics.

Pulitzer also tailored his newspaper to women readers by publishing women’s pages and romantic fiction. He had a difficult time balancing the interests of women against those of male readers. He didn’t want to offend working- class male readers by making the paper too feminist in content, but he couldn’t ignore the independent women who were now reading papers. Women were the primary purchasers of household items, and advertisers wanted to reach them. So the newspaper needed to tailor its content to reach these “new women” while still appealing to its working-class male readers.

No one epitomized the journalism of Pulitzer’s New York World better than “stunt journalist” Nellie Bly, who proved that women could go to the same extremes as men when trying to get a story. From her first act at the World (pretending to be insane in order to get an insider’s report on a women’s lunatic asylum) to her

most famous stunt (traveling around the world in under eighty days), she always did things more extravagantly than anyone else.25

Bly, who lived from 1864 to 1922, authored hundreds of newspaper articles, which were generally long and written in the first person, for the Pittsburg Dispatch, the New York World, and the New York Evening Journal. She was born Elizabeth Jane Cochran but went by the nickname Pink (probably for the pink dresses she wore). It was at the Dispatch that she started using the pen name Nellie Bly. In addition to covering women’s stories for the Dispatch, Bly wrote a travelogue of a journey to Mexico under the headline “NELLIE IN MEXICO.” She also made a name for herself covering the plight of young women working in factories.

WEB Read about Nellie Bly’s visit to an insane asylum. CLICK TO SHOW

In 1887, Bly moved to New York in the hope of finding a job at one of the city’s vibrant daily papers. First on her list was Pulitzer’s New York World. She eventually was able to see John Cockerill, managing editor of the World. It was Cockerill who suggested that Bly go undercover to write a story about the women’s lunatic asylum. If her story was good, he told her, she would get the job.

The asylum had been charged with abusing inmates, but none of the stories written about it had the power of Bly’s insider account. To gain access, Bly moved into a rooming house and proceeded to act erratically so as to be committed to the asylum. Once inside, she wrote articles describing patients being fed rotten food and being choked and beaten by nurses. After ten days, an attorney for Pulitzer came to rescue her. The series of stories she produced was a masterpiece.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/02/20/link-ch-6-nellie-blys-ten-days-in-a-mad-house/

Video Case 6.1: Gender and news.

With this series, Bly proved that a woman could find success in sensationalistic journalism and that she could tell a great story under dangerous circumstances. Today many people would consider it unethical for reporters to pretend to be someone they aren’t, and many major papers would reject their work. But in the New York of Hearst and Pulitzer, Bly’s stunts were wildly successful and were imitated by other reporters.26

The Era of Yellow Journalism. William Randolph Hearst came from a wealthy family and began his newspaper career as editor of the San Francisco Examiner, which was owned by his father. Having dominated the San Francisco newspaper market, Hearst followed Pulitzer into the New York market by purchasing the New York Journal. Soon he was using Pulitzer’s own techniques to compete against him. Hearst and Pulitzer became fierce rivals, each trying to outdo the other with outlandish stories and stunts. This style of shocking, sensationalistic reporting came to be known as yellow journalism. Why yellow? At one point, the two papers fought over which one would publish the popular comic strip “The Yellow Kid,” which featured a smart-aleck character and could be considered the “Doonesbury” of its day. Eventually, both papers featured their own “Yellow Kid” drawn by different artists.

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AP Photo/AP Images

”The Yellow Kid” was such a popular early comic strip character that both the New York Journal and the New York World had separate versions of the feature drawn by two different artists.

Nowhere was yellow journalism more exaggerated than in the World’s and Journal’s attempts to drum up fury over the events taking place in Cuba that led to the Spanish-American War. War, then as now, sold a lot of newspapers, and Hearst did his best to sensationalize the conflict in Cuba. He sent reporter Richard Harding Davis and artist Frederic Remington to Havana to cover the possible hostilities between the Spaniards and the Cubans. But there was little to report, and Davis and Remington were kept away from the fighting. According to a popular story, Remington became so discouraged that he telegraphed Hearst asking permission to return to New York: “Everything is quiet. There is no trouble here. There will be no war. Wish to return.” Hearst’s supposed reply? “Please remain. You furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war.” 27 It’s uncertain whether this story is true, but there is no doubt that Hearst used the power of the press to sway public opinion.

Pulitzer eventually repented for his excesses during the era of yellow journalism by endowing a school of journalism at Columbia University. He also endowed the Pulitzer Prizes that every year honor the best reporting, photography, and commentary in journalism.

The Tabloids

Reading newspapers isn’t the sort of thing people ever feel a need to apologize for—unless they are reading one of the tabloids. These include not only weekly supermarket tabloids, such as the Star and the National Enquirer, but also a

substantial number of daily tabloids, such as the New York Daily News and the Chicago Sun-Times , that present the news in a lively style that makes people want to read them.

WEB Learn more about “The Yellow Kid.” CLICK TO SHOW

New York Daily News. Tabloids first became popular during the 1920s. Tabloid newspapers are printed in a half-page (11- by 14-inch) format and usually have a cover rather than a traditional front page. They stand in contrast to broadsheet n ewspapers, which are the standard size of 17 by 22 inches. Riding a resurgence of sensationalism that hadn’t been seen since the yellow journalism days of Hearst and Pulitzer, the papers of the 1920s became known for a lively, illustrated style known as jazz journalism.

One of the great early tabloids was the New York Daily News, which is still popular today.28 The paper features big photos, huge headlines, and sensationalistic stories. Its most famous cover ran on January 13, 1928. Ruth Snyder had been convicted of murdering her husband and had been sentenced to electrocution. Then, as now, executions of women were rare. Although photographers were excluded from the execution, the Daily News sent in a Chicago photographer (because he wouldn’t be recognized by anyone present) who had strapped a camera to his ankle. At the moment of the execution, he pulled up his pant leg and took the picture. The photo ran the next day under the headline “DEAD!”29

WEB Read more on the New York Daily News’s “DEAD!” cove r. CLICK TO SHOW

Today’s tabloids are no less cutthroat and competitive than Hearst’s and Pulitzer’s papers in the late 1800s or the tabloids in the 1920s. The Daily News continues to do battle on the streets of New York with its rival, the New York Post. They compete not only to be the primary paper of working-class New

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New York Daily News/Getty Images New York Daily News/ Getty Images

Yorkers, but also to be the tabloid that readers of the more serious New York Times pick up for their gossip stories, sometimes referred to as “twinkies.”30

How fierce is the competition between these two papers? On one occasion, the New York Post ran an Associated Press (AP) photo of a girl competing in a spelling bee. But because she was sponsored by the Daily News, the Post’s biggest rival, the Post used a computer to edit out the Daily News logo from the sign she was wearing.31 Of course, competition among the American tabloids is nothing compared to that of the British working-class papers. Those tabloids, such as the Sun and the Daily Mirror, are intensely sensationalistic, and the Sun even features a daily topless pinup on its Page 3. The tabs substantially outsell the more responsible papers.

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In 2016, competing New York City tabloids the New York Post and the Daily News routinely ran covers mocking the Democratic and Republican presidential candidates.

Broadcast News

In the 1920s, newspapers started facing competition from new outlets. Broadcast media began to provide up-to-the-minute news delivered with a speed and immediacy that newspapers could not match.

SECRET 4 News was a part of radio programming from the very start. KDKA demonstrated the power of radio news with its 1920 nighttime broadcast of the Harding–Cox presidential election results—before the newspaper stories appeared the next morning. The newspapers, understandably, were upset by radio’s apparent poaching on their territory. In fact, in the 1930s, they threatened to cut off radio stations’ access to AP news and even threatened to stop running radio program listings. The newspapers insisted that unless the news was of “transcendent importance,” radio shouldn’t broadcast it until the newspapers were available. Not surprisingly, the radio networks didn’t think much of this idea. Although various restrictions were tested for a short while, in the end, radio news could not be stopped. As we will see again and again, old media usually try unsuccessfully to hold back the development of new media, providing yet another example of Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again. Yet the old media do not go away. Instead, after a period of resistance, they change and adapt to the new environment.32 Radio eliminated the extra editions of newspapers that used to be published whenever dramatic news occurred, but newspapers as a whole suffered only a slight decline in circulation.33

One place where radio held clear superiority over newspapers was in the realm of live news. Radio could, for the first time, bring news from around the world to people “as it happened.” At no time was this more apparent than during World War II. When Adolf Hitler’s army marched into Austria in 1938, CBS was on the air from Europe with immediate news and up-to-the-minute commentary. No radio correspondent of the era stood out more than CBS’s European director, Edward R. Murrow. When Germany declared war on England in 1939, Murrow reported it

United Press International

Television started playing a major role in presidential elections starting in 1960 with the famous Kennedy– Nixon debates.

from London in a voice that became familiar to all Americans. During the bombing of London, Americans listened to his live reports, which contained not just the news but also the sounds of everyday life: the air raid sirens, the antiaircraft guns, and the explosions of bombs. Murrow spoke directly to listeners from London rooftops and made them feel as if they were there with him.34

AUDIO Listen to one of Edward R. Murrow’s broadcasts. CLICK TO SHOW

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Television News Goes 24/7. Television news started with brief coverage of the 1940 Republican national convention on an experimental NBC television station in New York City. By 1948, both the Democratic and Republican conventions were covered extensively for the still-tiny television audience. Documentary programs, such as See It Now, which was hosted by former CBS radio newsman Edward R. Murrow, took on lightweight topics, as well as intensely controversial issues, such as Wisconsin senator Joseph McCarthy, who had accused numerous people of being communists. The program also aired notable segments on the Korean War. In 1947, NBC started TV’s longest-running news and commentary program, Meet the Press, which is still on today.

In August 1948, the CBS-TV News started airing for fifteen minutes every weeknight, setting the standard length for network news until the 1960s. When the ocean liner Andrea Doria sank in 1956, a CBS camera crew on a seaplane got footage of the ship going down, which was broadcast promptly. Journalist and broadcast professor Edward Bliss Jr. noted that

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/02/20/link-ch-6-edward-r-murrow-in-london/

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

How do you get your news? Do you read a newspaper, go to a legacy media site online, watch television, or listen to the radio? What advantages do you experience from using this news source? What is the downside of relying on that source?

with the film of the Andrea Doria, “Television had demonstrated that it could take the public to the scene of a major story more effectively than any other news medium.”35

In 1963, CBS expanded its nightly news show to half an hour, with Walter Cronkite at the anchor desk. Along with the news, the program featured commentary from veteran newsman Eric Sevareid. NBC soon followed the new format, joined four years later by ABC. During this time, videotape, satellite communication, and color started coming into common use, giving television news more immediacy and impact than ever before. With correspondents bringing into American homes graphic news from the war in Vietnam, as well as spectacular coverage of the moon landing in 1969, television news rose in importance as the way to see what was happening in the world.

On November 3, 1979, the staff of the U.S. Embassy in Tehran was taken hostage by Iranian militants, and ABC started a nightly news update at 11:30 p.m. Eastern Time. That news update eventually turned into Nightline with anchor Ted Koppel, and it became one of the most respected news shows on television. The following year, Ted Turner’s CNN went on the air with news twenty-four hours a day and the promise that the station would not sign off until the end of the world.36 By the time the Gulf War began in January 1991, viewers were turning to CNN, not the networks, for news.37 But CNN’s dominance was not to last. By 2003 and the war in Iraq, CNN was facing competition in the twenty-four-hour news business from Fox News and, to a lesser extent, MSNBC. As early as 2002, the year after the September 11 terrorist attacks, Fox News was getting consistently higher ratings than the more established CNN. Fox did a number of things to distinguish itself from its rival. Most significantly, it was willing to take a point of view. While CNN and the broadcast networks followed the traditional objective, or neutral, style of reporting, Fox took an opinionated view in the manner of the major newsmagazines and European

newspapers.38 According to the Nielsen ratings, Fox News has fewer unique viewers than does CNN, but they watch the channel for a longer period of time.39

The News Business

The newspapers during the era of yellow journalism were the primary source of news at the time. They faced competition from magazines, but heavyweights such as Time and Newsweek had yet to weigh in. Radio news was a decade or two away, television news would have to wait half a century, and CNN was nearly a hundred years in the future. Although newspapers today owe a huge debt to the great papers of the past, they are operating in a substantially different media environment, one that is saturated with fast, up-to-the-minute competition.

Newspaper Conglomerates— Consolidation and Profitability

Unlike those of Hearst and Pulitzer, today’s newspapers typically face little competition from other newspapers. There are 1,331 daily newspapers currently being published, down about 25 percent from one hundred years ago. This doesn’t mean that cities are going without newspapers, however; it means only that there are relatively few cities (less than 1 percent) that have competing papers.40 Also, most newspapers today are owned by large chains, corporations that control a significant number of newspapers or other media outlets. Former journalist Ben Bagdikian notes in his book The Media Monopoly that before World War II more than 80 percent of all American newspapers were independently owned. Today that picture has reversed, with chains owning more than 80 percent of all papers. The British press has had a longer tradition of concentration of ownership, with three lords owning 67 percent of the daily circulation as early as 1910.41

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Why is the consolidation in the publishing business taking place?

Sometimes family owners just want to get out of the newspaper business. In many cases, inheritance laws virtually force the sale of family-owned papers after they have been passed down through generations. The chain with the largest circulation is Gannett, the publisher of USA Today, which owns approximately eighty-three daily newspapers that have a combined circulation of more than nine million.42 In addition to Gannett, other major publishers include Thomson, Cox Media Group, the New York Times Company, Advance Publications (formerly Newhouse), Tronc (formerly Tribune Publishing), McClatchy, Hearst, and Dow Jones & Company. In Britain, the largest single owner of newspapers is Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation, which publishes the tabloid the Sun as well as the more respected broadsheets the Times and the Sunday Times. News Corporation publishes more than 175 newspapers in at least four countries as well as a number of papers with international distribution, and it is the largest publisher of English-language newspapers.

Until recently, newspaper publishing was one of the most profitable businesses in the United States. The Gannett newspaper chain had earnings as high as 30 to 40 percent profits from its papers.43 The average profit for publicly owned newspaper chains in 2005 was nearly 20 percent, noticeably higher than that for companies in the Fortune 500.44 But all that changed in the late 2000s. Annual newspaper advertising revenue fell by nearly 60 percent from its peak in 2005 until 2014.45 The drops in income were the worst at metropolitan dailies, whereas national newspaper the Wall Street Journal performed relatively well. While the stock prices of newspaper companies dropped significantly between the mid-2000s and 2010, newspaper stocks have risen sharply since 2012.46 For more on what these economic changes mean to the newspaper industry, see the “Future of News” section at the end of this chapter.

WEB Links to the top ten U.S. newspapers CLICK TO SHOW

National

AP/ Associated Press

The Wall Street Journal is the United States’ biggest circulation newspaper with a mix of business, national, and international news, along with a conservative editorial focus.

Newspapers

Until 2009, the United States had three national newspapers: USA Today, the Wall Street Journal, and the much smaller Christian Science Monitor. But in April 2009, the Monitor suspended its daily publication as a newspaper and became an all- electronic, Web-based news channel.47 Both USA Today and the Journal rely on satellite distribution of newspaper pages to printing plants across the country. In other respects, the two papers could not be more different: The Journal has the look of an old-fashioned nineteenth-century paper, and USA Today originated the multicolored format. The New York Times, although it is a major metropolitan newspaper, is also generally considered to be a national newspaper.

The Wall Street Journal. The nation’s premier newspaper for business and financial news has been doing well recently and experiencing increases in both its print circulation and digital revenues. At a time when other papers have been cutting newsroom staff size and budgets, the Journal has been hiring staff and producing new features. The Journal stands out in contrast with its major competition, USA Today. The Journal was the last major paper to start using color, and it has still not fully embraced photography. Instead, it uses pen-and-ink drawings for the “mug shots” that accompany its stories. The Journal has cultivated a traditional look that deliberately evokes the newspaper layouts of the pre-Pulitzer era.48 It did undergo a substantial redesign in 2006, primarily to make the paper narrower so that it didn’t use as much newsprint, and it has continued a slow movement toward a more modern look. The Journal’s circulation is the second largest of any American newspaper, with a combined print/digital circulation of 2.27 million.49 It is the definitive source of financial news, it is highly regarded for its national and international news, and its editorial

page is one of the nation’s leading conservative voices. As discussed in Chapter 3, the Wall Street Journal, along with its parent Dow Jones & Company Inc., was acquired by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation. To date, this has not resulted in substantial changes to the paper.50

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USA Today: News McNuggets. When the Gannett newspaper chain founded USA Today, journalists made fun of the new national paper, calling it McPaper. They claimed that the brightly colored paper full of short stories was serving up “news McNuggets” to an audience raised on television news. John Quinn, a former editor of the paper, once joked that USA Today was “the newspaper that brought new depth to the meaning of the word shallow.”51 Critics of the paper warned that starting a national newspaper was a good way for Gannett to lose a lot of money in a hurry, and the critics were right. In its first decade, USA Today reportedly lost more than $800 million, but by 1993, the paper started turning a profit. Coming out of the recession, USA Today had declining circulation, and it had fewer “sponsored” copies being bought in bulk by hotels; in 2015, it had an average daily combined print/digital circulation of 4.14 million.52

The paper now has strengthened its national news section, increased its international news section, and begun running in- depth stories. The paper also tries to get stories other papers don’t have rather than just providing an easy-to-understand product. In addition, it has beefed up its foreign staff and hired outside reporters from prestigious newspapers and magazines.

One reason USA Today has become more influential is that it is found everywhere. A traveler is much more likely to find USA Today in a hotel than the Washington Post or the New York Times. Even the critics have started coming around in recent years. Ben Bagdikian, who once described the paper as “a mediocre piece of journalism,” recently said, “It has become a much more serious newspaper. They have abandoned the idea that every person who picks up the paper has an attention span of 30 seconds. . . . I don’t think it’s a joke anymore.”53

What influence has USA Today had on the newspaper industry as a whole? First and foremost, USA Today changed the look of

newspapers. It drove color onto the front page and made black- and-white papers look drab in comparison. Second, it was organized clearly by section, thus initiating a trend in which papers began imposing more structure on the news. Finally, and most controversially, USA Today has led the trend toward shorter stories.54

The most important effect of USA Today is that it has forced industry professionals to reconsider what business they are in. The publication’s Web site describes USA Today as a “multi- platform news and information media company . . . Through its unique visual storytelling, USA TODAY delivers high-quality and engaging content across print, digital, social and video platforms.”55

English-Language International Newspapers. There are three major English-language international newspapers. The best known of these is the International New York Times (formerly the International Herald Tribune), which is published in Paris and distributed in 130 countries. Formerly owned in partnership by the Washington Post and the New York Times, it is now owned exclusively by the New York Times.56 The paper was founded in 1887 as a European edition of the now-defunct New York Herald. Traditionally, the Tribune reprinted articles from a variety of papers, but it is now based more directly on the New York Times content.57

Financial Times, owned by Japanese media giant Nikkei, is primarily a business newspaper—or, more precisely, a “website and app family” as Bloomberg describes it, highlighting its online and mobile components. Its onetime editor Gordon Willoughby told Ad Age Global magazine, “We see ourselves as an international window on the business world. There is a global business engine, and it is becoming increasingly outward looking, and that plays to what we’re good at.”58

Although the Wall Street Journal is thought of primarily as a U.S. paper, it also publishes European and Asian editions. “We aspired to be the global newspaper of business and the newspaper of business globally. We don’t aspire to overtake local newspapers in the U.K., Germany, or Japan,” says Richard Tofel of the Journal.59

Richard Levine/Getty Images

The New York Times is an American daily newspaper that was founded and has continuously published since 1851. It has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other news organization.

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All of these papers measure their circulation as combined print and digital numbers, with the International New York Times putting out approximately 220,000 copies a day, the international editions of the Journal circulating 547,000, and the Financial Times 780,000.60

The Metropolitan Press

The metropolitan newspapers are the big-city papers that most people think of when they talk about the power of the press.

The New York Times. If there has been a debate over whether USA Today or the Wall Street Journal is the nation’s biggest paper, there is no question about which paper is most influential. When people in the United States refer to the Times without naming a city, they are almost certainly referring to the New York Times. According to at least one definition, news is what is “printed on the front page of the New York Times.” News stories in the United States often don’t become significant until they have been covered in the New York Times. The front page of the New York Times has as much news on it as is contained in an entire half-hour network newscast. The Sunday New York Times is huge: In September 1998, the paper published an Arts and Leisure section with 124 pages, a record for the New York Times—and that was just one section!61

According to Time magazine,

A Times morning-after analysis of a presidential debate can set the agenda for days of campaign coverage and punditry. Its decision to feature, say, a murder in Texas on Page One can prompt hordes of reporters to hop a plane south. Its

critics can make or break a Broadway play or turn an obscure foreign film into tomorrow’s hot ticket.62

While the company’s longtime motto is “All the News That’s Fit to Print,” the Hoover’s business report suggests that a better choice would be “All the News That’s Fit to Print and Post Online.”63 While the Times is classified here as a metropolitan paper, it has as much in common with the major national papers as with the city papers. More than one-third of its readership is located outside New York City. For a list of the top five daily newspapers in the United States, see Table 6.1.

The New York Times has been a respected newspaper ever since Adolph Ochs bought the failing penny press paper in 1896 and gave it an emphasis on serious national and international news. Its stodgy look, with long columns of type, earned it the nickname “Gray Lady.” However, on October 16, 1997, the Times started running color photos on its front page, joining virtually every other paper in the country in this practice. Yet even with color the paper doesn’t look like USA Today. As the American Journalism Review put it, “Don’t expect the Gray Lady to step out in any gauche dress just to show off.”64 The Times is basically a black-and-white paper with color used as accents, according to newspaper design expert Mario Garcia.65

The Washington Post. The New York Times set the standard for newspaper journalism in the twentieth century and continues to do so today, but in the 1970s, the Washington Post inspired a generation of young journalists with its coverage of the Watergate scandal, the subsequent cover-up, and the downfall of President Richard Nixon. Watergate was a story that shook the nation and transformed the Post from a big-city paper to one with a national reputation.

TABLE 6.1

Top Five Daily Newspapers in Terms of Average Weekday Circulation, September 2014

Ken Feil/Washington Post/Getty Images

Bob Woodward (left) and Carl Bernstein helped bring the Washington Post to national prominence in the 1970s with their coverage of the Watergate break-in and the subsequent cover-up.

Source: Data are from Pew Research Center, “Newspapers: Circulation at the Top 5 U.S. Newspapers Reporting Monday-Friday Averages,” http://www.journalism.org/media-indicators/average-circulation-at-the-top-5-u-s- newspapers-reporting-monday-friday-averages/.

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The scandal started with a “third-rate burglary” of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate office and apartment complex on June 16, 1972. When the five Spanish-speaking burglars were arrested, one was found carrying an address book that contained the number for a phone located in the White House.

Among those assigned to cover the story were two young reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. They soon realized that this was no ordinary burglary. As weeks and then months went by, their painstaking reporting connected the burglars to the White House and eventually to the president

himself. They further discovered that the White House had been systematically sabotaging the Democratic presidential candidates and attempting to cover up these actions. During the summer of 1973, Americans were spellbound by the Senate hearings into the Watergate scandal. Finally, with impeachment seeming a certainty, Nixon resigned as president on August 8, 1974.66

In more recent years, the Washington Post has become known for its national presence through its online presence and for the fact that it was recently purchased by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos.

The Los Angeles Times. When people talk about the press in general, they are usually speaking of the major East Coast papers such as the Washington Post and the New York Times. In the early 2000s, the Los Angeles Times established a national presence as well. While it may not have “push[ed] the New York Times off its perch,”67 it has been one of the most respected papers on the West Coast, winning a Pulitzer Prize in 2016 for its coverage of the San Bernardino terrorist attack, two in 2015, two in 2011, one each in 2009 and 2007, two in 2005, and five in 2004.68

Lately, however, the Los Angeles Times has been in the news more often for the controversy surrounding cost-cutting. Since 2003, the paper has cut more than 500 people from its newsroom, reducing the number of journalists working for it from more than 1,100 to approximately 550. In addition, four of the paper’s recent respected editors and a publisher either quit or were fired over disputes about the newsroom cuts.69

The paper had previously attracted controversy over its requirement in the late 1990s that reporters attempt to include quotes from women and minorities in their stories. This wasn’t so much political correctness as it was marketing correctness. Just as the penny papers started running less politically biased stories to attract the largest possible audience, so the Los Angeles Times is now quoting more women and Latinos to boost that segment of the paper’s readership.70 Publisher Mark Willes, who ran the paper from 1995 to 2000, set goals for increasing the number of quotes from women and minorities and made those goals a factor in determining editors’ raises.71

Reporters at the paper have raised several questions about the new requirement: (1) Should they always identify people by race and/or sex to make sure each source gets counted as a woman or minority? What if the race or sex of a person isn’t relevant to the story? (2) What if the reporter is interviewing someone over the phone and doesn’t know the race of the interviewee? Does he or she have to ask? (3) What categories constitute diversity? Women, blacks, Native Americans, gays and lesbians, Hispanics? Certainly. But what about a Russian immigrant, a Jew, or a Muslim? (4) Does interviewing one African American guarantee that all black viewpoints have been covered? Some reporters have questioned whether specific minority groups even have a unified point of view.72

Editors refer to building diversity by quoting minorities and women in stories that aren’t about minority issues as mainstre aming. Mainstreaming has extended far beyond the Los Angeles Times. The San Jose Mercury News uses the process in its food section to include material on Eastern Europeans, Southeast Asians, and African Americans and how they are cooking. Keith Woods, former diversity coordinator for the Poynter Institute, writes that mainstreaming is a problem when “people with little expertise and less to say have been forced into stories simply because they fit a demographic quota.”73 Yet when the process brings in a wider range of sources and allows journalists to learn more about their community, it is successful. Quotas for mainstreaming by quotes are currently in a decline, but the principle—making newspapers more inclusive—is still very much alive.74

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY TRUTH-TELLING AS A JOURNALISTIC PRIORITY n January 2012, then New York Times public editor Arthur Brisbane set off a disturbance on the Internet and

I Twitterverse when he asked, apparently seriously, whether

reporters ought to be calling out sources for claiming things as “facts” that are demonstrably not true. (The public editor at the Times is a position some papers call

the reader representative or the ombudsman. Brisbane is a longtime print journalist who has worked for the Kansas City Times, the Washington Post, and the Kansas City Star.) The column appeared under the headline “Should The Times Be a Truth Vigilante?”

The column began, “I’m looking for reader input on whether and when New York Times news reporters should challenge ‘facts’ that are asserted by newsmakers they write about.”1 In other words, he was asking, “Should reporters call out sources for lying?”

He went on to write that there is no question that columnists on the opinion pages of newspapers can point out lies, but should reporters do this?

Brisbane was prompted to write the column based on a message he got from a reader:

My question is what role the paper’s hard-news coverage should play with regard to false statements— by candidates or by others. In general, the Times sets its documentation of falsehoods in articles apart from its primary coverage. If the newspaper’s overarching goal is truth, oughtn’t the truth be embedded in its principal stories? In other words, if a candidate repeatedly utters an outright falsehood . . . shouldn’t the Times coverage nail it right at the point where the article quotes it?2

Brisbane’s online column drew a huge range of comments, many of which could be paraphrased as, “Well, duh!”

A commenter from Pennsylvania gave a typical response: “If you genuinely do not know whether or not the paper of record should act as a stenographer for liars, then count me among the rest of the commenters who is incredulous that you had to ask.”3

Another commenter, this one from Seattle, posted sarcastically, “I’m a pharmacist. Do you think it is absolutely

imperative that the next time you come to me for medication I actually give you what your doctor ordered or will just any old medication be just fine? . . . This whole article is about the dumbest thing I have ever read in ANY newspaper.”4

Among the hundreds of comments were accusations that the paper was printing lies from President Obama, the government of Israel, or the Bush administration during the lead-up to the war in Iraq.

But the answer to Brisbane’s question is not necessarily so simple. Greg Sargent, writer of the Washington Post’s political blog Plum Line, says that trying to fact-check everything before it gets printed would be difficult. On the other hand, Sargent points out that the Times prints misleading statements from candidates repeatedly, to the point that a reasonable person reading the paper would think those claims were true.5

Journalists, of course, always want to be reporting “the truth,” but knowing what is true, what is false, and what is opinion can be challenging. One response to this has been the so-called fact-checking movement in journalism. The Annenberg Public Policy Center’s FactCheck.org, begun in 2003, was the first project to address the issue. It monitors the accuracy of articles and ads about political figures. The Washington Post has its own version of this system called “The Fact Checker,” which rates claims by politicians on a scale of one to four Pinocchios. PolitiFact.com, sponsored by the Tampa Bay Times, has sometimes caused controversy with its “Truth-O-Meter,” which rates political claims from “true” to “pants-on-fire false.” All of these Web sites publish fact-checking stories online as freestanding stories.

Rem Rieder, editor of American Journalism Review, writes that incorporating fact-checking into regular news stories would be a big improvement. He says, “Allowing a politician to get away with nonsense day after day lets false statements seep into the public consciousness. Once that happens, it can be hard to dislodge them.”6 He writes that journalists need to be sure to hold all politicians to account, regardless of political party, without falling into the trap of false equivalency: “If Democrats are prevaricating more than Republicans, or vice versa, don’t succumb to the temptation

http://FactCheck.org

http://PolitiFact.com

to be equally tough on both sides.”7

Jill Abramson, the now former executive editor for the New York Times, responded to Brisbane’s column by arguing that the paper does “rigorous fact-checking and truth-testing” on a daily basis in a variety of ways, including in-depth stories, commentaries, and blogs. “Can we do more?” she asks. “Yes, always. And we will.”8

One of the strongest reactions to Brisbane’s column came from New York University journalism professor Jay Rosen. Rosen, who has been an outspoken critic of the approach mainstream journalists take to objectivity, says that the need to ask Brisbane’s question comes out of an increasing desire for journalists to seem “unbiased.” He wrote on his blog PressThink,

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Something happened in our press over the last 40 years or so that never got acknowledged and to this day would be denied by a majority of newsroom professionals. Somewhere along the way, truthtelling was surpassed by other priorities the mainstream press felt a stronger duty to. These include such things as “maintaining objectivity,” “not imposing a judgment,” or “refusing to take sides” . . . Journalists felt better, safer, on firmer professional ground—more like pros—when they stopped short of reporting substantially untrue statements as false.9

Who are the sources? Arthur Brisbane is the former public editor for the New York Times (August 2010–August 2012), and Jay Rosen is a professor of journalism for New York University. How do you think their backgrounds shaped their responses to the question about real-time fact-checking? Does it make a difference that one is a professional journalist and the other a professional academic?

What are they saying?

Go online and read what Brisbane and Rosen have to say on the issue of real-time fact-checking. What are their central arguments? What do they disagree about? What do they agree on?

What do others say about their reporting? Read some of the comments from readers on Brisbane’s posts. What are they saying? What kinds of criticism are they leveling against the Times? Are they criticizing Brisbane’s question or the way the Times covers issues? Is anyone supportive of his question?

How do you and your classmates react to the issues Brisbane and Rosen raise?

Do you and your classmates think that reporters need to call out sources, especially politicians, when they say things that aren’t true? Do you think that it’s possible to do so? Will calling out sources for lying make reporters appear to be biased? Is it bad if you know what point of view a reporter holds about a topic?

1 Arthur Brisbane, “Should The Times Be a Truth Vigilante?” The New York Times, January 12, 2012, publiceditor.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/12/should- the-times-be-a-truth-vigilante/.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid.

4 Ibid.

5 Greg Sargent, “What Are Newspapers For?” The Washington Post, January 12, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/post/what-are-newspape rs-for/2012/01/12/gIQAuUCqtP_blog.html.

6 Rem Rieder, “Real Time Fact-Checking,” American Journalism Review, February 2012, ajr.org/Article.asp?id=5237.

7 Ibid.

8 Arthur Brisbane, “Update to My Previous Post on Truth Vigilantes,” The New York Times, January 12, 2012, publiceditor.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/12/update-to-my-previous-post-on- truth-vigilantes/.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/post/what-are-newspapers-for/2012/01/12/gIQAuUCqtP_blog.html

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Should news outlets identify a source quoted in a story as being female or a minority even if the source’s race or sex has no bearing on the story? Why or why not? Does having women and minority sources improve the quality of the news?

9 Jay Rosen, “So Whaddaya Think: Should We Put Truthtelling Back Up There at Number One?” PressThink, January 12, 2012, pressthink.org/2012/01/so- whaddaya-think-should-we-put-truthtelling-back-up-there-at-number-one/.

Community and Suburban Papers

The community press consists of weekly and daily newspapers serving individual communities or suburbs instead of an entire metropolitan area. These papers make extensive use of the Web. While there are more than 1,400 daily newspapers being published in the United States, there are also more than 7,000 nondaily community newspapers, according to the National Newspaper Association.75

One of the reasons community papers are important is that they publish news that readers can’t get anywhere else. Journalism professor Eric K. Meyer points out that community newspapers “have the most loyal audiences and the news that you can’t get elsewhere. A local newspaper won’t get scooped by CNN.”76

WEB Learn more about community newspapers. CLICK TO SHOW

Readers often go to a local newspaper, either in the paper format or on the Web, when they feel that the national press isn’t covering a story in enough detail. According to the Pew Research Center’s Project for Excellence in Journalism, for the past twenty years about 90 percent of newspaper readers have gone to the local paper for news about where they live. During Hurricane Katrina, the New Orleans Times-Picayune went from eighty thousand page hits a day to thirty million as people

http://www.nnaweb.org/

around the world tried to find out what was happening in the Crescent City. While the Times-Picayune is generally considered a metropolitan paper, in the days, weeks, and months following Hurricane Katrina, it was functioning very much as a community paper.77

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News, Politics, and Society

What is news? Ask ten different journalists, and you’ll come up with ten different definitions. One way of defining news is to list its characteristics, the values journalists use when they select which stories to report. These include the following:

• Timeliness—An earthquake that happened last night is more newsworthy than one that happened two months ago.

• Proximity—An auto accident in your town in which two people are injured is more likely to make it into the paper than an auto accident three hundred miles away in which two people are killed.

• Prominence—When two movie stars have lunch together, it’s news. When you have lunch with your mother, it’s not.

• Consequence—A $50 billion tax cut is more newsworthy than a $5,000 one.

• Rarity—The birth of an albino tiger is news. • Human interest—Events that touch our hearts, such as the

birth of octuplets, often make the news.

Another way to define news is to look at the wide range of ways newspaper editors think of it. Charles Dana, editor of the New York Sun in the late 1800s, defined news as “anything that will make people talk.”78 John B. Bogart, a city editor of the Sun, gave us a classic definition: “When a dog bites a man, that is not news. But when a man bites a dog, that is news.” As mentioned earlier in the chapter, news is often defined as “that which is printed on the front page of the New York Times.”79 Noted journalist Walter Lippmann defined news as a “picture of reality

on which men can act.”80 And there are cynics who say that the perfect news story is one that deals with “pets, tits, or tots.”81

Sources, Advertisers, and Readers— Whom Do You Please?

Traditionally, newspapers have maintained a figurative wall between the business department and the newsroom, sometimes jokingly called the “separation of church and state.” Reporters and editors are supposed to be concerned not with profits, but rather with reporting the news as best they can. But the barrier is coming down, and editors are increasingly looking at their newspaper as a product that should appeal to advertisers as well as readers.

John Oppedahl, who has served as editor and publisher of the Arizona Republic, as well as publisher of the San Francisco Examiner, says that editors must be concerned about the business health of their papers:

Editors have to become more interested and more involved in how their enterprises make money. . . . If you take the view that editors really have been marketers all along, and maybe never wanted to say it, now I think they need to admit that they are.82

However, sometimes publishers go from printing news that readers want to publishing news that advertisers want. For example, many newspapers now publish advice and news about personal investing in addition to the traditional stock reports. While these features are undoubtedly popular with readers, they are even more popular with advertisers, who want their ads for financial services surrounded by stories telling readers that they ought to be investing.

The Project for Excellence in Journalism annual report for 2006 stated the situation fairly baldly: “At many old-media companies, though not all, the decades-long battle at the top between idealists and accountants is now over. The idealists have lost.”83

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Carolyn Cole/Getty Images

Bill O’Reilly, host of The O’Reilly Factor on the Fox News Channel, has been one of the major players in the trend towards more opinion-oriented prime-time cable news programming.

Media and Political Bias

One of the main reasons the direct effects model still has some support is that many critics believe the media affect the public’s political opinions by presenting reports that are biased toward a particular candidate or political party. But, as we discussed earlier in this chapter, holding up detached, factual, objective journalism as an ideal for reporting, the press was making a commercial decision, not a moral one. During the penny press era of the 1830s to the 1860s, newspapers tried to appeal to the broadest possible audience. The best way to attract a large number of people, publishers felt, was not to take an identifiable political point of view, as had newspapers of the colonial era. The alternative to this supposedly objective style is a more opinionated form of reporting that takes on an explicit point of view, such as that found in Time, Newsweek, and many British or European newspapers, such as London’s liberal Guardian or conservative (Tory) Telegraph. These publications have a clearly understood political viewpoint that is designed to appeal to a specific audience.84

This opinionated style has also been adopted by the brash cable channel Fox News, which rejects the traditional neutral style of CNN and the major broadcast networks.85 Fox News commentator Bill O’Reilly says that part of his network’s popularity comes from its willingness to think about what audience members want. “Unless your package is meaningful to the viewer, they’re gone,” he says. “The networks—and I include CNN in this—haven’t figured that one out yet.”84 Erik Sorenson, former president of the MSNBC cable news channel, suggests that there is nothing wrong with taking a particular point of view. “I think a lot of people are beginning to ask, ‘Is there something phony about pretending to be objective and reading

off a teleprompter in the twenty-first century?’”86

Video Case 6.2: Journalism and protests.

Gans’s Basic Journalistic Values. There is more to the bias argument than the liberal-versus-conservative issue. For example, some observers charge that the media have a bias toward attractiveness or charisma. There can also be a bias toward making money or attracting an audience. Political scientist and media scholar Doris Graber argues that when it comes to selecting stories for coverage, the strongest bias is for those that will have the greatest appeal to the publication’s or program’s audience.87

Rather than looking for examples of bias in the news, media sociologist Herbert Gans set out to find the actual values exhibited within the stories themselves. He asked what the values—the biases—of journalism were. To find the answer, he studied the content of the CBS and NBC news programs, Time magazine, and Newsweek.

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Gans found eight enduring values in the stories he studied: ethnocentrism, altruistic democracy, responsible capitalism, small-town pastoralism, individualism, moderatism, social order, and leadership. These values were not stated explicitly; rather, they emerged from what was presented as good and normal and what was presented as bad.88 Let’s look briefly at each of Gans’s values:

WEB Amid Allegations of Bias: Facebook Explains How ‘Trendi ng Topics’ Works. CLICK TO SHOW

1. Ethnocentrism is the idea that your own country and culture are better than all others. This shows up in the U.S. media in stories that compare other countries’ values to American values. To the degree that other countries live up to American ideals, they are good; if they are different, they are bad. Therefore, enemies of the United States are presented as evil because they don’t conform to our values. Stories can be critical of the United States, but they are criticizing deviance from basic American values, not those values themselves.

2. Altruistic democracy is the idea that politicians should serve the public good, not their own interests. This leads to stories that are critical of corrupt politicians. By the same token, citizens, as voters, have the same obligation to work for the public good and not for selfish interests. Special interest groups and lobbyists are suspect because they are not working for the common good. This was perhaps best illustrated by the Watergate hearings in the 1970s, which revealed the corrupt behavior that occurred in the White House so that President Richard Nixon could stay in power. President Bill Clinton was criticized for his affair with Monica Lewinsky in part because he was serving his own interests rather than working for the good of the American public.

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3. Responsible capitalism is the idea that open competition among businesses will create a better, more prosperous world for everyone. But by the same token, businesses must be responsible and not seek excess profits. The same

http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/05/12/477874985/amid-allegations-of-bias-facebook-explains-how-trending-topics-works

QUESTIONING

is true of labor unions. Hence the news media tend to be harsh in their coverage of greed and deception by big businesses, yet they still tend to praise people who develop and grow companies. This is why there has been so much negative coverage of banking and investment companies following the stock market crash and recession in the late 2000s.

4. Small-town pastoralism is nostalgia for the old-fashioned, rural community. The agricultural community is where all goodness is rooted, while big cities are dangerous places that suffer from numerous social problems. Suburbs, where many people live, tend to be overlooked entirely.

5. Individualism is the constant quest to identify the one person who makes a difference. People like the notion that one person can make a difference, that we are not all cogs in a giant machine. Reporters like to use a single person as a symbol. That explains in part why journalists focused on the murder of Neda Agha-Soltan during protests about the contested 2009 Iranian elections. Instead of trying to talk about the wide range of people involved in the protests, they used Agha-Soltan as a symbol to represent all the protesters.89

6. Moderatism is the value of moderation in all things. Extremists on both the left and the right are criticized. Although the media attempt to present a balance of opinions, they tend to report on views that are mildly to the left and right of center. One of the strongest criticisms the media can make is referring to an individual as an extremist.

7. The value of social order is seen primarily in the coverage of disorder. When journalists cover stories that involve disorder, such as protests, floods, disasters, or riots, the focus of the story tends to be on the restoration of order. This was one of the biggest issues in the media’s coverage of the floods following Hurricane Katrina. The social order was in question for months following the storm, and the press focused heavily on how that order might be restored.90

8. Finally, the media value leadership. The media tend to look at the actions of leaders, whereas the actions of lower- level bureaucrats—which may well be more important— are ignored. This is in some ways an extension of the bias toward individualism, the difference one person can make.

THE MEDIA

Take a look at a recent news story from a major American news outlet. How many of Gans’s news values can you find illustrated in it? Do you think Gans’s eight news values still apply to what is being covered by American media? Why or why not?

Overall, Gans argues that there is reformist bias to the media, which tend to advocate “honest, meritocratic, and anti- bureaucratic government.”91 Journalists like to argue that since both sides criticize the press, they must be doing a good, balanced job.92 Perhaps a better explanation for why both conservatives and liberals charge the media with bias is that the eight values Gans found within the media reflect a combination of both liberal and conservative values—again illustrating why people holding a particular viewpoint will see bias in the media’s attempt to be neutral and balanced.

Patriotism and the Press—Reporters Risk Their Lives to Report the News

The job of being a journalist around the world can be a dangerous one. The Committee to Protect Journalists reports that worldwide in 2015 seventy-three journalists were killed “in direct connection” to their work; fourteen of them died in Syria.Nine journalists/cartoonists were killed in France as part of the terrorist attacks on the satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo that left a total of twelve dead.93 (You can read more about that attack in Chapter 15.) Six journalists died in Brazil, six in Iraq, and five each in Bangladesh, Yemen, and South Sudan. Journalists also died in the line of duty in Mexico, Somalia, Turkey, Pakistan, the United States, Poland, India, Ghana, Ukraine, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Libya, and Guatemala. The two deaths in the United States were Adam Ward and Alison Parker of WDBJ7 TV who were gunned down by a former employee of their station. The most common cause of death was deliberate murder, accounting for 68 percent of the deaths; approximately 23 percent of the deaths were accounted for by being caught in combat crossfire; the final 7

percent were from the journalist being on a dangerous assignment.94

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO See more on the career of Associated Press war correspon dent George Esper. CLICK TO SHOW

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY LIVING IN DIFFERENT MEDIA WORLDS

aybe we’re asking the wrong question when we ask about media bias. Of course journalists and news organizations have a basic worldview that

shapes how they report the news. And it is clearly a mistake to presume that every news organization starts from the same perspective.

But research by the Pew Research Center suggests a better question to ask: What bias do news consumers have, and how does that affect how they consume news?

(What is the Pew Research Center? It is a nonpartisan think tank that informs the public “about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping America and the world.” Pew is one of the best sources of information about media habits of people in the United States, and its reports are used consistently throughout this book.)

The study “Political Polarization & Media Habits” divided news consumers into five political groups ranging from consistently conservative to consistently liberal. The study found that there was little overlap in where liberals and conservatives turned when they wanted news:

• Consistent conservatives count on Fox News with 47

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/02/03/war-correspondent-and-journalist-extraordinaire-george-esper-rip/

percent of them using Fox News as their primary source of political and government news.

• Consistent conservatives distrust two-thirds of the thirty-six news sources examined in the study, with 88 percent of them trusting Fox News.

• Consistent conservatives on Facebook are more likely than other ideological groups to see political views they agree with.

• Consistent liberals use a wide range of news sources and rely on two (NPR and the New York Times) that other political groups are less likely to use.

• Consistent liberals consistently trust about two-thirds of the news sources in the study.

• Consistent liberals are more likely to block or “defriend” someone on a social network because of political opinions.

While Fox News was the preferred news source on the right, and NPR and the New York Times were the preferred sources on the left, where did the people in the center of the political spectrum turn? The preference from the ideological center was for the Wall Street Journal, USA Today, ABC News, CBS News, and NBC News.

Who are the sources? Who conducted the study of media use by political orientation discussed here? What do they do?

What are they saying? How do liberals and conservatives differ in where they go for news? How do they differ in terms of how many news sources they use? Who is more likely to communicate with people who have political opinions different from their own? Who is most likely to unfriend or block someone for expressing a disagreeable political point of view? How would you categorize this research in terms of being message, medium, ownership, or audience based? Can you categorize the type of theory base the researchers were using?

What evidence exists? Read the complete report at www.journalism.org/2014/10/2 1/political-polarization-media-habits. How did the researchers reach their conclusions? How did they conduct their research?

What do you and your classmates think about ideology and media choices?

What is your political point of view? Where do you turn to for news? What news sources do you trust? Which ones don’t you trust? Do you think your media choices reflect your political point of view? Do you and your friends talk about politics and government on social media? Have you ever blocked or unfriended someone over something political he or she posted on social media? Has anyone ever done that to you? Do you worry that you don’t get a diverse enough media diet? Why or why not?

1 Amy Mitchell, Jeffrey Gottfried, Jocelyn Kiley, and Katerina Eva Matsa, “Political Polarization & Media Habits,” Pew Research Center, October 21, 2014, http://www.journalism.org/2014/10/21/political-polarization-media-ha bits/?utm_content=bufferedb5e&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.c om&utm_campaign=buffer.

War zones are always dangerous places for journalists, especially photographers who need to be out on the front lines to capture combat images. Photojournalist James Foley was beheaded by Islamic State militants in August 2014 after having been held hostage since November 2012.95 British photographer Tim Hetherington and U.S. photographer Chris Hondros were killed by a rocket-propelled grenade while covering fighting near the Libyan city of Misrata in 2011. Two others were injured in the attack. Hetherington was best known for codirecting the Oscar-nominated war documentary Restrepo.96 He was in Libya covering the anti–Moammar Gadhafi rebellion at the time he was killed. This was far from the first time Hetherington had been under attack. Photojournalist Lynsey Addario told the New York Times blog Lens about a time when she and Hetherington were pinned down by fire in Afghanistan: “We were ambushed from both sides,” she said.

http://www.journalism.org/2014/10/21/political-polarization-media-habits

http://www.journalism.org/2014/10/21/political-polarization-media-habits/?utm_content=bufferedb5e&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer

Valerie Macon/Getty

Images National Geographic Entertainment/Photofest

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Photographers Tim Hetherington (left) and Chris Hondros were killed while covering combat in Libya during the revolution there in 2011. Hetherington, along with reporter Sebastian Junger, had been nominated for an Oscar for codirecting the documentary Restrepo, which is about the war in Afghanistan. The larger photo above (right) is a still from Restrepo that shows American soldiers fighting in the Korengal Valley region in Afghanistan. Hetherington had faced hostile fire on many occasions while covering war zones around the world.

It was a terrifying situation. I was trying to find a place to hide, to shield myself. And I remember looking over and there was Tim—just calmly sitting up, filming the whole ambush on a video camera. And I thought to myself, “Oh my God, I want to be a photographer like him.”97

WEB More on the risks journalists face. CLICK TO SHOW

Death or injuries are not the only risks reporters face. BBC journalist Alan Johnston was held hostage for 114 days in the Gaza Strip, Fox News’s Steve Centanni and Olaf Wiig were held hostage in Gaza for 13 days, and the Christian Science Monitor’s Jill Carroll was held hostage for three months in Iraq. 98 Fox News cameraman Wiig says that the most serious consequence of attacks on journalists is that the stories from war zones won’t get told:

http://www.cpj.org/

My biggest concern, really, is that as a result of what happened to us, foreign journalists will be discouraged from coming here to tell the story. And that would be a great tragedy for the people of Palestine, and especially for the people of Gaza.99

Terry Anderson, an AP reporter who was kidnapped in Lebanon in 1985 and held hostage for seven years, asks, “Why would anyone undertake this kind of work?” He finds the answer within the life of the Wall Street Journal’s Daniel Pearl. At the time of his kidnapping in Pakistan, Pearl was determined to try to understand why a man would pack his shoes with explosives before boarding an airplane. Pearl was eventually stabbed to death and then decapitated.100 Anderson says that correspondents like Pearl put themselves at risk because they believe in reporting the truth:

They believe it is better for you to know that such things happen than not to know. They believe it is better for you to see the faces of the victims, almost always innocent children and women, and to hear their voices than to let them die ignored and unrecognized. They believe that if they can just make you pay attention, your horror and anger and outrage will match theirs, and you will demand that such things stop. And sometimes, they are right.101

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Video Case 6.3: Journalist on trial.

The Alternative Press

Throughout this chapter we have emphasized mainstream, corporate-run, big-city newspapers. But there is also a wide range of alternative papers that serve specialized audiences such as racial and ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, and young people.

Contemporary Minority/Ethnic Papers. The African American press has had a significant presence in the United States since at least 1827. Nearly four thousand black newspapers have been published in the United States at one time or another.102

Freedom’s Journal was among the first black newspapers; it was founded in 1827 to show all readers, white and black, that “black citizens were humans who were being treated unjustly.”103 Many black editors of the era faced great danger when they printed articles that contained fact-based accusations against whites. Mobs would destroy the newspaper’s offices, and editors who had not left town might be murdered.

Editors of black papers faced further difficulties because much of the intended audience for the papers was illiterate. Moreover, because the majority of the audience was poor, relatively little advertising was available. These editors put their lives and livelihoods at risk publishing a paper that few might read and that probably would lose money.

WEB Check out several alternative papers CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/02/21/link-ch-6-alternative-papers/

Library of Congress

John Sengstacke, part owner and manager of the Chicago Defender, a leading African American newspaper with a national circulation in the middle of the twentieth century, reviews layouts with an assistant.

A variety of emancipation papers followed in the footsteps of Freedom’s Journal, but none had as great an impact as the North Star, which published its first issue in Rochester, New York, on December 3, 1847. Its editor, Frederick Douglass, was known as a gifted writer, and his new paper let readers know that it would be fighting for an end to slavery and the recognition of the rights of blacks. The North Star was read and noticed, but it faced the same problems as earlier black papers, including antiblack violence, a shortage of qualified staff, and a chronic lack of money. What it did have was a clear mission and a distinctive journalistic style. The North Star was published from 1847 until 1860.104

Another important African American paper is the Chicago Defender. Founded in 1905, the Defender was considerably less serious than the North Star, modeling its style on the yellow journalism of William Randolph Hearst. It was designed to be a black paper with a mass following rather than a publication for black intellectuals and white elites. It was also designed to appeal to advertisers and even make money for its publisher.

Clearly, the Defender’s goals included profit as well as advocacy. The paper was sensational, with large red headlines trumpeting stories of crime. By 1920, the Defender had a circulation of more than 280,000, a spectacular number at the time. It reached far beyond Chicago, with two-thirds of its readers located outside the city.105

The Defender encouraged southern blacks to move north to find jobs in Chicago and, not coincidentally, become loyal subscribers to the paper. In retaliation, it was banned throughout the South, and at least two of the paper’s distributors were murdered. Defender editor Robert Abbott

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Is there still a market for alternative papers in the age of social media? What function do media perform for minority communities?

fought for civil rights and an end to lynchings. Abbott, born in 1868, has been credited with founding “the modern Negro press.”106 He demonstrated that black papers could be profit- making institutions, as well as activist publications.

In the 1950s, the Defender became a daily tabloid. For a while it provided extensive, day-by-day coverage of the civil rights movement. In 2003, following the death of longtime publisher and editor John H. Sengstacke in 1997, the Defender and three other papers owned by relatives of Abbott were sold to Real Times Media. In 2011, the Defender laid off its executive editor, news editor, and several staffers in an attempt to cut costs.107

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Currently there are an estimated two hundred African American papers being published, most of them weeklies. Even accounting for digital circulation, readership of these papers has fallen sharply for most of them over the last eight to ten years. The Defender, for example, has dropped from an average circulation of 11,158 in 2009 to 5,477 in 2014. As of 2014, the African American newspaper with the highest readership was the Philadelphia Tribune with an average circulation of 19,265, though a significant portion of that comes from an edition distributed in schools as part of the Newspapers in Education program.108

Spanish-language newspapers are seeing some of the same declines in circulation that have been affecting the rest of the newspaper industry. While their circulation is declining, their advertising revenue is declining only slightly or even holding steady. El Nuevo Herald, published as a companion to the Miami Herald, had a circulation of eighty thousand at its peak, but that declined to approximately forty-eight thousand in 2014.109 But the two papers differ in many more ways than just the language. Journalist Dan Grech, speaking on the NPR radio show On the Media, said, “The Miami Herald, like most U.S. newspapers, prizes objectivity. El Nuevo Herald is more like papers in Latin

America and Europe that push for social change.”110

The Gay Press. The Washington Blade was the oldest and biggest gay weekly paper in the country.114 It was started in 1969 as a one-page mimeograph that was distributed in several gay bars at a time when such establishments were routinely raided by police. More recently, a typical edition of the Blade ran to more than a hundred pages and included news about health, as well as legal and political issues. In the early 1990s, one of the key features of the Blade was the large number of obituaries of men who had died of AIDS; these have become much less numerous in recent years. The Blade became such a success that it expanded outside the District of Columbia in 1997 with the New York Blade.

But in 2009, the recession hit the media industry hard, including the lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT) press. The most prominent of the gay papers to be affected was the Washington Blade. Just weeks after the Blade’s fortieth anniversary party, the paper’s parent company, Window Media, shut down after investors were unable to meet financial requirements from their Small Business Administration financing. With the closing of Window Media, a number of gay papers across the country were shuttered along with the Blade. The New York Blade also ceased publication in 2009, when its parent company, HX Media, closed.115 While many of these papers stayed closed, the Washington Blade did manage a revival under new management in April 2010, and as of 2012 was back to publishing both on paper and online on a regular basis.116

Although the Washington Blade has revived itself, it is the exception rather than the rule. Why did these previously successful publications fail? There are several likely reasons:

• Like many media companies in the late 2000s, the owners of LGBT newspapers were facing severe financial problems. Even though the Washington Blade was reportedly turning a profit up until the time it closed, its parent company was not.

• The audiences for LGBT media were early adopters of online social media and Web-based publications.

SECRET 3 Gay culture has moved into the mainstream. Remember Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center. When gay and lesbian papers were founded in the 1960s and 1970s, reporters at the papers feared for their personal safety. Reporter Lou Chibbaro Jr., an employee of the Blade since 1976, told the Washington Post that, over the course of his career there, he had gone from writing under an assumed name in the 1970s to sitting in the front row at a presidential press conference in 2009. With gay and lesbian issues increasingly being covered by Big Media, there may not be the same demand for gay-specific newspapers now.117

“Underground Papers.” A third kind of alternative paper is the so-called alternative weekly. When these papers got started in the 1960s and 1970s, they were known first as underground newspapers, then as alternative weeklies. Today some prefer to be called just weeklies.118 Among the popular weeklies now are LA Weekly, the Village Voice, and the Chicago Reader.

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS NEWS IN THE AGE OF MOBILE MEDIA

ewspapers may not be selling as many sheets of newsprint as they did in the past, but they are certainly not going away as a place that people turn

to for news. Consider the New York Times. Over the past several years, New York Times owner and publisher Arthur Sulzberger has been talking about how the paper will be changing. He set off a storm of controversy in spring 2007 with a comment at the World Economic Forum in Switzerland: “I really don’t know whether we’ll be printing the Times in five years, and you know what? I don’t care

either . . . The Internet is a wonderful place to be, and we’re leading there.”111

This statement generated comments on almost every major press blog, but what few people noticed was that Sulzberger had been saying the same thing for at least eight years. When he was part of an Advertising Age roundtable in 1999, Sulzberger was asked about the future of the Times. He answered,

I don’t care how they get it 100 years from now. And the key is not caring. It goes back to knowing the audience, and being, not ambivalent, but agnostic, rather. Agnostic about the methods of distribution. Because we can’t afford to be tied to any production process . . . There will still be communities of interest. There will still be a need, both socially and politically, for common and shared experiences.112

Now there is a big difference between “I don’t care how they get it 100 years from now” and “I really don’t know if we’ll be printing the Times five years from now.” But the basic thought, the real point of his comments, is the same—the New York Times is no longer in the business of putting black ink on white paper. Instead, the Times is in the news business and the ad sales business, and it is going to be delivering news and advertising in whatever forms will turn a profit.

Under its new ownership by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos, the Washington Post is now moving from a strategy of being “for and about Washington” to building a national and international readership, where its targeted audience is the English-speaking world. As Columbia Journalism Review’s Michael Meyer wrote in June 2014, Bezos’s main objective for the Washington Post is “reaching the maximum number of customers by putting the Post’s journalism in a package (a tablet, a mobile site) that will draw the greatest number of readers. As it has been with Amazon, his obsession at the Post is finding a way to integrate product into millions of people’s lives in a way they haven’t yet experienced.”113

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TABLE 6.2

Newspaper Audience by Platform

Source: “The State of the News Media 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2015, http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE- NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf

The world that Sulzberger and Bezos are talking about is already well on its way to being a reality. Data from the Pew Research Center show that while a majority of readers still consume their news exclusively as ink on paper, many others do at least some of their consumption in digital formats as well. For a complete look, see Table 6.2.

IS a newspaper still a newspaper if a majority of its readers access it online or with a mobile device? If so, what makes it a newspaper?

DO metropolitan papers (or even local newspapers) become national media like cable news networks if they adopt a digital-first strategy?

DOeS it matter to you whether your favorite news source exists in a form other than digital? (That is, do you care whether there is a newspaper, magazine, or broadcast operation connected with it?)

Alternative weeklies, like so much of the newspaper business, face declining circulation. Only three of the top twenty alternative weeklies had an increase in circulation between 2013 and 2014, with some facing drops of 23 to 25 percent. Among the member papers of the Association of Alternative Newsmedia, average circulation was 4.95 million in 2016.119

Although much of the content of these papers is relatively mainstream, the advertising often includes personals and ads for phone sex lines and massage parlors. Many of these papers, which depend solely on ad revenues, are distributed for free. They attract young people who have left behind daily newspapers and network news in favor of CNN, MSNBC, Fox News, and the Internet.

Just as mainstream newspapers are bought up by corporate newspaper chains, so are alternative papers being consolidated in alternative chains. This trend raises the question of whether these feisty papers will retain their independence and unique voice after becoming part of corporate America, or whether they will lose the qualities that made them popular in the first place. For example, in some cases, new owners have blocked potentially offensive cartoons and April Fools’ Day editions. However, advertisers like the young, affluent readership these weekly papers can deliver, and they have expressed concern that watered-down content will lead to reduced reader interest.120

The Future of News

SECRET 2 Trying to make sense of what is happening to the newspaper business is difficult, in part because of Secret 2 —There are no mainstream media. Some of the most visible segments of the newspaper business are facing major

Bloomberg/Getty Images

National newspaper USA Today is known as much for its online and mobile content as for its print edition. The paper optimizes its sites for display on phones, tablets, and

challenges, which critics are fond of pointing out. But other portions of the business, especially the more rural community papers, are thriving. So to understand the changing newspaper market we have to look at it as several media, not just one.

Are Newspapers a Dying Medium?

No doubt the business of major urban newspapers is changing. Newspapers have been among the slowest media to recover from the 2008 recession. While things are not getting better for newspapers, they have been getting worse at a slower pace recently. Print advertising dollars and circulation numbers are continuing to decline, but digital advertising numbers are up slightly.121

WEB Print is dying; Digital is not. CLICK TO SHOW

On the other hand, the newspapers that can be seen as national in scope (the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times in particular) are holding tight in terms of paid circulation and readership. And smaller newspapers in more rural areas are also doing well. The big problem is with the major urban papers.

The afternoon dailies were the first to feel the effects of the changing media landscape. Afternoon papers, especially the giant papers published by Hearst and Pulitzer, were enormously popular in the early 1900s. These papers were bought by factory workers who started their jobs too early to read a paper in the morning and preferred to buy papers on their way home. Today, however, afternoon papers don’t fit neatly into most people’s

http://news.wgbh.org/2016/01/26/local-news/print-dying-digital-no-savior-long-ugly-decline-newspaper-business-continues

computers.

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

What do you think is the future for newspapers? Do you or your parents read newspapers? If newspapers die off in the “dead tree” format, what will replace them?

schedules. Morning papers are still convenient and valued, but afternoon papers have to compete with the evening television news. Also, it is easier for morning papers to provide up-to-date coverage. Not much happens overnight as the morning paper is being put together, but the afternoon paper’s news is already old. Distribution is also difficult because of heavy traffic during the day, something that morning papers, which go out between midnight and four in the morning, don’t have to worry about.122

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Most of the job losses have been at the major urban papers. According to the 2006 Project for Excellence in Journalism report, the top three newspapers lost no circulation, and the loss at the smaller newspapers was “modest.” The big-city papers that have to cover a large metro area and a host of suburbs are the ones in trouble. And with the loss of staff, it becomes harder for these big papers to serve “as watchdogs over state, regional, and urban institutions, to identify trends, and to define the larger community public square.”123 A good example of a paper undertaking this watchdog function is the Washington Post’s stories about the substandard conditions and care for injured Iraq War veterans at Walter Reed military hospital. In addition to being an important national story, it was an important local story for the Washington, D.C., area.

A few of these papers have suspended their print editions and become exclusively digital publications. Among the most prominent of these was the Christian Science Monitor, which went all digital in April 2009.124 Another paper to go digital- only was the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, which stopped publication in March 2009 but retained an online presence dominated by commentary.125

The change at the Monitor to all-electronic distribution is not as radical as some observers are claiming. Although the Monitor has had a substantial online presence for some time, its daily circulation of approximately fifty thousand copies was relatively small compared to either USA Today or the Wall Street Journal, both of which measure their circulation with the word million attached. The Monitor’s importance comes not from its size, but rather from its overall reputation as one of the country’s best papers. By 2012, its Web site was attracting more than forty- two million page views per month coming from eight to ten million unique visitors per month.126

WEB State of the News Media 2016. CLICK TO SHOW

The Future Is Mobile and Social

One thing that is readily apparent is that while legacy channels like newspapers and broadcast television networks are still very important, the future of the news media will be mobile and social. According to the Pew Research Center, as of the beginning of 2015, 78 percent of the top fifty digital news sites had more traffic coming to their sites and apps from mobile devices rather than from desktop computers.127 Podcast listening is also growing, with mobile phones being a frequently used device for listening.



http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/state-of-the-news-media-2016/

Video Case 6.4: Newswire service hacked.

A study released by the Pew Research Center in May 2016 found that 62 percent of U.S. adults get news sometimes on social media, and that 18 percent do so often. The study found that 70 percent of Reddit users, 66 percent of Facebook users, and 59 percent of Twitter users get news through those social media channels. While mobile is the champ in the raw numbers, visitors using a desktop computer still generally spent more time online than people using mobile devices at forty of the fifty studied online news sites.128

Even for a major newspaper like the New York Times, digital access is beginning to dwarf paper access. The Times had an average daily circulation of fewer than 650,000 in the fall of 2014, but in January 2015, it had fifty-four million unique online visitors. Many of those visitors will be making brief visits, having arrived there following a particular story seen on social media.

SECRETS 5 AND 6 Looking back through this chapter, we can see multiple examples of how online news is being accessed on mobile devices and being shared through social media.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

E JOURNALISTS AND SOCIAL MEDIA

veryone needs to be careful about revealing too much personal information through social media such as Twitter or Facebook, but journalists see this as a

particularly difficult issue because of fears of alienating sources and readers.

Wall Street Journal reporters are not supposed to post about how a story was reported. The paper’s code of conduct says: “Let our coverage speak for itself, and don’t detail how an article was reported, written, or edited.” Reporters are also required to get their editor’s permission before friending a confidential source.1

The BBC has fairly elaborate guidelines on using social media, especially in cases when its workers identify themselves as BBC employees. One rule suggests that BBC employees should not include a political identification online, even if they don’t indicate that they work for the BBC.2

Mathew Ingram, writing for the blog Gigaom, says that this policy, which keeps reporters from engaging with the public, completely misses the point of social media. He writes,

[The] main point being missed is that social media is powerful precisely because it is personal. . . . The best way to make social media work is to allow reporters and editors to be themselves, to be human, and to engage with readers through Twitter and Facebook and comments and blogs.3

CNN global affairs correspondent Elise Labott landed in hot water with a two-week suspension when she made an opinionated tweet about a U.S. House vote to restrict Syrian and Iraqi refugees from entering the United States. She tweeted:

House passes bill that could limit Syrian refugees. Statue of Liberty bows head in anguish.

In general, only commentators are allowed to tweet opinions

that are not “predictably partisan”; reporters are supposed to stick to the facts.4 Labott did not delete the tweet that got her in trouble, but she did apologize for it in another tweet that said, “Everyone, It was wrong of me to editorialize. My tweet was inappropriate and disrespectful. I sincerely apologize.”5

According to Zosha Millman, writing for LXBN, CNN has not made its social media policies for reporters public for several years, but an older version of its policy stated:

If you publicly declare your preference for issues or candidates or one side or the other of the public policy issues CNN reports on, then your ability to be viewed as objective is compromised. We appreciate that everyone has a life outside work and we encourage all of our employees to get involved with the issues that are important within their communities. That said, you need to avoid any appearance of bias or partiality. It’s just one of the responsibilities associated with working for a news organization.6

Who are the sources? You have looked at codes of conduct for journalists using social media at several major news organizations from around the world. What are these news organizations? How do they differ from each other?

What are they saying? These codes of conduct tell reporters under what circumstances they can make posts on social media such as Twitter and Facebook. What kinds of rules do they expect reporters to follow? What happens to journalists who violate these standards?

What kind of evidence indicates that journalists misuse social media?

What examples do the news organizations give to illustrate the problem of journalists misusing social media? What harm do they say this will bring to the news organization?

How do you and your classmates react to journalists using social media?

Do you or your classmates follow the social media feeds of any journalists? What do you discover about them from their tweets or Facebook posts? Do you think that journalists risk appearing biased by what they post to their social media feeds? Do you think it is right for news organizations to restrict how journalists use their social media accounts?

1 Diane Brady, “What’s the Right Corporate Policy for Twitter, Facebook and Blogs?” Businessweek, May 14, 2009.

2 BBC, “Editorial Guidelines,” http://www.bbc.co.uk/editorialguidelines/.

3 Ibid.

4 Erik Wemple, “Updated: CNN Correspondent Suspended Over Tweet About House Vote,” The Washington Post, November 19, 2015, https://www.washingt onpost.com/blogs/erik-wemple/wp/2015/11/19/dear-cnn-are-you-biased/?hpi d=hp_hp-more-top-stories_wemple-cnn-suspension-950pm%3Ahomepage%2F story.

5 Elise Labott, “House Passes Bill That Could Limit Syrian Refugees. Statue of Liberty Bows Head in Anguish,” Twitter, November 19, 2015, https://twitter.co m/eliselabottcnn/status/667425269347704832.

6 Zosha Millman, “Don’t Let CNN Fool You—Uniform Employment Policy is Key,” LXBN, November 23, 2015, http://www.lxbn.com/2015/11/23/dont-let-cnn-fo ol-you-uniform-employment-policy-is-key/.

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CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

http://www.bbc.co.uk/editorialguidelines/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/erik-wemple/wp/2015/11/19/dear-cnn-are-you-biased/?hpid=hp_hp-more-top-stories_wemple-cnn-suspension-950pm%3Ahomepage%2Fstory

https://twitter.com/eliselabottcnn/status/667425269347704832

http://www.lxbn.com/2015/11/23/dont-let-cnn-fool-you-uniform-employment-policy-is-key/

The first newspapers were published in Europe in the seventeenth century. Numerous papers were published in the American colonies, but they faced extensive censorship from the British government. Newspapers printed before the nineteenth century tended to be partisan publications that were supported through high subscription fees and political subsidies. This changed with the rise of the penny press in the 1830s. The penny papers were mass produced on steam-powered printing presses and contained news of interest to ordinary people. The papers cost one or two cents and were supported by advertisers who wanted to reach the papers’ large numbers of readers.

The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were characterized by the yellow journalism of the New York newspapers published by Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. The two publishers tried to attract circulation and attention by running comic strips, advice columns, and sensational stories about sex, crime, and scandal. This was also the time when newspapers started running extensive headlines and illustrations.

The major classes of newspapers today include:

• national papers that attempt to cover issues of interest to the entire country, such as USA Today and the Wall Street Journal;

• metropolitan papers that cover a particular city, such as the New York Times and the Washington Post;

• community papers that serve a particular town or suburb and provide news that readers cannot get elsewhere; and

• alternative newspapers that serve specialized populations rather than a broad, general audience. These can serve ethnic populations within a community, groups such as gays and lesbians, or even young people who are not interested in traditional newspapers.

Evolving technology has brought changes to the newspaper business. The rise of television news resulted in a decline in the number of afternoon newspapers, and changes in news- consumption patterns have drawn audiences and advertisers away from both newspapers and broadcast television news. Digital media have given newspapers new opportunities to

update the news rapidly and fresh ways to deliver the news. Whatever the method of delivery, reporters struggle with the issue of objectivity, especially when the story is close to home and when they are risking their lives to report the news.

Many people claim that the media are biased toward one political view or another. Conservative critics argue that there is a liberal bias arising from the tendency of reporters to be more liberal than the public at large. The liberals’ counterargument is that the press has a conservative bias because most media outlets are owned by giant corporations that hold pro-business views. Finally, some critics argue that the media hold a combination of values that straddle the boundary between slightly left and slightly right of center. The press in the United States began as partisan during the colonial period but adopted a detached, factual, objective style in the 1830s to appeal to a broader audience.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

KEY TERMS

above the fold 130

yellow journalism 132

tabloid newspapers 132

broadsheet newspapers 132

jazz journalism 132

chains 135

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-6/quiz

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-6/

Watergate scandal 138

mainstreaming 138

community press 140

alternative papers 146

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why does Michigan Radio reporter Steve Carmody regret that it took him as long as it did to start covering the Flint water crisis? What was the function of the press in this crisis?

2. How was the penny press responsible for creating our modern version of the newspaper?

3. What makes journalists calling out sources for lying so difficult?

4. How does the news media experience differ between people who are politically liberal and politically conservative?

5. What did New York Times publisher Adolph Ochs mean when he said in 2007, “I really don’t know whether we’ll be printing the Times in five years, and you know what? I don’t care either . . . ”

STUDENT STUDY SITE

edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

Sharpen your skills with SAGE edge!

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.

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http://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

UNCOVER EXTENSIVE RESOURCES

edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

HEAD TO THE STUDY SITE WHERE YOU’LL FIND:

eFlashcards to strengthen your understanding of key terms.

Practice quizzes to

http://edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

test your comprehension of key concepts.

Videos and multimedia content to enhance your exploration of key topics.

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PART III ELECTRONIC MEDIA

Chapter 7

Audio Music and Talk Across Media

Chapter 8

Movies Mass Producing Enterta inment

Chapter 9

Television

Broadcast and Beyond

Chapter 10

Online Media The Internet, Social Med ia, and Video Games

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CHAPTER 7

AUDIO Music and Talk Across Media

Monika Skolimowska/AP Images

Media Library

CHAPTER 7 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 7.1: Early radio and today.

Video Case 7.2: Apple and Beats music.

Video Case 7.3: John Lennon impact.

Video Case 7.4: Garrison Keillor retires.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

Take a video walk through rock ‘n’ roll history from Elvis t o hip hop.

AUDIO

Listen to the podcast Serial.

Listen to excerpts from Amos ‘n’ Andy.

Listen to the BBC World Service.

Use Spotify to listen to this playlist of 100 great Motown songs.

Learn about the role of hip hop in the Arab Spring revolts of 2011.

Find out more about Mountain Stage and listen to podcas ts.

WEB

Learn more about Thomas Edison.

Learn more about Guglielmo Marconi.

Read and see more about broadcasting pioneer David Sar

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/03/06/a-brief-musical-history-in-video/

https://serialpodcast.org/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/20/link-ch-7-amos-n-andy-radio-show/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/

https://open.spotify.com/user/mojomagazine/playlist/6T0uKRW29Y0SMfl3dkMAlA

http://www.wnyc.org/story/133076-north-africas-hip-hop-protest-music/

http://mountainstage.org/

http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edbio.html

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/16/link-ch-7-meet-david-sarnoff/

W WHAT YOU’LL LEARN

noff.

Check out Rob Cesternino’s website with links to his pod casts.

Wondering what all those different radio formats are? W onder no more.

Check out the latest on Rush Limbaugh.

Check out Taylor Swift’s stance against Apple Music.

Read more about what Michael DeGusta has to say about the decline of music sales.

Look at the audio fact sheet from Pew Research Center.

Look at the podcasting fact sheet from Pew Research Ce nter.

Spotify to become the music platform of modern dating.

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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hen the podcast Serial first started in

October 2014 as a spin-off of the long-running and popular public radio magazine show This American Life, expectations were not terribly high. Sarah

http://robhasawebsite.com

http://www.newsgeneration.com/broadcast-resources/guide-to-radio-station-formats/

https://mic.com/articles/121078/taylor-swift-just-took-a-bold-stand-against-i-tunes-and-indie-artists-should-pay-attention#.BsEMKemvY

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/20/link-ch-7-is-the-music-industry-dying-or-just-the-recording-industry/

http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/audio-fact-sheet/

http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/podcasting-fact-sheet/

http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/09/spotify-tinder-dating-makes-sense/500822/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-7/

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-7/quiz

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Describe how major developments in audio technology changed how people experience music.

2 Explain how rock ’n’ roll developed out of two different music traditions.

3 Explain how radio transformed from a channel for interpersonal communication to one for mass communication.

4 Describe how different recording formats have given rise to concerns about the purchasing of music.

5 Discuss how long-tail audio technology is changing the radio and recording industry for everyone from music fans to international stars.

Koenig, the show’s host and executive producer, hoped that the program’s story about a murdered teenager told week by week might attract at least three hundred thousand listeners, which would bring the show to the break-even point economically. Instead, after four episodes of the show’s twelve-episode first season, it was drawing more than a million listeners per week.1

The first season of Serial was an investigation of the then fifteen-year-old murder of high school student Hae Min Lee and the conviction of her seventeen- year-old ex-boyfriend Adnan Syed.2 Much of the program involved interviewing Syed by phone from prison where he is serving a life sentence for a murder he says he had nothing to do with.

Koenig told a reporter from Northwestern University that it was difficult telling such a complex and long story where she got to know the people involved so well. “I think we don’t talk about it very much as reporters because we’re supposed to be all hard-nosed and tough, and, you know, all facts and nothing to do with emotions. But that’s fake. I think that’s fake for all of us. . . . The danger is [if] you don’t ask the hard questions, or you don’t follow the avenues of reporting that could make somebody look bad. But

the hard part is doing it anyway. And we did. We always did. There were . . . I can’t tell you how many horrible and awkward conversations with all kinds of sources where I would have to say, ‘I’m gonna ask you about this,’ or ‘Look, I found out something and I need you to respond to it.’”3

The second season of Serial took on a more global issue, telling the story of Army Sgt. Bowe Bergdahl, who walked away from his post in Afghanistan and ended up being captured and held prisoner by the Taliban for more than five years.4 This story was even more difficult than the first to cover, with more people willing to be interviewed than the producers had ever anticipated. This forced the show to go every other week to give the producers more time to research each episode.5

Although there has been much speculation that listenership of Season 2 was below that of Season 1, Season 2 actually had more listeners while the shows were coming out. But the biggest group of Season 1 listeners joined in by downloading the shows after the season finished airing. (Your author was one of these people.) But here’s the thing—a podcast does not demand you get in on it from the very start. You can join halfway through and still catch up.6

David Carr, the New York Times’ late media reporter, noted back in the fall of 2014 that Serial had become the most popular podcast to date. And while Carr noted that calling “something the most popular podcast might seem a little like identifying the tallest leprechaun, . . . the numbers are impressive for any media platform.”7 While it was airing, it averaged more than 1.5 million listeners per episode. That’s bigger, Carr pointed out, than an episode of the acclaimed comedy Louie on FX.

One reason why Serial—and many other podcasts—was able to reach such a wide audience is that podcasts have gotten much easier to listen to. Ariel Stulberg, writing for the online news site Vox, points out that in the bad old days of ten years ago, “you had to subscribe to podcasts on your computer, download the episodes, transfer the episodes over to your iPod player using a USB cable, and then listen to the episodes on your iPod. And you’d have to repeat this ritual every time new episodes came out, which might happen every day, week, or longer.”8 But now you just need a podcasting app on your smartphone, and your

episodes will download like magic onto a mobile device you always have with you. According to Vox, in 2009, only 10 percent of Americans owned smartphones. By 2016, that number had grown to 71 percent. That makes smartphones a more pervasive medium than cable TV.9

AUDIO Listen to the podcast Serial. CLICK TO SHOW

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Podcasts are part of the reason that NPR no longer really refers to itself as National Public Radio. Charles Kravetz, general manager of public radio station WBUR in Boston, told Carr, “When you talk to young people, they will tell you that they are listening to a lot of public radio, but when you probe more, you find out that they are listening to podcasts.”10 NPR’s podcast listenership grew by 41 percent in 2014. Listening to streaming radio over mobile devices is also growing. According to the Pew Research Center’s 2015 “State of the News Media” report, more than half of Americans age twelve or older have listened to online radio in the last month.11

All this serves to illustrate how we are continuing to redefine what we mean when we talk about radio. After all, our smartphones are all radios, but no one really sees it that way. In this chapter, we look at how the recording industry and radio developed together as our first electronic media. We then examine how society has changed, how cultures have grown and merged, and how audience members have responded to the production of shared music and talk. Finally, we look at where the industries are headed in the twenty-first century.

History of Sound Recording and Transmission

Before there could be mass consumption of popular music, there had to be a means of recording and distributing it. Those means evolved through the decades via Thomas Edison’s early

https://serialpodcast.org/

efforts with the phonograph, the development of the gramophone, and the creation of the long-playing record (LP ) and the compact disc (CD). The recording industry changed the way people consumed music. Before the phonograph and gramophone, the only way to experience music was to perform it yourself or go to a concert. The invention of the record meant that recordings of professional musicians became the standard way to listen to music.

WEB Learn more about Thomas Edison. CLICK TO SHOW

Storing Musical Performances: The Development of the Recording Industry

A variety of stories have been told about Edison and his invention of an early sound-recording machine, the phonograp h, in 1877. One version has him giving a sketch of the phonograph to employee John Kruesi with the instruction, “the machine must talk.”12 Another has him sketching the phonograph, with a note at the bottom telling his assistant to “build this.”13

Edison’s First Recordings. These stories do not do justice to Edison’s true genius or to the difficulties of creating a machine that could record and play back the voice. Running through these myths is the mistaken notion that Edison came up with an idea for sound recording that worked perfectly the first time it was tried. In reality, Edison and his assistants probably worked as long as ten months on the problem of the phonograph before they finally succeeded in recording Sarah Josepha Hale’s children’s rhyme, “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” This famous first recording lasted no more than ten seconds.14

Emile Berliner: Mass-Produced Music. As with so many media inventions, no one was quite sure what to do with Edison’s phonograph. Edison envisioned it as a dictation machine. Reproducing music was only the fourth on his list of

http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edbio.html

Library of Congress

possible uses.15 The biggest flaw with his invention was that Edison’s foil cylinders did not hold up to repeated playing and could not be reproduced. It took the work of a young German immigrant to make the phonograph a truly practical device.

Emile Berliner arrived in the United States in 1870 at the age of nineteen. By 1888, he had developed a method for recording sound on flat discs rather than on cylinders. Berliner’s disc recordings (or records) were louder and more lifelike than the cylinder recordings of Edison or Alexander Graham Bell. Berliner called his device the gramophone. Eventually, however, all record players were called phonographs.

Berliner also helped develop the idea of the recording industry. With Edison’s phonograph, every recording was an original. Berliner viewed his invention not as a business dictating machine, but as an entertainment device. His discs could be reproduced from the original etched-zinc master, allowing publishers to mass produce high-quality—at least for the time— musical recordings almost as easily as printers could reproduce books. Because of this, Berliner saw that “prominent singers, speakers, or performers may derive an income from royalties on the sale of their phonautograms.”16

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A New Way of Publishing Music. By 1935, the term hig h fidelity (hi-fi) was being used to refer to a combination of technologies that allowed recordings that reproduced music more accurately, with higher high notes and deeper bass, than previous forms of recording had allowed. One of the developments that helped pave the way for hi-fi was the electric phonograph (along with the amplifier and loudspeakers), which began replacing the all-mechanical gramophone. By 1949,

Emile Berliner was able to turn Thomas Edison’s idea for a phonograph into a commercially viable product that lasted in one form or another for more than one hundred years.

magnetic tape recorders were commonplace in recording studios. Musicians no longer had to record directly onto discs.

The phonograph changed the face of music. Previously, there were only two ways to store music. The first, and oldest, was for parents to teach their children the traditional songs of their culture. The alternative was written music, or musical scores, that contained symbols for the musical notes to be played. The phonograph provided a revolutionary way of storing the actual music, not just the symbols written down by the composer. It also made possible the storage of non-notated music, such as folk songs or jazz solos, which did not necessarily exist in written form. Music scholar Charles Hamm has compared the phonograph to a musical time machine that allows listeners to go back and hear the actual sounds.17

Transmitting Music and Talk: The Birth of Radio

Around the time the recording industry was getting started, radio was under development as one of the first media to break through the barrier of space. With print media such as books, magazines, and newspapers, the message being transmitted was always on a piece of paper that had to be carried from one place to another. Thus, the fastest form of transportation at the time was also the fastest channel of communication. This meant that it could take weeks for a message to cross the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, or even to get from New York to California or from London to Moscow. But in the nineteenth century, several inventions separated communication and transportation, starting with the wired media of the telegraph and telephone and moving on to the wireless technology of radio.

WEB Learn more about Guglielmo Marconi. CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html

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Samuel Morse’s invention of the telegraph in 1844 allowed messages to be sent electrically, so that they didn’t have to be carried from place to place. No longer did transportation set limits on communication. Messages could travel at the same speed as electrons traveling along a wire.18 By 1866, a telegraph cable extended across the Atlantic Ocean, so even that giant barrier had been conquered.

But the wire itself was a serious limitation. Telegraph wires could break (or be cut, as they frequently were during the U.S. Civil War). To communicate with ships at sea, a wireless telegraph was necessary.

In 1888, German physicist Heinrich Hertz found that he could detect the signal created by an electrical spark on one side of a room with a small loop antenna on the other side. What he had created was essentially the simplest possible radio transmitter and receiver. In 1894, Guglielmo Marconi read about Hertz’s work and concluded that he could create a wireless telegrap h, a point-to-point communication tool that used radio waves to transmit messages. Over a period of several years, he developed a system to send and receive radio signals, with the distance traveled by his signals expanding from the length of his attic to the width of the Atlantic Ocean.19

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Radio as Mass Communication. In 1901, physicist Reginald Fessenden started sending voice signals over a radio in his laboratory. On Christmas Eve in 1905, he broadcast poetry and Christmas carols. Since his continuously modulated voice signals could be received by the same equipment that received Morse code, wireless operators up and down the Atlantic coast heard Fessenden’s amazing broadcast. Though it would be years before regularly scheduled commercial broadcasts would begin, Fessenden had set the stage for broadcasting something more than just Morse code.

Up until 1905, it was the scientists who were driving the radio business with their new technologies, but a young American Marconi employee saw that radio could be much more than just a way to send messages from one person to another. David Sarnoff, born in 1891, was a good student, but the need to help support his Russian-immigrant family led him to leave school after the eighth grade to work full-time. In a story that seems almost too good to be true, the fifteen-year-old Sarnoff went to the New York Herald to try to get a job as a journalist. As luck would have it, the first person he met at the Herald building worked for a telegraph company. Sarnoff went to work for the Commercial Cable Company, and from that point on, he never left electronic media.20

WEB Read and see more about broadcasting pioneer David Sa rnoff. CLICK TO SHOW

The Radio Music Box Memo. In 1915, Sarnoff addressed to the director of American Marconi a document that he considered the most important of his career. The so-called Radi o Music Box memo outlined radio’s potential as a popular mass medium. While Sarnoff did not invent the technology of radio and was not the first person to send out entertainment over the radio, he did summarize what radio could, and indeed did, become. Sarnoff’s insight was that radio could be more than a point-to-point medium, a one-on-one form of communication. As Sarnoff saw it, what was then perceived as the great

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/16/link-ch-7-meet-david-sarnoff/

disadvantage of radio as a telegraph tool—that everyone who listened could hear the message—could be turned into an enormous advantage if one wanted to send out messages that everyone was supposed to listen to. In his memo, Sarnoff wrote,

Video Case 7.1: Early radio and today.

I have in mind a plan of development which would make radio a household utility in the same sense as the piano or phonograph. The idea is to bring music into the houses by wireless.

While this has been tried in the past by wires, it has been a failure because wires do not lend themselves to this scheme. With radio, however, it would be entirely feasible. For example, a radio telephone transmitter having a range of, say, 25 to 50 miles can be installed at a fixed point where instrumental or vocal music or both are produced. . . . The receiver can be designed in the form of a simple “Radio Music Box” and arranged for several different wave lengths, which should be changeable with the throwing of a single

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Library of Congress

switch or pressing of a single button.21

With this memo, Sarnoff essentially invented radio as a social institution. But this new medium would have to wait, because on the eve of U.S. involvement in World War I, the navy was buying all of Marconi’s transmitters. Although American Marconi did not act on Sarnoff’s memo, the young immigrant did not forget the ideas for radio’s potential that he had laid out so clearly.

More Receivers Than Transmitters. One of the biggest surprises of the radio business was that so many more receivers were sold than transmitters. Manufacturers had assumed at the start that there would be almost as many people sending as receiving messages.22 In reality, however, electronic communication was following in the footsteps of print. The earliest books had been copied by hand and passed from one person to another. But just as the printing press provided books, magazines, and newspapers to the masses, radio was now becoming a mass medium.

The RCA Radio Monopoly. During World War I, the navy had taken control of all radio technology, including the patents, and it wanted to maintain control after the war. But civilian government officials in the United States, in keeping with the U.S. tradition of independent media, rejected the idea of all- government control. In an attempt to avoid anarchy in the new medium, the navy advocated creating a private monopoly to control radio development.

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The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was formed as a consortium of four major companies: General Electric, AT&T, Westinghouse, and United Fruit Company. General Electric was included because it made radio transmitters and owned what had formerly been American Marconi. AT&T was the world leader in wired communication, and

Listening to music over headphones is nothing new, but in the 1920s, this farmer needed a wheelbarrow to move the radio set (left) from place to place.

Westinghouse owned many critical patents. But why was United Fruit Company a part of RCA? United Fruit had used radios to connect its boats to banana plantations in South America and while doing so had developed improved technology that the monopoly needed. These four companies brought together the two thousand or so patents that were needed to make the radio business work. RCA not only became a major producer of radio equipment, but it also founded NBC, the first of the major broadcasting networks.23 Westinghouse employee and self-educated engineer Frank Conrad started making Sarnoff’s dream of the Radio Music Box come true. In 1920, with Westinghouse’s support, Conrad started broadcasting music on Sunday afternoons. Westinghouse then built Conrad a more powerful transmitter and put together a broadcast schedule. Pittsburgh’s radio station KDKA was licensed for broadcast on October 27, 1920. Others soon followed. Over in Britain, the British Broadcasting Company was created in 1922. It was initially a privately run company owned by the manufacturers of broadcasting equipment, and its first station was licensed in 1923. In 1927, the company became the British Broadcasting Corporation, a public, noncommercial monopoly for broadcasting in the United Kingdom.24

Radio Advertising. Although KDKA was the first commercial radio station, it was not the first station to run a commercial. KDKA existed to provide programming with the goal of getting people to buy radio sets. But WEAF, broadcasting in New York City, was the first station to sell airtime to advertisers. The modest success of these commercials soon led to radio advertising by oil companies, department stores, and American Express.

The radio industry considered several possibilities for making money. One possibility was to support radio broadcasting with a “tithe” (a specified percentage) of revenues from sales of radios by all manufacturers. Another possibility was to support it with a substantial public endowment. The problem was that neither of these schemes would provide enough money to pay for the high-priced entertainers that listeners wanted to hear. This meant that radio stations were going to need advertising revenue. Ultimately, the rest of the media industry would accept

advertising as the main source of income for broadcasting. In Britain, by contrast, the original BBC was supported by revenue from selling radio receivers and radio-receiving licenses, and it was prohibited from selling commercials.25

Radio Networks. By 1923, more than six hundred radio transmitters were broadcasting in the United States. These stations were limited to the programming they could produce locally. How did these stations fill their broadcast day? In big cities, this was no problem because there were plenty of concerts, lectures, and sporting events to put on the air, but rural areas or small towns were limited in their selection of locally produced culture and entertainment. In another of his famous memos, Sarnoff suggested that RCA form a new company, a network, to provide programming to a large group of broadcast stations, thus making a wider selection of programming available to smaller stations.

RCA established the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) on July 22, 1926. It was the United States’ first major broadcasting network, and it survives today in the form of the NBC television network. NBC was actually two networks, the “Red” and the “Blue.” (See Figure 7.1.) (Due to an antitrust ruling, RCA was eventually forced to sell the Blue network, which then became ABC.)

William Paley and the Power of Radio Advertising. With the growing demand for radio programming, the two NBC networks soon faced new competition, none more significant than William Paley’s Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). Although Paley was born in the United States, his parents were Russian immigrants. He grew up in a wealthy household, and his family owned a successful cigar company. William Paley’s father, Sam, had been approached about advertising his cigars on the fledgling United Independent Broadcasters (UIB) network. Sam Paley was not interested, but William was.

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William Paley bought his first radio ads while his father was away on business, and although Sam initially chastised his son for wasting money, he soon heard people talking about the wonderful show his company sponsored. That was enough to

convince him. William then developed a program called La Palina Smoker that featured an orchestra, a singer, and a comedian. It also resulted in increased cigar sales. Before long William, who was not quite twenty-seven years old, had the opportunity to buy UIB, which he did with help from his father. Once he became president of the network, he promptly renamed it the Columbia Broadcasting System.26 Paley understood better than anyone else that broadcasting was a business that had to make a profit on its own. NBC believed that its mission was to develop programs for the benefit of its listeners, but CBS realized that its real clients were the advertisers who sponsored the programs. Its programs were designed and produced specifically to attract the kind of audience a particular advertiser was looking for. For CBS, the “product” was the audience its programs attracted.

From the Golden Age to the Television Age

The 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s came to be known as the golden age of radio, an era in which radio played the same role that television does today. Radio was the mass medium that served as the primary form of entertainment in the household. This was a big change. It meant that people were getting most of their entertainment from outside the home rather than from within. Instead of being entertained by Aunt Martha and Cousin Sue’s piano duets, they were listening to Bing Crosby’s crooning or Bob Hope’s comedy on the radio.

Golden Age Radio Programming. A wide range of programming was available on the radio during the golden age. Live music, both popular and classical, was a staple. NBC even had its own orchestra that performed on a regular basis. There were also dramas and action programs, including Little Orphan Annie, The Lone Ranger, and The Shadow.

FIGURE 7.1

The Early Red and Blue NBC Radio Networks

Source: Library of Congress.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY WHEN IS A RADIO SHOW RACIST? mos ’n’ Andy has been both praised and criticized. It was condemned as racist by many groups, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), that saw the humor in the show as demeaning and the characters as uneducated and ignorant of city life. The most lasting criticism of the show, however, was that it was produced by whites predominantly for the entertainment of whites. One of my African American students summed up the issue clearly: “So what you are telling me is that the most popular show in the country was about white people making

NBC/NBCU PhotoBank via Getty Images

One of the most popular, and controversial, programs of the golden age of radio was Amos ’n’ Andy, which featured white performers Freeman Gosden (left) and Charles Correll playing the part of two African Americans.

fun of black people?” Clearly a show created under these parameters

wouldn’t be acceptable today.

But Amos ’n’ Andy may not have been as racist as it seemed. Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll were guests of honor at an annual picnic hosted by the Defender, Chicago’s leading weekly black newspaper in 1931. In addition, several members of the black press had good things to say about the show in its early days. It was also one of the few programs that showed African Americans (even if played by whites) in everyday life. The supporting characters in the fictional lodge were middle- class blacks, a social phenomenon many whites at that time didn’t even know existed.1

Who is the source? Who wrote, acted in, and produced the show? Who were the critics of the program?

What are they saying? What are the central criticisms of the program? What are the arguments in support of it?

What kind of evidence is provided? What evidence is provided that the show had support in the

African American community at the time it was aired? What is the evidence that the program was racist? How did these views change over time?

How do you and your classmates react to Amos ’n’ Andy? Was it the fact that the stars were white and the characters were black that made the show racist? If you say yes, why do you think this is so? Is it possible for a program to make jokes about racial issues without being racist? How could it do this?

1 Melvin Patrick Ely, The Adventures of Amos ‘n’ Andy (New York: Free Press, 1991).

Some radio programs from the golden age survive today as television programs, most notably soap operas. The soaps, as they are called for short, are daytime dramas targeted primarily at women; they got their name from the commercials for soap and other cleaning products that ran during the shows. For better or worse, soaps were the first programs targeted specifically at women, a key audience for advertisers. It wasn’t until the advent of television in the 1950s that soaps ceased to be a major part of radio programming.27 CBS’s Guiding Light started on the radio in 1937, moved over to television in 1952, and finished its seventy-two-year run on September 18, 2009. In February 2014, ABC’s General Hospital officially became the longest-running soap opera still in production, having had its thirteen-thousand-episode spread over fifty years of both radio and television.28

Amos ’n’ Andy. Despite the popularity of soap operas, no radio show attracted a bigger audience than Amos ’n’ Andy, the first nationally broadcast daily drama.29 Amos ’n’ Andy began in January 1926 on Chicago radio station WGN as Sam ’n’ Henry. The show was a fixture on the radio, in one form or another, for nearly thirty-five years. Starring on the show were two white actors—Charles Correll and Freeman Gosden—who played the roles of two African Americans, Sam and Henry, who owned the Fresh Air Taxi Company. Correll and Gosden wrote all the scripts themselves and furnished the voices for the title

characters and the members of their fraternal lodge, the Mystic Knights of the Sea. Their names were later changed to Amos and Andy when Correll and Gosden syndicated the show nationally, since WGN owned the characters of Sam and Henry. At the peak of its popularity, Amos ’n’ Andy was played in restaurants and in movie theaters between shows so that people wouldn’t have to stay home to listen.

AUDIO Listen to excerpts from Amos ‘n’ Andy. CLICK TO SHOW

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For the history of radio news, see Chapter 6, “Newspapers and the News.”

The BBC: Voice of the Old Empire. Although in the United States radio is generally seen as an entertainment medium, the BBC has been broadcasting news and culture worldwide for more than seventy years.

AUDIO Listen to the BBC World Service. CLICK TO SHOW

As mentioned earlier, the BBC was created as a public service in the 1920s. In the 1930s, it started broadcasting on the shortwave radio band, which allowed its signals to extend around the world. During World War II, the BBC was the international voice of opposition to the Nazis, broadcasting in more than forty languages, including French, Danish, and Hindi. 30 Listening to BBC broadcasts in Nazi-occupied Europe was a punishable offense.

As of 2015, the BBC’s World Service network had an audience of approximately 130 million on radio, 55 million online, and 148 million on television, including both news and entertainment programming.31 The BBC notes that “the World Service Group is going from strength to strength in both developed and developing markets, with the single biggest audience for any country in the USA (30m), and with more than a third of the total audience on the African continent (100m),

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/20/link-ch-7-amos-n-andy-radio-show/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/

the biggest BBC audience ever seen on any continent.”

SECRETS 5 AND 6 While the BBC started out as a radio service, the network has always been willing to experiment with new channels of communication, which currently means social and mobile media. These include a new Africa page on the BBC Web site, a Thai news stream on Facebook, and an emergency Ebola news service in Africa over the WhatsApp chat service. What’s more, the BBC has redesigned all of its Web sites in twenty-seven languages to be easily read on mobile devices. Even a legacy media outlet as old as the BBC has reached the point where all media are social, and online media are mobile media.

The BBC’s international reach can be seen with the program Focus on Africa. For a continent that depends on radio as its primary medium of mass communication (for more on media in Africa, see Chapter 15), the BBC provides a reliable source of news that is not censored by local governments. To avoid charges of being a colonial voice of white Britain in black Africa, most of the reporting on the show is done by African journalists. Focus on Africa is such an important source of news that it is often rebroadcast on local African stations, sometimes just by taking a shortwave radio and holding it up to the station’s microphone.32

Becoming a Companion Medium. As television began claiming more and more of the broadcast audience, radio was forced to change. No longer were people sitting down in their living rooms to listen to programs on the radio. Instead, they turned on the radio while they did other things: working, washing dishes, driving. Yet radio did not fade away; instead, it reinvented itself as companion radio, a medium that would always be there to keep listeners company. Radio host Julius Lester put it this way:

Radio is so integral a part of us now that we do not consciously notice its presence; it is a member of the family, a companion, and the voices issuing through its speakers are those not of strangers but of friends.33

Radio’s New Look: HD and Satellite

Among the digital technologies closest to terrestrial radio are HD radio and satellite radio.

HD Radio. Terrestrial radio isn’t just sitting still as digital technology takes over the sound business. In many markets, HD radio provides listeners with CD-quality sound and the choice of multiple channels of programming. But HD radio has not really taken off as a new medium. As of 2010, only 7 percent of Americans expressed a strong interest in HD radio, and that was down from 8 percent the year before. So instead of growing, interest is actually declining. HD radio is finding almost no traction in the media world. As of this writing in 2016, the last time HD radio was mentioned in the New York Times was 2013 as part of an article about the challenges facing AM radio. While increasing numbers of cars are offering HD radios either as options or as standard equipment, buyers now have the option of adding streaming Internet audio, such as Pandora or Spotify, to their vehicles. And even without dedicated streaming players in cars, as of January 2015, 35 percent of cell phone–owning adults report using their mobile devices to stream music in their vehicles.34

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Satellite Radio. In 2008, the two competing satellite radio services, Sirius and XM, merged to become SiriusXM. The two services still offer separate programming but have overlap between them. They’ve also united their efforts to promote the idea of subscription radio. SiriusXM finished the first quarter of 2015 with more than thirty million subscribers.35 Neither of the two companies turned a profit as independents, and the newly merged company came close to filing for bankruptcy in February 2009, saved only by an infusion of cash provided by Liberty Media, the owner of major pay TV services.36

The biggest name on satellite radio is former broadcast shock j ock Howard Stern, who moved over to Sirius after his protracted and very public battle with Viacom, which syndicated him, and the Federal Communications Commission

(FCC), which fined his stations more than $2.5 million over a ten-year period.37 Stern seems to be thriving on satellite radio with no corporate or FCC censors to put limits on him. Stern is now in his sixties and has been moving from being primarily a shock jock into being a respected interviewer. “When you go on ‘Stern,’ you get the best insight into who the person is of any medium other than maybe the New Yorker,” writes music industry critic Bob Lefsetz.38

SECRET 3 Of course, not everyone is happy about this transformation from making jokes about the Columbine High School shooting or AIDS to being a serious talk show host. “Howard has become a lot of the things that he always told people not to become,” comedian Jackie Martling (formerly of the Stern show) told the Washington Post. Stern has essentially become one more example of Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.

Satellite radio also provides news and public affairs channels, such as CNN, Fox News, BBC World Service, and NPR. One advantage of satellite over regular radio is that travelers are able to tune in to a channel in New York and listen to it all the way to California. The disadvantage, other than the cost, is that these services can’t provide the depth of local content, such as traffic reports, local news, or weather forecasts—the staples of car radio.39

Streaming/Downloads: Online and Mobile Audio

The original online alternative to radio was streaming audio, also known as Webcasting, or Internet radio. This can take a wide range of forms. Some content is tied to a terrestrial station; others are Internet only, such as Pandora, Spotify, and Apple Music. Pandora, for example, was started in 2005, and as of 2016, 32 percent of Americans age twelve or older listen to Pandora at least monthly, and 50 percent of all smartphone owners have downloaded the Pandora app.40 In essence,

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

How do you listen to audio programs? Do you listen to terrestrial radio? Satellite radio? Podcasts? Streaming services such as Spotify, Apple Music, or Pandora? Why do you use these sources?

smartphones and other mobile devices are becoming the new portable radio, as well as being players for your personal collection of recorded music.

Streaming audio also greatly extends the reach of stations, especially small ones with low- powered transmitters. A 3,800-watt student station that can barely cover fifteen miles over the air can reach an entire city, not to mention the world, through streaming. In essence, streaming can do for a small radio station what cable did for Ted Turner’s local Atlanta television station, WTBS—turn it into a radio superstation that anyone in the world can receive.

The “Infinite Dial 2016” study from Edison Research and Triton Digital found that an estimated 155 million Americans listen to an online radio station or other streaming audio service on a monthly basis.41

Podcasting. A long-tail alternative to terrestrial radio and prerecorded music is the podcast. Podcasts—such as Serial, introduced in the opening vignette—are audio programs distributed over the Internet as MP3 compressed music files that can be listened to online or downloaded to a computer or an MP3 player. They open up distribution of audio programming to anyone with a basic computer and an online connection.

It is difficult to say exactly when podcasting got started, but summer 2004 is the commonly held period because that’s when RSS 2.0, which could handle enclosures (essentially attachments) along with straight text, was released. It’s also when former MTV VJ Adam Curry and software developer Dave Winer wrote the program iPodder. It was one of the first programs available that could download a podcast off the Internet and transfer it to an iPod. It’s much easier to say when podcasting became widely known—February 9, 2005, when USA Today ran two articles about the new medium and

Library of Congress

Rhythm and blues records produced by African American artists (then known as “race records”) were more likely to be played on jukeboxes in clubs than on the radio in the 1940s.

phenomenon in the paper.42 In May 2005, podcasting became easier when Apple’s iTunes software started supporting subscriptions to podcasts. You don’t need an iPod to listen to a podcast (any computer or MP3 player will do), but iPods have a huge portion of the market, and iTunes support means that even those with low levels of technical sophistication are able to listen to podcasts.43

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Rob Cesternino became reasonably well known as a two-time cast member of the hit CBS reality game show Survivor. But since competing on the show, he’s gone from being a star of the short head into being a force in the long tail. He has created the popular site “Rob Has a Website” and a series of podcasts on reality TV under the brand “Rob Has a Podcast.”

He has a crowdfunding Patreon account that brings in more than $8,000 a month and even beat out Serial for a People’s Choice Podcast Award in 2015. Cesternino started Rob Has a Website several years ago when he was unemployed and wanted to do something reasonably secure to earn a living for his family. “For me, it came down to a conscience shift: I wanted to do what was safest for me and my family,” he told the news site 24 Hours Toronto. “But then it hit me that working for some random company without any security wasn’t any safer, either. So I invested all my time into Rob Has a Website. I thought, “Hey, it may not work, but I’m not going to be in any risker position if I were employed in a media company because those

people are let go all the time.”44

Like Doug and Telisha Williams of Wild Ponies, whom we got to know in Chapter 3, Cesternino says that one of the essential parts of working in the long tail is being involved with your fans. He told 24 Hours Toronto, “I want the people listening to me to know they’re in this thing with me. That’s why I’m very responsive on social media and integrate their questions into the show.”

That’s not to say that podcasting is anywhere nearly as popular as radio. As of 2015, 49 percent of Americans said they were aware of podcasts, up only marginally from the 43 percent who were aware of them in 2009. Thirty-six percent of all Americans have listened to an audio podcast, and 21 percent (approximately fifty-seven million) listen to them on a monthly basis. But podcasts have a long way to go to come even close to terrestrial broadcasting in popularity, as 91 percent of Americans aged twelve or older report using AM/FM radio at least once a week.45

WEB Check out Rob Cesternino’s website with links to his pod casts. CLICK TO SHOW

Music, Youth Culture, and Society

Though recorded music was on the market long before there was rock ’n’ roll, rock ’n’ roll was born alongside modern recording technology and flourished on the radio. It was amplified from the start, featured new instruments such as the solid-body electric guitar, and brought together a host of traditions from white hillbilly music to black rhythm and blues. World War II spurred the development of rock ’n’ roll as a cross- cultural phenomenon because blacks and whites mixed socially during the war more often than they had before and because the Armed Forces Radio played a range of white and black musical styles.

http://robhasawebsite.com

Video Case 7.2: Apple and Beats music.

Rock ’n’ Roll and the Integration of Music

Before 1948, recordings by popular black musicians were referred to as race records and included everything from blues to gospel to jazz. But in 1949, the editors of Billboard magazine, which ranks sales of all types of records, started calling the genre rhythm and blues (R&B).46 It was at the same time that “folk” records began to be called “country and western.” 47

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Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images

Elvis Presley is often called the King of Rock ‘n’ Roll but he should probably share that title with Chuck Berry. Both combined elements of hillbilly and R&B into their music, which ultimately led to the creation of a brand-new genre.

Why did R&B emerge when it did? There are a number of reasons. One is that the big bands that played jazz and swing (popular in the 1930s and 1940s) were expensive because there were so many musicians. An amplified blues band with a singer, an electric guitar, an electric bass, and a drummer could make a lot of sound, and great dance music could be built around the strong bass beat.48 Also, African American musicians gained respect when white artists recorded cover versions of black songs.49 On December 28, 1947, a black R&B singer named Wynonie Harris recorded “Good Rockin’ Tonight” in a studio in Cincinnati, Ohio. The song would become a big hit on black jukeboxes and radio stations. Was this the first rock ’n’ roll song? Entire books have been devoted to answering that question, but “Good Rockin’” is as likely a candidate as any. It was a jukebox hit for Harris, and later became a radio hit when covered by young Elvis Presley. It certainly helped give this new kind of music its name. The following year brought a series of songs with the word rock in the title, including “We’re Gonna Rock, We’re Gonna Roll,” “Rockin’ at Midnight,” “Rock the Joint,” and “Rock and Roll.”

By and large, these songs were not played on white radio stations. The problem wasn’t the color of the musicians; it was the meaning of the word rock. As record promoter Henry Glover put it,

We were restricted with our possibilities of promoting this song because it was considered filth. . . . They had a definition in those days of the word “rock,” meaning the sex act, rather than having it known as “a good time,” as they did later.50

Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry: Blending Black and White Musical Traditions. While Harris and numerous other R&B singers were performing rock ’n’ roll in the late 1940s and early 1950s, two stars—one white, the other black—would put rock ’n’ roll on the national and international map. Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry demonstrated what could be done with the blending of hillbilly (or country) and R&B.51

Presley made his first recording in 1953, although no one knows the exact date. Marion Keisker, the woman behind the desk at Memphis Recording Service, remembered a young man who recorded a couple of songs on a ten-inch acetate disc for his mother. When she asked Presley whom he sounded like, his response was “I don’t sound like nobody.”52 Keisker had the good sense to make an extra copy of Presley’s recording and file it under the heading “good ballad singer.” “The reason I taped Elvis,” she explained, “was this: Over and over I remember Sam [Phillips, Keisker’s boss] saying, ‘If I could find a white man who had the Negro sound and the Negro feel, I could make a billion dollars,’ this is what I heard in Elvis.”53

The man who would become known as “the king” soon started performing hillbilly music in Memphis and recording for Phillips, starting with “Good Rockin’ Tonight.” To Presley, performing was almost a religious experience: “It’s like your whole body gets goose bumps,” Presley said. “It’s like a surge of electricity going through you. It’s almost like making love, but it’s even stronger than that.”54

Just as hillbilly singer Elvis Presley borrowed from R&B, so blues guitarist Chuck Berry borrowed from the white hillbilly singers. The song “Maybellene” was based on an old fiddle tune called “Ida Red” and supposedly got its name from a mascara box. Others claim that Maybellene was the name of a cow in a third-grade reading book. Either way, the song combined a hot guitar, a hot car, and a hot woman.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Take a video walk through rock ‘n’ roll history from Elvis t o hip hop. CLICK TO SHOW

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Berry wanted to break out of some of the restrictions of traditional blues. While his audience at the clubs wouldn’t stand for any change in the basic blues style, they had no problem with Berry’s original rendition of an old white fiddle tune. Berry’s unconventional style made people sit up and take notice. Berry recalls people talking about his music at an African American club:

Some of the clubgoers started whispering, “Who is that black hillbilly at the Cosmo?” After they laughed at me a few times, they began requesting the hillbilly stuff and enjoyed trying to dance to it. If you ever want to see something that is far out, watch a crowd of colored folk, half high, wholeheartedly doing the hoedown barefooted.55



http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/03/06/a-brief-musical-history-in-video/

The Supremes

Motown Records put together a number of African American girl groups, including the Supremes (pictured) and Martha and the Vandellas.

Video Case 7.3: John Lennon impact.

Presley started playing “Maybellene” in Louisiana while Berry was playing it in New York. This illustrates a key feature of the birth of rock ’n’ roll: Two previously segregated types of music were coming together and becoming a new musical form—one that teens couldn’t get enough of.

Rock Radio. Another reason for rock ’n’ roll’s growing popularity was that DJs such as Alan Freed and Dewey Phillips were playing rock ’n’ roll and R&B records on their radio shows.

On October 29, 1949, Phillips started a show on WHBQ in Memphis called Red, Hot & Blue that played R&B records. The show became an instant hit and quickly went from forty-five minutes in length to three hours. WHBQ’s program director remembered it this way: “He got something like seven requests his first night. Well, the next night, I don’t know the exact amount, but it was more like seventy requests. Then, even more incredible, the next night, it was closer to seven hundred.”56 Although Phillips was white, he played music by black artists and had a substantial audience of black radio listeners in Memphis. This was unusual at a time when most stations appealed to either the white or the black community, but not to both.

The Changing Face of Popular Music

The 1950s were a period of transition for popular music, with tastes shifting from the Tin Pan Alley songs of an Irving Berlin or Cole Porter to the songs of a Chuck Berry or Buddy Holly that were rooted in R&B. Already firmly established through concerts and radio airplay, rock ’n’ roll now took center stage with

records produced by artists ranging from girl groups to the Rolling Stones.

Motown: The Sound of Young America. No record label was more important in bringing R&B to the masses than Detroit’s Motown Records. Motown, founded by Berry Gordy Jr., was the most successful of the independent record labels and one of the most successful black-owned businesses.

SECRET 3 Popular culture scholar Gerald Early says that the real importance of Motown was that it took black music and sensibilities and made them important for the public at large. He also credits Motown with establishing a black popular culture at a time when jazz—especially the improvisational work of Miles Davis and John Coltrane—was becoming highbrow culture. One of the big accomplishments of Motown was that it no longer published songs by black artists for white artists to cover, as was common practice in the 1950s and early 1960s. Instead, the African American Motown artists themselves turned out the hits. Motown moved black music into the mainstream and out of the world of race records, thus illustrating Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.57

AUDIO Use Spotify to listen to this playlist of 100 great Motown songs. CLICK TO SHOW

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The move of African American music and artists into the mainstream mirrored larger changes in society. In May 1961, African American Freedom Riders staged sit-ins to desegregate restrooms and lunch counters in bus stations in the South. In October 1962, the Motown Revue was doing its part to promote desegregation with such established acts as the Marvelettes, Marvin Gaye, and the Supremes. While the Motown artists were not Freedom Riders, they broke some of the same ground on their tour. Mary Wilson of the Supremes put it this way:

https://open.spotify.com/user/mojomagazine/playlist/6T0uKRW29Y0SMfl3dkMAlA

Michael Ochs Archive/Getty Images

The Beatles’ album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, along with the Beach Boys’ Pet Sounds and Frank Zappa’s Freak Out, was among the first rock concept albums that brought together a set of songs on a common theme.

Our tours made breakthroughs and helped weaken racial barriers. When it came to music, segregation didn’t mean a thing in some of those towns, and if it did, black and white fans would ignore the local customs to attend the shows. To see crowds that were integrated—sometimes for the first time in a community—made me realize that Motown truly was the sound of young America.58

Motown’s years as an independent company came to an end in 1988 when Gordy sold the label to Boston Ventures for $61 million. Motown was subsequently sold to PolyGram in 1993 for $301 million. It still exists, but it is now a small unit within media giant Universal Music Group.

The lasting effect of Motown artists can be seen with the huge outpouring of affection for Michael Jackson following his death in 2009.

The British Invasion: A Rougher Rock. In the 1960s, rock underwent a number of changes. The most significant of these were brought about by groups that came to the United States from England. The so-called British invasi on began in 1964 and brought a rougher edge to white rock ’n’ roll with the music of the Beatles, Dusty Springfield, the Hollies, the Who, and, of course, the Rolling Stones. To appreciate the influence of these British bands, one need only look at the charts. In 1963, only one British band made it onto Billboard’s charts; in 1964, thirty-four did so.59

Traditionally, recorded music by popular groups was a means of promoting their live shows. But by 1966, it had become almost impossible for the Beatles to

perform live because their screaming fans drowned them out. In fact, Beatles scholar Allan Moore notes that by 1966 the band had ceased touring because they couldn’t hear themselves play. Instead, they became a studio band whose music was heard primarily on records and the radio.60 In 1967, the Beatles recorded an album, Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, that transformed rock in a number of ways: It was one of rock’s first concept albums—an album that brought together a group of related songs on common themes. It was also one of the first rock albums that was more than a collection of hit singles and their flip sides.61

What exactly is the concept of this album? Many of the songs have autobiographical themes derived from John Lennon’s and Paul McCartney’s childhood memories of Liverpool, England. Also, the songs are supposedly being played by the fictional band of the title.62

Interpretations of the songs on this album have varied. Some claim that “Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds” is about the drug LSD. Lennon said that the song was based on a picture his son Julian drew when he was four years old. Others say that McCartney’s song “Fixing a Hole” is about injecting himself with heroin, though McCartney’s own account claimed that it was about renovating an old farmhouse he had recently purchased. In 2004, McCartney acknowledged publicly that there are, indeed, drug references in many Beatles songs, including in “Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds.”63 Part of what makes Sgt. Pepper so successful, however, is that it doesn’t matter which interpretation the listener supplies. They all work. The members of the band were more concerned about how the songs sounded than what they meant.

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Sgt. Pepper gave rise to albums that were designed to be played from beginning to end, though these two-sided vinyl records had to be turned over at the twenty-three-minute mark. The seamless presentation of seventy minutes of music would have to wait for the 1980s and the advent of the CD.

Sgt. Pepper highlights a change that was starting to take place in the music business: The LP was replacing the single as rock

music’s main format. Moore notes that in 1967 bands still relied primarily on singles to promote themselves and albums were of secondary importance. But that was changing with groups such as Cream and Led Zeppelin focusing on albums. Led Zeppelin’s greatest hit, “Stairway to Heaven,” was never released as a single, probably because it wouldn’t fit the short format of the 45.64

The Growing Importance of Producers. As popular music increasingly became a studio creation, the albums’ producers became as important as the artists themselves. The main job of a producer is to put together the right songs, songwriters, technicians, and performers in the creation of an album.

Rock historian Charlie Gillett argues that the producer is the person who is responsible for making hit records. Producer Rick Rubin revitalized Johnny Cash’s career near the end of his life with a series of albums that included songs by U2, Nine Inch Nails, and Tom Petty, among others. He’s also produced albums for other artists including Kanye West, Jay Z, Adele, Lady Gaga, Lana Del Rey, Ed Sheeran, and Eminem. Producer Kenneth “Babyface” Edmonds has created or revived the careers of such artists as Aretha Franklin, Toni Braxton, Whitney Houston, Beyoncé, Zendaya, and Ariana Grande. Unlike the producers and writers of the Motown era, Edmonds occasionally goes into the studio himself. Although he has produced more than 125 top-ten R&B and pop hits, Edmonds is quick to give praise to the artists who perform his songs.65 With rock, the producer shapes the sound and becomes an integral part of the musical process. Few albums demonstrate this as clearly as Pink Floyd’s Dark Side of the Moon. Starting in 1973, Dark Side of the Moon spent 741 weeks on the Billboard Top 200 album chart, far longer than any competitor (though other albums have sold more copies). Alan Parsons produced the album, released in 1973, which paints a bleak picture of “alienation, paranoia, schizophrenia.” But more than any message of the songs, Dark Side of the Moon presents an incredible sonic picture. It uses stereo to its fullest extent, sending sounds swirling around the listener’s head. Parsons recorded a wide variety of voices talking, laughing, and screaming, which were mixed in at various times and speeds.66 Pink Floyd continued the direction of the Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper album, in which rock was music made to be recorded and constructed as much as performed.

REUTERS/AMR ABDALLAH DALSH

Mohamed El Deeb, a twenty- eight-year-old North African hip-hop

The role of the producer continued to grow throughout the 1970s with the advent of disco and a range of heavily produced club music, including rap, house, and techno. Disco was primarily a means of getting people to dance. It came out of the gay male subculture in New York City and was popularized in the 1977 hit movie Saturday Night Fever. Disco was in many ways the ultimate producer music, in which the beat and the overall sound created by the producer mattered more than the vocals or talents of the instrumentalists.

Why does disco matter today? First and foremost, it was an entire genre of music that depended on technology and the producer, building on trends started by bands such as Pink Floyd and the Beatles. It also made black and Latino music more important commercially and led the movement toward the splintering of pop music into a range of genres.67

Hip-Hop Brings Together DJing, Dancing, Rapping, and Art. While the terms hip-hop and rap are often used interchangeably, rapping is really just a single facet of the larger world of hip-hop. According to English professor Mickey Hess, the hip-hop sound got started in the 1970s, when DJs began name-checking where they were from, including their cities, streets, or even neighborhoods. Although the music went national, it was still local in its orientation and was a statement of pride about the rapper’s home. As Mr. Cheeks from the Lost Boyz put it, “It’s only right to represent where I’m from.”68

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Where did hip-hop begin? Many sources point to a block party in the Bronx, New York, on August 11, 1973, at which DJ Kool Herc is credited with inventing the breakbeat, “using two turntables and two copies of the same record to loop the same instrumental break over and over.”69 But Hess argues that it wasn’t so neat and clear-cut of a start. He claims instead that credit

singer, poses in front of a wall decorated with graffiti near Tahrir Square in Cairo, Egypt, during pro- democracy protests in the summer of 2012. El Deeb writes and performs songs inspired by the protests in Egypt.

goes to a series of DJs working in Harlem nightclubs using similar techniques along with doing “call-and-response” from the audience. Hess lists four main elements of hip-hop culture:

• MCing—The spoken word or rapping over recorded music • DJing—Playing recorded music from multiple sources,

oftentimes overlapping

• B-boying—Physical movement, a style of hip-hop dancing, often referred to as breakdancing

• Graffiti art—The visual images of the culture

These separate elements show how hip-hop evolved from a variety of areas of the country, with DJing coming out of New York, graffiti art growing out of styles popularized in Philadelphia, and the dancing coming from both New York and Los Angeles. The MCing, or rhyming, is credited as coming from the work of a variety of rhyming radio hosts in cities such as Detroit, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Austin.

SECRET 3 Rap music started to spread out of the Bronx via cassettes that were passed from person to person. Remember, however, that these were analog recordings that couldn’t be copied repeatedly like digital recordings can today. There was also a high level of borrowing/stealing/remixing going on even at the very beginning. Sugarhill Gang’s “Rapper’s Delight,” which introduced rap and hip-hop into the mainstream, used lyrics from a Bronx MC who hadn’t released a record. Blondie’s rap hit “Rapture,” which came out in 1980, was among the first rap songs to receive radio airplay on stations that appealed to white audiences70 (thus showing us another example of Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center).

Understanding the importance of a rapper’s roots and locale is key to understanding how hip-hop has spread around the world.

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do you listen to hip-hop or other sampled music? Do you think hip-hop artists are stealing from the musicians who created the sampled music? Why or why not? Is music created with samples something original?

Global rappers give shout-outs to homes as varied as Norway, Japan, Egypt, and Korea. Linguistics professor Marina Terkourafi talks about how hip-hop has followed in the footsteps of rock and jazz in moving out of the United States and then blending with traditional and regional musical styles from around the world.71 She writes that while the central themes of hip-hop in the United States have typically centered on race and gender, globally it has been used to protest against the status quo and raise awareness of local issues.

AUDIO Learn about the role of hip hop in the Arab Spring revolts of 2011. CLICK TO SHOW

Libyan exile Abdulla Darrat told NPR’s On the Media how North African hip-hop was used to fuel rebellion against oppressive political leaders such as former Libyan strongman Moammar Gadhafi during the Arab Spring movement of 2011. Given that these artists could not perform openly, their videos got distributed through social media such as Facebook and YouTube. Darrat says that these songs give voice to protesters who otherwise would not be heard: “What the world really needs to understand about the struggle in these regions is there is a youth that has hope. They have optimism about the future, but they see lots of obstacles in their way.”72

Country: Pop Music for Adults

Country music was born in the late nineteenth century, evolving out of a range of musical forms that included Irish and Scottish folk music, Mississippi blues, and Christian gospel music.73 It was originally called “old-timey” or hillbilly music.

http://www.wnyc.org/story/133076-north-africas-hip-hop-protest-music/

Rob Verhost/Getty Images

Country singer/songwriter Johnny Cash was making news as a musician from his start in the 1950s until his death in 2003.

Country grew in the 1950s and 1960s with the so-called Nashville sound that was popularized by musicians such as Jim Reeves, Eddy Arnold, and Patsy Cline. It was at about this time that Elvis Presley took the hillbilly sound in another direction with early rock ’n’ roll, but country never disappeared.

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In 1980, many Americans rediscovered country music due to the hit film Urban Cowboy, starring John Travolta, and the 1990s and 2000s saw the further growth of country music thanks to songs from artists such as Rascal Flatts, the late Johnny Cash, and Carrie Underwood, as well as the soundtracks of movies such as O Brother, Where Art Thou? and Walk the Line.74 In 2015, Billboard magazine published a list of the top thirty country artists of the modern era. The top five were

5. Dolly Parton, who for all her star power in the studio and on stage is also a top songwriter;

4. Hank Williams, who only had a five-year career as a recording artist and died more than sixty years ago, but continues to be the standard by which country songwriters are judged;

3. Willie Nelson, who is known both for songs by others he’s recorded and for songs he’s written (he wrote “Crazy,” one of the most recorded country songs ever);

2. Garth Brooks, who has been the top-selling country album artist; and, in the number-one spot,

1. Johnny Cash, the man in black who really had multiple careers in music, being rediscovered by many young people with his Rick Rubin–produced American Recordings series.75

Why does country music continue to be so popular? “Country music is about lyric-oriented songs with adult themes,” according to Lon Helton, a music journalist. “You’ve probably got to be 24 or 25 to even understand a country song. Life has to slap you around a little bit, and then you go, ‘Now I get what they’re singing about.’”76 Unlike the sex and drugs of rock ’n’ roll, country deals with suburban issues like “love, heartache, family ties, and middle-aged renewal.”77

Finding a Niche: Popular Radio Formats

With the coming of television, radio was forced to change and no longer tried to be all things to all people. Instead, each station now appeals to a particular audience. Teenagers don’t have to listen to the same programs as store clerks; stockbrokers don’t have to listen to the same programs as college students. Want rock ’n’ roll? There’s a station for it. Oldies? Another choice or two. News? Talk? Classical music? Soul? If you live in an urban area, chances are you can find stations providing all these different radio formats. Over the past decade, radio has continued to change, undergoing a massive change of ownership and seeing the growth of numerous new competitors.

The most popular radio format in 2015 in the United States was News/Talk, with 8.9 percent of stations carrying it (see Table 7.1), followed closely by Pop Contemporary Hits, which command 8.2 percent of the national audience. Pop Contemporary Hits format radio is what used to be known as Top 40 and is made up of a range of current hits; while it would seem to be primarily a teen format, more than half of its audience is older than twenty-five. Country (a combination of Country and New Country) drew a 7.9 percent share. Adult Contemporary (AC) and Soft AC consist of light and soft rock and are designed to appeal to listeners aged twenty-five to forty, especially women; it draws about 7.4 percent of the audience. While audience members might call lots of what they listen to oldies, the radio business breaks it down into a variety of categories, including Classic Hits, Classic Rock, and Oldies. Rhythmic Contemporary Hits Radio was a format developed to appeal to the United States’ changing ethnic makeup, with listeners spread fairly evenly among black, Hispanic, and “other.” 78

TABLE 7.1

Top Ten Popular Radio Formats

Source: “Tops of 2015: Audio,” Nielsen, December 17, 2015, http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/tops-of-2015-audio.html. Note: Audience portion is of 6+ persons. Stations include AM, FM, HD radio, and streamed stations.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

WHEN IS RECYCLED MUSIC ORIGINAL? MASH-UPS AND COVERS

rying to explain what Gregg Gillis, aka Girl Talk, does to someone who grew up in the days of the Doors or the Ramones can be a bit challenging. He’s a DJ who

plays clips from multiple songs at the same time. Put more elegantly, Gillis is a mash-up artist—someone who combines two or more pieces of music to create something new.1

As an example, one of the most famous mash-ups is DJ Danger Mouse’s Grey Album, a combination of the vocals from rapper Jay Z’s Black Album and samples from the Beatles’ 1968 album The Beatles (better known as the White Album). While Jay Z had created the a cappella version of his album specifically for mash-up use, Beatles publisher EMI was not amused and attempted to get the Grey Album suppressed.2 As great as the work by people such as Danger Mouse may be, nothing really compares to the level of mash- ups done by Pittsburgh’s Gillis. Gillis has a degree in biomedical engineering, but several years ago he quit his day job to create the incredible mixes that have gone into his five albums. His 2010 album All Day reportedly contains four hundred different samples—typically some kind of rapping combined with samples of pop, rock, or soul music from the last forty or fifty years. The artists he uses include the Doors and the Ramones.

Both Danger Mouse and Girl Talk have given away their albums online, and none of the samples have been licensed or paid for use. Capitol/EMI, the Beatles’ publisher, sent out a cease-and-desist letter telling Danger Mouse and the Web sites hosting his work to take down the album because it infringed on the Beatles’ copyright. But when the album remained online, nothing happened to those distributing the content. And so far no one has sued Girl Talk’s Gillis for his massive sampling.

Were he to attempt to license the music, Gillis estimates that it would cost several million dollars and that many of the songs wouldn’t be available at any price. According to Duke law professor James Boyle, speaking on NPR’s On the

Media, there may be a range of reasons no one has gone after Gillis:

There is the story that the labels learned from DJ Danger Mouse and don’t want to risk creating the Che Guevara of the digital sampling age, the lost hero to which all of us will offer reverence and thus make him even more popular.

Another story is, they’re going, hmm, this is really interesting. Let’s let him run a bit, and when we finally see how things are playing out then we’ll figure out a way of getting a revenue stream out of this. A third story is they realize it’s actually fair use and they don’t want a bad precedent brought against them. And then a fourth one is that they are gibbering in terror and are so scared by this new phenomena, they’re incapable of rational action of any kind and so are caught in a kind of fugue state, as the digital music scene develops.3

Gillis told Wired that artists are still coming to terms with the implications of remix and collage culture. “Sharing ideas and being influenced by those who come before you has always been the foundation of progress in art and music,” he said. “I think it’s become a lot more obvious in the internet age, though. People are more directly interactive with what they consume. . . . It’s commonplace now for people to take pre-existing media, recontextualize it and show it to the world.”4

Looking at all this creativity and the attention that Girl Talk’s All Day has attracted, we can see Secret 2 coming into play:

SECRET 2 There are no mainstream media. Girl Talk’s album All Day was not released through traditional “mainstream” media operations. Yet it was highly acclaimed and consumed by people across the country.

Who is the source? Who is Gregg Gillis? Who is DJ Danger Mouse?

What are they saying? How do these mash-up artists create music? What are the central criticisms of how they make music?

What has been the response to their work? How have existing music publishers and performers reacted to their work? What has happened to them legally?

How do you and your classmates feel about mash-ups? Do you think that mash-ups are original creations? Why or why not? Do you think samplers (such as Gillis or other hip- hop artists) are stealing from the musicians who created the sampled music? Why or why not? Do we get more interesting musical/creative work when we move beyond rigid ownership of music and art? Who gets hurt by this?

1 Ralph Hanson, “Meet Girl Talk’s Gregg Gillis,” Living in a Media World, May 24, 2011, www.ralphehanson.com/2011/05/24/meet-girl-talks-gregg-gillis/.

2 Bill Werde, “Defiant Downloads Rise From Underground,” The New York Times, February 25, 2004, www.nytimes.com/2004/02/25/arts/music/25REM I.html.

3 Jamie York, “They Say That I Stole This,” On the Media, March 12, 2010, http: //www.wnyc.org/story/132705-they-say-that-i-stole-this/.

4 Scott Thill, “Girl Talk’s Gregg Gillis Lets It RiP on Copyfight, Tour Vlogging,” Wired, January 8, 2009, www.wired.com/underwire/2009/01/shifting-mass- a/.

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Spanish-Language Broadcasting. As the Hispanic population in the United States, especially in the Southwest and Florida, continues its rapid growth, Spanish-language stations have been an important part of the market. But the recession of 2009 hit Spanish-language stations hard. As of 2015, there were more than five hundred radio stations running a Spanish-language format, of which no more than thirty carried news and talk programming.79 Spanish-language formats include multiple

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/05/24/meet-girl-talks-gregg-gillis/

http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/25/arts/music/25REMI.html

http://www.wnyc.org/story/132705-they-say-that-i-stole-this/

http://www.wired.com/underwire/2009/01/shifting-mass-a/

Icon Sportswire Via AP/ AP Images

English-speaking soccer fans have turned to Spanish broadcasts because of the energy in the commentary. Throughout his successful career, Enrique Bermúdez has coined a series of phrases that are well known by soccer fans including “como jefe,” (like a boss) and “tenla, te la presto” (here, you can borrow it).

styles of music, news/talk/information, and religious programming.80 The Los Angeles Dodgers baseball team has two sets of play-by- play announcers, one for English broadcasts, and the other for the team’s Spanish- language network. And ESPN has a Spanish-language, all- sports radio network based out of Miami that focuses heavily on soccer games and news.81

While Spanish-language stations have traditionally gotten substantial listenership from the immigrant community, the fact that an increasing proportion of the American Hispanic population was born in the United States means that larger proportions of the population are either English speakers or bilingual.82

Talk Radio: Politics, News, Shock Jocks, and Sports

As mentioned earlier, news and talk is currently the top radio format. Talk radio has exploded during the past twenty-five years. In 1985, only 200 stations carried the format; by 1995, that number had grown to approximately 1,900. Marvin Kalb, formerly with CBS News, credits talk radio with providing a sense of community that people don’t find anywhere else: “If we still gathered at town meetings, if our churches were still community centers, we wouldn’t need talk radio. People feel increasingly disconnected, and talk radio gives them a sense of connection.”83 Talk radio is also important to the radio industry as more and more young people turn away from broadcasting to digital sources of music.84

WEB Wondering what all those different radio formats are? Wo nder no more. CLICK TO SHOW

Political Talk. Talk radio is a major source of political information for 44 percent of Americans, and the political information they are getting from talk radio is largely conservative.85 Although journalism generally values balanced coverage, New York radio host Brian Lehrer notes that such coverage doesn’t mesh well with the nature of talk radio:

Some people’s views don’t fit neatly into traditional conservative or liberal labels. But that’s not what’s wanted in the media these days, especially in talk radio. They want you to be 100 percent confident that you have the truth and 100 percent predictable in your views.86

WEB Check out the latest on Rush Limbaugh. CLICK TO SHOW

Carl Anderson, market president at iHeartMedia, says that radio stations are looking for entertaining hosts who have a strong point of view and the ability to “connect with an audience.”87 Overall, talk radio leans strongly conservative, with Rush Limbaugh and Sean Hannity being the two most important hosts, according to industry magazine Talkers. If you look at the publication’s list of the top ten hosts, six are clearly conservative, one covers financial issues, two lean progressive, and one is Howard Stern.88

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Shock Jocks. Not all talk radio is political; some is just plain rude. The shock jocks, including Opie and Anthony (whose real names are Gregg Hughes and Anthony Cumia) and Todd Clem (known as “Bubba the Love Sponge”), have been described by critics as “disgusting,” “racist,” and “repulsive.”89 Nationally syndicated Opie and Anthony were fired after airing the sounds of two people having sex in a New York cathedral, but Clem was kept on the air after slaughtering and barbecuing a wild boar

http://www.newsgeneration.com/broadcast-resources/guide-to-radio-station-formats/

https://mic.com/articles/121078/taylor-swift-just-took-a-bold-stand-against-i-tunes-and-indie-artists-should-pay-attention#.BsEMKemvY

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do you listen to any shock jocks? If so, which ones? Should shock jocks such as Opie and Anthony be allowed on broadcast radio, or should they be forced onto alternative audio channels such as satellite broadcasting or the Internet? Why or why not?

during his show. Opie and Anthony are apparently off the air for good as a team following repeated firings by radio services and fights between the two hosts. Howard Stern, the most controversial of the shock jocks, left terrestrial radio in 2006 for satellite broadcasting, where he was a multiyear contract worth $500 million. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, while Stern can still be outrageous on SiriusXM satellite radio, he has focused more in recent years on high-quality in-depth interviews. In 2015, Stern signed a new five-year contract with SiriusXM reportedly worth $80 million a year for him and his staff.90

All-Sports Radio. Sports programming occupies a growing segment of the talk format. The cable television network ESPN now provides sports radio programming and even has its own station in Chicago.91 Some stations have gone so far as to adopt what has been called a “guy” radio format. “This isn’t sports radio, it’s guy radio,” says forty-something radio host Glenn Ordway of Boston’s WEEI. “It’s what guys our age talk about in bars and on golf courses. . . . This is not broadcasting we’re doing, it’s narrowcasting.”92

Although it’s a narrow segment of the radio-listening public, the dedicated, loyal, and fanatic fans are very attractive to advertisers. “What separates sports radio from other radio is the passion of its listeners, and that makes it fertile hunting ground for us,” says one major guy radio advertiser. “These are men who scream at their radios instead of punching the dial looking for the next cool song.”93

Public Radio

With approximately eleven thousand commercial stations, radio is a big business in the United States. But for all the power and

Scott Olson/Getty Images

Ira Glass, host of This American Life, has become one of the most distinctive and popular voices on the US public airwaves.

reach of the commercial radio business, public radio provides a significant alternative.

NPR. Public radio was authorized by the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act, which was designed primarily to create educational television. The act allocated stations at the lower end of the FM dial for noncommercial broadcasting, and most of the station licenses went to colleges and universities. In 1971, National Public Radio (NPR) went on the air with its first program, the evening newsmagazine All Things Considered.94

One thing All Things Considered can do that other news shows can’t is present the news in depth. Eight-minute-long stories are not unusual, and twenty-minute stories are broadcast when the topic merits the length. This occurs in a medium in which thirty seconds is considered a long story.

The public radio network remained relatively small until two major developments occurred. The first was the growth of the satellite delivery of network programming. Satellite allows good signals go out to all stations no matter how remote they are. The second development was the installation of FM radios in most private cars. Since public radio was almost exclusively on the FM band, the advent of FM car radios made it possible to reach interested people with enough time to pay attention. Not surprisingly, NPR’s biggest audiences are in cities whose workers have long commutes.95 By 2016, there were 950 NPR member stations reaching a monthly audience of 33.6 million.96 NPR launched the two-hour news program Morning Edition in 1979, and since then it has become the most-listened-to morning news show in the country, with 12 million listeners tuning in every week. This is more than the Today show and Good Morning America audiences combined.97 Of course, this isn’t a completely fair comparison because Morning Edition is on

radio and the other two shows are on television.

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Although NPR is widely respected for the depth and quality of its reporting, it has become embroiled in a series of partisan controversies. In 2010, the network fired contributor Juan Williams over comments he made on Fox News about some people feeling anxiety when they see Muslims on airplanes. Then NPR president Vivian Schiller later said that Williams was fired for a long series of comments that violated NPR guidelines. The firing, and the way it was handled, led to extensive criticism of NPR by conservative media hosts and politicians. This led to calls in Congress to discontinue all federal funding of the network. One of the major challenges facing public radio is funding. For fiscal year 2015, NPR had revenue of $208.7 million and expenses of $202.8 million.98 Of that money, approximately 25 percent came from sponsorship, which allows corporations, organizations, and individuals to run short messages during programs. While most of these underwriting announcements promote the companies themselves as institutions, there are also announcements promoting particular books or television programs. The largest sources of revenue for NPR are programming fees paid by local member stations (35 percent of the budget) and the above-mentioned sponsorship fees (25 percent). While NPR gets relatively little money directly from the federal government, it does get government funds indirectly through the programming fees paid its member stations, which do get federal funds.99

SECRET 6 You may have noticed that this section of the chapter is headed “NPR” and not “National Public Radio.” That’s because in 2010 the network changed its name from National Public Radio to just NPR to reflect the fact that much of its programming is delivered over the Web or via apps for mobile devices and tablets. So to understand the full reach of NPR, it should be noted that in addition to its 26.2 million radio listeners, it has 28 million average monthly unique visitors to its Web site, and 54 million podcast programs downloaded per month, the majority of which are being listened to using mobile devices. It has also launched the NPR One app in partnership with Apple—which simply goes to show that online media are

mobile media.100

Live Music on the Radio. Not all music broadcast on the radio today is prerecorded on CDs. One of public radio’s most popular shows was Garrison Keillor’s Prairie Home Companion, which featured a range of live music, skits, guests, and the centerpiece of the show, Keillor’s monologue delivery of the news from Lake Wobegon, a mythical town in Minnesota that represents the stereotypical small Midwest town “where the women are strong, the men are good looking, and all the children are above average.” Keillor retired from the show in 2016, and while it will continue without him, its future success will have to be seen. Mountain Stage, produced by West Virginia Public Broadcasting, has been broadcasting live performances by a variety of artists since 1983. In addition to country, bluegrass, and folk artists, the show has featured performers such as Lake Street Dive, Hayes Carll, and the Milk Carton Kids. Although Mountain Stage does not generally carry stadium show headliners, R.E.M. did do an acoustic segment on the show.101

AUDIO Find out more about Mountain Stage and listen to podca sts. CLICK TO SHOW

Former producer Andy Ridenour told Billboard magazine that the show’s greatest strength is that it exposes audience members to different artists and types of music: “One of the most common complaints we hear is that people don’t get to hear anything new on the radio. Here, they get a chance to hear an artist they like and maybe two artists they never heard of.”102



http://mountainstage.org/

Video Case 7.4: Garrison Keillor retires.

Concerns About Effects of Music on Young People

Some of the biggest controversies surrounding rock have involved not the music but the words—from 1950s lyrics dealing with “rocking and rolling” to references to drugs in the 1970s to derogatory comments about women in contemporary rap.

It is difficult to know what the influence of a song’s words will be. Adults often read metaphorical meanings into a song while young people see only the literal meaning of the lyrics. Understanding music also goes beyond the content of the lyrics. Listeners pay as much attention to the melody, rhythm, and style of music as they do to the lyrics. Finally, songs are often as much about feelings as they are about rational thought. They set a mood rather than transmit a specific message.103

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Since rock’s inception, parents and other concerned adults have wondered about the effects of its lyrics on impressionable listeners. This questioning has led to product liability trials, congressional hearings, and movements to label and/or ban certain albums for objectionable content.

Few music formats have engendered as much controversy as rap and hip-hop. Rap can be partially understood as an outgrowth of several trends, dating back to the Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper and Pink



QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

How do personal music players,

Floyd’s Dark Side of the Moon. With the advent of multitrack recording, producers were adding layers of talk and ambient sound to the music created by band members. Rap simply extended this process, making the DJ part of the music and sampling from a range of already completed musical recordings. There was no longer a single “correct” mix of the various tracks; instead, the final version was constructed by whoever wanted to work with it.

Among the controversies surrounding rap is the complaint that it is misogynistic and violent. Rappers defend the violence in their recordings by noting that we live in a violent world; the violence in the recordings is simply “keeping it real.” Michael Fuchs, a former executive of media giant Time Warner, says that he sees some of the criticism of rap as racist:

It’s a fact that white kids are buying black music and are being influenced by it, and that frightens their parents. It’s not very different than the feeling my parents had thirty years ago when rock and roll came out—about the influence of black music.104

The Importance of Pop Music. Popular music today goes well beyond just the composition; it is an entire social statement. Besides the music, there are the photos on the cover of the CD, the text within the booklet inside the CD, the music video, the gossip on TMZ, the posters, the mobile app, and the fashion. It is through popular music that young people often have their first contact with much of our culture. It provides young people not just with music, but with an entire identity.105 Our identification with the music of our youth is something that sticks with us throughout adulthood. Alternative rocker Liz Phair points out:

There’s something that happens to people as they reach adulthood. They spend a lot of time trying to figure out what first hit them about rock ’n’ roll. It’s like the first time you took a drug. You want that first time back.106

Changing the Musical Experience:

from the original Walkman to smartphones, iPods, and MP3 players, change how we interact with people? Does walking around with headphones on isolate us from each other? Do you use your headphones or earbuds to keep people at a distance?

From Social Music to Personal Soundtracks

Being able to store and transmit musical performances was extremely important, but that may not have been the biggest change brought about by the invention of the phonograph and radio. Rock historian James Miller writes that the phonograph (and eventually radio) represented a vast expansion of people’s access to music: “Symphonies that a person living in the nineteenth century would have been lucky to hear once were available for repeated listening on home phonographs.”107 Before the invention of the phonograph or radio, people had to go to a concert hall, theater, or club to hear music if they didn’t play it themselves.

SECRET 5 The Death of “Social Music.” The phonograph and radio brought a wider range of music into the household, but this led to the loss of so-called social music, or music that people play and sing for one another in the home or in other social settings. Prior to the new technology, people had to play an instrument or sing to have music in the home. Sheet music was a popular feature in magazines like Godey’s Lady’s Book, along with recipes and sewing patterns. For most people, there was little social distance between the performer and the audience, and musical instruction played a greater role in the education of the upper and middle classes. With advances in technology over the years, however, the social connections available through a shared musical experience changed profoundly. This could be seen as a very early example (and a sadly lost one) of Secret 5—All media are social.

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Akio Morita’s “Personal Soundtrack.” Akio Morita is not a

household name, but the Japanese engineer who invented the Sony Walkman has influenced how people listen to music as much as anyone since Thomas Edison and Emile Berliner.

When the Walkman was introduced in 1979, it was available in two versions—either as a tiny tape player or as a stereo FM radio. They were relatively expensive, with the tape player version costing upwards of $200, but they allowed each person to live in his or her own “personal musical cocoon.”108 Until 1979, the only way to take music away from home was with either a poor-quality pocket AM radio or a giant boom box. Writer RiShawn Biddle points out that the Walkman was more than just a way to protect your fellow bus passengers from your choice of music: “It’s also been a coach, concert hall, and personal reader for millions of workout warriors, housewives, and retirees. For travelers, it is a trusty companion, something to ward off talkative salesmen and grandmothers loaded with wallet-size photos.”109 Media scholar Michael Marsden notes that the Walkman gives people privacy in public areas: “It’s your personal space that you’ve created, in a world in which we don’t have a lot of personal space. It’s a totally private world.”110 Not everyone is so enthralled with the effects of the Walkman, however. Critic John Zerzan argues that the Walkman is one of a number of technologies that lead to a “sort of withdrawal from social connections.”111 One thing the Walkman has clearly done, however, is contribute greatly to the trend of personalized media use characterized by iPods, MP3 players, music downloads, and podcasts.

From Singles to Digital Downloads: Making Money in the Recording Industry

For as long as there have been methods for recording and playing back sounds, there have been debates over how to make money selling music. Berliner’s 78-rpm discs were fragile, held only three and a half minutes of music, and had only marginal sound quality by today’s standards. So while there was no question that 78s needed to be replaced, there was no consensus on what the new format should be.

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do you listen to independent artists or big recording stars? If you listen to independent artists, who are they? How did you find out about them? How did you find their music? What makes independent artists more interesting to you? Do you think long-tail distribution of indie artists makes it harder to find their work? Why or why not?

LPs Versus 45s

The LP was developed by Columbia Records and introduced in 1948. The discs were labeled unbreakable; this was not quite true, but the vinyl LPs were much less delicate than the 78-rpm discs. More importantly, an LP could reproduce twenty-three minutes of high-quality music on each side. CBS demonstrated the system to RCA president David Sarnoff and offered to let RCA, its competitor, use the system. But RCA declined the offer and put out its own format, the 45-rpm disc. It had high- quality sound, but the 45 could play only about four minutes of music at a time.112 Eventually, record players were sold that could play both 45s and LPs, and both formats existed side by side, with the LP used for longer compositions and the 45 for single popular songs.

Vinyl LPs have staged a resurgence in recent years, as both artists and consumers have latched onto the twelve-inch discs containing analog music. Sales of vinyl recordings grew by an astonishing 50 percent in 2014, according to an Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) report, while digital download sales were down about 8.5 percent and CD sales fell by 12.6 percent for the year. Overall, music sales for the year were about $7 billion, about where they have been for the last several years. Sales of streaming music were up 29 percent from the year before, and for the first time were worth slightly more than the sales of CDs. 113 Why are LPs regaining their popularity? Part of it is their size. The discs come with big covers that have plenty of room for dramatic art and liner notes. Recording artists, from big names like Justin Timberlake and Pink to obscure indie acts, like the prestige and “specialness” that a vinyl release brings. And consumers often get a code for a free digital download with the premium-priced analog recording so they can still listen to the

music on their computer, phone, or iPod.114 Doug Williams of Wild Ponies, whom we met in the opening vignette for Chapter 3, said in an interview, “Vinyl is great for us. We can’t skip it. We have fans who specifically want it. It’s good to us.” He noted that there can be as much as a year-and-a-half wait for “normal” people to get their albums pressed at Nashville’s biggest vinyl pressing factory.115

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CDs and Digital Recording

Work on the CD was started by Philips Electronics physicist Klaas Compaan as early as 1969. Compaan had the idea of photographically recording music or video on discs that could be read with a laser. Not wanting to get into the kind of format war that raged between the 45 and the LP in the 1940s, Philips joined with Sony to create a standard for the compact disc. The CD was launched in Europe in 1982 and in the United States in 1983.

While we have generally talked about new media being scary to consumers, digital r ecording (a method of recording sound that involves storing it as a series of numbers) has been the scariest of the new media to people in the music industry. With analog recording (the original method of recording that involved cutting a groove on a record or placing a magnetic signal on a tape that was an image of the sound wave being recorded), copies were not as good as the originals, and copies of copies showed further degradation in quality. Thus, the prospect

Larry Busacca/PW/Getty Images

Beyoncé’s Lemonade was released on Saturday, April 23 through Tidal’s streaming service, and amassed 485,000 album sales and 115 million streams within its first week.

of home digital recordings, which are exactly the same as the originals without loss of quality, upset companies whose livelihood depended on the sales of original recordings.

For several years, home digital copying was held up by the recording industry, which wanted CD players to include security chips that would stop people from making copies. Of course, as soon as the industry came up with a way to stop people from copying digital music, hackers responded with ways of breaking the system. Ultimately, home CD copying emerged from the computer industry rather than the music industry. People wanted to be able to “burn” CDs with their own data, programs, and music.116

Economics of Streaming and Downloads

The most recent format for music is a compressed music file known as an MP3. MP3s can be played on a computer or on a portable MP3 player, such as an iPod, or they can be burned onto a recordable CD. The files can be easily shared over the Internet by e-mail, on Web sites, or through music-sharing services.

SECRET 2 Aside from allowing people to share music files, one of the biggest effects of this new distribution channel has been to allow new groups to publicize their music by delivering it directly to consumers through the Internet, through either their own Web site or social networking sites, thus illustrating Secret 2—There are no mainstream media.

Radio Consolidates and Goes High-Tech

Prior to 1985, broadcast owners were restricted nationally to seven AM radio, seven FM radio, and seven television stations.1

17 During the 1980s, with the growth of cable and satellite television, the FCC relaxed some ownership rules, which resulted in greater consolidation of ownership through media mergers. The trend toward broadcast deregulation was accelerated greatly with the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Although most of the law dealt with the cable television and telephone industries, the law lifted the restrictions on overall broadcast ownership. A single company could now own unlimited numbers of radio stations, with up to eight stations in a single market.118

The impact on radio was almost immediate. Within a year and a half, radio ownership had become far more concentrated and far less diverse. By 2003, the number of radio stations on the air had grown by 5.9 percent, but the number of station owners had fallen by 35 percent.119 Clear Channel used the rule change to buy up $30 billion worth of radio stations nationwide, going from owning 42 stations in 1995 to more than 1,200 stations by 2003.120 As of 2014, when Clear Channel changed its name to iHeartMedia to highlight its streaming audio business along with its legacy radio stations,121 the company was still the largest station owner in the United States, with 862 stations reaching more than 250 million listeners. In addition to owning all those stations, iHeartMedia provides syndicated programming for more than 5,000 stations through its Premiere Networks. It also sells advertising spots for about 4,000 radio stations (and 600 television stations) through Katz Media.122 Many stations now operate with virtually no staff other than a few people to sell and produce advertising. The music, news, weather, and talk all come from either a satellite service or a computer hard drive, with automation software serving up the local commercials, announcements, and programming. If it sounds like programming on the radio is the same from one side of the country to the other, it could be because the stations you are listening to all get their programs from the same centralized source.123

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY WHO IS BEING HURT BY DECLINING SALES OF RECORDED MUSIC?

he recording industry has had more than a decade of declining sales. In 1999, the sales of recorded music produced a record $14.6 billion. But in 2014, the

industry was bringing in slightly more than $7 billion a year, a number that’s been roughly stable for several years.1 It’s easy, looking at that number, to think that this has made for some kind of musical apocalypse—the end of the American music industry. And it is certainly true that the record companies are making much less money. The industry has blamed consumers for the decline because of file sharing, piracy, and easy home duplication of CDs. What the industry has not done is come up with a coherent response to the massive change that’s taking place in the music business, whether it likes it or not.

The decline in the sales of prerecorded music is not imaginary. Take a look at Figure 7.2, a graph put together by tech writer Michael DeGusta based on sales data from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The graph shows the sales in inflation-adjusted dollars of recorded music in the United States from 1973 to 2009. As DeGusta points out in his explanation of the graph, U.S. recorded music sales in 2009 were down 64 percent from their peak in 1999 and down 45 percent from where they were in 1973. Why have these sales declined so much? Common wisdom suggests that it’s illegal sharing/copying (commonly called piracy) and a general lack of interest in buying complete albums. Some of it also may be that in the 1990s people were rebuying music on CDs that they had bought years earlier on vinyl. People converting from CDs to digital players such as iPods simply had to scan in their CDs to convert them to the new format.2

There have even been suggestions made that the music

industry as a whole is dying. But as journalist-blogger Matthew Yglesias explains, it’s really the recording industry that’s dying, not the music business. He writes in his blog, “People still listen to music. People still play music. People who play music even still earn money. But the business of selling recordings of music is shrinking.”3

Take, for example, the eclectic country singer-songwriter Lyle Lovett. Lovett told Billboard in 2008 that while he had sold 4.6 million albums over the last twenty years, he’d made all of his money from performing and touring. “I’ve never made a dime from a record sale in the history of my record deal,” he said. “I’ve been very happy with my sales, and certainly my audience has been very supportive. I make a living going out and playing shows.”4 So why does Lovett still record and sell albums? “Records are very powerful promotional tools to go out and be able to play on the road.” (Note from your author—if you get the chance to see Lovett in concert, do so. He puts on a great show!)

FIGURE 7.2

U.S. Recorded Music Revenue—2011 Dollars Per Capita

Source: Reprinted with permission of Michael DeGusta.

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A New York Times article from 2015 points out that in 1999 there were fifty-three thousand people who claimed to be working as musicians, while in 2014 that number had grown to more than sixty thousand. And while the money earned from sales of prerecorded music had declined sharply, the income from live music had gone up dramatically. It’s also much easier for small-scale musicians to record an album and distribute it than it ever was in the past due to relatively inexpensive computer-based recording technology, online distribution, and crowdfunding sites like Kickstarter.5

Who is the source? Who is Lyle Lovett? What has he done in the music industry?

What is he saying? How much money has Lovett made selling albums? Is he worried about the problem of file sharing or “record piracy”? Why does he record albums?

What kind of evidence is there? According to tech writer Michael DeGusta, what does the evidence say has happened to recorded music sales since 1973? How does he explain the changes? What are the causes?

How do you and your classmates feel about the music industry?

How often do you and your friends pay for music compared to “sharing” it over the Internet? Why do you pay for or not pay for music? What could record labels do that would make you more willing to buy CDs or legal downloads? Do you think declining sales of record music have hurt artists such

as Lovett?

1 Ben Sisario, “Sales of Streaming Music Top CDs in Flat Year for Industry,” The New York Times, March 18, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/19/busin ess/media/sales-of-streaming-music-top-cds-in-flat-year-for-industry.html.

2 Michael DeGusta, “The REAL Death of the Music Industry,” Business Insider, February 18, 2011, www.businessinsider.com/these-charts-explain-the-real-de ath-of-the-music-industry-2011-2.

3 Matthew Yglesias, “The Death of the Recordings-Sale Industry,” ThinkProgress, February 19, 2011, thinkprogress.org/yglesias/2011/02/19/199969/the-death-of-the- recordings-sale-industry/.

4 “Lyle Lovett Sells Millions, Earns Nothing,” Reuters/Billboard, July 10, 2008, www.reuters.com/article/2008/07/10/us-lovett-idUSN1030835920080710.

5 Steven Johnson, “The Creative Apocalypse That Wasn’t,” The New York Times, August 19, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/23/magazine/the- creativeapocalypse-that-wasnt.html?_r=1.

WEB Check out Taylor Swift’s stance against Apple Music. CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Read more about what Michael DeGusta has to say abo ut the decline of music sales. CLICK TO SHOW

The Future of Sound

For the past hundred years or so, the recording industry has been making money off the sale of little packages, either discs or cartridges of some sort. The coming of radio created the first blip in the market, leaving sellers wondering why people would buy records when they could get the music for free on the radio. The record companies soon learned that they could earn revenue from licensing the music to the radio stations and from promoting their records by having them played on the radio. Then came computers and the Internet, which allowed people to

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/19/business/media/sales-of-streaming-music-top-cds-in-flat-year-for-industry.html

http://www.businessinsider.com/these-charts-explain-the-real-death-of-the-music-industry-2011-2

http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/07/10/us-lovett-idUSN1030835920080710

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/23/magazine/the-creativeapocalypse-that-wasnt.html?_r=1

https://mic.com/articles/121078/taylor-swift-just-took-a-bold-stand-against-i-tunes-and-indie-artists-should-pay-attention#.BsEMKemvY

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/20/link-ch-7-is-the-music-industry-dying-or-just-the-recording-industry/

burn copies of CDs on blank media or transmit them to other people as MP3 files.

Now radio—the recording industry’s old nemesis—is facing new competition and transformations of its own. Radio started with AM broadcasting as the primary medium for news and entertainment. Then, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, television displaced radio and transformed it into a companion medium that people listened to in the background rather than something that dominated their attention. A third round of change came when FM broadcasting became popular in the 1970s, bringing stereo and high fidelity to broadcasting. FM eventually surpassed AM in popularity, especially in the realm of music, leaving AM radio to be dominated by sports, talk, and news—formats that don’t suffer from low fidelity and the lack of stereo.124 People used to listen to radio predominantly in their cars and at home. Now people are listening in the office using radio stations’ Web streams. They also download audio podcasts or go to pay satellite services. Despite the new options, analog broadcasting remains by far the most popular choice—91 percent of Americans age twelve or older still listen to terrestri al radio every week. But traditional radio is facing stiff competition. According to the Edison Research and Triton Digital “Infinite Dial 2016” report, up to 50 percent of Americans listen to audio on digital devices every week.125 (See Figure 7.3.)

WEB Look at the audio fact sheet from Pew Research Center. CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Look at the podcasting fact sheet from Pew Research Ce nter. CLICK TO SHOW

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FIGURE 7.3

http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/audio-fact-sheet/

http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/podcasting-fact-sheet/

Digital Audio Audiences, 2016

Source: “The Infinite Dial 2016,” Edison Research and Triton Digital, 2016, http://www.edisonresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/The-Infinite-Dial- 2016.pdf.

There is no question of whether the entire sound industry is going through a massive change. The only real question is what will emerge.

Music and the Long Tail: Alternatives to Broadcasting

Terrestrial radio is also facing competition from the new audio media that are redefining how we view radio. The Project for Excellence in Journalism (now known as the Pew Research Center Journalism Project), which has been discussing the state of American media since 2005, replaced its chapter on “radio” with one on “audio” in 2009. Pew said at the time that radio can handle the transition to the digital world better than other media because “voice and music are mobile and move easily among new platforms. And audio has done better as a medium of holding its audience than some other sectors.”126 It would be a mistake, though, to just look at the Big Media alternatives such as HD radio and satellite radio. Individual audience members can now become message providers by setting up their own Webcasts or podcasts with nothing more than a computer, a microphone, and a connection to the Internet. With these technologies, even programming that extends deep into the long

tail of media content can be distributed easily.

New Economic Models for the Music Industry

There can be no question that the many sectors of the sound industry are currently facing a massively changing media world. The issues of file sharing, user-generated content, and music videos (topics also covered in Chapters 9 and 10) are forcing changes in how radio and the recording industries can make money.

WEB Spotify to become the music platform of modern dating. CLICK TO SHOW

Computer technology has made it easy to manufacture pirate editions of CDs that can be sold on the street at a deep discount. (For that matter, it has made it easy for consumers to “burn” copies of their CDs for their friends for free.) The industry charges that this is stealing from artists and that the new media for distributing music are going to destroy the recording industry. These new technologies are certainly changing the music business, but they probably aren’t destroying it.

USA Today’s technology writer Kevin Maney points to the example of China, where the music business is thriving even in the face of rampant piracy. Maney argues that in China, most CDs on the market are pirate editions, so artists have no choice but to make an income through live performances, sale of merchandise, and commercial endorsements.130

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS CREATING A RADIO SHOW WITHOUT A RADIO

http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/09/spotify-tinder-dating-makes-sense/500822/

C STATION

olorado podcaster Brian Ibbott says that he’s always known he wanted to be a DJ. The only question was what kind of music he would play. Back in 2007, he

told me:

I knew if I did my own show, I wanted it to have something unique and not just a sampling of my favorite music. I wanted it to be something that had a theme to it. And one of the types of music I collect are cover songs.127

Ibbott was inspired by a program that aired several years ago on the XM Satellite Radio channel Special X. “And every day for two hours they had a show that was all covers with no announcing. It was just cover, after cover, after cover,” he said. Then Special X got canceled, and Ibbott started dreaming about creating his own show.

The only problem was that Ibbott didn’t have a radio station to use to broadcast his program. But then he heard about former MTV VJ Adam Curry’s work on software to distribute audio files over the Internet—essentially some of the earliest podcasting software. “I said, I could do this,” Ibbott said. “So I just jumped in with both feet.” So in September 2004, Ibbott posted his first twenty-six-minute episode of Coverville that opened with Jellyfish performing their take on Argent’s “Hold Your Head Up.” Now, more than twelve years later, Ibbott has moved from producing an average of three half-hour shows a week to a single hour- and-a-half to two-hour show each week that has even more of the feel of a conventional radio show. As of this writing, he has posted more than 1,125 episodes, each of which averages about ten thousand downloads.

Coverville is notable for being one of the first podcasts to play music that’s been licensed by the American Society o f Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music Inc. (BMI), the two major organizations that collect royalties for songwriters every time a published song is performed. But reaching the agreement took some doing because no one had ever tried to negotiate the rights for a

podcast before. In fact, Ibbott had to explain to the ASCAP representative what a podcast was. They finally set up an agreement similar to that for streaming audio.

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After producing so many episodes, Ibbott has a good handle on what makes for a great cover song:

It has to be unique. It has to sound like the band covering it and not try to be a note-by-note reproduction of the original. It has to be a good song. It has to stand on its own even if it weren’t a cover. It doesn’t have to be recognized, but it helps.128

Ibbott plays some highly unusual covers, such as William Shatner’s version of Pulp’s “Common People,” but he does have limits. He has a few that he sets aside for a worst- cover-ever show and others that he just won’t play. “I stay away from covers done by current pop stars who get enough airplay. There’s nothing clever about the cover. It’s like their agent said, ‘I really like this song. Why don’t you do a cover of this?’”129

Karl Walter/Getty Images

Just as podcasts grew out of combining radio-style programing with Internet distribution of shows that can be listened to on an MP3 player or smartphone, Ibbott’s alternative broadcasting efforts continue to grow. Ibbott now has his own twenty-four-hour streaming Coverville Radio that plays covers all day and night with a Web page that tells what songs are going out; he’s produced 335 episodes of his Lyrics Undercover podcast that gives the story behind popular songs; he cohosts a four-day-a-week show called The Morning Stream; and he has his own record label, Coverville Records.

HOW have podcasts and streaming media transformed who can create radio-style programming?

HOW do podcasts and streaming media programming differ from what you can get on radio? think about both content and how you listen.

It can be argued that piracy and file sharing hurt the record labels more than they do the musicians. File sharing may even help musicians. Roger McGuinn, former front man of the 1960s band the Byrds, says that he received only a fraction of a cent per record on the early Byrds albums and never saw any royalties at all on a solo album that sold five hundred thousand copies. How did he make his money? Touring. Now McGuinn gives away tracks on his Web site and sells CDs that he’s recorded at a home studio straight to fans at concerts and online. He tells USA Today that these home-produced CDs are the only ones that have made him

Bela Fleck has had great success with a small management company rather than a major record label.

money.131 Classical and jazz banjo player Béla Fleck, of Béla Fleck and the Flecktones, makes the majority of his income touring across the United States in the summer. Fleck says his band makes 70 percent of its income from concerts, 20 percent from album sales, and 10 percent from merchandise. The CDs are mostly made to help fans discover his music.132 Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails offers his recordings as free downloads online to save his fans from having to go to file- sharing sites. He also helps them share fan videos through his Web site. But according to Techdirt’s Mike Masnick, Reznor also offers his music for sale in a variety of packages. With his album Ghosts I–IV, fans wanting to pay for the music could buy everything from a pair of CDs for $10 to an autographed “Ultra- Deluxe Limited Edition Package.” The $300 edition sold out in thirty hours. Now, granted, Reznor is not a typical musician, but he does illustrate how by interacting with fans in a meaningful way he can make them want to pay him for his music.133 Media technology journalist Mark Glaser writes that record labels and artists don’t have a “god-given right” to sell CDs for $13 to $18 apiece. He outlines the wide range of choices consumers have now:

As music lovers, we now have many more choices for how we can get our music fix. We can listen to the radio, to satellite radio, to Internet radio, or hear new music on TV shows like American Idol or on commercials. We can download free music from file-sharing networks [though that can be illegal]. We can hear music straight from the websites of artists, and

even get their tracks from MySpace pages. We can buy physical albums from the dwindling number of retail music stores or Wal-Mart and Target, or buy digital tracks or albums from iTunes or other online outlets.134

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CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The ability to record sounds began in 1877 with Thomas Edison’s invention of the phonograph. Though Edison’s machine could record and play back sound, it was relatively fragile, and the foil-covered cylinders could not be reproduced and did not stand up to repeated playing. Emile Berliner’s gramophone, however, played music on flat discs that were stronger than Edison’s cylinders and could be mass produced. This technology allowed musical performances to be stored and replayed. As prerecorded music became widely available, the nature of music consumption changed. People’s major contact with music became recordings by professional musicians rather than live performances by amateurs.

Radio was an outgrowth of work done on the telegraph by Samuel Morse. Physicists such as Heinrich Hertz conducted early experiments on the detection of radio waves, but it was Guglielmo Marconi who developed the commercially viable wireless telegraph.

Radio was used initially as a tool for sending messages from one person to another. David Sarnoff was among the first to see radio’s potential as a tool for mass communication; CBS founder William Paley saw its potential as an advertising medium that incidentally provided entertainment. KDKA, the first commercial radio station, went on the air in 1920, ushering in the golden age of radio, in which radio was the dominant medium for home entertainment. Radio was also a major source of news, offering an intimacy and immediacy that newspapers couldn’t match.

The organizations ASCAP and BMI were established to ensure that musicians and composers would be paid for the music they wrote and performed on stage, on records, and on the radio, as well as for songs they published in written form.

A wide range of recording formats has been used over the years, including the 78-rpm disc, the 45-rpm single, the LP, the CD, and the MP3 computer file. Each has given rise to concerns about changes in the purchasing and use of music.

Rock ’n’ roll is a hybrid style of music that grew out of white hillbilly music and black rhythm and blues in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Because rock ’n’ roll crossed racial lines, it became part of the integration of American society in the 1950s and 1960s. Rock ’n’ roll became popular largely through recordings sold in record stores and played on the radio rather than through live performances. It evolved into an art form that existed primarily for recorded playback rather than live performance.

In the 1960s and 1970s, rock music became more heavily produced, and there was a shift from hit singles to albums. Music by groups such as the Beatles and Pink Floyd brought the role of the producer to the forefront, a move that accelerated with the development of disco and rap. Hip-hop culture brought together playing music, talking over the songs, dancing, and a distinctive graffiti art style.

Parents and other adults have expressed concern about lyrics that include profanity, references to suicide and violence, and sentiments that are derogatory toward women.

As television displaced radio as the dominant broadcast medium, radio was transformed into a companion medium with a wide range of formats designed to appeal to narrow, specific audiences. These formats include many types of music, Spanish- language broadcasting, talk, news, and sports.

FM has gradually replaced AM as the dominant radio band. Although FM has a shorter broadcast range, it has much higher- quality sound (higher fidelity).

Although the majority of radio stations are commercial, public radio—a staple of FM radio programming—provides an important alternative. Terrestrial radio is still the dominant sound medium; however, it faces growing competition from digital alternatives such as HD radio, satellite radio, streaming audio, and podcasting.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

KEY TERMS

long-playing record (LP) 158

compact disc (CD) 158

phonograph 158

gramophone 158

high fidelity (hi-fi) 159

non-notated music 159

telegraph 159

wireless telegraph 159

Radio Music Box memo 160

network 161

golden age of radio 162

soap operas 162

HD radio 164

satellite radio 165

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shock jock 165

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) 165

streaming audio 165

podcast 165

MP3 165

rock ’n’ roll 166

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race records 166

covered 167

girl groups 168

British invasion 169

concept album 169

producers 171

disco 170

hip-hop 170

rap music 171

country music 171

format radio 172

social music 177

45-rpm disc 178

digital recording 179

analog recording 179

terrestrial radio 181

American Society of Composers, Authors and Publish ers (ASCAP) 183

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How has the podcast Serial changed both podcasting and traditional radio broadcasting?

2. Is radio still a distinct, separate medium, or is it just part of a larger world of audio programming? Why or why not?

3. What is the role of a producer in music like rock, R&B, and hip-hop? Why do producers seem to have such a big influence on the music industry?

4. Can musicians still make a living in the music industry today? Why or why not? How has this changed over the last twenty years?

5. How are musicians using long-tail tools to create new ways of sharing their music while still making money?

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CHAPTER 8

MOVIES Mass Producing Entertainment

Warner Bros. Pictures/Mad Max: Fury Road

Media Library

CHAPTER 8 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 8.1: Movie production.

Video Case 8.2: Back to the Future

Video Case 8.3: The call to boycott the 2016 Oscars cere mony.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

Watch an action scene from Mad Max: Fury Road.

See animation examples from Muybridge, Edison, and Po rter.

Watch a nearly three-hour cut of Intolerance.

Watch the documentary Final Cut: The Making and Unma king of Heaven’s Gate.

The cast of Singing in the Rain attempts to shoot their firs t “talking” scene.

Watch a short 1950 documentary on the Hollywood Ten.

Watch the trailer for The Artist.

Take a video walkthrough of Hogwarts at the Wizarding World of Harry Potter.

Watch the trailer for Sky Captain and the World of Tomo rrow.

Learn more about Bollywood films and watch a great mov ie clip.

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I WHAT YOU’LL

AUDIO

Learn about new ways for movies to increase profits.

Jodie Foster on roles for strong women.

WEB

Learn more about the current 3-D movie revival.

Get the most up-to-date box office figures.

Check out the box office and estimated costs of recent m ovies.

Check out #OscarsSoWhite and join the conversation.

Read several blog posts on the Bechdel Test and watch a great video explanation of it.

Find links to the source material for this Test Your Media Literacy box and ratings on Bully.

Examine the challenges Hollywood faces in attracting au diences.

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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n the 2015 summer movie hit Mad Max: Fury Road, there’s no

doubt who the coolest character is. Tom Hardy’s

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LEARN After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Explain what the studio system was like and why it ended.

2 Discuss how the growth of television and home video transformed the movie industry.

3 Explain what is meant by the “blockbuster era” in the movie industry and how movies have become brands.

4 Explain how digital production and projection have changed filmmaking.

5 Discuss the evolution of the ratings system using examples of different movies.

6 Explain how the Internet and other long-tail tools have changed the movie promotion and distribution process.

Mad Max is stoic and strong, and Charlize Theron’s one- armed Imperator Furiosa is clearly the star of the film; but when the audience walks out of the theater, it’s Australian musician iOTA’s Doof Warrior that everyone is talking about. He is, as MTV’s Alex Zalben puts it, “a blind mutant wearing a red onesie, riding a truck made out of amps and speakers who wields a flame- throwing guitar and never stops playing rock music.”1

The images and the sound are all unforgettable, and one of the main reasons it all feels so real is because it is. iOTA really is strapped to the front of a truck covered with speakers while playing a double-necked guitar that shoots out real-life flames. All the while, the music he’s playing is coming out of giant speakers that would do a Grateful Dead concert proud.

Production designer Colin Grimes started with an eight-wheel-drive rocket- launcher truck, equipped with tiger drummers with giant drums in the back and Doof Warrior on the front. Director George Miller is famous for wanting the props in his movies to actually work, so Grimes had to make the whole rig operate at speed. iOTA had a month

to learn how to play on it, shooting out flames and bungee jumping off it while blind.

Grimes prides himself in making the physics of his scenes real. He wants to make his effects “believable, and logical,” so that the viewers feel they are really there in the movie. Over the last couple of years, directors, critics, and even fans have complained about how “fake” digital special effects look. This is sometimes based on the effects being poorly done, but more often this is because these effects make impossible things happen—superheroes fly, and cities (even entire planets) collapse into themselves. The so-called real special effects are known in the trade as practical effects—things that are done with sets, props, and stunt people.2

Of course, nothing in a giant summer special effects–driven postapocalyptic movie is going to be real. Even in the days of movies like George Lucas’s Star Wars or Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner, there may not have been computer-generated ima gery (CGI), but there weren’t really giant cities with flying police cars or Death Stars ready to destroy unruly planets. They were simply illusions created with lights, miniatures, and smoke.

While Miller likes to point to all the vehicles he sent out on a desert chase in Mad Max: Fury Road, there were still about 2,000 visual effects shots out of a total of 2,400 shots in the entire film. So where’s the truth here? The truth is more complicated than CGI is fake and practical is real.3 Digital effects are often used to give us things that couldn’t exist in real life, so our brains apply a reality filter to them and say they look fake. Practical effects tend to be used for things that can exist in the real world, so they look more “real.” One of the reasons that Mad Max looked so real was that the trucks and stuntmen were physically there; the reason it looked so great was that giant dust clouds and explosions could be brought in digitally.4 Visual effects supervisor Andrew Jackson said that it was always worthwhile to shoot scenes with actual vehicles, just to keep it grounded:

You shoot the layout and vehicles and gradually everything might get replaced except the camera and the positions of where things were. You may end up with nothing left of what was actually filmed, but the shot still inherits

something real from the plate you shot originally.5

Oscar-nominated visual effects artist Andrew Whitehurst writes that the real problem isn’t with CGI; it’s with badly done CGI: “No one complains about the mountain of a well-planned and well-executed CGI, because no one’s attention was drawn to the fact that it was CGI in the first place. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the studios’ publicists are now frequently keen to emphasize how much of a film was shot ‘for real,’ and play down the use of CGI on a production. A cursory glance through the credits of the film will tell you how true those claims are.”6

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch an action scene from Mad Max: Fury Road. CLICK TO SHOW

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In the end, Mad Max: Fury Road was a great movie not because of the ratio of digital to practical effects, but because those effects were used effectively to tell the most compelling chase story since Warner Bros. quit making Road Runner cartoons. Oh, yes, and because it had the Doof Warrior playing a flamethrower guitar on the front of a war wagon covered with speakers.

Regardless of the size of a film’s budget, profits, or spectacle, we still go to the movies for the same basic reason: to escape from the world around us. We spend a couple of hours in a darkened room with a group of people and share a created experience—a bit of excitement, sentiment, or romance. In this chapter, we look at how the movie industry developed from peep show kinetoscopes to today’s IMAX theaters. We examine the roles of movies in society, public concerns about movies, and efforts by government and industry to regulate the content of films.

The Development of Movies

The movie industry has its roots in the 1880s, but it wasn’t until the early twentieth century that movies became a major source of public entertainment. In the late 1920s and early 1930s,

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movies gradually grew from ten-minute silent films into talking films up to two hours long. Although movie attendance peaked in the 1940s, viewing movies in theaters remains popular today, despite competition from television and home video.

The First Moviemakers

Thomas Edison is generally credited with developing the American motion picture industry, but like other media, movies came into being because of the work of many people; Edison was just one of several scientists and engineers who created the new medium of film.

Edison, Marey, and Muybridge. In the 1870s and 1880s, at least two people were working on the problem of capturing and portraying motion. The first was Étienne-Jules Marey. Trained in medicine, Marey sought to measure and transcribe motion, starting with blood and the heart and then progressing on to how animals move. While Marey was never able to project moving pictures, he did help develop systems for taking repeated photos of people and animals in motion.7

British photographer Eadweard Muybridge was the second major influence on Edison. Muybridge, like Marey, wanted to capture the motion of animals on film. To settle a bet, the governor of California hired him to establish whether all four hooves of a horse leave the ground when it is galloping.8 Muybridge set up twenty-four cameras at evenly spaced locations around a racetrack. Tripwires allowed the passing horse to trigger the cameras. Muybridge then projected the images using a type of zoetrope, a child’s toy that put a series of images on a spinning cylinder. He was thus able to establish that all four hooves do leave the ground during a gallop.

Muybridge eventually photographed both animals and humans moving against a black-and-white grid; his photos were published in 1887 in a book titled Animal Locomotion. He became a celebrity, touring the country to lecture and display his photographs.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

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Eadweard Muybridge/George Eastman House/Getty Images

The photos of a woman in motion in this collection are typical of the images Eadweard Muybridge created for his book Animal Locomotion. With these repeated photographs, Muybridge demonstrated that you could create an illusion of motion by displaying a series of still images.

See animation examples from Muybridge, Edison, and Po rter. CLICK TO SHOW

At about the same time, Edison assigned an employee to work on the motion picture project. The first movies were not projected on a screen; instead, they were viewed by an individual viewer on a peep show–like device that Edison called the kinetoscope. The moving picture was first demonstrated to the public on May 9, 1893, at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences in the form of a thirty-second film called Blacksmith Scene. Other early films showed a man sneezing, “Sandow the Strong Man” displaying his muscles, and Annie Oakley riding her horse.

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The kinetoscope was soon replaced by a system in which films were projected on a screen, and the viewing of movies was transformed from a solitary activity to a group experience. The first American theaters grew out of the penny arcades where kinetoscopes had been located. These early theaters came to be known as “nickelodeons” because tickets cost five cents. By 1900, the nickelodeon theaters were a popular form of entertainment throughout American cities.

Early French Filmmakers. In France, brothers Auguste- Marie and Louis-Jean Lumière started working with Edison’s motion picture ideas in 1894. They created what they called a cinématographe, a portable

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movie camera that could also be used as a projector. The brothers also set the standards for the speed at which film would be shot and for the format of the film, details that Edison would eventually adopt. On December 28, 1895, they opened their first theater, where they showed short movies portraying everyday life in families, at factories, and on the street.

One of the earliest films to tell a story rather than record everyday life was created by another Frenchman, Georges Méliès. His most famous film was 1902’s A Trip to the Moon, which featured special effects such as a spaceship hitting the man in the moon in the eye. But although it told a story, it was essentially a stage show captured on film.9

Edwin S. Porter: Telling a Story With Film. Edwin S. Porter expanded on Méliès’s ideas to create one of the first hit movies in the United States. While working as a projectionist for Edison, Porter saw Méliès’s Trip to the Moon many times. He soon started making movies for Edison, most notably the 1903 film The Great Train Robbery. Porter laid out almost every element of the action in the film, which tells the story of a group of outlaws who get on a train, rob the strongbox and the passengers, kill everyone who gets in their way, and are eventually shot and killed by the posse hunting them down. The movie, containing twelve separate scenes shot in a variety of locations, tells a realistic story. The Great Train Robbery helped establish how stories could be told through film.10

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch a nearly three-hour cut of Intolerance. CLICK TO SHOW

D. W. Griffith: The Birth of the Blockbuster. Director D. W. Griffith was the George Lucas or Steven Spielberg of the silent-movie era, creating epic films that captured the entire nation’s imagination. At a time when most directors were making movies that ran for twenty- five minutes at most,

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Griffith produced films that ran for an hour or more. In essence, Griffith created the first modern feature-leng th film. Griffith’s most significant film—The Birth of a Nation, released in 1915— tells the story of the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the years following the Civil War. The film runs for over three hours and, at a cost of more than $110,000, was the most expensive movie to date. It also cost audiences more to see it; tickets were $2 in the big cities at a time when admission to most pictures was less than $1.

Based on Thomas Dixon’s book The Clansman, Griffith’s film is blatantly racist. At the time of its release, the film was criticized for a range of reasons, including its portrayal of African Americans as “nothing but beasts” and its attack on the North. One critic, referring to the three miles of film used in making the movie, called it “three miles of filth.”11 Griffith soon outdid himself with another movie, Intolerance, which ran even longer than The Birth of a Nation. It cost nearly $500,000 to make and tells four separate stories spread out over a period of 2,500 years. It is a bold, dramatic film, but it was a financial failure, costing Griffith the fortune he had made with The Birth of a Nation.

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Intolerance marked the point at which outside financial backing became necessary for a movie to get produced. Today the only exceptions to this are low-budget movies, such as The Blair Witch Project, and movies made by very wealthy directors, such as George Lucas. (Lucas financed the Star Wars prequel series, Episodes I, II, and III, in part with profits from Star Wars merchandise and his special-effects house, Industrial Light & Magic. He eventually sold his

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Library of Congress

Young people in the 1940s dressed a little more formally when they went to the movies than do today’s movie audiences, but these Chicago moviegoers were still looking to have fun away from parental supervision for an afternoon or evening.

company Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012.)

Outside financing means that directors are accountable to the people who control the purse strings. Few directors today have the right to a “final cut,” or final version, of the movie. That right is generally reserved by the people who control the money.12

Movie Stars. In the early days of the movie industry, studios were reluctant to give actors screen credit for fear that this would encourage them to ask for more money. But the studios soon discovered that the public liked some actors and actresses better than others and were more likely to go to a movie featuring one of their favorites.

Directors such as D. W. Griffith employed a group of regular players in all their films. Florence Lawrence was one of the first to break out of this anonymous group; Griffith’s studio, Biograph, paid her a stunning (for the time) $25 a week. Linda Griffith, D. W.’s wife, wrote in a memoir, “[Florence’s] pictures became tremendously popular, and soon all over the country Miss Lawrence was known as ‘The Biograph Girl.’”13 After Lawrence left Biograph for a rival studio, Independent Moving Pictures, she became one of the first actresses to receive a screen credit.14

The Studio System

Why are so many movies made in Hollywood? Although the earliest movies were filmed in New Jersey and New York, the appeal of southern California soon became apparent. One argument for going west was to get away from Thomas Edison’s “patent police,” who tried to control the use of movie technology.

But California also offered almost constant sunlight, as well as the varied settings of ocean, desert, and mountains. In addition, the new movie studios needed a great deal of space, and at the beginning of the twentieth century, land in California was still relatively cheap.

At about the same time, the movie studios figured out that the most effective way to produce movies was with a factory-like process known as the studio system, in which all of the talent worked directly for the movie studios. Paramount Pictures, MGM, Warner Bros., and other major studios controlled every aspect of the production process, from writing to editing. They employed a number of writers, directors, and actors (“stars”) who were under contract to work for a weekly salary. The movies were put together in assembly-line fashion. The studios also had almost absolute control of the distribution system.

Distribution was carried out in two ways. The first way was blo ck bookings, in which theater owners were required to book a whole series of movies in order to get a few desirable films. The studio package might offer four headliner movies with big-name stars, ten mid-range pictures, ten more low-level films, and twelve no-star, bottom-of-the-line pictures. Sometimes salespeople insisted that theaters take the studio’s entire package of fifty-two films, one for each week of the year. The second, and even more effective, way for studios to guarantee that their movies would be shown was to buy up theaters.15

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch the documentary Final Cut: The Making and Unmak ing of Heaven’s Gate. CLICK TO SHOW

United Artists. Actors and directors soon rebelled against the controls placed on them by the studio system. Despite being pampered and well paid, they had to make the movies the studios told them to make. By 1919, several of the most popular performers and directors, including D. W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks, joined forces to create their own company, United Artists.

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Instead of producing movies as the other major studios did, United Artists acquired and distributed movies after independent film producers had completed them. United Artists was essentially a model for the modern film studio—not a maker of films but a distributor and a source of financing.

United Artists remained a significant independent force in the movies until 1981, when one of its movies, Michael Cimino’s Heaven’s Gate, managed to lose almost its entire cost of production—$44 million—forcing the nearly bankrupt studio to merge with MGM. (Heaven’s Gate is a dusty, confusing, and depressing western that was relatively expensive for the time it came out.16)

Talking Pictures. In terms of technological developments in the movies, color and black-and-white movies coexisted for many years, but movies with sound replaced silent films almost immediately. Once people had both seen and heard their favorite stars, there was no turning back.17

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO The cast of Singing in the Rain attempts to shoot their first “talking” scene. CLICK TO SHOW

Although many people point to The Jazz Singer, released in 1927, as the first talking film, it was actually a silent film with two talking (and singing) segments. The first successful demonstration of the talking picture was a series of short films that accompanied the feature Don Juan in 1926. Don Juan was a silent film, but it had a synchronized soundtrack (wherein sounds are synchronized with the pictures in a movie) with musical accompaniment, and the accompanying films demonstrated the equipment that would make talking films possible. This set of short films included performances by opera singers and a talk by Will H. Hays, president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America.

The Jazz Singer was called a talkie—a movie with synchronized sound—but it was the singing as much as the talking that impressed most people. In the movie, Al Jolson, talking to his mother, delivered one of the cinema’s most prophetic lines,

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Silent movie stars “sweet” Mary Pickford and “swashbuckling” Douglas Fairbanks were one of the first Hollywood power couples and were two of the founders of the United Artists movie studio.

“Come on, Ma. Listen to this.”18 The public loved it. It was talking pictures such as The Jazz Singer that helped build Warner Bros. into one of the nation’s premier movie studios. Until then, Warner Bros. had been a relatively small player. The studio’s breakthrough came with the realization that talkies were about more than talk. As Harry Warner put it, “If it can talk, it can sing.” 19

The movie industry as a whole was leery of talking pictures for a couple of reasons. On the simplest level, talking pictures in the early days required stars to speak well while acting, something that wasn’t necessarily easy to do. (In the contemporary movie industry, much of the dialogue is rerecorded after the photography is finished.) A bigger problem was that talking pictures were expensive. Not only did theaters have to upgrade their equipment, but the noisy movie projectors had to be muffled in soundproof booths. Sound issues existed during the filming process as well, as noisy equipment that allowed cameras to swoop around the actors couldn’t be used. This problem restricted the camera’s mobility in the early talkies and kept them from being as visually interesting as the best of the silent films, such as Metropolis or Nosferatu. There was also the problem of noise in the vicinity of the studios (such as the roar of passing trains). Even the bright arc lights used to light the sets made a sizzling sound that had to be eliminated. As one industry observer noted, “It was easy to make pictures, easy to make records; but another matter to make them together.”20

The influence of talking films soon gave rise to concerns like those familiar to us today. One newspaper columnist complained,

The talkies will make Hollywood the slang center of the

Library of Congress

p The congressional hearings on communists in Hollywood extended over a several-year period. This photo shows actor Lionel Stander testifying before the House Un- American Activities Committee in 1953.

United States. . . . A wisecrack recorded in Hollywood will be heard in all corners of the country months before the same quip could travel from town to town across the continent with a road show or a vaudeville troupe.21

It took awhile for the talking movies to find their way. As one critic pointed out in Harper’s in 1929, the talkies were neither plays nor silent movies. They were something new, and Hollywood had to determine what that was. Writers, directors, and actors had to figure out what could be done with the new medium. Animation pioneer Walt Disney, for example, saw sound more as a way to add music and sound effects to his cartoons than as a way to make them talk.22 In recent years, the quality of sound has become increasingly important, both in theaters and at home. George Lucas’s Star Wars, released in 1977, broke new ground not only with its visual effects, but also with its sound effects. It was among the first movies to fully exploit the Dolby sound system, and the Lucas-developed THX theater sound system has become a standard for high-quality movie sound.

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The End of the Studio System. By 1938, the U.S. Department of Justice was starting to view the movie studio system as a monopoly that needed to be brought under control. It decided to make a test case of Paramount Pictures. Paramount and the other major studios were charged with conspiring to set the terms for theaters renting their films—requiring them to charge certain minimum prices and to accept block booking—and discriminating in favor of certain theaters. The studios also worked to keep independent films out of theaters they owned.

An early portion of the settlement of what became known as the “Hollywood Antitrust Case”23 required studios to show theater owners films before booking them, limit block bookings to five movies at a time, and no longer force theaters to book short films. But the power of the studios was not truly dismantled until 1948 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the studios must sell their theaters. This final portion of the case’s settlement led to the system in use today, in which the studios primarily finance and distribute films produced by independent companies rather than make movies themselves with their own staff.24

The Blacklist

The years following World War II were a dark time for the movie industry. The studios’ power was diminished by the Supreme Court’s rulings in the antitrust case, and some politicians had an overwhelming fear that Hollywood and its movies might be playing a role in spreading communism. In 1947, a congressional committee known as the House Un-American Activities Committee, under the leadership of Parnell Thomas, held hearings on possible communist influences in Hollywood.

In his introductory remarks, Thomas laid out the fears quite clearly:

We all recognize, certainly, the tremendous effect which moving pictures have on their mass audiences, far removed from the Hollywood sets. We all recognize that what the citizen sees and hears in his neighborhood movie house carries a powerful impact on his thoughts and behavior.

With such vast influence over the lives of American citizens as the motion-picture industry exerts, it is not unnatural—in fact, it is very logical—that subversive and undemocratic forces should attempt to use this medium for un-American purposes.25

It is this legacy of fear—fear that the movies and other media could have undesirable effects on unsuspecting audience members—that led to the research and controls on the movie

industry. (This topic is discussed in depth later in this chapter.)

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch a short 1950 documentary on the Hollywood Ten. CLICK TO SHOW

Two weeks of committee hearings were held, the most divisive of which involved ten “unfriendly witnesses” who questioned the right of the committee to ask them about their associations and beliefs. The committee repeatedly asked the question, “Are you now, or have you ever been, a communist?” Instead of answering, the witnesses, known as the Hollywood Ten, challenged the constitutionality of the hearings. They were jailed for contempt of Congress, and the movie industry instituted a bl acklist that banned anyone from working in Hollywood who was a known communist, a suspected communist, or a communist sympathizer.26

In December 1949, Thomas was convicted of padding his payroll and went to jail himself. But hearings continued under new leadership in the early 1950s, and by 1953, the blacklist contained the names of as many as 324 suspected communists. The contracts of those who were blacklisted could be canceled; if they were freelancers, the studios simply wouldn’t buy their work.27 The hearings tore Hollywood apart. Some of the unfriendly witnesses had to move. The uncooperative witnesses lost their jobs and were ostracized, and those who had provided names were viewed as informers.

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While the blacklist was in place, several writers continued to sell screenplays under assumed names or wrote screenplays without receiving any credit at all. In 1956, Dalton Trumbo, writing under the name Robert Rich, won an unclaimed Academy Award for his screenplay for The Brave One. In 1957, David Lean’s epic movie The Bridge on the River Kwai won an Oscar for best screenplay. The script, written by Carl Foreman and Michael Wilson, was based on a novel by the French author Pierre Boulle. But since the scriptwriters were blacklisted, the credit went to Boulle, who could not write or speak English.28 (And in case you were wondering, Boulle also wrote the novel

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The White House/ www.flickr.com

The White House Family Theater has been playing everything from classic American films to shameless campaign promos since its inception in 1942. Barack Obama was the first president to watch a film in 3D at the White House.

that inspired the Planet of the Apes movie series.) The blacklist was finally broken in 1960, when Trumbo received screenwriting credits for the films Spartacus and Exodus.

Television and the Movies

In the 1950s, people began turning to television rather than movies for routine entertainment. The exodus of families to the suburbs also contributed to a decline in movie audiences, especially in the old urban Art Deco movie palaces. Sports, both professional and collegiate, started drawing audiences away from the movies as well.29 In 1946, movie audiences reached their peak, and eighty million tickets were sold every week. But by 1953, ticket sales had dropped by almost half, to forty-six million a week. It was clear that Hollywood would have to do something to reverse this trend.

Larger-Than-Life Movies. One thing Hollywood did to entice viewers away from television was to make the movies shown in theaters bigger and better than before. Hollywood tried 3-D movies, but they required special projection equipment and 3-D glasses. The gimmick started out successfully, but people soon became bored with the novelty, which ultimately added little to the movie experience. Almost the only serious movie to be released in the 3-D format in its first incarnation was Alfred Hitchcock’s Dial M for Murder. The 3-D format experienced a revival in the 2000s, especially with movies targeted at children, such as Pixar’s Up and Brendan Fraser’s Journey to the Center of the Earth.30 But now many big-budget action movies get a 3-D release as well, whether they were designed for 3-D or not, with goal of drawing in the higher ticket prices that 3-D movies command. And, of

course, there are the rare films envisioned as 3-D movies from the start, such as James Cameron’s Avatar, Ridley Scott’s Prometheus, and Alfonso Cuarón’s Gravity.

WEB Learn more about the current 3-D movie revival. CLICK TO SHOW

After the first effort to popularize 3-D films fizzled out, more successful were attempts to project a larger picture on the screen. The most extreme of these was the Cinerama process, in which each scene was filmed from three slightly different angles and projected on a huge curved screen using three projectors. The purpose was to create the feeling of realism through the use of peripheral vision. The Cinerama theaters could also handle smaller wide-screen systems such as CinemaScope.

Along with the larger screens came larger movies, including epics such as The Ten Commandments and the gladiator movie Spartacus. Today, wide-screen technology is starting to find its way into television through the use of DVDs and high-definition digital broadcasts.

The Advent of Color. Television also helped bring about the conversion to color movies. During the 1950s, television was almost exclusively black-and-white. Color was first used in Hollywood in the 1920s at about the same time that sound came in, but it was expensive, the studios were focusing on the conversion to sound, and black-and-white film was easier to work with. Still, there are some important color movies from this era. Both Gone With the Wind and The Wizard of Oz made effective use of color: Think of the vivid images of Dorothy’s ruby red slippers—silver in the original L. Frank Baum books— and Scarlett O’Hara’s green velvet dress made from the parlor drapes.

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One factor that delayed the conversion to color movies was that they initially required a complex camera that shot simultaneously on three separate reels of film (one for each of the three additive colors—cyan, magenta, and yellow). After World War II, American studios adopted a process used in Germany to shoot in color using a single reel of film, which made

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Ricardo DeAratanha/Getty Images

Theaters have started attracting audiences by offering a wide variety of food and drink options while promoting high-end experiences. Here, a bartender serves beer to two customers seated on plush, leather recliners.

color filming much easier. Competition from television forced Hollywood to start using color in virtually every film from the 1950s on.31 Occasionally, period-piece movies are released in black-and-white for effect—think of 2011’s multiple-Oscar- winning The Artist (which was also largely a silent film with a musical soundtrack); the 2005 Oscar-nominated Good Night, and Good Luck; or Schindler’s List, which won the Oscar for best picture in 1993. (Come to think of it, maybe shooting a movie in black-and-white is a good way to get an Oscar . . .) Other movies are shot predominantly in black-and-white such as the live- action/computer-animation blend Sin City and Tim Burton’s animated Frankenweenie. More recently, Alexander Payne’s Nebraska, which is set in the present day, was done completely in black-and-white.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch the trailer for The Artist. CLICK TO SHOW

The Growth of Multiplex Theaters. In recent decades, movie theaters themselves have been changing to meet the needs of a changing audience. As large numbers of people moved from cities to suburbs, the vast Art Deco movie palaces that seated as many as two thousand people were no longer being filled. Gradually, these megatheaters have been replaced by smaller theaters grouped together in what is known as a multiplex. These have a single box office and concession stand, but contain anywhere from three to twenty screens. Each of the auditoriums is relatively small, but when a major movie is released, it can be shown in several of the theaters.32 The number of theater screens declined in 2001 to approximately thirty-five thousand but has grown in recent years to over forty thousand. Many of these new theaters

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feature stadium seating, improved sound systems, and premium refreshments, such as real butter on the gourmet popcorn.33

The Movie Business

If the early 1900s were the silent-film era and the 1930s and 1940s were the studio era, then the period from the late 1970s to the present day is the blockbuster era, in which studios try to make relatively expensive movies with a large, predefined audience. These movies are packaged with cable deals and marketing tie-ins, such as McDonald’s Happy Meal toys.

The Blockbuster Era

Steven Spielberg is generally credited with creating the blockbuster era with the release of his 1975 summer hit Jaws. It was the first movie to gross more than $200 million, and it set the stage for the big summer movies. Prior to Jaws, it was believed that a movie had to be released during the Christmas season to be a major success. Jaws had a number of things going for it: It was directed by one of the most popular directors of the late twentieth century, it featured a compelling musical score by John Williams, and it was based on a best-selling novel by Peter Benchley.

Jaws was accompanied by a giant television advertising campaign that began three days before the movie’s release. But the marketing of the movie had started two years earlier with an announcement that the movie rights had been acquired and speculation about the stars. Journalists were taken to the production site in record numbers to keep the stories flowing. The movie’s release was scheduled to occur within six months of the publication of the paperback book, and the book’s cover included a tie-in to the movie. As the release date for the movie approached, copies of the paperback were sent out to waiters, cab drivers, and other ordinary people to build word of mouth. Finally, the movie was given a summer release date to capitalize on the beach and swimming season.

WEB

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Handout/Getty Images

Disney merchandise travels around the world and generates more than $40 billion in sales. Elsa, one of the princesses from the Disney film Frozen, outsold Barbie in 2014.

Get the most up-to-date box office figures. CLICK TO SHOW

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The Jaws campaign was designed to get people to the movie and talk about it. If the talk had been negative, all the advertising in the world couldn’t have saved the movie. But with everyone talking up the movie, Jaws took off.34 The success of Jaws started a tradition of larger-than-life summer movies that continued with the Star Wars trilogies, the Indiana Jones series, Christopher Nolan’s Dark Knight trilogy, and the Pirates of the Caribbean series. Some observers have gone so far as to describe the summer blockbuster movie as “a wide-screen, color, stereophonic ride.”35 The description is apt, because by the 1990s, many of the studios had followed Disney’s lead and produced theme parks with rides based on movies.

Frozen is Disney’s most successful animated film to date, so there must be theme park attractions to go with it. Disney is replacing the Norwegian mythology–based Maelstrom ride at Epcot with a new Frozen-themed water ride. At Disney’s Hollywood Studios in Florida, there is a Frozen-themed parade, skating rink, sing-along show, and fireworks show.36 Kathy Mangum, the lead Imagineer (or attraction designer), told the Los Angeles Times, “What we try to do is take you back to the movie without retelling that story.” There is also a Frozen- themed land planned to open at Tokyo DisneySea in 2017 or 2018.37

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Take a video walkthrough of Hogwarts at the Wizarding W

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http://ralphehanson.tumblr.com/post/19992886084/a-video-walk-through-of-the-hogwarts-castle-at-the

orld of Harry Potter. CLICK TO SHOW

In some cases, the ride has cost more to produce than the movie itself. The most recent example is the Wizarding World of Harry Potter attraction at the Universal Orlando theme park in Florida, which opened in the spring of 2010 and cost an estimated $265 million to construct. As of this writing, Universal Studios Hollywood is completing the Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ride that will include entertainment while guests stand in line waiting, including “oil paintings that spring to life, an indoor snowstorm, and other magical moments.”38 (Interestingly enough, there’s a huge amount of cross-corporate partnerships going on here. The rights to the books are owned by Scholastic; the rights to just about everything else are owned by Warner Bros., a unit of Time Warner. But the theme park was constructed by Universal, a unit of NBCUniversal, which has cable giant Comcast as its owner. Got that?39)

Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens is currently the most commercially successful movie in U.S. history (see Table 8.1), but it didn’t have the biggest audience.40 That honor belongs to the Civil War epic Gone With the Wind, which sold more than one hundred million tickets in 1939 and countless more for multiple rereleases over a decades-long period (see Table 8.2).41 One reason the 2015 Force Awakens is at the top of the box office charts is that tickets to see it cost much more than the Depression-era tickets for Gone With the Wind. Adjusted for inflation, GWTW ticket prices would have brought in a total of $1.62 billion, considerably more than the domestic box office receipts of The Force Awakens.

TABLE 8.1

Box Office Receipts of Top Movies (Actual Domestic Revenue)

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Source: “Domestic Grosses,” Box Office Mojo, May 17, 2016. Available from http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm. Used with permission.

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS AS YOU LIKE IT: MOVIE VIEWERSHIP IN THE

E DIGITAL ERA

ven in the age of streaming video, tablets, smartphones, DVD and Blu-ray players, pay-per- view cable, and home theater systems, going to the

movies is something special. People go for a variety of reasons—to learn things, to escape from everyday life, to enjoy a pleasant activity, to pass the time, to avoid feeling lonely, to fit in with others, or to learn about themselves.42 Young people who are dating may go to the movies for no other reason than to be alone in the dark away from parental supervision.

But there are other things that make going to the movies unique. Movies are typically “edgier” than what is shown on television, although cable and home video have changed this substantially. There is also the larger-than-life aspect of movies such as the Harry Potter or James Bond or Hobbit series, which bring people into theaters for an overwhelming visual and sonic experience. While the giant screen Cinerama system has died out, large-format IMAX theaters that were traditionally used for science and nature films at museums are now screening popular releases on their screens that can be several stories tall. Action and science fiction movies such as Avatar, The Dark Knight Rises, and Gravity each brought in more than $100 million globally from IMAX showings, in part because IMAX theaters can charge $15 a person (or more!) for tickets.43 (Your author has a history of driving up to 180 miles to see movies at large-format theaters.)

Movies can also be a group experience. People watching the Paranormal Activity horror movies at home may not have the overwhelming sense of dread that comes from being in a theater full of terrified people.

According to movie scholar Garth Jowett,

Teenagers and young adults will probably always want to escape the confines of the home, and others will more than likely continue to be motivated to seek out an experience which allows intense individual involvement with little risk within an appealing social context.44

As noted elsewhere in this chapter, movie theater attendance has stayed relatively stable over the last several years, averaging between 1.3 and 1.4 billion tickets sold per year. The size of the box office varies from year to year, but is trending slightly upward, due primarily to increased ticket prices. According to a study by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA—the same people who produce movie content ratings), two-thirds of Americans went to the movies at least once in 2014.45

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But movies are no longer exclusively, or even primarily, a theatrical experience. As of 2016, over 56 percent of American adults have streamed a movie to their television set, computer, or mobile device. While people still watch movies using Blu-ray or DVD players, the percentage of them who do so has dropped from 37 to 35 percent.46 And it’s really important to remember that it isn’t an either/or situation for movie viewing. A study by the MPAA found that three-quarters of frequent moviegoers own at least four “key technology products, including tablets, smartphones, laptops, and gaming consoles.”47 The same study found that mobile device users also watched more paid and free movies at home. And the MPAA study showed that frequent

moviegoers were also more likely than the general population to own computers, Blu-ray or DVD players, smartphones, tablets, video game systems, and video streaming devices.

IMAX CEO Richard Gelfond, speaking with Deadline, said he and his business partner have worked hard since 1994 to grow IMAX from being a source of nature and science documentaries into a spectacular format for blockbuster “fanboy” movies. They have been so successful with their large-format cameras and theaters that top directors like Christopher Nolan (Dark Knight trilogy, Interstellar), James Cameron (Avatar), and J. J. Abrams (Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens) shoot substantial portions of their films in the IMAX format.

When directors shoot their film in IMAX, they get exclusive access to premium theaters. “So one of IMAX’s powers is because we can help deliver a large number of screens for a particular filmmaker, that encourages the filmmaker to make the film with special DNA—IMAX DNA. So whether it’s Christopher Nolan using the camera or Sam Mendes shooting to our aspect ratio, the fact that they know they’re going to get close to 1,000 theaters in the world enables them to do special things.”48 As an example, Captain America: Civil War has the seventeen-minute-long airport battle of the superheroes fighting each other shot entirely in the IMAX format.49

Gelfond told USA Today that the blockbuster movies will tend to draw audiences in to see movies in theaters, while smaller movies will appeal to people viewing at home or on the go: “When you have blockbuster movies, people are still going to want to go to a theatre and see them. When you have more independent movies, or more movies that rely [more] on plot than on special effects, I think people will see them on devices.”50

HOW many times did you go see a movie in a theater over the last twelve months? Were any of them at a large-format (i.e., IMAX) theater?

HOW did you decide to see a movie at the theater?

DO you deliberately wait to see certain movies at home? What kind of movies are they?

DO you ever watch movies on a mobile device? Why or why not?

Home Video

VCRs started becoming an important source of movies in the 1980s, and by 1994, over 85 percent of all U.S. homes had one. However, by about 2005, DVDs and high-definition Blu-ray discs had largely displaced the VCR. As of 2006, nearly 81 percent of all households had a DVD player, whereas 79 percent had VCRs. This was a big change from 1999, when 89 percent of households had VCRs, and fewer than 7 percent had DVD players.51 DVDs provide a higher-quality image and dramatically better sound than videocassettes, and they have popularized the letterbox (or wide-screen) format. Pixar’s Incredibles brought in $261 million in theaters, making it one of the most successful films of 2004. When it was released on DVD, it made an additional $368 million.52 By 2012, more people were streaming movies over the Internet using services such as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon than were playing DVDs or other physical media. Of course, consumers were still paying much more for the movies on physical media than for streaming. A study by PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP projects that revenue for downloads and streaming will pass that for physical discs by 2016, with the purchase and rental of DVDs bringing in $7.8 billion and streaming and downloads earning $9.5 billion.53 In addition to making more money for the studios, home video opened up a world of older movies and foreign movies to today’s audiences. Previously, movie lovers could see a film only when it first came out or was rereleased, when it was shown in 16mm format on a college campus or in a revival house, or when it finally appeared on late-night television. With the wide range of home video options now available, people can watch movies again and again, whenever they want.

TABLE 8.2

Box Office Receipts of Top Movies (Adjusted for Inflation)

Source: “Domestic Grosses: Adjusted for Inflation,” Box Office Mojo, May 17, 2016. Available from http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/adjusted.htm. Used with permission. Note: Avatar was ranked fifteenth on the inflation-adjusted list as of June 2016, falling between Ben Hur (1959) and Return of the Jedi (1983).

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Digital Production and Projection

Simon Odwyer/Farifax Syndications

Retired Australian projectionist Brian Davis loaned his personal projector to a Melbourne-area theater wanting to show Quentin Tarantino’s film The Hateful Eight in the 70mm film format. The format was popular for major movies in the 1950s and 60s.

The revolution that started with desktop publishing— which enabled people to produce books, newspapers, and magazines on their computers and laser printers —has begun transforming the production of movies.

Computers first came to Hollywood in a big way with Star Wars (Episode IV: A New Hope for those of you geeky enough to care). Director George Lucas used a computer-controlled camera to shoot the space battle scenes. He was able to create multiple layers of images more easily because he could make the camera move exactly the same way on each shot. More recently, Lucas’s Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones was the first big-budget feature to be shot entirely using high- definition video.

Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow, released in 2004, was the first mainstream American movie in which all the backgrounds and sets were computer animated in an otherwise live-action movie.54 Director Kerry Conran wrote his own software to create computer-generated backgrounds that would meld with the live-action footage of the actors shot before a blue screen, in much the same way that computer special effects are added into movies. In this case, though, without the computer- generated backdrops, there would be nothing other than the actors. There were no “sets” to speak of. The only “real” things in the film were the actors, their costumes, and the props they were holding.

Conran told the Washington Post back in 2004 that he believed his technology would allow filmmakers more freedom to pursue their visions:

The studios today are in this awkward and horrible position where films cost so much money to make, they have to be

cautious so they can appeal to the broadest possible audience, so that is half the point of this experiment, to see if independent filmmakers and studios can both take chances again, to think differently.55

Video Case 8.1: Movie production.

While the technology might have allowed Conran to make a movie he couldn’t have otherwise, the film did not come cheap, costing a reported $70 million. But Conran saw that $70 million price tag as a bargain compared to the much more expensive action thrillers, such as the Spider-Man franchise.

At the time the film came out, no one had seen anything quite like it, and veteran movie producer Jon Avnet proclaimed the process “a version of the virtual studio” and “unquestionably the wave of the future.”56

Unfortunately for the film’s creators, audiences neither in the United States nor anywhere else in the world were particularly



interested in the film. With a domestic gross of only about $38 million and a worldwide gross of $58 million, the film did not make back its production costs through ticket sales.57 Conran predicted correctly back in 2004 that his techniques would find their way into action, fantasy, and science fiction movies. “In a romantic comedy, where you have the people walking through a park, it makes less sense to go to the effort to completely create this park than go outside and shoot it,” he told the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. “It’s probably not suited for everything, but it could be used for anything.”58

SECRET 3 The surprise hit 300, based on a graphic novel, would likely never have been made if not for the budget economies of digital production. The movie, which features an over-the-top re-creation of the Battle of Thermopylae with all- digital sets and backgrounds, cost only $65 million to produce, cheap compared to the sword-and-sandal epic Troy, which cost $175 million, and Gladiator, which cost $103 million. With that low cost of production, 300 was able to earn back its basic budget the first weekend of release, and it eventually earned more than $210 million domestically and $456 million worldwide.59 What made the film so cheap? First, it was shot in Canada, where production and labor costs are lower. Second, it was shot completely on high-definition video on a blank soundstage using the technology pioneered in Sky Captain. With the success of 300, we see avant-garde techniques becoming mainstream, providing yet another instance of Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.60

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch the trailer for Sky Captain and the World of Tomo rrow. CLICK TO SHOW

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Video Case 8.2: Back to the Future

Star Wars creator George Lucas wrote in 1999 that he believed that film and projectors would soon be replaced by digital computer projection. Aside from questions about the quality of the images, digital projectors give a better 3-D image than do conventional projectors, and they drastically lower the cost of distributing prints to theaters.61 The six major movie studios of the MPAA have written standards, known as the Digital Cinema Initiatives, so that theaters have a consistent set of rules for how digital projection will be handled. The biggest challenge for the conversion to digital projection is expected to be cost, with estimates varying from $20,000 to close to $100,000 per screen, depending on the theater’s size and the desired quality.6 2 As of 2014, more than 90 percent of all commercial theaters were capable of projecting digitally, and with its release of the Will Ferrell comedy Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues, the Paramount movie studio was reportedly ending its distribution of most of its movies on 35mm film. When the Oscar-nominated Wolf of Wall Street came out, it was the first major studio movie to be released exclusively in digital form, according to the Los Angeles Times. The only exceptions to this policy will be a few high-profile movies, such as Christopher Nolan’s science fiction movie Interstellar.63



QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Why do you go to the movies? Do you feel that the experience of going to the movies is worth the cost? Why or why not?

Despite the efforts of the studios to kill off film, some directors still want to work with it. Cult director Quentin Tarantino shot his neo-western The Hateful Eight in the old film format Ultra Panavision 70mm, a format that saw limited use in the 1950s and 1960s. The film has a much wider aspect ratio than conventional film or digital projection, and it creates a dramatic image when projected on a big screen.64 Although Hateful Eight showed in most theaters using standard digital projection, it was shown in 70mm on ninety-six screens in the United States and four in Canada at a cost of about $80,000 per theater. Nolan’s Interstellar showed at eleven theaters in the same format, which is not to be confused with the somewhat different 70mm IMAX film format.65 Aside from the issue of projecting movies using film, many more movies are shot using film, including J. J. Abrams’s Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens.

What Makes a Movie Profitable?

Although a blockbuster movie can be enormously profitable, a relatively low percentage (20–30 percent) of movies actually make money. Movies can be financial failures even if they make $40 million and can be successful even if they make only $2 million—it all depends on how much the movie cost to produce and promote.66 The best-known way to make money in the movies is to produce a big-budget blockbuster with big stars and a big-name director, have a giant domestic and international box office, sell lots of licensed products, sell millions of DVDs, and generally turn the movie into a Fortune 500 corporation. Sometimes this process even produces a pretty good film. Look at the movie The Martian as an example. It took in more than $228 million domestically and $401 million from the foreign box office on a budget of $108 million.67 When you spend that much money making a movie, it has to be a success. Of course, with talent such as director Ridley Scott, actor Matt Damon, and screenwriter Drew Goddard, it was bound to be a success. Another example is the movie version of

the best-selling young adult novel The Hunger Games. Produced for the relatively low budget of $78 million and starring the well- regarded Jennifer Lawrence, it brought in a near-record $152 million on its opening weekend.68 Sometimes the international box office can help redeem a domestic stinker. That was the case with director Andrew Stanton’s first live-action film, John Carter. Stanton had a successful track record of directing hit animated films for Pixar, including Finding Nemo and WALL-E, so when he made his live-action debut, he was given a relatively free hand. This involved spending approximately $250 million on the film, which was based on the Edgar Rice Burroughs Mars novels. John Carter had a $30 million opening weekend, which was considered disastrous for such a high-budget film. Over its 2012 run, it brought in only $73 million domestically, but almost three times that—$211 million—on the international market. The global box office still didn’t keep the movie from being labeled an economic failure, but it did help it considerably.69 Gore Verbinski, who directed the wildly successful Pirates of the Caribbean series, suffered a similar fate with his 2013 version of The Lone Ranger, which starred Johnny Depp. Made for $215 million, the action comedy brought in only $89 million in the United States, though like John Carter it was somewhat redeemed by an international box office of $171 million.70 The alternative approach is to make a movie with a tiny-to-small budget that has a clear target audience, have a modest box office, and make a great return on investment. A good example of this is 2014’s The Fault in Our Stars. The movie started with a built-in audience of fans of the best-selling young adult novel that tells the story of two teens who fall in love while suffering from cancer. The movie was filmed for $12 million and had huge social media buzz from its target audience of teen and twenty- something women. The film had a spectacular opening, earning $48.2 million over its first weekend, and it went on to earn more than $124 million in the United States, and $182 million internationally. The movie was not one of the top-ten grossing movies of 2014, but it was one of the most profitable, earning more than ten times its cost of production.71

WEB Check out the box office and estimated costs of recent m ovies. CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

If you wanted to be a successful movie producer in Hollywood, what kind of movies would you make? How much influence do budget and promotion have on a movie’s success? Why do some big-budget movies fail and

AUDIO Learn about new ways for movies to increase profits. CLICK TO SHOW

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On a smaller scale was the Christian-themed Miracles From Heaven. Produced for a budget of $13 million, it was promoted through social media and with tie-ins to the Christian rock group Third Day, and grossed more than $61 million. Now Miracles did not make a large amount of money, but any movie that can bring in 4.6 times its cost of production has to be seen as a success.72 (For lists of top movies, by revenue, refer back to Tabl es 8.1 and 8.2.)

The problem for studio executives, of course, is figuring out in advance which movies can support a large budget and which ones can’t. It’s easy to figure out the big-budget movies that are likely to be blockbusters (well, maybe, at least those that ought to be blockbusters, if they are done right). But why do little movies like Bridesmaids, the Paranormal Activity series, and Slumdog Millionaire break out to become hits?

According to USA Today movie critic Susan Wloszczyna, these movies, and others like them, are ones that “grab the people who actually part with money to see movies.”73 The basics are pretty straightforward: Make an interesting film that doesn’t fit a big- budget mold, keep its costs under control, and be savvy about how you promote it. If it does well, the upside is almost unlimited. If you miss, the movie is still likely to make back its cost through video, cable, and broadcast rights.

Take, for example, two movies starring Natalie Portman: V for Vendetta and Garden State. Neither movie had a large box office; both are quirky, idiosyncratic films. However, both turned a profit. V for Vendetta is a dark, worrisome movie in which the main character,

http://www.npr.org/2014/09/28/352261469/movie-theaters-hope-to-add-another-dimension-to-their-profits

some micro-budget movies make it big?

V, is a terrorist. While he is fighting fascism, he’s also killing innocent people. What gave the filmmakers the freedom to make such an interesting film? The budget. Vendetta had a production budget of $54 million and brought in a domestic box office of $70 million and an international box office of $62 million. Not a big success, but not a big budget either, especially for a sci-fi action flick. Or let’s get a little more personal in scale, with Zach Braff’s Garden State. This story of a young man coming home to New Jersey for a funeral after trying to make it in Hollywood brought in more than ten times its production budget of $2.5 million. It had a charming script, good actors working for low salaries, and a great alternative pop soundtrack, with tracks by Coldplay, Zero 7, and Thievery Corporation.74 Noted director Spike Lee says that he has maintained his independence as a moviemaker largely by keeping costs under control:

I’ve been very comfortable, for the most part, in that I view myself as an independent filmmaker—as one of the few directors that has final cut. And the deal’s always been this: “Spike, we’re not willing to give you so much money, so make do with what you’ve got.” You can’t argue with that.75

Movies and Society

The possible negative effects of movies have long been a source of concern. Although movies are attended by people of all ages, they appeal most strongly to adolescents and young adults, who are perceived as particularly vulnerable to media influences. But as film critic Glenn Kenny points out,

AUDIO Jodie Foster on roles for strong women. CLICK TO SHOW

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Since film is by and large a popular (and terribly expensive) art, the vast majority of moviemakers want to give the audience the pictures they think the audience wants to see, or the pictures that preview cards and focus groups tell

http://www.npr.org/2016/05/13/477838606/jodie-foster-on-roles-for-strong-women-on-screen-and-off

moviemakers the audience wants to see. This kind of give- and-take makes it difficult to tell the dancer from the dance, as it were; add to that the fact that certain movies affect the way we look at other movies, and the puzzle of how we’re changed by them becomes more complex.76

How Much Influence Do Movies Have?

The debate over how movies affect people is contentious, even today. Moviemakers claim that they don’t shape society; they just reflect it. But this ignores the fact that movies are a central part of society, and even mirrors have effects. Movie historian Gerald Mast notes that

movies have . . . been an immensely powerful social and cultural force. . . . They have produced social changes—in ways of dress, patterns of speech, methods of courting. And they have mirrored social changes—in fashion, sexual mores, political principles.77

A well-known example of the purported effects of the movies comes from the 1934 Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert movie It Happened One Night. Counter to the standard of dress for men at the time, Gable’s character took off his shirt and exposed a bare chest; he wore no undershirt. After the movie was released, sales of undershirts reportedly plummeted because of Gable’s example,78 though whether this fall-off ever really happened is a matter of some debate.79

Research Results. As movies grew in popularity in the 1920s, people became concerned about their effects on viewers, especially young people. The Payne Fund, a private foundation, sponsored a series of thirteen studies, several of which analyzed the content of movies, who was going to the movies, and what, if any, effects the movies were having on the audiences. The researchers found that a small number of basic themes appeared in movies over and over again: crime, sex, love, mystery, war, children, history, travel, comedy, and social propaganda. More than three-fourths of all movies dealt with crime, sex, or love.

A second major finding was that people could remember a surprising amount of what they had seen in movies, even six months after seeing them. Why such a high level of recall? Perhaps it was because movies were novel at the time, but another explanation was that movies gave people something to talk about, thus stimulating recall.

Some critics had suggested that movies might be responsible for moral decay, and one of the studies looked at whether the morals portrayed in movies were at odds with those of the viewing public. Not surprisingly, the moral standards of characters in movies tended to be lower than those of viewers. After all, people who behave differently from us are the most interesting to watch.

SECRET 5 Herbert Blumer, a noted social psychologist, conducted a major study that examined the diaries of young people who recorded how they thought they had been influenced by movies. He found that participants reported imitating the behaviors they saw in movies and copying the actions of their favorite stars in their games and play. Young people reported that they saw movies as a source of ideas about action, romance, and standards of beauty. In essence, they were using the movies to learn how to behave as an adult. 80 In short, Blumer was looking at how social interaction shaped young people’s reaction to the movies, thus demonstrating Secret 5—All media are social.

Hooray for Bollywood: India’s Movie Industry. The biggest source of movies in the world is not California or even the United States as a whole. That honor belongs to Bollywood—the filmmakers of India, especially the city of Mumbai (formerly Bombay). Although Bollywood films are popular worldwide, they are not seen frequently in the United States. But 2009’s Oscar winner for best picture may help change that. Slumdog Millionaire, a British movie set in India that makes use of a lot of the stylistic conventions of Bollywood, won eight Oscars and made more than $140 million in the United States.81

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David Willis

The Web comic Dumbing of Age tells the story of a group of students at a Midwest college. In this strip, the characters are discussing movies in a women’s studies class.

Each year, Bollywood produces more than one thousand films that are distributed throughout Africa, China, and the rest of Asia. A 2002 BBC News online poll found that the world’s most popular movie star at that time was not Harrison Ford or Julia Roberts; it was Indian actor Amitabh Bachchan, who had starred in more than one hundred Bollywood movies.82 More recently, Bachchan has been replaced as the world’s biggest movie star by another Bollywood actor—Shah Rukh Khan, who in 2014 was making more than Tom Cruise. He has made more than seventy films, owns his own production company, and—because he’s a movie star from India—owns his own cricket team, the Kolkata Knight Riders.83

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Learn more about Bollywood films and watch a great mov ie clip. CLICK TO SHOW

Typical of India’s films are the masala, or spice, movies. They feature several musical numbers, a strong male hero, a coy heroine, and an obvious villain.84 The movies have as many as ten separate story lines—a contrast to American movies, which typically tell one or two stories.

One reason for the musical numbers in Indian films is that they help break through language barriers. India alone has more than twenty-five languages. Anupam Sharma, who works in the

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/03/07/great-bollywood-example/

Indian movie industry, says that Bollywood movies touch people throughout the world: “Because of the distances and different dialects in India, music is the universal language.”85 When it comes to romance and sex, Bollywood films tend to be far more conservative than American films. “India is still clinging on to its social values, which explains Bollywood’s success everywhere but in America,” said Priya Joshi, an Indian cinema scholar. “Bollywood films don’t have any kissing in them or tend not to. Warner Bros. used to make movies like this in the past. . . . If it’s ready to return to its roots, then it’s ready for Bollywood.”86

Movie critic Roger Ebert wrote that American audiences could enjoy these films:

It is like nothing [Americans] have seen before, with its startling landscapes, architecture and locations, its exuberant colors, its sudden and joyous musical numbers right in the middle of dramatic scenes, and its melodramatic acting (teeth gnash, tears well, lips tremble, bosoms heave, fists clench).87

If that sounds similar to the musical movie Moulin Rouge, that’s no accident. Director Baz Luhrmann acknowledges he was inspired in part by the Bollywood moviemaking style.88 (As a side note, Nigeria claims to be the world’s second largest producer of movies, though its movies all are direct-to-video and do not typically see theatrical release.89)

Diversity in the Movies

#OscarsSoWhite. The 2016 Academy Awards ceremony was as notable for who wasn’t there as for who was. Pull out a photo of all the nominees for an acting award, and you’ll immediately notice something. All of the nominees are white. Not just all the winners, but all of the nominees. And 2016 wasn’t a fluke. That was also the case in 2015. It’s not as though there weren’t any great performances by nonwhite actors. Idris Elba got rave reviews for starring in Beasts of No Nation, Michael B. Jordan was well regarded for playing the lead in the boxing movie Creed, and the entire cast of the NWA rap biopic Straight Outta Compton got good reviews—not to mention a really good box

Universal Studios/Photofest

office.90

WEB Check out #OscarsSoWhite and join the conversation. CLICK TO SHOW

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TEST YOUR VISUAL MEDIA LITERACY

DOES IT LOOK LIKE WOMEN HAVE MAJOR FILM ROLES?

https://twitter.com/search?q=%23OSCARSSOWHIT

T Warner Bros./Photofest

here are lots of movies that feature great relationships between men. There are a number of movies with interesting roles for women. But how

many movies out there feature multiple major female characters that interact with each other? That’s the question the Bechdel Test for Women in Film tries to answer.

The Bechdel Test, named after cartoonist and graphic novel artist Alison Bechdel, attempts to test whether women have a meaningful presence in a movie.1 It does so by asking three questions:

1. Are there two or more women who have names in the movie?

2. Do they talk to each other? 3. Do they talk to each other about something other than

a man?

Not surprisingly, male-centric movies such as The Revenant, 42, and Spectre don’t pass. Movies focusing on the activities of multiple women, such as Bridesmaids, Trainwreck, and the action-oriented Hunger Games series, clearly do pass. But as media critic Anita Sarkeesian points out, some not-so- obvious fails include:

• The original Shrek • The Big Lebowski • Slumdog Millionaire • And even The Princess Bride

Remember, the Bechdel Test doesn’t judge the quality of the movie or whether it treats women with respect. It only requires that the movie have two or more women who talk to each other about something other than a man.

Oddly enough, even in the most female-centric movies—the Disney princess films—a majority of the dialog goes to male characters. While female characters dominate the dialog in classic Disney princess films like the original animated Cinderella and Sleeping Beauty, the princess movies from the 1980s and 1990s are a different story. Male characters have 68 percent of the dialog in The Little Mermaid, 71 percent in Beauty and the Beast, and 76 percent in Pocahontas. (Don’t even think about Aladdin, where 90 percent of the lines go to male characters.)2

Who is the source? What is the Bechdel Test? By whom was it developed?

What are they saying? What is the goal of the Bechdel Test? What does it tell us? What doesn’t it tell us?

What evidence is there? Watch a recently released movie and take notes on the Bechdel questions. Which of the questions does your movie pass? What are some examples of why the movie does or does not pass the Bechdel Test?

What do you and your classmates think? Were you surprised by how your analysis turned out? Does thinking about the Bechdel Test change how you view movies? Does the Bechdel Test address an issue we should be concerned about? Why or why not? Does the lack of female dialog in the Disney princess movies surprise you?

1Lisa Katayama, “The Bechdel Test for Women in Movies,” Boing Boing, July 22, 2010, www.boingboing.net/2010/07/22/the-bechdel-test-for.html; Rachel Sklar, “The Bechdel Test for Movies (and Media?),” Mediaite, July 22, 2010, ww w.mediaite.com/online/the-bechdel-test-for-movies-and-media/.

2Jeff Guo, “Researchers Have Found a Major Problem With ‘The Little Mermaid’ and Other Disney Movies,” The Washington Post, January 25, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/01/25/researchers-h ave-discovered-a-major-problem-with-the-little-mermaid-and-other-disney-mo vies/.

WEB Read several blog posts on the Bechdel Test and watch a great video explanation of it. CLICK TO SHOW

Of course, both Creed and Straight Outta Compton did get Oscar nominations—to white actor Sylvester Stallone for Creed and to the white screenwriters of Straight Outta Compton.91

The lack of recognition for nonwhite actors led attorney April Reign to establish the social media hashtag #OscarsSoWhite to point out the lack of diversity, and several movie figures stayed away from the ceremony, including filmmakers Spike Lee and Michael Moore, along with actors Jada Pinkett Smith and Will Smith.92

http://www.boingboing.net/2010/07/22/the-bechdel-test-for.html

http://www.mediaite.com/online/the-bechdel-test-for-movies-and-media/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/01/25/researchers-have-discovered-a-major-problem-with-the-little-mermaid-and-other-disney-movies/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/tag/bechdel-test/

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New York Times film critic Manohla Dargis says that given the nature of the academy, these results are not terribly surprising. “The primary reason the Oscars are so white this year and most years is that the movie industry is overwhelmingly white.”93 That would seem to be supported by a study done in 2012 by the Los Angeles Times that attempted to find out the racial, age, and gender composition of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences voting members. Although the names of the members are secret, the LA Times managed to establish who most of them were and found that the Oscar voters have a median age of sixty-two and are:

Video Case 8.3: The call to boycott the 2016 Oscars ceremony.

• Nearly 94 percent white • Approximately 2 percent black • Less than 2 percent Latino • 77 percent male



Columbia Pictures/Aloha

After much criticism, Aloha’s writer/director Cameron Crowe apologized for casting “green-eyed, blond-haired” Emma Stone in the role of Allison Ng, who is described as being a quarter Chinese and a

Current president Cheryl Boone Isaacs, a black woman, says that the process of bringing more women and people of color into the academy is vital, but acknowledges that they can only go so fast given the academy only accepts a few new members every year.94

Not everyone is concerned about the white, male, and older membership, however. Frank Pierson, a former president of the academy and an Oscar-winning screenwriter, said the academy shouldn’t use any criteria for membership other than merit: “I don’t see any reason why the academy should represent the entire American population. That’s what the People’s Choice Awards are for. We represent the professional filmmakers, and if that doesn’t reflect the general population, so be it.”95

The problem is clearly not an unwillingness of audiences to go to movies starring people other than white males. New York Times critic at large Wesley Morris notes that audience members are more than happy to pay “to see women, films with mostly black actors and racially diverse casts.”96 He points to the success of Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens (young woman and black man as leads), Furious 7 (featuring a multi-ethnic cast), the Pitch Perfect series, the Hunger Games movies, and Straight Outta Compton.

Todd VanDerWerff, writing for Vox, notes that the problem isn’t just casting people other than white men. “It’s about acknowledging that white men don’t have a lock on good stories, and letting others’ stories be told as well as possible.”97

quarter Hawaiian.Whitewashing. The problem isn’t just with Hollywood not creating parts for nonwhite performers; it extends to casting white actors in parts intended for people of color—a process known as whitewashing. A prime example of whitewashing was the movie Aloha, set in Hawaii and starring the “green-eyed, blond-haired” Emma Stone as a part-Chinese, part–Native Hawaiian fighter pilot. In the Marvel Studios film Doctor Strange, a character who was a Tibetan monk in the comic was remade into a Celtic mystic played by Tilda Swinton. While Marvel points out that there are a variety of race and gender swaps in its movies, Asian American actor George Takei was not impressed. “It’s all too plainly outlandish,” he told the New York Times. “It’s getting to the point where it’s almost laughable. . . . Hollywood has been casting white actors in Asian roles for decades now, and we can’t keep pretending there isn’t something deeper at work here.”98 Interestingly enough, it appears that the whitewashing of the Doctor Strange character was deliberately done to remove a Tibetan character from the movie so that the film would not offend the Chinese government. The Chinese government has occupied Tibet since 1951, and Disney (which owns Marvel) has been careful in recent years to not endanger its access to the Chinese box office.99

The Tina Fey movie Whiskey Tango Foxtrot also ran into conflict for casting as Afghan characters white actors Christopher Abbott and Alfred Molina, who wore skin-darkening bronzing powder.100 Director Ridley Scott took heat for casting Christian Bale as Moses in the Biblical epic Exodus: Gods and Kings. Scott claimed he really had no choice: “I can’t mount a film of this budget, where I have to rely on tax rebates in Spain, and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from such-and-such. I’m just not going to get it financed. So the question doesn’t even come up.”101 It might be worth noting that even with Bale, best known for playing Batman three times, Exodus only had very average box office performance.

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The Production Code: Protecting the

Movies From Censorship

Movies are somewhat different from other media in that their producers have always been conscious of the need for limits on what they can portray. In 1909, theater owners formed the National Board of Censorship to establish a national standard for movies. The idea was that the board would ban offensive films, with the implication that approved films were suitable to be shown. Ironically, the board was formed primarily to protect the theater owners from trouble rather than to protect their audiences from offensive films.102 What was considered objectionable content in movies of this era? Prostitution, childbirth, and masturbation were all decried in the 1920s, as was drug use.103 One critic argued that there was no question that censorship was necessary. The only question was whether the censors should be controlled by the industry or by the government.104

Hollywood and Morality. One of the factors prompting censorship efforts was that the behavior of stars off screen was considered as immoral as some of the movies themselves. When Mary Pickford, a silent-movie star who made a specialty of heroines with ringlets, such as Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, quietly divorced her husband to marry her costar Douglas Fairbanks, her behavior became the talk of the nation. Actor Fatty Arbuckle became entangled in scandal after it appeared that he had bribed a district attorney to cover up the presence of a dozen “party girls” at one of his parties. He was later accused of murdering one of his guests—a young aspiring actress—at another party. Although he was eventually acquitted after three trials, the public never fully forgave him, and he didn’t appear on screen for over a decade.105 A 1922 pamphlet charged that Hollywood was a mass of “wild orgies,” “dope parties,” “kept men,” and “kept women.”106

The Birth of the Production Code. The motion picture industry began formalizing its morality rules with “The Don’ts and Be Carefuls,” a set of guidelines passed in 1927. The impetus for this action was a series of hearings by the Federal Trade Commission and the threat of government regulation.107 As has generally been the case with the movie industry, censorship of the movies came from within the industry for

economic reasons. Movie historian Gerald Mast described the moral dilemma in which the moviemakers found themselves:

Because the movies have sold sex and violence from the beginning (what extremely popular and public art ever sold anything else?), and because they were created within and supported by a society that condoned neither the doing nor the display of sex and violence, the motion picture industry has been in the paradoxical position of trying to set limits on how much it would let itself sell.108

Facing a range of accusations of immorality, the studios looked for someone who could improve the industry’s image. They found that person in Will H. Hays, who had been U.S. postmaster general from 1921 to 1922. Hays was named president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America and became famous for his development of the Produ ction Code, which controlled the content of movies from the 1930s until movie ratings came into use in 1968. The purpose of the code, in its early days, was primarily to convince people that Hollywood was doing something about morality in the movies. But by 1933, Hollywood was forced to start living up to the standards it professed to support.109

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Among other things, the code required that evil not be made to look alluring and that villains and lawbreakers not go unpunished: “Crime shall never be presented in a way that might inspire others with a desire for imitation. Brutal killings are not to be presented in detail.” Also, there could be no profanity or blasphemy in the movies. The code was also fairly strict about sex, noting that scenes of passion needed to be handled carefully: “Excessive and lustful kissing, lustful embraces, suggestive postures and gestures, are not to be shown.” Interracial romance was also forbidden.110 Only occasionally could anything “immoral” get past the code, and big-budget movies from major studios were more likely to get away with pushing the edge of acceptability. Rhett Butler’s closing line in Gone With the Wind, “Frankly, my dear, I don’t give a damn,” was shocking to audiences in 1939 because nothing so raw had previously been allowed by the censors.111

The Ratings System

By the 1960s, many movies were violating provisions of the Production Code, and some were even released without the code’s approval. This forced a reevaluation of how movies were judged. Otto Preminger’s 1953 movie The Moon Is Blue was the first major American movie to be released without code approval. Although it was controversial at the time, it would be considered mild today—imagine a movie causing a stir for including the words virgin and mistress.

In 1968, under the direction of its new president, Jack Valenti, the MPAA scrapped the increasingly outdated Production Code. The code was replaced with a system of voluntary ratings indicating the audience for which the movie was most appropriate.

How Are Movies Rated? Movie ratings are assigned by a panel of ten to thirteen parents who live in the Los Angeles area. In 1999, the panel consisted of seven women and five men ranging in age from twenty-eight to fifty-four. It included homemakers, carpenters, a teacher, a food and beverage manager, and a manicurist. On a typical workday, the raters screen and discuss three movies. They then assign each movie one of the following ratings:

• G: General audiences. All ages admitted. • PG: Parental guidance suggested. Some material may not

be suitable for children.

• PG-13: Parents strongly cautioned. Some material may be inappropriate for children under age 13.

• R: Restricted. Persons under age 17 will not be admitted unless accompanied by a parent or adult guardian.

• NC-17: No one under age 17 will be admitted.

This system evolved from the original system of four ratings: G, M, R, and X. The rating of M (mature audiences) was soon changed to GP (general audiences, parental guidance suggested) and then to PG (parental guidance).

Certain kinds of content usually prompt particular ratings. Drug

use generally requires at least a PG-13 rating. Sexually oriented nudity results in an R rating. (Titanic got by with a PG-13 rating because its nudity occurred when an artist sketched his model, and not in a later love scene.) Violence that is rough and persistent requires an R. A single use of the “F word” requires a PG-13. If that word is used more than once, or used in a sexual sense, the movie is supposed to be rated R, though the board may override that rule by a two-thirds vote. (As an example, the Julia Roberts movie My Best Friend’s Wedding used the F word in a sexual sense and still received a rating of PG-13.)

Some critics charge that gay sex is more likely than heterosexual sex to receive a severe rating. It appears likely that the 1969 Oscar-winning movie Midnight Cowboy was given an X rating primarily because actor Jon Voight portrayed a male prostitute who serviced male clients. Others have charged that female sexuality is more likely to receive restrictive ratings than is male sexuality; interracial sex is also considered inflammatory.

Some movies get submitted for ratings in early versions to see how far directors can go and still get the desired R rating. Brüno, a mockumentary by the creator of Borat, got a rating of NC-17 the first time it was submitted. Several scenes implying gay sex were removed before the film was granted an R. Sacha Baron Cohen, the film’s writer and star, was required to deliver an R- rated version of the movie for theatrical release. One movie executive told the Hollywood blog The Wrap, “A guy like Sacha shoots what he wants, and then he negotiates.”112 (Editing the movie down to an R rating didn’t end up making the movie a success—Brüno brought in less than half the box office revenue of Borat.113) Cohen had similar battles over his 2012 film The Dictator. While it had an R rating for its run in theaters, the home video was released as The Dictator: BANNED & UNRATED Version.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

A MOVIE RATINGS

s we have discussed, the movie rating scheme is controversial for a number of reasons. Christopher Dodd, chairman of the MPAA and a former U.S.

senator, says that the rating scheme exists to help parents pick appropriate movies for their children rather than to comment on the quality of the movie.1 Dan Glickman, a former chair of the movie industry council, said in a 2008 speech,

Ratings do not exist to cast judgment on whether a movie is “good” or “bad.” The system is not a gatekeeper of society’s morality and values. It does not require artists to promote behavior and beliefs deemed socially or morally upright. Some, from time to time, try to pressure the system into taking on these inappropriate roles in a free society. But the primary mission is transparency for parents—clear information about the content of films.2

But sometimes ratings keep an intended audience away from a movie with admittedly difficult content. Such was the case when the documentary Bully was released in 2012. The movie is about the problem of the bullying of teenaged children, and it contains scenes containing harsh language and cruelty. The MPAA gave the documentary a rating of R for bad language, but movie stars like Johnny Depp, as well as other advocates who oppose bullying, fought the rating so that teens could see the movie without their parents accompanying them.3

Cynthia Lowen, Bully’s producer, chose to give the movie an initial unrated release rather than saddle it with the R rating, but that means that many, though not all, movie theaters will refuse to show it because they never show unrated movies. Another frequent response for theaters is to treat unrated movies as though they are NC-17. In late March 2012, Bully had a limited release in which many of the theaters took a flexible approach about admitting teens, including letting young people in with notes from their parents.4

Bully was also released with an alternative “Common Sense” rating of “Pause 13+,” the same rating the group Common Sense Media gave The Hunger Games. The rating means that for age thirteen and older, parents should “know your child, some content may not be right for some kids.”5 According to the organization’s Web site,

Common Sense Media is dedicated to improving the lives of kids and families by providing the trustworthy information, education, and independent voice they need to thrive in a world of media and technology.

We exist because our nation’s children spend more time with media and digital activities than they do with their families or in school, which profoundly impacts their social, emotional, and physical development. As a non- partisan, not-for-profit organization, we provide trustworthy information and tools, as well as an independent forum, so that families can have a choice and a voice about the media they consume.6

Eventually, the producers of Bully and the MPAA came to an agreement to release the film with a PG-13 rating if three instances of the “F word” were taken out.7

Who is the source? What is the MPAA? What is the MPAA’s primary responsibility? Who is Common Sense Media? What is its primary responsibility?

What are they saying? According to the MPAA, what is the function of the movie rating system? What do the critics that you’ve read about elsewhere in this chapter say is wrong with it? How does Common Sense Media differ from the MPAA?

What evidence is there? Why was the movie Bully given an R rating from the MPAA? Why was it given a Pause 13+ rating from Common Sense

Media? How do these ratings differ?

What do you and your classmates think? How well do you and your friends think the rating system is working? Did it keep you out of R-rated movies when you were younger? Do you believe parents use the rating system as intended? Should harsh language, such as repeated use of the F word, require that a movie receive an R rating? Should movies be released with alternative ratings from groups such as Common Sense Media when the filmmakers don’t like the rating from the MPAA? Should theaters be willing to show movies based on “Common Sense” ratings? Why or why not? Do you think the MPAA and producers did the right thing by editing the movie down to a PG-13 rating?

1The Reliable Source, “‘Bully’ Debate Comes to Washington as Chris Dodd and Harvey Weinstein Debate at MPAA,” The Washington Post, March 15, 2012, w ww.washingtonpost.com/blogs/reliable-source/post/bully-debate-comes-to-wa shington-as-chris-dodd-and-harvey-weinstein-debate-at-mpaa/2012/03/15/gI QAFOHJFS_blog.html.

2Dan Glickman, 40 Years of Freedom: A Progress Report on the Modern Movie Ratings System (Washington, D.C.: Media Institute, 2008).

3Brendan Sasso, “Weinstein to Release ‘Bully’ Unrated to Avoid MPAA System,” The Hill, March 27, 2012, thehill.com/blogs/hillicon- valley/technology/218365-weinstein-to-release-bully-unrated-to-avoid-mpaa- system.

4Sarah Anne Hughes, “‘Bully’ Will Be Shown to Minors at AMC Theaters With Permission Slip, Carry a Common Sense Rating,” The Washington Post, March 28, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/celebritology/post/bully-will-be-sh own-to-minors-at-amc-theaters-with-permission-slip-carry-a-common-sense-r ating/2012/03/28/gIQAnucRgS_blog.html.

5“Behind the Common Sense Media Ratings System,” Common Sense Media, 2012, www.commonsensemedia.org/about-us/our-mission/about-our-ratings.

6“Our Mission,” Common Sense Media, 2012, www.commonsensemedia.org/ab out-us/our-mission.

7“‘Bully’ Film Rating Lowered to PG-13 After Public Pressure,” ABC News, April 6, 2012, abcnews.go.com/blogs/entertainment/2012/04/bully-film-rating- lowered-to-pg-13-after-public-pressure/.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/reliable-source/post/bully-debate-comes-to-washington-as-chris-dodd-and-harvey-weinstein-debate-at-mpaa/2012/03/15/gIQAFOHJFS_blog.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/celebritology/post/bully-will-be-shown-to-minors-at-amc-theaters-with-permission-slip-carry-a-common-sense-rating/2012/03/28/gIQAnucRgS_blog.html

http://www.commonsensemedia.org/about-us/our-mission/about-our-ratings

http://www.commonsensemedia.org/about-us/our-mission

Suicide Squad/Photofest

There was a lot of speculation as to whether Suicide Squad, part of the DC Extended Universe, would go after the R rating but, in the end, producers decided to put a cap on the blood, gore, and cursing featured in the film in order to keep it PG-13 and available to teen audiences.

WEB Find links to the source material for this Test Your Medi a Literacy box and ratings on Bully. CLICK TO SHOW

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Indiana Jones and PG-13. In the mid-1980s, it became clear that the rating system had a weakness. Movies were being released with a PG rating that did not merit an R but nevertheless included content that went beyond a PG rating. A new rating was proposed, PG-13, which would inform parents of the content of the film but not set limits on who could be admitted.

The rating change was supported strongly by director Steven Spielberg, who forced the issue with Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Gremlins. Both movies were attacked for being too violent and intense for preteens, although they did not include content that would require an R rating. Spielberg observed ironically, “I’ve never made an R movie and hope never to make one, so I’ve been one of the first to appeal for a ratings change that would take the onus off the filmmaker as parent to America. That’s not our role.”114 (This was back when Spielberg was making youth-oriented summer blockbuster action films rather than his more serious films dealing with World War II, the Holocaust, and terrorism.)

Media mogul Barry Diller, head of Paramount Studios in the 1980s, summed up the problem with the rating system, which at the time contained four ratings, even though only two could be used on a regular basis:

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/28/bully-r-rating/

It became apparent some time ago that only the PG and R ratings mattered much anymore. Nobody anticipated it, but both the G and X acquired negative associations—one for being innocuous, the other for being pornographic. There was a growing difference between what seemed appropriate content for teens and preteens.115

Traditionally, PG-13 is seen as the most desirable rating because teenagers see these movies as more sophisticated than those rated G or PG.116 As of the summer of 2016, eight of the top ten box office movies had a PG-13 rating. Only the original Star Wars and Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace had PG ratings. You have to go all the way down to number twenty-nine —The Passion of the Christ—to find an R-rated movie, followed closely by Marvel’s wisecracking and rude Deadpool at thirty- one. All of the top ten box office G-rated movies are either Disney or Pixar.117

The X Problem. A second major problem with the rating system had to do with the X rating. The trouble began when the MPAA did not trademark the X rating and therefore could not control its use. The pornography industry began labeling its unrated films XXX on the theory that if X was adult, XXX would be really adult. Because the X rating became associated with pornography, many newspapers and television stations refused to carry advertisements for X-rated movies, and many theaters pledged not to show such movies, despite the artistic merit that some movies receiving the rating might have.

In 1990, the MPAA threatened to assign an X rating to Henry & June, which portrayed the relationship between writer Henry Miller, his wife, and writer Anaïs Nin. The producers protested, and the MPAA responded by creating a new rating, NC-17, which supposedly was less prejudicial than X. In reality, little changed; theaters and media outlets treat the new rating as equivalent to X.

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Movies that receive the dreaded NC-17 rating often must be reedited to qualify for the more commercially viable R rating. But the producers of Midnight Cowboy, the first and only X- or NC-17-rated movie to win an Oscar for best picture, decided against reediting the film.

Deadpool/Photofest

Deadpool, part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, proved that a superhero movie could find success with an R rating if it brought a clever script that matched the comic book’s edgy style.

Producer Jerome Hellman notes that after the movie won the Oscar, the film board offered to give the film an R rating if the producers would cut one frame from the movie so that it could be advertised as a “re-cut” version. The producers refused, but the board relented and changed the movie’s rating to R.118 Some people in the movie industry have speculated that Steven Spielberg’s World War II film Saving Private Ryan should have received an NC- 17 rating for the violence in the opening scene, which depicts the D-Day invasion of France, but avoided it because of Spielberg’s reputation. Filmmaker Spike Lee, speaking at the Cannes Film Festival, said,

The MPAA has two different standards: one for violence, one for sex. I mean, I like Saving Private Ryan very much, especially the first hour. But if that’s not an NC-17 film, I don’t know what is. That’s the way war should be depicted. But when people walk around picking up their severed arms and stuff like that, that’s an R?119

Former MPAA president Jack Valenti defended Private Ryan’s R rating:

Saving Private Ryan was a reenactment of one of the most crucial days in American history. I think every 13-year-old in the country ought to see it, even though it was rated R, to understand that the freedom you take for granted was paid for in blood.120

In 2007, the MPAA made some slight revisions to the rating scheme. These include a new warning to discourage parents from bringing young children to more intense R-rated movies. The ratings board now reveals the demographics of the people who do the ratings. There have also been calls to expand the acceptability of the NC-17 rating so that the R rating is not

applied to movies that children shouldn’t be allowed to see. But the updates to the rating system did not go so far as to create an official “hard R” rating that would ban all viewers under the age of seventeen from attending the movies.121

Regardless of the criticisms, parents appreciate the rating system. A 2015 survey showed that 93 percent of U.S. parents find the ratings useful in deciding what their children should be allowed to see.122

The Future of Movies

The movie business is facing an uncertain future. In 2005, the U.S. box office was down by 6 percent from the year before.123 There were a lot of explanations for what caused the downturn. Conservative critics claimed that Hollywood was too liberal and was making movies that didn’t appeal to the American public.124 Others claimed that the problems were too many sequels and remakes. While sequels, remakes, and raunchy movies have continued to draw big audiences, the total size of the movie audience has stayed below the 1.58 billion ticket level it hit in 2002. (Keep in mind that audience size peaked back in the 1940s, with sales of just over 4 billion tickets a year.125) Since 2005, movie ticket sales have hovered in the area of 1.3–1.4 billion tickets per year.126 Although the Hollywood box office has continued its climb in dollars earned, that has been driven more by increased ticket prices than by an increase in audience size.

WEB Examine the challenges Hollywood faces in attracting aud iences. CLICK TO SHOW

Why are movie audiences declining, or staying the same? The sharp decline in movie audiences back in the 1940s and 1950s was clearly a function of the rise of television as a new medium.1 27 Currently movie audiences have many more alternatives than they did in the 1950s, due to cable/satellite television, home video, pay-per-view, and Internet sources.

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Regardless of the reasons for it, the movie industry has to react to this changing economic reality. The studios are doing so by building up their big-release summer movies as major brands, using the Internet to promote their products, and finding new ways to distribute small movies to a dispersed audience.

Movies as a Brand

In the 1980s, domestic box office receipts accounted for more than 50 percent of movie income for studios; by 1995, this figure had fallen below 15 percent. Today studios earn as much or more from ancillary, or secondary, markets as they do from domestic ticket sales. These are movie revenue sources other than the domestic box office. For example, home video rights may be worth twice the theatrical box office total.128 Ancillary markets include the following:

• International distribution rights • Pay-per-view rights • Premium cable channel rights • Network television • Home video • Book rights • Toys and clothes • Product placement

Summer and holiday blockbuster movies have evolved into more than just films. They’ve become entire cottage industries— brands, if you will—in and of themselves. Take the 2009 hit movie Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. It was one of the highest-grossing movies for the year, producing $369 million in domestic box office in its first four weeks of release. It also did $404 million in international ticket sales over the same time period.129 Electronics company LG created a limited-edition Transformers phone. Transformers director Michael Bay then directed a thirty-second television commercial for the phone,

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Movies can make a significant income through both product placement and merchandise based on the movie. Do you buy products with movie tie-ins? (Be honest—Star Wars and Disney toys?) Can you give an example where product placements were intrusive in the movie? Are some movies really just feature- length commercials?

using the talents of Digital Domain, the same special-effects company that brought the robots to life in the movie. Digital Domain also did the effects for Transformer-themed commercials for fast-food company Burger King.130 Prior to the movie’s release, Kmart had a promotional tie-in giving away free tickets to the movie to people who bought at least $50 in menswear, as well as a promotion of Transformers toys, video games, and clothing. The 7-Eleven convenience store chain offered Transformers Slurpee cups, character straws, and movie-themed flavors.131 On a much larger scale, the 2010 Chevy Camaro was featured in the movie as the Transformer called Bumblebee. Bumblebee served as a major character in video games developed for the Sony PlayStation 3, Microsoft Xbox 360, and Nintendo Wii. And if the toy version wasn’t enough, Chevrolet built a special-edition Camaro with Bumblebee paint and a Transformers badge.132

The Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen brand example illustrates how important marketing tie-ins can be for a big- name movie and how the brand can become as important—and lucrative—as the movie itself.

Movie Promotion on the Internet

When Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez headed out into the Maryland woods in October 1997 to film The Blair Witch Project, they had no idea they were creating what would become one of the big hits of 1999 or that they would change how movies are promoted.

Blair Witch purports to be a documentary filmed by three students investigating the legend of a murderous witch who lived in the woods near Burkittsville, Maryland. The movie did not even have a script; instead, the actors started with only a thirty-five-page plot outline. The actors were also the film crew,

Artisan Entertainment/The Blair Witch Project

The Blair Witch Project is considered the first widely released movie marketed primarily through the internet.

using an old 16mm film camera and a $500 Hi8 video camera. The total cost of filming the movie was between $35,000 and $60,000, although some critics wonder how it could have cost even that much.133 The movie eventually grossed more than $250 million worldwide.

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The performers shot twenty hours of film and tape over an eight-day period while wandering about in the woods. The directors left notes for the actors each day, but the performers were given a lot of latitude. “We let [them] do what they wanted to do,” Myrick says. “We gave them little clues as to where we wanted the scenes to go, but most of it was improvised.”134 Myrick and Sánchez, along with production company Artisan, promoted Blair Witch in the same low-budget way in which it had been filmed, making use of cable television and the Internet rather than mainstream media. The pair created a mock documentary about the making of the movie, The Curse of the Blair Witch, which aired on the Syfy channel, and many viewers took this as evidence that the events recorded in the film had actually occurred. The promotional campaign capitalized on the confusion over whether the movie was fact or fiction, and many people who saw the film during the first week or two after its release thought that it might be real.135 Ten years after the movie scared movie fans and producers alike, Los Angeles Times blogger Glenn Whipp argued that the biggest impact of The Blair Witch Project was the effectiveness of the Web-based viral marketing campaign put together for the movie. The movie had

good buzz coming out of showings at the Sundance and Cannes film festivals, and marketing materials made it sound like the footage for the film was real footage that had been found. Horror film director Scott Derrickson told Whipp, “The blurb on the poster said this was ‘found footage,’ and there was nothing in the marketing to lead you to believe it was anything but that.”1 36 Web sites are now being used to court fans months or even years before a movie comes out. In many cases, the site is designed to maintain awareness of the movie even after the advertising is done and to build awareness once again when the movie is released on video. Independent film producer Mark Duplass (The Puffy Chair) says that in addition to changing how movies are promoted, Blair Witch changed how movies look, with “the semi-improvised nature, the hand-held digital camera work, the naturalistic acting inside a genre piece, the idea of ‘We don’t have a [lot] of money, so let’s build a budget that’s appropriate, so we can execute it correctly.’”137

Movies and the Long Tail

The long tail is going to have a bigger and bigger effect on the movie industry in the years to come, but 2007 marked the point at which it jumped to the forefront. Before then, unless you lived in New York or Los Angeles, you were not likely to have seen the Oscar winners for best animated short film and best live-action short. But in 2007 the films were available as digital downloads from Apple’s iTunes Store for $1.99 each. This means that for less than the price of a movie ticket in an urban market, you could download and view all five nominated films in either category, even if you live in Kearney, Nebraska. What you are seeing here is nothing less than the full impact of the long tail hitting the mainstream movie industry.

When Long Tail author Chris Anderson tries to explain the central concepts of his book, he often points to the online DVD rental store Netflix as a prime example. In 2012, Netflix carried one hundred thousand different DVD and Blu-ray titles. It also had more than twelve thousand titles available for immediate viewing over either a computer or a streaming video box that connects the subscriber’s television set to the Internet. Netflix has, of course, Sofia Coppola’s 2006 version of Marie Antoinette starring Kirsten Dunst. But it also has the 1938

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

What movies do you watch at home? How do you find them? Does the easy access to movies from Netflix or Amazon affect the number and types of movies you watch?

version of the film starring Norma Shearer in the title role, with John Barrymore as King Louis XV and Tyrone Power as Marie Antoinette’s lover. For those who really want to delve deeply into the topic, Netflix also offers at least three documentaries on the ill-fated queen: Marie Antoinette; Marie Antoinette: The Scapegoat Queen; and Marie Antoinette: Queen of Versailles. Anderson found that audiences aren’t just interested in a few big hits; they are interested in a deep pool of choices. The problem has always been distribution. Movie theaters are great for showing a limited number of movies to a lot of people. That’s why theater owners love the summer blockbusters. But when you can draw from audiences nationwide, even movies with a limited appeal can be successful. As you can imagine, the tiny and dedicated cadre of Marie Antoinette fans is spread out all over the country.

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The popularity of Netflix has led to more competition in the streaming market, with Amazon Prime Video and Hulu being the digital natives, and Showtime and HBO jumping in to offering streaming services along with their cable products. (We’ll talk more about these streaming services in Chapter 9 on television.)

Netflix reports that about 30 percent of its business comes from new releases and 70 percent comes from older films. Why? Netflix provides the tools on its Web site to help its customers find these older movies. Netflix tracks the movies you’ve rented previously and how you’ve rated them. It then uses that information to recommend other movies you would probably like. Anderson says that if Netflix can use consumer data to recommend films, the cost of marketing small movies to consumers is lowered to almost zero:

Advertising and other marketing can represent more than half of the costs of the average Hollywood blockbuster, and

smaller films can’t play in that game. Netflix recommendations level the playing field, offering free marketing for films that can’t otherwise afford it, and thus spreading demand more evenly between hits and niches.138

Four years after its initial release, Hotel Rwanda, a serious drama about the Rwandan genocide, was still number fourteen on the Netflix Top 100 list, although it grossed only $25 million in its original theatrical release. Netflix allowed an audience to find this movie through its customer recommendation system even though it hasn’t had a giant advertising budget and a potato chip tie-in. Also, Netflix provides distribution for foreign films that might not be shown all that often in the United States, such as the films of Hungarian director Béla Tarr or the avant-garde art films of artist Stan Brakhage.

Famed film critic Roger Ebert found that on his Web site, www.r ogerebert.com, no one posted review accounts for more than 1 percent of the page views. Instead of the blockbusters dominating the traffic, almost all of the ten-thousand-plus reviews on the site are attracting some level of attention.139

CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Ways of recording motion on film were first developed by photographers Étienne-Jules Marey and Eadweard Muybridge in the 1880s. Inventor and entrepreneur Thomas Edison applied their ideas in building the first practical motion picture display system, the kinetoscope. In France, the Lumière brothers invented the first portable movie camera and the first projector that could be used to display movies to a crowd.

Early directors such as Edwin S. Porter developed movie

http://www.rogerebert.com

storytelling techniques that were expanded eventually into the feature-length film by D. W. Griffith. Griffith demonstrated that the public was interested in and willing to pay for larger-than- life films with longer running times. Griffith was also one of the first directors to seek outside financing for his movies.

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From the 1920s through the 1940s, the studio system dominated moviemaking in the United States. Under the studio system, all the talent—from writers to directors to actors—was under contract to the studios. The major studios, such as Paramount and Warner Bros., ran the movie industry like a factory assembly line, controlling which movies were made and how they were distributed. The studio system ended when the U.S. Supreme Court broke up the studios’ monopoly in 1948.

A troubled time followed for the movie industry. The 1950s brought new competition from television and a controversial blacklist of writers, directors, and actors who were suspected of being communists. Hollywood responded by producing bigger, more spectacular movies; making almost all movies in color; and breaking up giant theaters into smaller, multitheater complexes known as multiplexes.

The movie industry is currently dominated by high-budget blockbuster movies with a large, predefined audience and marketing tie-ins. Although the initial domestic box office receipts are still important, movies often make more income from ancillary, or secondary, markets, such as foreign rights, video rights, and cable television rights. Blockbuster movies are now seen as a brand of interrelated products rather than just a movie. Yet smaller, low-budget movies often carry less risk of failure because they don’t have to make nearly as much money to be profitable. Movies targeted at niche audiences can also be profitable if they have a controlled budget.

Moviemakers are increasingly relying on digital technology to make and promote movies. In addition to being used for special effects, digital technology makes it possible to shoot and edit low-budget movies using digital video rather than more expensive film. Directors can even shoot the movie on a blank soundstage and insert the sets and backgrounds digitally. Digital technology in the form of the Internet is also being used to

promote movies directly to consumers.

Since the 1920s, there have been concerns about the effects that movies may have on young viewers. Hollywood has attempted to protect itself from criticism, initially by limiting the content of movies through its Production Code and more recently with age-based ratings.

Theatrical movies are facing increased competition from home video. While the total box office has risen in recent years, the number of people attending the movies has declined. Moviemakers are responding with innovative new ways of promotion and by finding audiences for movies of more limited interest.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

KEY TERMS

practical effects 189

computer-generated imagery (CGI) 189

kinetoscope 190

feature-length film 191

studio system 192

block bookings 192

synchronized soundtrack 193

talkie 193

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-8/quiz

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-8/

House Un-American Activities Committee 194

Hollywood Ten 194

blacklist 194

multiplex 196

blockbuster era 196

whitewashing 206

Production Code 207

ancillary, or secondary, markets 212

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference in the “realism” of practical and CGI effects?

2. How did the coming of television change the nature of the movies? How has the rise of online media transformed this process?

3. Explain how blockbuster movies become more than just movies for the companies releasing them. What products are developed to go with them?

4. What are the consequences of having a movie industry that is mostly controlled by white men? How would the movie industry be different if the people running the industry looked more like the people in the audience?

5. How does having access to a wide range of both popular and obscure movies change our movie-viewing habits? Is this level of choice a good thing or a bad thing? Why?

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STUDENT STUDY SITE

edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

Sharpen your skills with SAGE edge!

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.

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UNCOVER EXTENSIVE RESOURCES

edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

HEAD TO THE STUDY SITE

http://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

http://edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

WHERE YOU’LL FIND:

eFlashcards to strengthen your understanding of key terms.

Practice quizzes to test your comprehension of key concepts.

Videos and multimedia content to enhance your exploration of key topics.

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CHAPTER 9

TELEVISION Broadcast and Beyond

Charles Ommanney/Getty Images

Media Library

CHAPTER 9 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 9.1: New technology at the Super Bowl.

Video Case 9.2: Content and new television technology.

Video Case 9.3: Impact of David Letterman.

Video Case 9.4: Television user flow.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

Watch classic I Love Lucy episodes online.

Watch a segment of Sesame Street featuring Star Trek’s Patrick Stewart.

Watch puppets explain how the Nielsen ratings system w orks.

Diversity at the 2016 Emmy Awards.

Check out which telenovelas are popular.

Watch Mary Tyler Moor dancing in capri pants.

Watch both the Janet Jackson and Nancy Grace wardrob e malfunctions.

AUDIO

Listen to On The Media’s Brooke Gladstone interview Un ivision anchor Jorge Ramos.

WEB

Learn more about Ted Turner and his legacy.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/17/link-ch-9-i-love-lucy/

http://ralphehanson.tumblr.com/post/21626161852/patrick-stewart-who-played-captain-picard-on-star

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/04/10/link-ch-9-puppets-explain-nielsen-ratings/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/09/19/the-emmys-are-proof-that-television-is-getting-more-diverse/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/04/22/link-ch-9-univision-and-telenovelas/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/10/19/mary-tyler-moore-on-the-dick-van-dyke-show/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/01/21/link-ch-3-janet-jacksons-wardrobe-malfunction/

http://www.wnyc.org/story/jorge-ramos/

http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/10/us/ted-turner-fast-facts/

J WHAT YOU’LL LEARN After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Discuss the development of television from its invention to HDTV

Read an interview with Joshua Meyrowitz.

Read about the settlement of the Janet Jackson indecenc y case before the Supreme Court.

25 ways to watch television.

What do students mean when they say they are watching television?

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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orge Ramos came to the United States from Mexico in 1973

on a student visa. He had left his job as a reporter at Mexico City TV when his supervisors complained about a story he was doing that was critical of the Mexican government. Before long, Ramos was working at KMEX-TV, a Spanish-language station in Los Angeles. Now, more than thirty years later, he’s the evening news anchor at

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/17/link-ch-9-ny-times-draws-controversy-calling-shonda-rhimes-an-angry-black-woman/

http://www.kff.org/entmedia/8010.cfm

http://www.medialit.org/reading-room/altered-states-how-television-changes-childhood

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/06/29/httpthehill-comblogshillicon-valleytechnology235629-supreme-court-wont-take-up-janet-jackson-case/

http://www.npr.org/sections/monkeysee/2015/08/18/432715899/television-2015-with-25-ways-to-watch-tv-does-the-house-always-win

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2013/11/01/what-is-television/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-9/

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-9/quiz

today.

2 Explain how cable/satellite television, recorders such as VCRs and DVRs, and the adoption of digital television have transformed the television industry.

3 Discuss the issue of racial and ethnic diversity on television.

4 Identify three key reasons why viewers watch television.

5 Discuss the problem of broadcast decency, using examples.

6 Explain how streaming video services are changing TV in the twenty-first century.

Univision, the nation’s fifth- largest broadcast network. Noticiero Univision, the show he co-hosts with María Elena Salinas, draws more than 1.9 million viewers nightly. To put that in context, that’s three times the size of the audience for CNN’s Situation Room With Wolf Blitzer.1

While he has been compared to the legendary CBS news anchor Walter Cronkite, who in the 1960s established the basic format for evening network news, he actually follows a very different model—one that has more in common with the clear point of view of Latin American and European journalism than that of the more detached, objective American reporting. Ramos says his journalistic role model is really Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci who was famous for her confrontational interviews with Yasir Arafat, Moammar Gadhafi, and Ayatollah Khomeini. During the 2016 presidential campaign, Ramos battled with Republican candidate Donald Trump, even getting thrown out of one of Trump’s press conferences in Dubuque, Iowa, during the primary season. But confronting difficult sources is nothing new for Ramos. He and his cameraman once tried to do an ambush interview with Cuban leader Fidel Castro outside of a summit meeting in Mexico, which led to Ramos being knocked to the ground by Castro’s bodyguard. On another occasion, Ramos got death threats after questioning Colombian president Ernesto Samper about taking campaign contributions from the Cali drug cartel.2

Ramos has been criticized for engaging in advocacy journalism by the conservative media watchdog group Media Research Center, and he’s been accused of being a “Democratic pundit,” but Ramos defends himself, saying that he is a tireless advocate for Latino and immigrant groups.

“Our position is clearly pro-Latino or pro-immigrant. We are simply being the voice for those who don’t have a voice,” Ramos told the Los Angeles Times.3 When he interviewed President Barack Obama during his 2012 reelection campaign, Ramos confronted the president on his policies that have led to the deportation of more than 1.4 million undocumented immigrants. And he did that confrontation in English so clips from it could be easily replayed on English-language stations. “I am emotionally linked to this issue,” Ramos told the LA Times. “Because once you are an immigrant, you never forget that you are one.”4

Although he now speaks excellent English, Ramos says that when he first came to the United States to study journalism at work at the Los Angeles station KMEX-TV, his English skills were poor. “My English was—I couldn’t even understand myself.” To Ramos, broadcasting in English is becoming increasingly important because that’s how he connects with people who are in power in the United States. He tells New York magazine that he likes broadcasting in English. “What I really like is that for the first time, I don’t need translation. And without translation, there’s an immediate impact. And definitely the language of power is English.”5 Ramos told NPR’s Brooke Gladstone that there can be a big difference between reporting in English and reporting in Spanish because the audience for his English- language programs skews much younger than that for his Spanish-language programs. “So, yeah, doing a story about gays and abortion in English, I would go straightforward and just explain the facts. When I’m doing the same story in Spanish, I will always have the point of view of the Catholic Church, the point of view of very conservative groups, even some people on the street criticizing what we are doing, because those are their values.”6 Ramos, who anchors the news out of Univision studios in Miami, Florida, is one of the most well-known Hispanic media figures in the United States. In fact, a recent Pew Research Center survey of Latinos found that Ramos was the second most known Hispanic leader in the United States, following only Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor.7 He has been called

the “Mexican Anderson Cooper,” referring to his silver-haired resemblance to the CNN anchor. Ramos is also part of a transition from neutral reporting, or a “view from nowhere,” to an anchor with a knowable point of view.

AUDIO Listen to On The Media’s Brooke Gladstone interview Univ ision anchor Jorge Ramos. CLICK TO SHOW

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One thing that politicians of all stripes have learned is that Ramos never stops asking pointed questions and never pulls his punches. And this has earned Ramos respect. Matt Drudge, who runs the essential conservative news Web site Drudge Report, has called Ramos “the last journalist standing.” In a tweet, Drudge wrote, “Warning to politicians. If you see him . . . RUN!”8

The television environment today has radically changed from the time when CBS news anchor Walter Cronkite was the most respected broadcaster in America. We’ve gone from three nationwide broadcast networks to at least six, gone from no cable-only stations to hundreds, and gained multiple formats for viewing prerecorded movies and shows at home. In this chapter, we look at how this new television world came about and how it has influenced society. We start with the development of broadcast television and then cable/satellite television. We then consider who controls the television industry, how the world portrayed on television compares to the “real” world, and how television is reinventing itself in an era where people are binge- watching shows on Netflix.

Television: Broadcast and Cable/Satellite

Television has gone through massive changes since its birth in the 1930s. Initially, it provided a limited number of options that were broadcast at no cost to viewers. Viewers could watch only the programs offered by the major networks, and only at the times when those programs were being broadcast. But in the 1980s, the balance of power between audience and

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broadcasters began to change. Not only did VCRs allow viewers to choose when they would watch programs, but a range of broadcast, cable, and satellite channels allowed viewers a wider choice of what programs to watch. Television has in effect become two media: broadcast and cable/satellite.

Broadcast Television

Broadcast television in the United States is based on the idea that programming should be available to all viewers and should be paid for through advertising. Although today broadcast television is just one part of our TV diet, for many years it was the only item on the menu.

The Invention of Television. The story of Philo T. Farnsworth, the man who invented electronic television, is almost too good to be true. He was born in a log cabin, he rode a horse to school, and he developed the central concepts of television at the age of fourteen. Unlike Edison or even Samuel Morse, Farnsworth did not become a household name, yet he invented one of the most significant devices of the twentieth century.

Farnsworth was born in Utah in 1906. When he was twelve, his family settled in Idaho, and in their new house were magazines about radio and science, which fueled Farnsworth’s creativity and imagination.9 Farnsworth’s heroes were Edison and Bell, but he wanted to do them one better. He wanted to send out moving pictures as well as sound, and he wanted to do it all electronically, without any moving parts.

Farnsworth came up with the idea of breaking a picture into lines of light and dark that would scan across a phosphor-coated screen like words on a page. The electrons that would paint the picture on the screen would be manipulated by an electromagnetic field. According to television scholar Neil Postman, legend has it that Farnsworth’s great idea came to him “while he was tilling a potato field back and forth with a horse- drawn harrow and realized that an electron beam could scan images the same way, line by line, just as you read a book.”10

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Harris & Ewing collection at the Library of Congress

Philo T. Farnsworth developed the central principles of television broadcasting at age fourteen, and by the age of twenty-one, he had produced a working television transmission system.

By age twenty-one, Farnsworth had developed an all-electronic system for transmitting an image using radio waves. On September 7, 1927, he successfully transmitted an image of a straight line. “There you are, electronic television,” he commented.11

Farnsworth, however, was not the only person working on the concept of television. Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian immigrant with a doctorate in engineering, was trying to develop television for David Sarnoff at RCA. Although he had made progress on electronic television and had filed for a patent on it in 1923, the U.S. Patent Office eventually ruled that Farnsworth had been the first to make a working television transmitter. The ruling was based in part on testimony from Farnsworth’s high school chemistry teacher, who presented drawings that Farnsworth had made when he was sixteen showing almost exactly how to build a television transmitter. RCA kept fighting Farnsworth and promoting Zworykin and Sarnoff as the inventors of television, but Farnsworth eventually prevailed. For the first time, RCA had to pay royalties to an outside inventor.12 Just when all looked rosy for Farnsworth, World War II broke out, and for four years, nothing was done with commercial television. Farnsworth’s patents expired in 1947, right before television took off. Yet it was not missing out on the chance to cash in on his invention that Farnsworth came to regret. Farnsworth’s son Kent later noted that his father was rather bitter about his invention in general:

I suppose you could say that he felt he had created kind of a

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monster, a way for people to waste a lot of their lives. Throughout my childhood his reaction to television was “There’s nothing on it worthwhile, and we’re not going to watch it in this household, and I don’t want it in your intellectual diet.”13

The Beginning of Broadcasting. The first significant television broadcasts using all-electronic systems occurred in 1939, when NBC started sending out television broadcasts from the New York World’s Fair. But U.S. involvement in World War II halted the manufacture of television sets in 1942, and most stations went off the air. Peace came in 1945, and by 1946, RCA had television sets back on the market.

From 1948 to 1952, the licensing of new television stations was frozen to give the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and television producers time to figure out how the technology should be used and controlled. Because of the freeze, only some cities had television. The television cities saw drastic drops in attendance at movies and sporting events. Restaurant owners hated the popular variety program Your Show of Shows, which aired on Saturday nights, because customers rushed home to watch television instead of staying out to eat and drink.14 During the same period, the Supreme Court issued its ruling in United States v. Paramount that broke the studios’ control over the movie industry (see Chapter 8). Television was ready to take over the entertainment industry.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch classic I Love Lucy episodes online. CLICK TO SHOW

A number of shows characterized this early period of television. Milton Berle, host of the Texaco Star Theatre, came to be called “Mr. Television” and was known for his funny costumes and physical humor. The Ed Sullivan Show (originally called Toast of the Town) became the

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Lucille Ball and her husband, Desi Arnaz, created the modern situation comedy in 1951 with their show I Love Lucy, which was filmed rather than performed live.

place to see new and innovative talent. In later years, Sullivan would feature the Beatles and Elvis Presley. The 1950s also saw a number of anthology dramas, essentially short plays or movies, with a new cast and story each week. One show that made a successful leap from radio to television was Edward R. Murrow’s CBS news documentary series Hear It Now, which became See It Now on the new visual medium.

Lucy, Desi, and the End of Live Television. No other entertainment program of the 1950s would have a longer, more lasting impact than one produced by a brash redheaded actress and her Cuban American husband.

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When Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz created their groundbreaking sitcom I Love Lucy in 1951, they had to overcome two major obstacles. The first was persuading CBS to let Arnaz play Lucy’s television husband. At that time, this was controversial because Ball was white and Arnaz Hispanic. The second challenge was that most television shows at the time were being broadcast live from New York City studios, but Lucy and Desi wanted to

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©iStockphoto.com/Teradat Santivivut

Local cable television companies offer a variety of programming

continue to live in California. Their solution was to film the show before a studio audience, edit the program like a movie, and ship it to New York to be broadcast. Within a year, I Love Lucy was the most popular show on television.

Being filmed rather than performed live meant that there were high-quality copies of I Love Lucy that could be shown again and again. Arnaz held the rerun rights to the show, which gave the couple the money to build their own television production company, Desilu Studios. More than fifty years after Lucy first went on the air, audiences are still laughing at the show.

The format Ball and Arnaz created, a half-hour comedy filmed with three cameras before a live studio audience, became a mainstay of television programming. Today, the situation comedy remains one of the most popular program formats.15

The Arrival of Color Television. The networks started experimenting with color television as early as 1954, but by 1959, only three shows were regularly being shown in color. (The familiar NBC peacock logo was initially created to show black-and-white viewers that they were missing programs in color.) It wasn’t until 1965 that all three of the original television networks were broadcasting in color. One reason for the slow acceptance of color was the price of the television sets. The Boston Globe notes that in 1965 color televisions cost the equivalent of what a midline HDTV set cost in 2000 (between $2,500 and $5,000).16 The switch to color was not completed until the early 1970s.17

Cable and Satellite Television

Today, cable and satellite television constitutes almost a separate medium from broadcast television, but initially cable was designed as nothing more than a delivery system for broadcast

choices via satellite.channels.

Community Antenna Television. In the early days of television, people in remote areas or in communities sheltered by mountains frequently could not receive the new signals. Among these was Mrs. L. E. Parsons of Astoria, Oregon. Parsons wanted to have television, but the nearest station was 125 miles away. Her husband solved the problem by placing an antenna on top of a local hotel and running a cable into their apartment. Once word got out that the Parsons family had television, the hotel, local bars, and even the neighbors started asking for connections to their antenna. This early form of cable television, which simply retransmitted broadcast channels, came to be known as community antenna television (CATV).18

Connecting to these early cable systems was expensive; the cost ranged from $100 to $200. Although there were isolated experiments with subscription channels, for the most part cable remained a way to serve areas with poor reception, and the FCC devised restrictive rules to keep it that way. Until the 1970s, cable was primarily a way to get a good TV signal, not additional programming.19

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Satellite Distribution and the Rebirth of Cable. By 1975, the face of cable television was beginning to change. The FCC began loosening the rules on cable companies, and new channels were being distributed via satellite.20

Home Box Office (HBO) was the first service to make the leap from merely providing access to providing programming. In 1975, it requested permission from the FCC to start sending out its programming nationwide via satellite. Surprisingly, not one of the Big Three networks (NBC, CBS, and ABC) objected to the upstart service as it gained access to their viewers across the country. After all, HBO was just an office, some videotape machines, and a satellite uplink. It had no affiliates, had no stations, and could reach only people who were on cable, a small fraction of the viewing market. But the satellite system had a key advantage. Five hundred cable systems could obtain the programming as cheaply as one. They just had to put up a dish to bring in the signal.

Although HBO was the first to go nationwide, no one has done more than Ted Turner to create modern cable television. After his father’s suicide in 1963, the twenty-four-year-old Turner inherited a billboard company that was in financial trouble.21 Turner was not content with running one of the nation’s largest billboard companies, so in 1970, he bought Channel 17 in Atlanta. The ultrahigh frequency (UHF) station was in serious financial trouble, largely because it was located on a part of the broadcast band that many television sets couldn’t receive and many people didn’t bother to look at. Turner promptly renamed the station WTCG, which stood for Turner Communications Group.

WEB Learn more about Ted Turner and his legacy. CLICK TO SHOW

Turner’s next big step was buying the last-place Atlanta Braves baseball team and the Atlanta Hawks basketball franchise, thus guaranteeing him exclusive rights to a pair of shows (the teams’ games) that would run more than two hundred episodes a year. It was also programming that would motivate Atlantans to make the effort to find Channel 17.

When RCA launched a television satellite in 1976, Turner saw his next big opportunity. He realized that he could use the satellite to send his station nationwide and provide programming to the growing number of cable systems. On December 27, 1976, WTCG became Superstation WTBS (Turner Broadcasting System). With that step, Turner became one of the first of a new breed of television entrepreneurs who were turning local stations into national powerhouses.

At this point, Turner made the riskiest move of his career: He created Cable News Network (CNN), the first twenty-four-hour news channel. In its early years, CNN had many technical problems and no reputation to speak of. Critics, in fact, referred to CNN as the “Chicken Noodle Network” because it paid its employees poorly and was run amateurishly.22 Despite the network’s problems, however, viewers soon discovered that if they wanted breaking news, they could find it immediately on CNN. Unlike ABC, NBC, and CBS, CNN did not have to interrupt soap operas or

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Cable television pioneer and CNN founder Ted Turner created a media empire with global reach that attempts to fulfill the ideal of the global village.

sitcoms to put news on the air.

When ABC and Westinghouse tried to start a competing cable news service in 1982, Turner launched his second news network, CNN Headline News, which featured round-the-clock, half-hour newscasts. Since then, CNN has expanded to provide CNN Radio, CNN International, CNN Airport Network, and CNN en Español.

Turner took his idea of repackaging material a step further by buying up the MGM movie library and the Hanna-Barbera cartoon library, which gave him control of the Flintstones, the Jetsons, and Scooby-Doo. He used these pop-culture figures, along with additional sports broadcasting rights he acquired, to program WTBS, along with Turner Network Television (TNT), the Cartoon Network, and Turner Classic Movies.

In 1996, Turner Broadcasting was acquired by media giant Time Warner, and although Turner lost direct control of his networks, he did get access to the Warner Bros. library of movies and classic cartoons. When Time magazine’s editors declared Turner their “Man of the Year” in 1991, they wrote that he had fulfilled Marshall McLuhan’s ideal of the global village. CNN has not made all people brothers and sisters, but Time said that the network has given people a window on the world:

In 1991, one of the most eventful years of this century, the world witnessed the dramatic and transforming impact of those events of live television by satellite. The very definition of news was rewritten—from something that has

happened to something that is happening at the very moment you are hearing of it. A war involving the fiercest air bombardment in history unfolded in real time—before the cameras.23

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Before long, numerous channels were available to cable companies via satellite, including Black Entertainment Television (BET) and the children’s network Nickelodeon. In 1978, amid much ridicule, the Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN) was launched as a twenty-four-hour-a-day sports channel carrying such little-known sports as Australian- rules football and curling. But ESPN quickly grew into one of the most popular channels on cable.24

During this period, nine out of ten viewers were watching prime- time programs on the networks, which were still controlled by the people who had started the first radio networks: William Paley at CBS, David Sarnoff at NBC, and Leonard Goldenson at ABC.25 However, the 1980s saw the growth of a new kind of cable—a service that brought new channels into the household along with the original networks. Cable television viewers now have access to a wide range of programming, most of which can be grouped into a few major categories:

• Affiliates of the Big Four broadcast networks (ABC, NBC, CBS, and Fox)

• Independent stations and smaller network affiliates • Superstations—Local independent stations that broadcast

nationwide via satellite (WTBS, WGN, etc.)

• Local-access channels—Channels offering local government programming and community-produced shows

• Cable networks—Advertiser-supported networks that may also receive small fees for each subscriber on a particular cable system (MTV, CNN, BET, etc.)

• Premium channels—Extra-cost channels that don’t carry advertising (HBO, Showtime, etc.)

• Pay-per-view channels—Channels showing special events,

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

In the home where you grew up, did you have cable/satellite television or just broadcast television? If you had cable/satellite, do you know how much your bill for it was per month? If you had to give up one, which would it be, and why?

concerts, and movies that subscribers pay for on an individual basis

• Audio services—High-quality music services26

Cable services offered massive competition to the broadcasters and created a new television landscape. Approximately 50 percent of all U.S. households (about fifty- three million) subscribe to cable service.27 By way of comparison, in the United Kingdom, cable was in 15 percent of all homes by the end of 2013. (Direct- broadcast satellite service is much more popular in the United Kingdom than cable, reaching roughly 41 percent of TV viewers there.28) (See Figure 9.1.)

FIGURE 9.1

Basic Cable Customers, 1975–2015

Source: SNL Financial. © SNL Financial LC.

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Video Case 9.1: New technology at the Super Bowl.

Hollywood and the VCR. Although videotape has been used in television studios since the 1950s, it was not until the late 1970s that the videocassette recorder (VCR) became a household appliance that allowed viewers to make permanent copies of television shows. VCRs took time to catch on. Initially, there were two incompatible formats (VHS and Beta), and the machines themselves were expensive, costing $800 or more. In 1985, only two out of ten U.S. homes had VCRs, but by 1991, they could be found in seven out of ten homes.

Consumers loved the fact that they could record programs and watch them later, but movie and television producers were

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©iStockphoto.com/Necip Yanmaz

Although cable television remains the largest alternative to broadcast programming in the United States, satellite delivery is much more common throughout much of the world, as is illustrated by these rooftops in Fez, Morocco.

upset that people were recording—and keeping—programs without paying for them. They were also concerned that movies and programs would be duplicated and resold around the world. Universal and Disney sued Sony over its promotion of the VCR for recording movies, but in 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that television viewers had the right to record copyrighted programs for their own personal use. Piracy of the programming was clearly illegal, but this was not the fault of the equipment manufacturers.29

Direct-Broadcast Satellites. Satellite programming providers have been competing with cable since the 1980s, but their success was limited initially because of the rapid growth of cable, the large dish antennas required, and the limited number of channels consumers could receive. All this changed in the 1990s with the advent of the low-earth-orbit direct-broadcas t satellite (DBS). Several DBSs were launched to deliver programming through a new kind of antenna about the size of a pizza.

As of 2015, approximately thirty-three million U.S. households had satellite television, down 1.5 percent from the year before. Satellite service in the United States grew rapidly from the mid- 1990s until about 2007, when adoption of the new delivery system stabilized. With the rise of online-based video sources, the use of both cable and satellite programming is expected to drop.30 In Europe, which has less of a tradition of cable television than the United States, DBS services are very popular. 21st Century Fox’s Sky Italia has almost five million subscribers in Italy, offering approximately 190 channels of programming through satellite and mobile delivery.31

DBS is now competing head-to-head with cable. A problem the

satellite services face in this competition is that their subscribers still have to put up an old-fashioned antenna to get local broadcast stations. To address this drawback, in major markets DBS companies provide local stations via satellite as well.32

Digital Television

Just as sound recording has moved to digital formats with CDs and MP3 files (see Chapter 7), so is television shifting from the analog technology of Farnsworth and Zworykin to computerized digital technology. All television broadcasting in the United States was scheduled to be digital by February 17, 2009, but in January 2009, the federal government decided that people weren’t ready for the transition, despite several years of warnings that the change would be taking place. Critics of the move to digital broadcasting pointed out that many of the households that rely on broadcast signals for television have incomes under $30,000 and may have trouble affording the set- top box that converts digital broadcast signals into analog signals that old-fashioned television sets can display. To help solve this problem, the government issued coupons to help poor families buy the converters. In fact, a shortage of the coupons was among the reasons that the conversion was delayed.

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SECRET 4 VCR ownership peaked in 1999, with nearly 89 percent of households owning a VCR. By the end of 2013, a survey by Gallup found that 58 percent of households still had a VCR. These were likely there to play old tapes in people’s collections rather than to record new programing. VCRs were replaced predominantly by DVD or Blu-ray players, which were reported in 80 percent of all homes. While still very popular, disk players are down from 83 percent in 2005, likely because of the increased popularity of streaming content provided by companies like Netflix and Hulu.33 VCRs are also facing competition from the new digital video recorders (DVRs), such as TiVo, that record television programs on a computer hard disk. The DVR lets a viewer jump in to start

Scott Olson/Getty Images

Since all television broadcasting went digital in 2009, HDTVs have become increasingly popular. Viewers need either a cable/satellite connection or a converter box if they want to keep using old-school analog sets.

watching a recorded show fifteen minutes after it comes on the air. The viewer can then fast-forward through the commercials, and by the time the show is over, the viewer has caught up with the “live” broadcast. DVRs are seen as easier to use than VCRs but typically require a monthly subscription fee to use. As of December 2013, DVRs were in 47 percent of U.S. households, up from 40 percent in 2010 and 23 percent in 2007.34 (This gives us another example of Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again.)

As you may have noticed from those figures, the rate of growth of DVR adoption has slowed dramatically in the last few years. Why? It’s probably not that people don’t want to be able to watch shows on their own schedule. Instead, people have many more options now than just prerecording shows to watch. For example, a 2015 study shows that 76 percent of U.S. households have access to a DVR or some form of video on demand (VOD), including streaming services like Netflix or an on-demand system from their cable or satellite provider.35 (We’ll come back to this at the end of the chapter.)

On Friday, June 12, 2009, the last of the analog television broadcast stations was shut off. That doesn’t mean that everyone started using new digital sets, however. Instead, many people will continue to get their television from a digital cable or satellite box, or get a converter box. On the two days following the shutdown of analog broadcasting, the FCC received approximately four hundred thousand calls to its hotline, considerably below the six hundred thousand to three million calls it was expecting.36 There are two distinct digital formats. High-definition television (HDTV) is in a wide-screen format (like a theater movie) and features an

ultra-clear high-resolution picture with superior sound. The other digital format is standard digital television, which makes it possible to broadcast up to six channels on the same frequency space that now carries one channel. (However, the picture is no better than that produced by existing signals.37) Using standard digital, a PBS station can choose to put out a single HDTV program or four digital programs at the current resolution, giving children a choice at any given time between Arthur, Curious George, Daniel Tiger’s Neighborhood, and Bob the Builder.

The development of HDTV began in the 1980s, and on November 1, 1998, the launch of the space shuttle Discovery was the first event to be covered in a nationwide broadcast using a digital television signal. The broadcast was viewed by a tiny audience of just a few hundred people in twenty cities, with forty-two stations carrying digital signals.38 As of March 2015, approximately 81 percent of U.S. homes had at least one HDTV set, and 52 percent of U.S. homes had more than one HDTV. Overall, 75 percent of the televisions in use in the United States in 2015 were HDTVs, up from 34 percent in 2010 and just 18 percent in 2008.39

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From Broadcasting to Narrowcasting: The Changing Business of Television

Television got its start with the three networks that dominated the radio industry in the 1940s: NBC, CBS, and ABC. There were some independent stations as well, such as WGN in Chicago and WOR in New York, which had grown out of major independent radio stations, but for the most part, everyone in the country was watching NBC, CBS, or ABC. This would remain the status quo until cable and VCRs exploded in popularity in the 1980s.

Networks and Affiliates

The Big Three television networks are the companies that have provided programs to local stations around the country since the start of the television industry. These affiliate stations require a license from the FCC, equipment, and a local staff. The choice of what shows to carry is up to the local station. If a station carries a particular program, the station receives a fee from the network, along with the revenue from selling local commercials during the show. The network makes its money from the national commercials that run during the program. If an individual station decides that it could make more money running a locally produced program, such as a college basketball game, or a program from an independent producer, it can do so. In that case, the station pays for the program but keeps all the advertising revenue. The only exceptions are the dozen or so stations that each network owns and operates; although they have a certain amount of independence, these stations must please their network owners.40

Educational Broadcasting Becomes Public Broadcasting

Noncommercial broadcasting in the United States was conceived as a way of delivering educational programming. Then Congress passed the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, which established the Corporation for Public Broadcasting to provide funds for a wide range of noncommercial programs, including public service and educational programs. The noncommercial, or public, stations came to share programming through a new network, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). This nonprofit broadcast network is funded by government appropriations, private industry underwriting, and support from viewers.41

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch a segment of Sesame Street featuring Star Trek’s P atrick Stewart. CLICK TO SHOW

While PBS stations eventually became widely available, they tended to have small

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Sesame Street features guests from a wide range of backgrounds, including James Earl Jones with regular cast members Big Bird, Mr. Hooper, and Maria.

audiences except for their daytime children’s programming, which included the groundbreaking Sesame Street.42 Sesame Street’s creator, Joan Ganz Cooney, says that the goal of the show was to give disadvantaged inner-city children a head start on school: “We argued that it would make all the psychological difference in their success in school if [disadvantaged children] came in with the same kind of skills as a middle-class child.”43 Sesame Street was also designed to have a slick, fast-paced, commercial look. It even had “sponsors,” such as the number 5 and the letters Q and U.

When the show premiered on November 8, 1969, it immediately grabbed a significant audience, and even now it is among the most watched of all children’s shows. But was it a success at helping disadvantaged children develop reading and math skills? That question is difficult to answer. At least one major study found that Sesame Street was successful in preparing children for school, but that “advantaged” children gained fully as much from it as disadvantaged students; thus, the show was not closing the gap between the haves and the have-nots.

In the summer of 2015, Sesame Workshop, the nonprofit group that produces the show, announced that it was signing a five- year agreement with premium cable network HBO to air thirty- five new episodes a year, up from the eighteen new episodes per year it had made for PBS. After a nine-month period of being exclusively on HBO, the new episodes will then appear for free on PBS. Officials from Sesame Workshop said they signed the contract to give the production company a more stable financial footing and to make the show available on mobile devices. Critics charge that airing the new episodes first on HBO will undermine the educational goals of helping low-income children with the show.44

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In the 1990s, PBS started attracting a significant audience with programming such as the Ken Burns documentaries The Civil War and Baseball. Those larger audiences, in turn, led to support from a number of large corporations that hoped their brief underwriting announcements would reach the upscale audiences who watch PBS. These announcements are not quite commercials, but they do allow corporations to present a short message to viewers. Among recent PBS underwriters are oil giant BP, GMC Trucks, AT&T, and State Farm Insurance. More recently, PBS has been attracting big audiences with British imports such as Downton Abbey and Sherlock.

The Fox Network

The 1980s brought numerous changes to the broadcasting market. Not only were VCRs and cable becoming popular, but there was also a new broadcast network. Australian newspaper publisher Rupert Murdoch started the Fox broadcast network after buying 20th Century Fox and incorporating it into his mammoth global media empire (see Chapter 3). He put the new network on the air in 1986 by buying stations in six of the top ten television markets. Although companies had tried to set up alternative broadcast networks before, none had really succeeded. Murdoch had an advantage in that during the 1980s people were becoming accustomed to watching cable channels, which meant they were no longer wed to regular network programming.

Fox was able to attract independent stations because it was offering them free programming rather than making them rely on syndicated material, most of which consisted of network reruns. The offerings were initially limited, with a late-night talk show starring Joan Rivers followed by Sunday-evening programming beginning in 1987.

While Fox managed to attract viewers with shows such as The Simpsons and Married . . . With Children, what put it on the map was stealing NFL football away from the Big Three. NFL football was a show that people were accustomed to watching; now they just had to watch it on a new network. Fox also brought in the under-thirty viewers coveted by advertisers with hit programs such as The X-Files and Melrose Place.45 The Big Three

broadcast networks were becoming the Big Four networks.

More recently, Fox has been attracting large audiences with hit shows such as Empire, Bones, Family Guy, and The Simpsons (which as of this writing has been on the air more than twenty- seven years!).

Defining Ratings

One of the biggest concerns for television networks, whether broadcast or cable, is the size of their audiences. Rates for commercials, which provide all the income for broadcast networks and a substantial portion of the income for cable services, are determined by how many people are viewing a show at a given time.

Measuring television audiences used to be pretty simple, at least in principle. You found out how many people watched a given show at a given time on one of three major networks, and you had your answer. The fact that you depended on a limited sample of people who had to fill out complex diaries or use a set- top “people meter” may have complicated things a bit, but basically it was simple. But now we have four major English- language broadcast networks, the Univision Spanish-language broadcast network, PBS, several minor broadcast networks, dozens of major cable networks, and hundreds of specialized cable networks. There is also the issue of measuring the alternative methods for viewing these programs, the most important of which is delayed viewing on DVR.

Due to the expansion of viewing choices, the ratings required for a show to be a success have gotten smaller. In 2015, the top- rated sitcom The Big Bang Theory on CBS attracted an average of twenty-one million viewers per week. In 1996, ER was the top-rated drama, and it drew an audience of more than thirty million viewers per week.46

Now that DVRs are in more than 47 percent of all homes, the number of people watching shows on a delayed basis has become more important. Nielsen, which measures television audiences, now considers:

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch puppets explain how the Nielsen ratings system w orks. CLICK TO SHOW

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• Live only—People who are watching the program live as it happens.

• Live + SD—People who watch the program the same day as it airs. If you record a program on your DVR and start watching it fifteen minutes after it starts, this is you.

• Live + 3—People who watch the program live or within three days of airing.

• Live + 7—People who watch the program within seven days of its airing. This is the most complete measure of a show’s popularity. (It does not, however, account for the episode of the Food Network’s competition show Chopped that I recorded three months ago but finally watched last night.47)

The major provider of viewership data, known as ratings, is Nielsen Media Research. The company keeps track of the shows watched in nine thousand homes located across the United States. Although the Nielsen families receive a token payment for their participation, they are essentially volunteering to keep track of all their television viewing. Nielsen uses a combination of methods to measure audience size. In the largest urban markets, the company uses a people meter. Viewers push buttons on the machine to record who is watching programs at specific times. In smaller markets, viewers fill out daily diaries, listing what they watched.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/04/10/link-ch-9-puppets-explain-nielsen-ratings/

Video Case 9.2: Content and new television technology.

While Nielsen tracks overall network viewership throughout the year, the company looks at the audience size of individual stations four times a year (November, February, May, and July) during periods known as sweeps. Networks and individual stations often schedule their best—or at least most popular— programming during sweeps periods to attract the highest possible ratings. These higher ratings allow them to charge more for commercials. Nielsen also tracks the ages and sex of audience members, and advertisers are oftentimes as concerned about the demographics of their audience as they are about the absolute size of it.

Nielsen provides networks and stations with several different measurements. The most important of these is the rating poin t, the percentage of the total potential television audience actually watching the show. For example, Nielsen estimated that there were 114.5 million households with televisions in use in 2008. If 1,145,000 homes viewed a particular program, that would produce a rating of 1 (1,145,000 / 114,500,000 = .01, or 1 percent of the total potential audience). A program viewed in 15 million households would have a rating of 13.1.48

The second major measurement Nielsen provides is the share, the percentage of television sets in use that are tuned to a particular show. Instead of telling producers how many households are watching the show, the share measures how popular a particular show is compared to everything else that is

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broadcast at the time. Although a show that airs at 1:00 a.m. might have a relatively low rating (say, 3 or 4), it could have a high share (30 or 40) because a large portion of a small audience is watching it.49

An Earthquake in Slow Motion

Fox, cable, and the VCR changed everything for the television industry—a set of changes that media writer Ken Auletta has called “an earthquake in slow motion.” In 1976, the prime-time viewing audience belonged to the Big Three, with nine out of ten viewers watching network programming. By 1991, the Big Three had lost a third of their viewers. These viewers hadn’t stopped watching television; they had just moved to other channels. In 1976, the typical home had a choice of seven broadcast channels; by 1991, it had a choice of thirty-three cable channels.50 Today, homes with digital cable programming can have access to hundreds of channels.

FIGURE 9.1

Economics of Cable/Satellite Sports Channels

NBC/Photofest NBC/Photofest

NBC’s hit series The Blacklist,

Source: Clay Travis, “ESPN Has Lost 7 Million Subscribers the Past Two Years,” FoxSports, November 25, 2015, http://www.foxsports.com/college- football/outkick-the-coverage/espn-has-lost-7-million-subscribers-the-past-two- years-112515.

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Another part of the earthquake was that the original Big Three networks were sold to new owners in 1985. NBC was taken over by General Electric, CBS was purchased by investor Larry Tisch, and ABC was purchased by Capital Cities Communications. Since that time, ABC has been acquired by Disney, CBS has been

staring James Spader, makes income both from airing on broadcast TV and from being shown on the streaming service Netflix.

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do you use a DVR to time shift your television viewing? Do you skip commercials when you watch programs on the DVR? If you are skipping commercials, how should television networks make money?

purchased and spun off by Viacom, and Comcast has bought NBC. The networks are no longer controlled by the people who started them.5 1 The earthquake also affected profits. Revenues for the broadcast networks plummeted in the 1990s, whereas cable network revenues grew. Cable channels typically make more profit than the broadcast networks. Cable channels are the most profitable part of Walt Disney Co., NBCUniversal, News Corporation, and Time Warner. The ESPN group of sports networks has long been one of the most profitable parts of the Disney empire, but it may be facing challenges in the changing television environment. ESPN spent nearly $6 billion on sports broadcast rights in 2015, but, as we discussed back in Chapter 3, the network lost seven million subscribers between 2013 and 2015. Given that each subscriber pays an average of $6.61 per month, that’s a loss of $550 million a year of income.52 Despite their lower profitability, the broadcast networks generally have much bigger audiences than cable services. The most popular basic cable show of 2015 was AMC’s zombie drama The Walking Dead, which attracted an average of 19.7 million viewers per week, while more typical shows attract audiences of 4 to 5 million. Top-rated network shows such as NCIS typically attract 17 to 20 million viewers.53

Why, then, are cable channels making more money than the broadcast networks? Traditionally, cable programs have cost less to produce than network programs, but spending on cable shows has been growing rapidly over the last several years. But the biggest difference is that broadcasters have a single source of revenue—advertising— whereas most cable channels have both a subscription fee and advertising revenue. In 2010, cable networks brought in nearly $48 billion in revenue. Of that, $22.3 billion came from advertising revenue, but $25 billion came from fees from cable

and satellite operators.54

While Ken Auletta initially wrote about the earthquake in slow motion in the 1990s, the changes that got started then have not gone away. In the last decade, we have seen the rise of a whole new form of television—streaming services like Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime. Netflix is the most popular of these services with approximately forty-three million subscribers in the United States and seventy million globally. Each of those U.S. subscribers pays between $8 and $10 per month to access a host of movies, old TV shows, and original programming. Sound a lot like cable? Except that Netflix doesn’t require a cable contract to watch—only access to a high-speed online connection—and viewers can choose what they want to watch and when they want to watch it.55 New York Times media writer Farhad Manjoo poses the question that he thinks should be keeping Disney CEO Bob Iger or Comcast’s Brian Roberts up at night: “How worried are you about Netflix? And more to the point: Are you worried enough?”56

One of the issues that is likely at the top of Iger’s and Roberts’s worries is the size of Netflix’s audience. Netflix does not participate in Nielsen ratings, so the Big Media companies can’t easily compare themselves to them. There are at least two reasons for this. For one, Netflix doesn’t carry any advertising, so it doesn’t need Nielsen data to share with advertisers to help it decide how much it is willing to pay to reach its desired audience. For another, Netflix already knows exactly who is watching which programs, and when. Every time you watch video on Netflix, its servers note who is watching and for how long.

SECRET 3 Reed Hastings, the founder and CEO of Netflix, said at his announcement of Netflix’s expansion into more than 130 countries, “Right now you are witnessing the birth of a global TV network . . . Whether you are in Sydney or St. Petersburg, Singapore or Seoul, Santiago or Saskatoon, you can now be part of the Internet TV revolution.”57 With Netflix’s massive growth, it has moved from its origins as a mail-order DVD rental service into one of the major subscription video services in the world, providing one more example of Secret 3 —Everything from the margin moves to the center.

ABC/Photofest

The ABC television series Scandal starring Kerry Washington is the first show in four decades to have an African American woman as the star.

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Diversity on Television

Broadcast television and the major cable networks have been roundly criticized for presenting a distorted view of reality. Aside from the issue that people on television comedies and dramas not only are attractive and funny but also resolve problems in less than an hour, there are complaints that television presents a world that is overwhelmingly white, male, and middle class.

In 1999, the Big Four networks introduced twenty-six new shows; not one of them featured a nonwhite lead character. This led to protests and threats of boycotts by African American and Latino groups. Ralph Farquhar, an African American television producer, told the Arizona Republic,

I don’t believe they’re intentionally [excluding minority talent]. But people have to pay attention, you know? The makeup of America . . . has changed radically over the past 20 or 30 years, and yet TV doesn’t necessarily reflect the diversity and the composition of the American population.5 8

Scott Sassa, a Japanese American network television executive, recalls being upset as a child when he saw an Anglo playing an Asian character. “I’ve got to tell you, growing up, seeing David Carradine as a Chinese guy [ticked] you off,” Sassa said, referring to the martial arts series Kung Fu. (For more on the practice of having white actors play characters of color, see the section of Chapter 8 on whitewashing.) Sassa says that the networks will have to reach out to nonwhites in a meaningful

way if they want to hold on to their audiences:

WEB Read about a controversial article from the New York Times that calls Shonda Rhimes an “angry black woman.” CLICK TO SHOW

You not only want to see someone that looks like you on TV —you want to see someone that is a role model, someone that you want to aspire to be. That’s what we need to do— create role models that are diverse, that make people in these minority groups feel good.59

Huffington Post pop culture blogger Meron Mogos notes that most recent shows on television have at least one supporting ethnic character, but few have nonwhites in starring roles. This has started to change, however, in part due to the hit ABC show Scandal, the first show in four decades to have an African American woman as the lead.60 The show, starring Kerry Washington, was created by Shonda Rhimes, who also did Grey’s Anatomy. Washington’s character is based on real-life African American woman Judy Smith, who was a communication director for the George W. Bush White House and then went to work as a crisis management expert.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Diversity at the 2016 Emmy Awards. CLICK TO SHOW

Washington told CNN in an interview that her character Olivia “is someone who happened to be born female and black and those elements add to who she is as a human being. Do I think another person of another race could play her? Yes. Do I think it would change the story a little bit? Do I think it would change the character a little bit? Yes.”61 Scandal has been followed with several more shows featuring black female leads, including Viola Davis of How to Get Away With Murder, Gabrielle Union of Being Mary Jane, Nicole Beharie of Sleepy Hollow, and Taraji P. Henson of Empire. Washington told BlackAmericaWeb:

It’s really exciting that the business of storytelling is beginning to understand that people respond to inclusivity. You don’t make a success of yourself by leaving people out.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/17/link-ch-9-ny-times-draws-controversy-calling-shonda-rhimes-an-angry-black-woman/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/09/19/the-emmys-are-proof-that-television-is-getting-more-diverse/

You don’t make a success of yourself by leaving people off the table. We are starting to see more diversity and it’s really great. It’s great for everybody. It’s great for Black people, it’s great for white people, it’s great for everybody.6 2

One channel that manages to have a higher level of diversity is the Food Network. While its hosts are not that different from the rest of television, the contestants in the chef competitions, such as Chopped and Cutthroat Kitchen, have a wide range of racial, ethnic, and sexual identity diversity.

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One of the things that cooks on the Food Network need to be good at is telling the story of their food, and people of differing backgrounds generally have interesting stories to tell, whether that of being an immigrant, growing up facing adversity, or simply being a determined young person trying to succeed.

Huffington Post Black Voices blogger Deborah Plummer notes that as of 2012, Chopped had nine judges, three of whom were women, one of whom was Ethiopian, one of whom was Mexican, and one of whom was Indian. The shows also feature competitors who are of varying sizes, accents, and sexual orientation.63 A major research project at UCLA’s Ralph J. Bunche Center for African American Studies found that despite some recent improvements, minorities are still radically underrepresented on television, ranging from one-twelfth to one-half their actual share of the population.64

On the management side of things, in February 2016, Disney announced that Channing Dungey, an African American woman, was named president of ABC Entertainment. Dungey is the network’s first African American president and has been involved with the development of hit shows such as Scandal, Criminal Minds, How to Get Away With Murder, and Once Upon a Time.65

If you want to make some comparisons on your own, 2010 U.S. Census Bureau estimates break down the current population as follows:

The CW Television Network/Photofest

Although Jane the Virgin is a modern show playing on an American network, it has the spirit of a telenovela and relies on many of the tropes that Spanish networks have perfected over the years.

White, not Hispanic—64%

Hispanic—16%

African American—13%

Asian—5%

More Than One Race—3%

American Indian—0.9%

Pacific Islander—0.2%

(These values add up to more than 100 percent because some people overlap in categories.)66

Univision and Spanish- Language Broadcasting. Although Latinos are seriously underrepresented on the Big Four English- language networks, there has been substantial growth in Spanish-language television. As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, Univision, a Spanish-language broadcast network, is actually the fifth- largest network, something it trumpeted in a 2005 full-page ad in the New York Times. Univision tends to do particularly well in the highly prized eighteen- to thirty- four-year-old demographic. The network’s popular telenovelas Amores con trampa (Fooled Into Love), Lo imperdonable (The Unforgivable), and Yo no creo en los hombres (I Don’t Trust Men) helped take the network to the number-four spot in the ratings for a week in August 2015 in the eighteen- to thirty-four demographic; and in 2013, Univision got the critical fourth place in the Nielsen February sweeps period among the prized audience demographic of adults aged eighteen to forty-nine. For 2015, Univision was in a solid fifth place among all broadcast

Netflix/Photofest

Orange Is the New Black,

and cable networks, but was suffering the downturn that much of Spanish-language media has as larger portions of the Hispanic community are native born rather than immigrant, and are either bilingual or speak English exclusively.67

In addition to Univision, the Spanish television market includes the much smaller Telemundo network, along with a host of independent stations. Most markets offer no more than two Spanish-language television stations, but Phoenix, Arizona, has at least five.

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TEST YOUR VISUAL MEDIA LITERACY

WHAT DOES A TV SHOW LOOK LIKE?

roadcast television has long been criticized for lacking

racial and ethnic diversity. But the prison drama Orange Is the New Black has a diverse range of characters including a transgender African American woman. Laverne Cox, who plays a transgender prisoner, says that the show is a breakout because of the range of faces in the cast. “We don’t see enough multidimensional portrayals of trans women and women in jail who are different

Netflix’s cutting-edge drama, is making the news for a wide range of reasons. Perhaps the most noteworthy thing about it is that Netflix is a streaming service, not a broadcast or cable network, so Netflix releases the entire season of the series all at once, so fans who want to can binge-watch all the episodes in a single weekend. But the prison drama is also notable for its cast of characters. As you look at this cast photo from 2014, what do you notice? What would you expect from a show with this cast?

races, ages, body types. . . . We don’t see enough multidimensional portrayals of women in general, that show the diversity of womanhood.”72

Even with its high level of diversity (which some complain gets talked about too much), the core of the series is based on a memoir by Piper Kerman, a “privileged white woman serving a prison sentence.” But, as critic Roxane Gay points out, “Unfortunately, we will never see a similar show about a woman of color as a stranger in a strange land, bewildered by incarceration.”73

What does this photo say? Orange Is the New Black is the story of a twenty-four-year- old white woman college graduate who was convicted of carrying money for a West African drug lord. She was eventually imprisoned in Danbury, Connecticut.74 Does the cast photo look like the people you usually see on television? Why or why not?

What do these messages mean? Does the fact that this show has a racially diverse cast with a range of sexual orientations matter? Does the show represent diversity because it has a transgendered woman in the cast? Does it matter that the portrayal of these characters is sometimes stereotypical?

How do you and your classmates respond to these images?

Before you started this exercise, had you noticed how diverse the cast of Orange Is the New Black is? Does that

change how you feel about the show? Is it important to have diverse casts on television? Why do you think this way? What other types of diversity (beyond racial and ethnic) should television be concerned about? Why?

The most popular programs on Spanish television are the telen ovelas, or soap operas, which make up fifteen of the top twenty Spanish programs and are popular in both Latin America and the United States. Produced primarily in Mexico and Brazil, the telenovelas are exceedingly detailed and involved miniseries, with each story lasting six months to a year.68 In December 2010, Univision drew 7.3 million viewers for the final episode of its six-month-long telenovela Soy tu dueña (Woman of Steel). The series drew an average audience of 5.4 million viewers per episode—an audience that was often better than those for shows airing against it on Fox or NBC. The only shows to defeat the series finale that night were a rerun of the comedy Two and a Half Men and ESPN’s Monday Night Football.69

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The telenovelas are at the heart of the criticism of Spanish- language networks. Latino critics say that the networks need to do more than just rerun Latin American programs; they need to make programs about Hispanics living in the United States. (Approximately half of Univision’s programming comes from outside the United States.) There have also been complaints that the U.S. networks do not show dark-skinned Hispanics.

Hispanic characters are having a bigger role on English-language television, although there is still a long way to go before they will have the same presence on television as Hispanics have in the U.S. population as a whole. In the 2006–2007 season, ABC had a big hit with Ugly Betty, which is based on the hit Colombian telenovela Yo soy Betty, la fea.70 More recently, broadcast networks have featured Latino- and Latina-led shows such as Fox’s Modern Family, CW’s Jane the Virgin, and NBC’s short- lived Telenovela.71

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Check out which telenovelas are popular. CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/04/22/link-ch-9-univision-and-telenovelas/

It has taken cues from other American networks and created a game show called A Millón, which follows the same basic format as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? The network has also followed the lead of VH1’s Behind the Music and produced a series highlighting the downfalls of popular music stars.75

In 2005, ABC became the first network to start offering its prime-time programs either dubbed or closed-captioned in Spanish. The translation takes considerable effort to make sure that the jokes still work. Ruben Veloso, who heads the company that translated Desperate Housewives and Lost for ABC, says that sometimes they have to massage the script to keep it true to the story line and to keep the innuendos and double entendres in the dialogue.76

Black Entertainment Television. Cable television also has networks that attempt to appeal to nonwhite audiences. The most significant is Black Entertainment Television (BET). The twenty-four-hour network reaches 88 million households, including at least 12.5 million black households.77 When BET was acquired by media giant Viacom, it was already a $2 billion corporation that included restaurants, magazines, books, music, and cable networks.78

Started in 1980 as a local Washington, D.C., channel, BET was the nation’s first black-owned cable network.79 Although BET carries primarily talk shows and music videos, the network has also produced a series of made-for-television movies based on the Arabesque line of African American romance novels.80

SECRET 3 Aside from the network’s success in attracting viewers, BET became profitable because major advertisers such as General Motors were looking for media to reach nonwhite consumers. The New York Times says that this is part of an ongoing trend of multicultural marketing aimed at African American, Hispanic, and Asian American consumers, which account for increasing segments of the U.S. population. BET’s Louis Carr says that nonwhite consumers have to be taken much more seriously, not as a secondary target but as a primary target. In places like New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Detroit, and Philadelphia, if you add up the African American

population, the Hispanic population, and the Asian population, they’re not minorities anymore. They’re majorities.81 (Another example of Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.)

Audience Members as Programmers: Public Access Cable. Among the greatest voices for diversity on television are the pu blic access channels carried on many cable systems. Such channels air public affairs programming and other locally produced shows; these include community bulletin boards, educational programming, coverage of government meetings, and programs created by members of the community. Public access channels allow people to deliver their ideas directly to the public without going through a gatekeeper such as a journalist or another third party. At its best, public access is a soapbox that goes beyond the town square and all the way into a majority of homes in the community.82

WEB Read the Kaiser Foundation study “Generation M2: Media i n the Lives of 8-to-18-Year-Olds.” CLICK TO SHOW

More than fifteen thousand hours of public access programming are produced each year at more than two thousand locations. Following are some examples of public access programming:

• In Greensboro, North Carolina, several African American churches use the public access channel to bring sermons to housebound people.

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• A public access station in Massachusetts carries a weekly show, Haiti Tele-Magazine Network, for Haitian immigrants.

• In Dallas, Texas, a weekly program focuses on the local Iranian community.83

Public access television doesn’t always live up to the standard of the public good, however. According to Laura Linder, who has

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studied public access television extensively, most programming on these channels is fairly conventional, but some of it is controversial. Unsuccessful experimental films, exhibitionism, and racist hate speech can find their way onto public access channels. For example, viewers in one community complained about an animated film that they believed promoted drug use. On another controversial program, the host butchered and cooked iguanas. (He was eventually arrested for cruelty to animals.) Controversial programs often lead to calls for eliminating public access channels, but the courts have generally ruled that public access cable is a free-speech forum and therefore is protected as long as nothing illegal is broadcast.

How important are local access cable channels? It depends in large part on local activists. According to independent public access television producer Chris Hill, “If there’s good public access, it’s a result of grassroots organizing by people who see this as an important public resource.”84 Linder says that public access programming differs from other forms because it is produced by audience members, not by media professionals. Public access cable is part of the trend toward more interactive media, such as the Internet and local talk radio. It transforms viewers into media producers rather than just audience members.

Television and Society

Few new social institutions have become an integral part of society faster than television did in the late 1940s and early 1950s. In 1948, there were fewer than one hundred thousand televisions in use; a year later, that number was more than one million, and by 1959, there were fifty million sets in use. In less than ten years, television had become a part of everyday life in the United States. Television viewership tended to grow more slowly in the highly regulated European market, something we talk about in depth in Chapter 15.

As television became commonplace, people started to worry about its effects on viewers: How much time were people spending viewing television? What activities would it replace? Why were people watching television? Most important, what effect, if any, would the content of television programs have on

viewers? Would it lead to violence and juvenile delinquency? Would it take children into the world of adults too early? Would it transform society?

Television as a Major Social Force

In Tube of Plenty, Erik Barnouw argues that television had a revolutionary impact on society:

The advent of television was widely compared, in its impact, with that of the Gutenberg printing press centuries earlier. Television was beginning to be seen as the more revolutionary innovation. The reasons were so obvious that they had seldom been discussed. Television viewing required no skill beyond normal human functions. Reading, on the other hand, was a skill acquired over years via effort and drilling—and not acquired by everyone. It generally involved the mediation of father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, teacher, priest, and others, a factor favoring social continuity, a transmittal of values. Television short- circuited all this. It could begin in cradle or playpen, and often did. It could bypass father, mother, grandfather, grandmother. It reached the child long before teacher and priest. Their role in the acculturation process had been sharply reduced. They had sporadically, fitfully, sought to recapture a more decisive role by seeking to control the images on the tube—but that control had slipped elsewhere, to the world of business. In a development of historical significance, the television’s messages had become dominant social doctrine.85

Barnouw is arguing that although television audiences have fragmented with the growth of cable, satellite, and home video, television is still the dominant shared experience in the modern world, reaching more people than schools, families, and churches.

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Time Spent Watching Television. One reason social critics have been so concerned about the influence of television is that Americans spend a lot of time watching it. Estimates of the

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

When and why do you watch television? Do you watch specific shows or just whatever is airing? Do you think it’s possible to watch “too much” television? Why or why not? What did you watch last night?

amount vary. Nielsen Media Research says that the average person watches about four hours of television a day.86 According to another estimate, Americans spend fifteen hours a week actively watching television and have the TV turned on for an additional twenty-one hours a week while doing other things.

WEB Read the Kaiser Family Foundation study “Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8-to-18-Year-Olds.” CLICK TO SHOW

Television viewing can also be looked at in terms of how it dominates our free time. A study of the functions of television in everyday life notes that on average Americans spend half of their leisure time watching television. The same study showed that at any given moment in the evening more than one-third of the U.S. population is watching television; in the winter that proportion rises to over 50 percent.87 A study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that children spend an average of four and a half hours a day watching television content. This is despite the fact that they are spending less time in front of a television set. How is this possible? While television sets are still the most popular media device among young people, the TV set is gradually losing ground to video they can watch on their computer screens, tablets, or phones.88 (For more on these figures, turn back to Chapter 1.)

Television as Competition for Other Activities. Although television viewing is often reported in terms of average amounts of time spent viewing, such figures don’t always give a complete picture. The differences between heavy and light television viewers can be significant. A 1990 study found that people who watch a lot of television tend to spend more time home alone than light viewers. The study also showed that light viewers spend more time walking than heavy viewers.

http://www.kff.org/entmedia/8010.cfm

Unfortunately, these studies usually cannot determine why people behave in these ways. Do heavy viewers stay home specifically to watch television, or are they unable to get out of the house for one reason or another? Perhaps busy people who like to walk don’t have time to watch television. One finding that is not difficult to interpret was that people who watch sports on television also tend to participate in sports. The study also found that the amount of time people spend reading does not seem to be affected by how much television they watch.89

Video Case 9.3: Impact of David Letterman.

How Do Viewers Use Television?

In addition to examining how much television people are watching, researchers have studied how and why people watch television. These uses and gratifications studies seek to determine what uses people make of television viewing and what gratifications (or benefits) they gain from it. The central premise of these studies is that television (like other media) is

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not an actor that does things to viewers. Instead, audience members are active participants who select programming to meet particular needs.

What might these needs be? The study Television in the Lives of Our Children found that children watch television for many of the same reasons that adults do:

• To be entertained. • To learn things or gain information. In many cases, this

information relates to socialization: how to act like an adult, how to be a better athlete, how other people live.

• For social reasons. The content of TV doesn’t matter so much as the fact that they watch it with friends or talk about it at school the next day.

The researchers also found that different children watched the same program for different reasons. One child might watch a cartoon show because he was lonely and the show provided company, another might watch it because it made her laugh, and a third might watch it because his friends were watching it.90

Standards for Television

In the 1950s and 1960s, networks and advertisers imposed strict controls on what could be shown on television. For example, Mary Tyler Moore and Dick Van Dyke played the married couple Laura and Rob Petrie on The Dick Van Dyke Show, which aired from 1961 to 1966. Although married, the Petries had to sleep in separate twin beds. Sponsors also raised their eyebrows when Moore wore jeans and capri pants on the show because these garments might be considered suggestive. Moore fought the sponsors and won, saying, “I’ll dress on the show the way I dress in real life.”91 This was the era when comedian Lucille Ball had to use the word expecting rather than pregnant on her show when she was obviously carrying a child.9 2 What could be shown was determined by each network’s own standards and practices department. The goal of these departments, which at one time had as many as sixty people working in them, was to make sure the network did not lose

viewers or sponsors because of offensive content. Since the 1980s, they have decreased in size by 50 percent or more. This change is due partly to a loosening of societal standards throughout the 1970s, but it is also a response to the more explicit content of cable television programming.93 Alfred Schneider, who served as a censor for ABC television for more than thirty years, observes that the networks feel freer to deal with difficult topics today than in earlier decades:

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch Mary Tyler Moor dancing in capri pants. CLICK TO SHOW

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY NO SENSE OF PLACE

edia scholar Joshua Meyrowitz, in his book No Sense of Place, argues that the very existence of television is an influence on society because it

breaks down the physical barriers that separate people. In the past, he says, people were limited to interacting with those whom they could see and hear face-to-face. Meyrowitz describes how the coming of electronic media, and television in particular, changed this:

The boundaries marked by walls, doors, and barbed wire, and enforced by laws, guards, and trained dogs, continue to define situations by including and excluding participants. But today such boundaries function to define social situations only to the extent that information can still be restricted by restricting physical access.1

These boundaries can be broken at many levels. A child watching television can see people talking about adult topics such as infidelity, pregnancy, or cross-dressing. A teenager

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in New York City can see the impact of drought on people in Iowa. Young men can listen in on what women say on a “girls’ night out.” In each of these cases, in the pretelevision era, the viewer would have been isolated because of his or her “place,” whether it was geographic location, age, sex, or socioeconomic status. But television gives everyone an equal view into these formerly separate worlds.

This breakdown of place has occurred not just within the United States, but throughout the industrialized world. As we discussed in Chapter 3, the United States is the world’s largest supplier of entertainment programming; it is also the largest supplier of imagery to the world. The most important effect of CNN and other satellite-based television news services is that they give people everywhere in the world access to the same information at the same time, whether those people are heads of state, diplomats, soldiers, or citizens. The late Don Hewitt, longtime producer of the CBS newsmagazine 60 Minutes, has said that this global sharing of information is changing the world:

When there was a disaster, it used to be that people went to church and all held hands. Then television came along, and there was this wonderful feeling that while you were watching Walter Cronkite, millions of other Americans were sharing the emotional experience with you. Now the minute anything happens they all run to CNN and think, “The whole world is sharing this experience with me.”2

Who is the source? Who is Joshua Meyrowitz? What book has he written?

What is he saying? According to Meyrowitz, how has television transformed society? What does Meyrowitz mean when he says television and other electronic media break down the barriers of place? What kind of barriers does Meyrowitz suggest are being broken by television?

What evidence is there? What examples of this process does Meyrowitz provide? When and where does this process take place?

What do you and your classmates think about Meyrowitz’s arguments?

List some examples of how television has let you see aspects of everyday life that would normally remain hidden from you. Does television take you “places” you couldn’t go to otherwise? If so, list some examples. Do you ever use television to deliberately watch worlds you wouldn’t be able to see otherwise?

1Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

2William A. Henry III, “History as It Happens; Linking Leaders as Never Before, CNN Has Changed the Way the World Does Its Business,” Time, January 6, 1992, pp. 24–27.

WEB Read an interview with Joshua Meyrowitz. CLICK TO SHOW

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Sometimes the quality of a particular program allows you to do things that you would not permit in other programs. I once said that in my lifetime there would never be full frontal nudity on network television. I was wrong. I lived to see War and Remembrance, where I permitted full frontal nudity in the concentration camp scenes. I finally justified it by saying that this was not

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CBS Photo Archive/Getty Images

Actress Mary Tyler Moore raised havoc with network censors in 1961 when she danced on The Dick Van Dyke Show wearing capri pants. Moore defended her outfit, saying, “I’ll dress on the show the way I dress in real life.”

nudity, this was death.

As we see the growth of more distribution systems, the growth of independents, my position will have to change. As the populace becomes more educated, more inquisitive, more concerned about issues, I will be more comfortable taking greater risks knowing that people will seek out their choices.94

In 1997, broadcasters fundamentally changed their programming controls; instead of placing an occasional warning before programs considered inappropriate for children, they implemented a two-part rating system modeled after the one used for movies. There is an age-appropriateness rating that closely matches the movie system, with ratings of G, PG, TV-14 (for fourteen-year-olds and older), and TV-MA (for mature audiences). Many networks also provide a content rating of S (sexual content), V (violence), L (crude language), and/or D (adult dialogue).95 It was also in 1997 that the so-called V-chip, an electronic device allowing parents to block programs with certain content ratings, began to be included in television sets.

Television producers were initially concerned that shows with ratings for violence or sexual content might be harder to market. But rather than restricting television content, broadcasters have used the ratings to warn viewers that material on a program will be explicit. As Robert Thompson, director of Syracuse University’s Bleier Center for Television and Popular Culture, has noted,

The people who wanted ratings to put the brakes on this new explosion of raunchy television saw just the opposite happen. Anybody should have seen this coming. If you give producers the opportunity to use a TV-MA rating, it’s an invitation to make TV-MA programs.96

For the most part, the R-equivalent TV-MA rating has been confined to cable television shows such as Comedy Central’s raunchy cartoon South Park. The Big Four broadcast networks have rarely aired programs with the TV-MA rating, the most

notable exceptions being uncut broadcasts of serious R-rated movies such as Schindler’s List and Saving Private Ryan.

The Problem of Decency

The line of what was acceptable on broadcast television was redrawn following the 2004 Super Bowl halftime show on CBS when Justin Timberlake exposed Janet Jackson’s breast for nine-sixteenths of a second. The FCC received more than five hundred thousand complaints.97 Immediately following the broadcast, the FCC started talking about the problem of indecency on television. References to sexual or bodily functions are considered to be indecent. FCC rules say that broadcast radio and television stations can’t air indecent material between 6:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m., when children are most likely to be watching. This differs from obscene programming (discussed further in Chapter 13), which “describes or shows sexual conduct in a lewd and offensive way” and has no “literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.”98 Obscene material is not protected by the First Amendment. Rules about indecency apply to broadcast materials but not to cable or satellite material. On June 29, 2012, the case regarding CBS finally came to a conclusion with the U.S. Supreme Court declining to review a lower court decision throwing out the fine.99 As a side note in this case, cable news host Nancy Grace also exposed her nipple on the reality show Dancing With the Stars, this time for almost an entire second. But so far the FCC has not acted on any complaints, and it appears unlikely to lead to any fines or other legal action.100 There is no single standard for what constitutes broadcast indecency, and this standard clearly changes over time. During the 1990s and early 2000s, bare bottoms became common on shows such as NYPD Blue. But since the Janet Jackson fuss, even this minimal nudity has been digitally blurred when shown on broadcast television, and reality programs such as Survivor have become careful to digitally blur any hint of nudity that occurs during the programs’ competitions as well.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch both the Janet Jackson and Nancy Grace wardrobe malfunctions. CLICK TO SHOW

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Christopher Polk/Getty Images

In 2012, during the halftime show for Super Bowl XLVI, rapper M.I.A. pointed up her middle finger during her performance. That incident drew comparisons with the brief exposure of Janet Jackson’s breast in the Super Bowl halftime show eight years prior.

WEB Read about the settlement of the Janet Jackson indecency case before the Supreme Court. CLICK TO SHOW

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There has been some serious fallout from the Janet Jackson stunt as well. Several CBS affiliates hesitated to rebroadcast the documentary 9/11 because of the rough language used by firefighters in the film.101 In 2004, sixty- six ABC affiliate stations refused to air the R-rated movie Saving Private Ryan for fear they would be fined for the movie’s graphic violence and extensive profanity.102 (Congress raised the fines from $32,500 to $325,000 per “incident” following the Jackson case, which is why smaller stations are cautious about any program that might trigger an FCC response.) Broadcast standards in Europe are far more likely to regulate hate speech, advertising, and materials that are harmful to children than to control nudity.103 Gene Policinski, executive director of the First Amendment Center, questions whether television can really tell the story of events such as the 9/11 attacks or the invasion of Normandy during World War II within the limits of decency rules:

War is a bloody hell, and Private Ryan brought home the

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terror and anguish, as well as the heroics and sacrifices, of the heralds of the “greatest generation” who stormed ashore at Normandy in a manner no sanitized depiction had done previously. Who can view any veteran of that invasion in the same manner after seeing that film?104

The Future of Television

Whether it is delivered by broadcast, cable, or satellite, television is changing so quickly that it might be unrecognizable to Philo T. Farnsworth. The cable industry, for example, is in the process of replacing copper wire with fiber-optic cable that uses light rather than electricity to send out video and other types of signals. Fiber-optic cable has the advantage of being able to carry much more information than copper wire can, but more importantly, it has the capacity to allow audience members to send signals back to the program providers.105

Interactive Television

This new control of television by consumers is available at a number of levels. As the number of available channels increases, cable providers can offer multiple versions of single channels. Cable movie provider HBO offers multiple channels, each of which has movies starting at different times. The same is happening with pay-per-view channels, on which movies start at fifteen-minute intervals.

Consumers themselves can add to their degree of control. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, with DVRs, viewers are able to not only record programs and view them whenever they wish; they can also pause a program to take a phone call or get a snack and restart it when they return. In essence, the digital recorders give viewers the same control over “live” television that they have over prerecorded programs.

Video on Demand. Traditional cable services are also getting in on the video on demand game that lets consumers watch movies, news, or other programs that are digitally delivered at any time over fiber-optic lines. Time Warner began

experimenting with such a system in 1993 and made its Full Service Network available to subscribers in Orlando, Florida. During the experiment, the company found that people liked having more choices, that they wanted to be able to pause a show and continue it later, and that young people adapted better to new technology than did older people.114

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS DEFINING TELEVISION IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

f I were to ask you what you mean when you say you are going to watch television, your answer would likely be quite different from what your parents might say. Every

semester I ask my media literacy students a fairly simple question: What is television? The answers that come back are revealing, to say the least. One time the first word that came up was box. And by box, my student meant a big, old- school analog TV with a big ol’ picture tube. Literally, a giant box. But I think that’s informative—television is seen as a device for consuming video wherever it comes from.

After that comes some more use-based terms —entertainment and reruns. But then comes the term that really grabs my attention: “moving pictures that you stream.”

I don’t know that the student who said stream was really talking about online streaming; more likely, she was just talking about the unending flow of images that stream out of the television box. But the one term that didn’t come up much was broadcasting. And there’s a good reason for that. The young people in my class don’t really distinguish between broadcast and cable/satellite channels, or even from streaming channels. They are all just television.

One big step in our redefinition of television occurred in

2005 when Apple started selling an iPod that could play video, and it offered current television shows the day after they aired for $1.99 an episode through the iTunes Store. At first, it was primarily ABC programming, owned by Disney, that was available on iTunes.106 (Remember, at the time of his death, Apple founder Steve Jobs was a member of the Disney board of directors and the company’s biggest single stockholder.) But by 2007, all of the Big Four networks were selling episodes through iTunes, as were many cable powerhouses. So Apple got broad acceptance of the idea that people would pay cash to download current television shows and that they could use portable devices to view those shows almost anywhere.

That was also the year that DVD rental service Netflix started streaming movies and TV shows over the Internet. Initially, the streaming was just to computers, but it soon expanded to devices such as the Roku box, Blu-ray players, and video game consoles that could play Netflix programming instantly on a television set.

Now Netflix and other streaming services, such as Amazon Prime Video and Hulu, can be accessed on smartphones and tablets.107 And premium cable giant HBO, home of the massive hit Game of Thrones, can be accessed from the HBO Now streaming service for $14.95 per month.108 Traditional television viewership peaked in 2010 and has been declining in the years since. Young people are increasingly watching streaming video on smartphones, tablets, streaming boxes, or game consoles. Over 2015, use of these devices increased by 25 percent while traditional TV viewing declined by 10 percent.

SECRET 5 But video doesn’t just mean products being produced by Big Media. Individuals now have the power to stream video themselves using mobile apps like Periscope and Meerkat. These apps allow you to capture video using your mobile device’s camera and send it out to as many people as want to see it. While these apps are certainly used to create original content, they are also used to bypass Big Media contracts and rebroadcast sporting events that others are paying as much as $100 to receive. In 2015, there was a major boxing match between Floyd

Mayweather Jr. and Manny Pacquiao. Pay-per-view audiences were charged $100 per screen to have access to the fight, but dozens of paying customers live-streamed the fight via Periscope, and anyone who wanted to could watch for free. While many of these illegal streams were shut down, the Washington Post reported it was not difficult to see the fight without paying.109 Given that ordinary people can now easily redistribute Big Media content, we continue to see the importance of Secret 5—All media are social.

All of these developments raise the question as to whether people are ready to disconnect from a traditional pay video service such as cable or satellite and replace it with content streamed over the Internet. Do you really need a cable or satellite subscription to watch a wide range of television programming anymore? Among those who have cut the cord is famed media blogger Jim Romenesko, who writes that he made the change when his cable bill hit $203 a month in February 2011. At that point, he says he sold his three flat- screen TVs and took to doing all of his television viewing on his iPad. He says he has no regrets about making the switch, though he might feel differently if he were a big sports fan.11 0

There has been talk for years about the eventual declining fortunes of traditional satellite/cable packages. The basic idea is that you pay a fee for a big group of cable channels, most of which you don’t watch. But you get them all as part of a single package—or perhaps a basic package with a group of add-ons. There has been talk about “a la carte” pricing of cable, where subscribers would buy each channel individually. The problem is that cable economics depend on everyone buying the same group of channels, even if they never watch them. Les Moonves, CEO of CBS, told an investor conference in March 2015, “Clearly the bundle is changing. The days of the 500-channel universe are over. The days of the 150-channel universe in the home are not necessarily over but they’re changing rapidly. People are slicing it and dicing it in different ways.”111

But even if cable companies are unwilling to change, with cord cutting, consumers are increasingly able to do their own a la carte packages. ESPN, HBO, Showtime, and many others

are now available for purchase individually. And Apple is widely expected to eventually offer a streaming bundle of programming through its Apple TV device, though when, if ever, that might happen is not clear.112

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Some Internet providers are responding to this change by putting a limit on how much data you get per month. This is something like the limits we’ve had on our mobile device accounts. Comcast is experimenting with charging customers between $30 and $35 more per month to have unlimited data, as compared to its normal cap of 300 GB. This is one way that multiplatform media companies like Comcast can profit from the cord cutters, who won’t be buying cable services directly from them.113

WHaT does it mean to say you are “watching television” now?

DO you watch video programming on your computer or mobile device? Why or why not?

WHaT kind of programming do you watch on your computer or mobile device?

DO you pay for it, or is it free? If it’s free, would you pay for the service if free options went away? Why or why not?

HaVe you cut the cord or considered cutting the cord? Why or why not?

WEB 25 ways to watch television. CLICK TO SHOW

WEB What do students mean when they say they are watchi ng television? CLICK TO SHOW

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Video on demand has now moved into the mainstream, with more than 60 percent of all cable subscribers having access to it.

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These systems allow consumers to pick the program they want to watch and to pause, rewind, and fast-forward through the content. But these services are not always as flexible as the online streaming services. For example, on-demand reruns of recent television programs from my local cable company do not allow viewers to rewind, fast-forward, or even pause programs. And many of these systems also block consumers from fast- forwarding through commercials.115 Cable and satellite companies are also seeing competition from online services such as Amazon Prime, Hulu, and Netflix, as we’ve discussed previously.

Video Case 9.4: Television user flow.

Interacting With Programs. Interactive television goes beyond giving viewers a chance to select their own programming. It involves making them active participants in the programming. Among the most famous (or infamous) interactive television episodes was one that appeared on Saturday Night Live. Comedian Eddie Murphy played a cook who was about to boil Larry the Lobster. Viewers could call in on special phone lines to



vote on whether Larry should or should not get cooked at the end of the show. (Compassionate viewers ended up saving Larry that night, though the lobster’s final fate remains unknown.) It is not that much of a reach to go from voting on whether to save Larry the Lobster to calling in to vote on which performers you like best on Dancing With the Stars. According to Brian Garden of MTV, “You are growing up with a generation that is almost overly empowered. They aren’t satisfied with anything less than full control.”116 John Pavlik of the Center for New Media at Columbia University sees interactivity as becoming a standard part of television:

When you transform people from couch potatoes into active participants, you turn TV programs into something like a sticky website. They want to keep playing along. Every program can have an interactive component. I think it will become the main way we connect to our televisions.117

The Earthquake in Slow Motion Continues

Earlier in this chapter, we discussed Ken Auletta’s “earthquake in slow motion”—how the cable and satellite revolution brought about massive changes to the television business in the 1980s and 1990s. This earthquake has continued to shake up television into the twenty-first century due to the growing importance of broadband video and alternative viewing devices.

Convergence of Television, Online, and Mobile. Media analysts have been talking for years about convergence in the media industry with audio, video, still images, and text coming together in a single medium. It hasn’t happened yet, but computers and television are definitely starting to converge, though not always in the ways that people were expecting. In a 2006 interview, Mike Bloxham of Ball State University told Media Post that

the difference between the TV and the PC is getting less almost by the month. They’re kind of morphing, and the only real difference is the size of the screen, where I’m using it, my need state or mind state, and, at the moment, the amount of interactivity.118

SECRETS 5 AND 6 But there is a new phase of this transformation taking place now as online video increasingly moves onto mobile devices. (Secret 6—Online media are mobile media.) For several years, we’ve been talking about the so-called second screen experience where people are interacting on social media during a show, participating through an app, or even viewing the show on a small screen. (Secret 5—All media are social.) But France Télévisions’ director of future media Eric Scherer tells London newspaper the Guardian that the TV industry needs to forget about a digital-first strategy and go all in on mobile first. He says that the video industry needs to pay attention to the world of apps: “They are always mobile, they are always social, they are always interactive . . . and it is more and more live.”

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CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Television was developed in the 1920s and 1930s by independent inventor Philo T. Farnsworth and RCA engineer Vladimir Zworykin. Commercial broadcasting began in the United States in 1939, but its development was put on hold by the outbreak of World War II. By the early 1950s, television was established as the dominant broadcast medium. Color television broadcasts came into widespread use in the 1960s.

Although primitive forms of cable television existed in 1948, cable did not become a significant medium until the early 1980s when satellite distribution of channels became common. Among

the early cable channels were a number of networks created by Ted Turner. Viewers gained access to additional choices in the form of VCRs and direct-broadcast satellite service. Television broadcasting has switched from analog signals to multiple digital formats, and VCRs have almost completely been replaced by DVRs, DVDs, video on demand, and streaming technology.

Television networks have been criticized for failing to include women and minorities in their programming, but cable channels have delivered more programming that addresses diverse interests. Networks have also been criticized for carrying too much violent and sexually explicit programming. But television has been praised for breaking down geographic and social barriers. Broadcast television is currently going through a cycle in which “indecent” content is being suppressed by the government.

Television is changing rapidly, with audience members getting many new options to control how and when they receive programming. With VCRs, DVRs, interactive television, and broadband video, viewers can choose what they watch and when they watch it. They are also able to interact with the programming through online and mobile resources.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

KEY TERMS

community antenna television (CATV) 222

Big Three networks 223

videocassette recorder (VCR) 225

direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) 225

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-9/quiz

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-9/

high-definition television (HDTV) 226

standard digital television 226

television networks 227

Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) 227

Big Four networks 228

people meter 229

sweeps 229

rating point 229

share 229

telenovelas 232

public access channels 234

video on demand 239

cut the cord 240

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How does Univision news anchor Jorge Ramos’s approach to news differ from the traditional American approach of news anchors like Walter Cronkite?

2. How did Ted Turner transform cable television? 3. What does media journalist Ken Auletta mean by “an

earthquake in slow motion”? How is that earthquake still going on today?

4. How did Janet Jackson’s 2004 Super Bowl appearance transform our standards for decency on broadcast television?

5. How have technological changes transformed how we think of “watching television”?

STUDENT STUDY SITE

edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

Sharpen your skills with SAGE edge!

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.

http://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

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CHAPTER 10

ONLINE MEDIA The Internet, Social Media, and Video Games

Ariel Zambelich/NPR

Media Library

CHAPTER 10 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 10.1: Technology of kitchen appliances.

Video Case 10.2: Watch a news clip about Facebook's re action emojis

Video Case 10.3: Department of Defense and hackers.

Video Case 10.4: Ashley Madison hack.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

Watch an interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

Watch video of Neda Agha-Soltan and read more about h er case.

AUDIO

Yik Yak Tests Universities’ Defense of Free Speech.

Listen to a discussion about diversity in video games.

WEB

Read an interview with Paul Baran.

Maps of ARPAnet growth.

Visit the first World Wide Web site.

The World Wide Web turned 25 in 2014. How well is it a ging?

Read Zhao Jing’s full story.

https://www.c-span.org/video/?152949-1/weaving-web

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http://www.npr.org/2015/01/16/377756754/diversity-in-video-games

http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.03/baran.html

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http://info.cern.ch/

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N WHAT YOU’LL LEARN After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Explain how Internet technology developed.

Read about how social and mobile technology have transf ormed our online experience

Working with social media

Social media usage 2005-2015.

Twitter feeds to follow.

Who plays video games?

Read articles on social media privacy invasion.

Read and watch more about Pokémon Go.

Read the whole Pew report on home broadband access.

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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ear the start of the fall 2014 semester, an announcement

went out over the PA system in the University of Nebraska at Kearney (UNK) library that everyone should leave the building immediately. As the crowd of students, faculty, and staff stood around in the sun, word started to spread that the library had been evacuated because of an anonymous bomb threat

http://www.pewinternet.org/three-technology-revolutions/

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http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/08/social-networking-usage-2005-2015/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/01/12/some-great-twitter-feeds/

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http://www.ralphehanson.com/2016/07/18/north-to-the-yukon-gotta-catch-em-all/

http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/12/21/home-broadband-2015/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-10/

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-10/quiz

2 Identify the three levels of communication on the Internet.

3 Describe three defining components of the World Wide Web and the nine principles on which it is based.

4 Describe five characteristics of social media.

5 Explain how legacy media are reacting to the growth of new online media.

6 Describe the four elements of the hacker ethic and how they apply to the contemporary Internet.

7 Discuss conflicts over content, intellectual property, and privacy on the Web.

posted on the social media forum Yik Yak. Following a complete search of the building, everyone was allowed back in with the presumption that the threat was just a hoax.1 Despite the anonymity of the post to Yik Yak, police were quickly able to track down and arrest the student who posted the threat.

How did police in this case (and many others) so quickly and easily track down the person who posted the threat? Easy. Remember, just because your name isn’t publically attached to a post doesn’t mean there isn’t plenty of identifying information. According to Caitlin Dewey, writing for the Washington Post, every Yik Yak post is tagged with the user’s device’s IP address, GPS coordinates, and other identifying information. This information ultimately can be connected to the phone number Yik Yak members give when they sign up for an account.2 By the end of the spring semester, the student who had placed the bomb threat had served ninety days in jail and was sentenced to two years of probation. He also had to pay $2,500 in restitution to the university to cover the cost of the work lost by the evacuation.

Kelly Bartling, UNK’s assistant vice chancellor for communications, said that the university had no way to ban the social media app from campus. But even if it could, she would rather educate students on the right way to use social media.

“It’s up to the students to make the best decision for them in what they want to do,” she told student paper the Antelope. “It could harm their reputation if they’re doing anything that’s illegal or unethical, if they’re bullying or harassing people, that’s on there and it could conceivably be there forever. Informing students of the arrest served to reinforce to them that we can track. That was an educational moment in itself.”3

The problem of anonymous threats on Yik Yak is not unique to the UNK campus. In November 2015, Western Washington University canceled classes for a day after threatening messages were posted on Yik Yak targeting students of color. The threats appear to have been connected to a push to make the campus’s white Viking mascot more racially inclusive. There were also threats to shoot all of the African American students at the University of Missouri connected with protests about racism on campus. (You can read more about the problems at Mizzou in the opening to Chapter 12.) Yik Yak cofounder Brooks Buffington noted in a blog post, “This sort of misbehavior is not what Yik Yak is to be used for. . . . Yik Yak works alongside local authorities to help in investigations, and we may share information with law enforcement as set forth in our Privacy Policy and legal page.”4

So if Yik Yak is not for posting threats, what is it for? A student at Emory University in Atlanta told NPR, “It’s a forum for people to post anonymous thoughts and some of those thoughts are potentially offensive to others.” Typical posts are about bad breakups or bad university food.5 Yik Yak is designed to be aware of where the user is posting from and makes the messages available to other people in the same area. It also blocks people from posting from certain areas, most notably near middle schools and high schools in an effort to prevent it from being used for bullying.

AUDIO Yik Yak Tests Universities’ Defense of Free Speech. CLICK TO SHOW

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Dewey described it this way in the Washington Post:

http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/01/23/463197593/yik-yak-tests-universities-defense-of-free-speech

Yik Yak is essentially a public, anonymous, location-based message board: After downloading the app, you can post anything you want to nearby readers—who can then comment, up-vote or down-vote your “yak,” also anonymously.6

Let’s break that definition down a bit: It’s a place where college students can post comments, without being held responsible for them, that can be seen primarily by other people in the same area. These comments are generally posted using a mobile phone using a small program called an app. As of this writing, the company was experimenting with allowing Web posting, but given that it is a location-based social network, using a mobile device is central to the Yik Yak experience. Yik Yak requires its members to register a mobile phone number with the company in order to have an account, so even though members can post anonymously, it isn’t difficult for them to track down people making abusive posts.

Yik Yak is perhaps the perfect example of what online media are becoming in the almost fifty years that they’ve existed:

• They are social—Ordinary people use Yik Yak to interact with each other rather than relying on content from media giants.

• They are mobile—While you can use Yik Yak from a computer if you really want to, it’s designed from the start to be used on a mobile phone or other mobile device.

• They are location-based—Yik Yak knows where you are, and your location controls what you can or can’t do with the app.

• They are apps—The World Wide Web is far from being dead, but increasingly people are interacting online using specialized small apps, such as Yik Yak, rather than a general-purpose program like a Web browser.

• As always, online media have the potential to get people in trouble when they think anything posted online is really anonymous.

SECRETS 5 AND 6 If you’ve been paying attention here,

you’ll realize that Yik Yak is a great example of Secret 5—All media are social—and Secret 6—Online media are mobile media.

The Internet is in the process of establishing itself not just as a new medium of mass communication, but also as one where old types of media can find new ways to provide content. Not only can you play video games online; you can watch other people play video games, and you can even interact with other people as you watch them playing video games. In this chapter, we look at the origins of the Internet, how it has changed from its original government roots, how it has evolved from a tool for computer sharing into a major new mass medium, and how it has caused social change everywhere from the corporate boardroom to the Middle East.

The Development of the Internet

SECRET 4 The Internet is the most recent of the mass media. It is still rapidly evolving and changing, just as radio did in the 1920s and television did in the 1950s. (Remember Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again.) Like radio, the Internet was not conceived initially as a mass medium. Instead, the first wide-area computer networks were designed to enable academics and military researchers to share data. But these early users soon found that the most useful benefit of the network was being able to send electronic mail to one another instantly.

Although the earliest components of the Internet were in use by 1969, the Net was limited largely to interpersonal communication until 1991, when Tim Berners-Lee released the World Wide Web as an easy and uniform way to access material on the Internet. Since then, the Internet has become a medium unlike any other because it is the only one that incorporates elements of interpersonal, group, and mass communications.

So what is the Internet? A national panel on the future of the

Internet defines it this way: “The Internet is a diverse set of independent networks, interlinked to provide its users with the appearance of a single, uniform network.”

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FIGURE 10.1

Packet-Switching Networks

Packet switching is at the core of how wide-area computer networks operate. The sending computer breaks down the message into a number of smaller pieces, or packets, that can be sent separately across the network. These packets each follow their own routes to the destination computer, where they are reassembled into the original message.

The Net starts with the link from your computer to an Internet service provider (ISP). For an ISP, you might choose AOL, a cable company, your telephone company, or possibly a small local company that sells Internet service in one or two counties. The messages then flow from the smaller links into bigger and bigger digital pipelines (the Internet’s “backbone”) that carry millions of messages across the country.

The backbone was initially a set of high-speed data lines controlled by the National Science Foundation as part of a

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replacement of its original network, but these lines have since been replaced by high-speed fiber-optic lines run by about a dozen major communication companies.

WEB Read an interview with Paul Baran. CLICK TO SHOW

Packet Switching: Letting Computers Talk to Each Other

Today, people use the Internet to communicate with other people, but the technology was originally developed to let computers talk to one another. In the early 1960s, researchers on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean were working on the problem of how to transfer information stored on one computer to another.

WEB Maps of ARPAnet growth. CLICK TO SHOW

In 1964, engineer Paul Baran was designing a military communication network that could survive a nuclear strike. He sought to design a network in which every computer was connected to several other computers so that if one computer failed, an alternative route using different computers could be established. Baran’s second insight was that computers could break large messages into a number of smaller message blocks, or packets, which could be sent independently across the

http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.03/baran.html

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/06/05/link-ch-10-how-arpanet-grew/

• Videos and multimedia content to enhance your exploration of key topics.

edge.sagepub.com/ha nson6e

network. Packet switchin g, as Baran’s scheme came to be known, cuts messages into little pieces and sends them along the easiest route to their final destination (see Figure 10.1). The receiving computer starts reassembling the messages and asks for any missing packets to be resent.7

The U.S. Air Force was initially willing to implement Baran’s network, but AT&T, which had a monopoly on long-distance phone service at the time, refused to cooperate, so Baran put his idea on hold.8 Meanwhile, in England, researcher Donald Davies was working on a proposed public communication network. Davies and Baran, working independently, came up with remarkably similar notions for packet switching.9

ARPAnet

Eventually the U.S. military built the first nationwide packet- switching network. However, the network that was built was intended to serve the needs of academic researchers, not to survive nuclear war.

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FIGURE 10.2

Drawing of Four-Node Network

http://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

This is a schematic of the original four-node ARPAnet, including University of California–Los Angeles, Stanford Research Institute, University of California–Santa Barbara, and University of Utah.

Source: Courtesy of Computer History Museum.

The network was built by a farsighted division of the Pentagon called the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).10 In 1968, the contract to build the network was given to a Boston- based consulting firm on the condition that it be built in under one year. By the fall of 1969, ARPAnet connected four different institutions, and the first component of the Internet was running. As the hand-drawn map of ARPAnet in Figure 10.2 shows, the initial nodes were University of California–Los Angeles, Stanford Research Institute, University of California– Santa Barbara, and University of Utah. ARPAnet came online at about the same time as the first moon landing. Whereas Neil Armstrong’s “one small step” was noted throughout the world as one of the great achievements of humanity, no one outside of ARPA was aware that a new, world-changing medium had just been born.11

Connecting Incompatible Networks

As ARPAnet expanded to more and more universities, other networks were formed. Each of these small networks worked well in its own limited and defined sphere, but they couldn’t communicate with one another. How could they be linked together?

Creating the Internet’s Protocols. The answer came from work done by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf. The pair envisioned a box, or gateway, that would serve as a translator for all the various incompatible networks. The individual networks would talk to the gateways using a common set of rules, or “protocols.” Their protocol was known as TCP/IP. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, which controls how data are sent out on the Internet. IP stands for Internet Protocol, which provides the address for each computer on the Internet. The term Internet was coined in 1973 as an abbreviation for “internetworking of networks.”

Commercial Networks. As academics started making personal

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Let’s see how well you know the newest medium: What is the Internet? Who owns and controls it? Where did it come from?

use of the Internet, nonacademics became interested in computer communication and started buying access to network services through companies such as CompuServe, Prodigy, and AOL.12

The Next-Generation Internet. With all the public and commercial traffic flowing on the Internet, next-generation networks are now under construction to serve the same purpose as ARPAnet—to provide academics and other researchers with high-speed links to computers around the world, especially the limited number of supercomputers. These new and improved networks have the potential to move data ten to twenty times faster than the conventional Internet, given ideal conditions. Their primary advantage is that they make possible video and interactive applications that are of much higher quality. For example, students at medical schools in different parts of the country can view an interactive medical simulation simultaneously using the new network, something that would have been impossible with the older, slower lines. As of 2014, more than 440 member organizations, including universities, corporations, government agencies, and nonprofits, belonged to the Internet2 consortium, one of the leading next-generation networks, which connected to a broader, ninety-three-thousand-institution community spread across more than one hundred countries.13

What Are Online/Mobile Media?

With the coming of networks, and especially the internetworking standards, computers were transformed. Bob Taylor, who helped oversee the creation of ARPAnet, said, “Computers were first born as arithmetic engines, but my own view . . . is that they’re much more interesting and powerful as communication devices because they mediate human-to-human communication.”14 The thing that makes computer-based communication so powerful is that it includes virtually every

level of communication, from the interpersonal communication of e-mail and instant messaging to the mass communication of the World Wide Web.

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E-mail

Although its original purpose was the sharing of resources, the most important factor in the development of the Internet was el ectronic mail (e-mail), defined simply as a message sent from one computer user to another across a network. Primitive e-mail existed prior to the Internet, but people could send messages only to other users on the same physical computer. There was no way to send a message from one computer to another.

In 1972, ARPAnet’s Ray Tomlinson wrote a simple file-transfer program that could send a message from one system to another. 15 When the software that operated ARPAnet was updated, Tomlinson’s e-mail application was sent out over the Net so that everyone would have the same materials. Tomlinson also created the form of address using the @ symbol. It was a way of saying, “This is a message for a person ‘at’ a particular computer.” The other reason was that the @ symbol did not appear in users’ names or locations. It was the one symbol that meant what Tomlinson wanted it to mean and that was not already in use.16 Even with all the growth online communication has undergone throughout the decades, e-mail continues to be one of the most important online applications for the largest number of people, even if it isn’t as trendy as newer technologies.

E-mail can act as a vehicle for group as well as individual communication through the use of listservs. Listservs are Internet discussion groups that use e-mail to exchange messages between as few as a dozen people or as many as several thousand. A listserv subscriber sends a message to a central address, where it is duplicated and sent out to all the members of the group.17 The distinguishing characteristic of a listserv is that users must subscribe to the group. In some cases, it is limited to people who work in a particular office; in other cases,

anyone who is interested in the topic may join.

Instant Messaging and SMS

Interpersonal communication on the Internet has expanded beyond e-mail through a variety of texting and “chat” services accessed through mobile phones or other mobile devices. These originated with text messages that could be sent using Short Message Service, or SMS. The protocol for sending these messages over mobile networks first went online in 1992, and by 2010, it was the most widely used application on mobile phones.18 While SMS is convenient and can be used as a way of connecting to numerous social media networks, there are also alternative ways of sending instant messages, or ways of engaging in instantaneous communication with others over online and mobile networks. The granddaddy of these was AOL’s Instant Messenger (AIM). At one point in the 1990s, it seemed as though AIM was everywhere. But as the former dial- up Internet giant gradually lost relevance, it also neglected the development of its instant messaging (IM) product. In the late 2010s, the two most popular apps in this category belong to Facebook—Facebook Messenger and the globally popular WhatsApp.19 (You can read more about the rise and fall of AOL in Chapter 3.)

The World Wide Web

Until 1990, using the Internet for anything more than e-mail was a challenge. Information was scattered about in various places, with no easy way to access it. All that changed with the invention of the World Wide Web by British physicist Tim Berners-Lee. Berners-Lee, who built on the ideas of several Internet pioneers, created the software that allows the Internet to work as a medium of mass communication. He developed a system that is easy to use, allows users to access any type of information, and has a simplified single addressing system for accessing any document located on the Web anywhere in the world.

WEB

http://info.cern.ch/

AP/ Associated Press/ Elise Amendola

Tim Berners-Lee is the British physicist who created the World Wide Web software as a side project while working at the CERN high energy physics lab in Switzerland.

Visit the first World Wide Web site. CLICK TO SHOW

Predecessors of the Web. The idea of the Web dates back to the 1960s. In 1968, Stanford researcher Doug Engelbart staged a demonstration of his vision of an interactive computer. He used a pair of computer terminals in an “online” session that included word-processing documents, hypertext documents, and live video images (sent over closed-circuit analog lines). Engelbart was ahead of his time and largely ignored, but his work was the first expression of what would come with the Macintosh, Microsoft Windows, and videoconferencing.20

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Another early vision of the Web, more philosophical than technical, came from Ted Nelson. Nelson described a form of “nonsequential writing” that he called hypert ext—material formatted to contain links that allow the reader to move easily from one section to another and from document to document. The most commonly used hypertext documents are Web pages.

Tim Berners-Lee and the Birth of the World Wide Web. When Tim Berners-Lee was a child, his parents owned a Victorian-era advice book called Enquire Within Upon Everything. What would it be like, Berners-Lee wondered, if there really was a book that contained everything you might want to know? In 1980, he made his first attempt to create such a resource by writing a program called Enquire to organize documents, lists of people, and projects on his computer. The hypertext program would let him find and connect any of his documents. Although Enquire was limited to Berners-Lee’s computer, the young British physicist thought

http://info.cern.ch/

about the possibilities of the program extending beyond his own computer to every computer in the world:

Suppose all the information stored on computers everywhere were linked . . . Suppose I could program my computer to create a space in which anything could be linked to anything? All the bits of information in every computer . . . on the planet would be available to me and to anyone else. There would be a single, global information space.21

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch an interview with Tim Berners-Lee. CLICK TO SHOW

Berners-Lee was never asked to create the Web; he simply thought it would be a good idea for researchers to be able to find documents they needed regardless of which computer those documents resided on. In 1989, he returned to his Enquire idea and started writing the software for a system he called the Wor ld Wide Web, which allows users to view and link documents located anywhere in the world using standard software.

By 1990, the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), where Berners-Lee was working at the time, had the first Web server and a simple browser. (A Web server is a program that makes Web pages available on the Internet. A browser is a program for viewing Web pages.)

The World Wide Web has three major components:

1. The uniform resource locator (URL)—the address of content placed on the Web. An example is www.mysite.co m.

2. The hypertext transfer protocol (http)—the standard set of rules used by Web servers and browsers for sending and receiving text, graphics, or anything else on a Web site. When you type http://, you are telling your Web browser to use this protocol, or set of rules.

3. The hypertext markup language (HTML)—the programming language used to create Web pages. It consists of all the tags (brief computer commands) that

https://www.c-span.org/video/?152949-1/weaving-web

http://www.mysite.com

Zhang Peng/Getty Images

Mobile devices, such as the one being used by this Uygur woman in a Chinese bazaar, bring Internet access to developing areas without easy access to traditional computers.

say how text ought to be presented, where graphics should be placed, and what links should be included.

Although the Web has grown immensely in complexity since it was invented, these three basic elements remain central to how it operates.

Berners-Lee released the Web software in the summer of 1991 on several Internet newsgroups. These early users helped him test and debug the program and made suggestions for improvement, and the Web started spreading around the world.

Whereas Berners-Lee developed the Web on a NeXT computer system, the development of browsers for a wide range of computers was done on a volunteer basis by people around the world. These individuals were willing to share their work, but language barriers sometimes posed a problem. One of the early browsers had documentation only in Finnish. (You can read more about Steve Jobs and the NeXT computers in Chapter 3.)

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The most surprising thing about the World Wide Web may be that it was developed almost entirely as a collaborative, nonprofit venture. “What amazed me during the early days was the enormous amount of free energy that went into developing that technology,” says Michael Folk, one of the early Web developers. “People from all over the world contributed huge amounts of time and ideas in a surprisingly noncompetitive, collaborative way.”22

A Vision for the Web. Although the World Wide Web has grown far beyond what anyone could have imagined and has changed immeasurably, it is still shaped by the basic vision of Tim Berners-Lee. His goal was to create a completely

decentralized system for sharing information that would have no central hub. With no central control, the whole system could scale—that is, grow almost indefinitely—yet still work properly. Berners-Lee was looking for a system in which any computer could link to any other computer: “The power of a hypertext link is that it can link to absolutely anything. That’s the fundamental concept.”23

The success of the World Wide Web illustrates one of the major strengths of the Internet: Although users can buy a Web browser or Web server, the basic technology is free. According to Dave Walden, who worked on the original ARPAnet software,

[Berners-Lee] brought out something, he gave it to a few of his friends, they tried it, they saw that it was good, and he gave it away. It went all over the world. That’s how the World Wide Web standard came on the world.24

WEB The World Wide Web turned 25 in 2014. How well is it a ging? CLICK TO SHOW

The next time you go surfing on the Web, look for evidence of the principles—openness and accessibility—on which it is based:

• Information of all kinds should be available through the same window, or information space. This means that you don’t have to use one program to look up phone numbers and another to find the news.

• All documents on the Web must be equally accessible. • There must be a single address that will take users to a

document.

• Users should be able to link to any document at any space. • Users should be able to access any type of material from

any type of computer.

• Users should be able to create whatever types of relationships between information that they want to. It should be possible to link a document to any other document.

http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/02/27/the-web-at-25-in-the-u-s/

• The Web should be a tool not just for information, but also for collaboration. It is designed for interaction, as well as publication.

• There is no central control of the Web. • The Web software should be available free to anyone who

wants to use it.

Bringing the Net to the Public. Before 1993, the Internet and the World Wide Web belonged primarily to university and military personnel who had used ARPAnet. But in his history of the Internet, Nerds 2.0.1, Stephen Segaller notes that three things happened during the early 1990s to turn the Internet into a significant social force: The World Wide Web code was posted to the Internet, commercial users were allowed onto the Net for the first time, and the first easy-to-use graphical Web browser was written and posted to the Net. With these changes, the Internet outgrew its military and research origins and became a public medium.

Mosaic. Although Berners-Lee had created a browser as part of the original World Wide Web, it was limited in terms of the computers it would run on, and it could not display anything other than text. Mosaic, the first easy-to-use graphical Web browser, was created by a group of student programmers led by Marc Andreessen at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. The developers wanted to create a tool that would make it easier to find things on the Internet and that would provide an incentive to put information on the Web. As with the original Web software, Mosaic was posted on the Internet, free for users to download. More than one million users downloaded Mosaic in 1993 (the year it was released), and Andreessen, then twenty-one and a graduate, founded Netscape Communications.25

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Search as a Medium

The question of whether the Internet’s search capability is a news medium is significant because various governments

Bloomberg/Getty Images

What’s the first thing we do when we wake up? For many of us, it involves checking our phone and clicking through Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and maybe even Snapchat.

around the world want to put limits on Internet searching. And companies such as Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo all seem willing to build limits into their portals as part of the price of doing business in countries that have more restrictions on free speech than the United States. Sometimes the censorship of searches is relatively noncontroversial, such as France’s attempts to make Yahoo filter out all references to Nazi paraphernalia.26 But the collaboration of the search companies with the Chinese government has started to raise major questions in the United States. Yahoo gave up the name of blogger Zhao Jing to the Chinese government after the government required the company to do so. Yahoo defended its actions by saying that it had no choice but to comply with local law.27 Yahoo also says that the Chinese are better served by a censored Internet than by no Internet at all. Google, which operates with the unofficial motto of “Don’t be evil,” censors its searches in China, but the company does inform users that it has removed items from their searches.

WEB Read Zhao Jing’s full story. CLICK TO SHOW

Mobile Apps

Back in 2010, Wired magazine ran a bright red cover with large black type proclaiming “The Web Is Dead.” Chris Anderson, the same man who is responsible for the book The Long Tail, was arguing that the age of open-standard Web pages was on the decline, leading the way to going online with specialized mobile apps. He wrote:

You wake up and check your email on your bedside iPad—

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/06/05/link-ch-10-zhao-jing-blogging-in-china/

that’s one app. During breakfast you browse Facebook, Twitter, and The New York Times—three more apps. On the way to the office, you listen to a podcast on your smartphone. Another app. . . . At the end of the day, you come home, make dinner while listening to Pandora, play some games on Xbox Live, and watch a movie on Netflix’s streaming service.

You’ve spent the day on the Internet—but not on the Web.28

Video Case 10.1: Technology of kitchen appliances.

Now, in the second half of the decade, some of what Anderson predicted has come true. Apps are a big part of how we interact online. Especially a few apps like Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat — our social media. On the other hand, much of our interaction online is done through the mobile Web—scaled-back versions of Web sites designed to work on everything from a nine-inch iPad screen, to a giant seven-inch Samsung phone,



down to the smallest four-inch smartphone.

Apps are clearly important, but they aren’t necessarily an either/or proposition with the Web. The Pew Research Center’s “State of the News Media 2016” report notes that all forty of the top digital news sites have Facebook pages and Twitter feeds. But each of those social media channels typically accessed through apps post numerous links to Web pages.29

What there can be no doubt about is that mobile devices are becoming the dominant way of going online. Just look at the digital offerings of a wide range of news outlets. In 2015, of the top fifty newspapers, forty-four had more mobile traffic than desktop computers; of the top national TV news outlets, all eight of eight had more mobile than desktop traffic, and for the top forty digital native publishers (those that don’t have a legacy media component), thirty-eight had more mobile traffic.30

Blogs

When Tim Berners-Lee created the World Wide Web, he viewed it not just as a convenient and inexpensive place to access published materials, but also as a forum where people could interact and create their own materials. “We ought to be able not only to find any kind of document on the Web, but also to create any kind of document, easily,” he wrote in his history of the Web. “We should be able not only to follow links, but to create them— between all sorts of media. We should be able not only to interact with other people, but to create with other people.”31

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS GOING MOBILE he World Wide Web, which even in the age of mobile apps is

T still a major part of how we go online, turned twenty-five

years old in 2014. And over that time, our access to computers and computer-based media has changed dramatically. If we go back to 1983 in the years

before the World Wide Web, a Harris poll found that 10 percent of adults had a home computer and that 14 percent of that small number had a modem to go online using a slow landline phone connection. (If you solve out that story problem, you find that 1.4 percent of American adults were online that year.) Tim Berners-Lee launched the earliest version of the Web in 1989, and by 1995, 14 percent of American adults had Internet access, primarily using dial-up. But perhaps more significantly, 42 percent of Americans had not even heard of the Internet.45

By the year 2000, 37 percent of us were online, but only 3 percent had the fast, always-on broadband connection. Bro adband service, such as a cable modem from a cable television provider or a digital subscriber line (DSL) from a phone company, offers connections that are many times faster than dial-up service. But broadband offers more than just increased connection speed. With a broadband connection, subscribers are connected to the Net whenever their computer is turned on. This means that they don’t have to download their e-mail; it’s always there. It means that things such as online radio, instant messaging, and streaming video are easily accessible.

By 2016, 84 percent of American adults were using the Internet in one way or another. But it’s that “another” that is transformative. More than two-thirds of Americans (68 percent) go online with mobile devices like smartphones or tablets. Beyond that, one-third of all cell phone owners say their mobile device is their primary way of going online. And in its own way, the move to mobile connectivity is just as revolutionary as the move from dial-up to broadband. For while broadband gave us “always on” connections, mobile Internet gives us “anytime-anywhere” access to information.4 6

HOW many ways do you have to connect to the Internet? What are they?

HOW long can you last without going online?

DO you have a smartphone or tablet? what do you use it for?

IF you do have a mobile device, how is working with it different from using a laptop or desktop computer?

WEB Read about how social and mobile technology have tran sformed our online experience CLICK TO SHOW

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SECRET 2 Blogs are in many ways a throwback to the early days of magazine publishing, when authors wrote without expecting to be paid. While there are subsidized blogs,

http://www.pewinternet.org/three-technology-revolutions/

Blogs have exploded in popularity in recent years, allowing anyone with a computer and an Internet connection to publish his or her thoughts on virtually any subject. (This includes the author of this text, at http://ralphehanson.com.)

the vast majority are run simply to give the writers a forum.32

I made the case earlier in this book that blogs can be almost as mainstream as what we consider to be the mainstream media. (Remember Secret 2—There are no mainstream media.) One test of the importance of a news source is whether it is included in the LexisNexis online news database. LexisNexis is part of a giant subscription service that gives clients access to the full text of major newspapers, magazines, financial reports, and court documents. As of 2006, LexisNexis started including text from selected blogs, including the political gossip site Wonkette.

Berners-Lee’s original idea was that every Web browser would also be an editor that ordinary people could use to create content as well as to view it—a vision that the early Web browsers did not support. But the late 1990s brought a new development called the Weblog (or blog for short), which is a collection of links and commentary in hypertext that can be created and posted on the Internet with relatively little effort. Blogs can be public diaries, collections of photos, or commentaries on the news. They often also allow readers to comment on and annotate what the owner has posted.

A prominent example of the influence of bloggers came when Dan Rather, on the CBS newsmagazine 60 Minutes II, reported on a set of memos that seemed to show that President George W. Bush’s superior officer had been critical of his service in the Air National Guard. The story ran a couple of months before the 2004 election, and it drew immediate criticism from the conservative blogs Power Line and Little Green Footballs. The

http://ralphehanson.com

bloggers pointed out inconsistencies in the typefaces used in the memos, suggesting that they looked more like the product of a modern word processor than that of a 1970s vintage typewriter. They also raised questions about the motives and honesty of the source of the documents. Criticisms coming from these and other blogs led to Rather stepping down as the anchor of the CBS Evening News.33 Blogs have also given readers different perspectives on stories than they might receive otherwise. Army Spc. Colby Buzzell came to national attention when he blogged about fighting in a battle at Mosul, Iraq, in August 2004.34 After he returned home, he published articles in Esquire and wrote a book titled My War. British writer Julia Darling—poet, playwright, fiction writer, and the winner of the Northern Rock Foundation Writer’s Award, one of the United Kingdom’s largest literary prizes—blogged about her life as she battled cancer. From 2002 until her death in 2005, Darling wrote about writing, her students, and how cancer can be a “pain in the arse.”35 Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban uses his blog to comment on the news and as a way to respond to his critics and those who report on him. But he also writes about digital music and the RIAA (the Recording Industry Association of America)—not surprisingly, given his background in the high- tech industry.36 He also uses his blog to speak out on issues as diverse as capital punishment and pay for interns.

Podcasts and Streaming Media

The Internet, through blogs, podcasts, and user-video sites such as YouTube, has opened up the options for long-tail news that doesn’t get out through legacy (or mainstream) channels. Take the concept of citizen journalism. Often when we talk about citizen journalism, we’re talking about a newspaper-like blog that posts reports about hyperlocal issues, such as neighborhood events or elementary school sports. These provide valuable alternatives to stories carried in traditional newspapers or on local television news. But they have more in common with the old-time community newspapers that ran stories about who-had-dinner-with-whom than with cutting- edge journalism.

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But news video posted through sites such as YouTube can lead to amateur cell phone video having international implications. Following the disputed elections in Iran during the summer of 2009, a large number of protesters took to the streets. These protests were suppressed by police, who did not allow journalists to cover the events taking place. But that didn’t stop people from shooting cell phone video and then posting it to the Internet.

One of the most dramatic examples of this was the news about the murder of Neda Agha-Soltan, a twenty-six-year-old Iranian woman who was studying philosophy and vocal music. Though accurate details about Agha-Soltan are scarce, the New York Times reported that she was engaged, valued freedom, and was killed while stopping to get some fresh air after driving home from a singing lesson.37 When she got out of the car near where protesters were marching, she was shot by a sniper. Her death was captured on cell phone video. The person who captured the video e-mailed it to a friend, who then forwarded it to the Voice of America, the British newspaper the Guardian, and several other friends. One of those friends, who lives in the Netherlands, posted the video to Facebook. From there, it moved on to a report on CNN.38 All of this allowed the person who shot the video to bypass official Iranian censorship efforts to block Internet, cell phone, and text message traffic.39

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch video of Neda Agha-Soltan and read more about h er case. CLICK TO SHOW

The first use of the Internet by the movie industry was to promote films through brochure-like Web pages. Then came The Blair Witch Project, which showed how interaction on the Web could draw in viewers (see Chapter 8). But this has evolved into the Internet being used as the screening venue for short films. But now film sites on the Web have become the minor leagues of the movie and television industry. Aspiring filmmakers first establish themselves with a short, low-cost Internet film in the hope that someone in the industry will notice them.40 Of course, on user-generated content sites, such as YouTube, the short films can be beyond low budget.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/06/05/1691/

Another thing the Internet can do is air films that may be too avant-garde for conventional media. The Web site UbuWeb, for example, is a repository of a wide range of avant-garde and experimental films, interviews, and e-books. According to Dave Garrett, who broke into Hollywood with an Internet film about elderly women playing Russian roulette,

The Internet is not the place to look for mainstream fare; that’s something you can find on television or at the movies. Our film was perfect for the Internet. You couldn’t see it on TV because it had old women shooting themselves.41

But, of course, as we discussed in Chapter 9, online is definitely the place for watching mainstream television and movie programming from services such as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime. Programs can be had through streaming video podcasts and digital downloads of movies and television shows through online services such as iTunes or Amazon.com. From there, users can view their video on computers, smartphones, tablets, or smart televisions. Back in 2000, Martin French, who worked for the Internet film site MeTV, put it this way: “Let’s be honest, nobody wants to sit in front of the PC and [watch movies]. It’s not a comfortable position.”42 Obviously, people are willing to view video on their computers, tablets, and even smartphones. It is true that alternative devices have gotten better, but there is an ongoing cultural change on how people view video.

Social Media: Sharing Our Lives Online

SECRET 1 Like so much of the media, social networks (also known as social media) are a central part of how we live (remember Secret 1—The media are essential components of our lives). While time and distance used to be barriers to communication, these can now be crossed with relative ease if you have access to some basic online technology, whether through desktop computers or mobile devices. We think of mobile phones as a transformational technology, but the social networks we can access through these phones can transform things even further.

http://Amazon.com

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

How many different social media accounts do you have? Whom are they with? With whom do you communicate using social media? Do you ever think you share too much through social media? Why or why not?’

WEB Working with social media CLICK TO SHOW

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What Makes Media Social?

What is a social network? According to researchers M. Chethan and Mohan Ramanathan, “Social networks connect individuals or groups over a common platform. Once connected, the human tendency to share information or chat (talk?) trivia becomes the driving force, creating a mind-boggling amount of information and traffic.”43 What do social media have that makes them social? Chethan and Ramanathan write that there are five basic characteristics that make social media social:

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http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/09/15/working-with-social-media/

Video Case 10.2: Watch a news clip about Facebook's reaction emojis

• User-created generated content—Social networks aren’t Web sites where you go just to consume content; you go there to create it. This content can include written words, photos, podcasts, and streaming audio and video.

• Comments—The communication doesn’t just flow from one creator to other consumers. Everyone who is active on the social network is commenting on what others are posting. This interaction can range from extensive online debates to things as simple as “liking” a photo on Facebook.

• Tagging—People tag, or mark, photos and text in which they are featured. They can also tag ideas or keywords within their posts, such as the “hashtags” in Twitter.

• Social networking—People are able to share what they post online with groups of friends or like-minded people. These can be groups of friends on Facebook, “circles” on Google+, or followers on the simple blogging service Tumblr.

• Customization—People can make their social network pages unique. For example, on your Facebook page, you get to choose a small profile photo and a larger “cover” photo. On your Twitter page, you get a small “avatar” image, and you can set the colors and background.

Among the most popular social networks are Facebook, the giant of the field; microblogging site Twitter; the professionally oriented LinkedIn; and pinboard site Pinterest. A 2016 study of teen social media use found that Snapchat was the most popular social network at 28 percent, followed closely by photo-sharing service Instagram at 27 percent. Unsurprisingly, the study found that teens are more interested in sharing photos and video than text.44

WEB Social media usage 2005-2015. CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/08/social-networking-usage-2005-2015/

Al Drago/Getty Images

Sen. Steve Daines, R-Mont., shows off his Snapchat account to volunteers at the campaign headquarters of Republican presidential candidate Sen. Marco Rubio.

Bloomberg/Getty Images

In 2016, Facebook announced

While we often think about social media as being primarily for recreational or social purposes, they can also be used by businesses and organizations for collaboration, public relations, and crowdsourcing—a fancy term for getting other people to do your homework.

The big shift in social networking currently is the move to mobile platforms, whether those be smartphones, tablets, or small media devices such as the iPod touch.

Who Are Our Social Media?

Facebook. As anyone who has seen the movie The Social Network knows, Mark Zuckerberg created Facebook while he was a student at Harvard back in 2004. As a child, Zuckerberg created a simple messaging program that solved the problem of how his father’s front office could announce that a dental patient had arrived. Instead of playing computer games, he created them, according to a profile of him that ran in the New Yorker.

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While there is controversy as to who developed the idea of Facebook, there can be little doubt that Zuckerberg turned the concept into an incredibly popular tool for communicating with friends. He told journalist Jose Antonio Vargas (whom we will talk about further in Chapter 14) that when he was in college, he and his friends

that 1 billion people are using Messenger each month. The app that everyone hated when it was announced in 2014 is now one of the most used messaging platforms.

would speculate about how people would use the Internet. “We’d say, ‘Isn’t it obvious that everyone was going to be on the Internet?’” he said. “‘Isn’t it, like, inevitable that there would be a giant social network of people?’ It was something that we expected to happen.”47 As of 2016, more than 72 percent of the American adults who were online were on Facebook, and more than 1.65 billion people were active on Facebook worldwide, making it far and away the biggest social network.48 Facebook differs from much of the Web and has more in common with the old AOL than with the Web in general. It is a “walled garden” where people can play games, share articles, and post cute videos of cats. Central to Facebook is the idea that advertisers will be able to reach exactly the consumers that they want to based on information people have shared on Facebook. I can’t be certain, but I’m pretty suspicious that the ad offering a good deal on the Blu-ray set of the Alien movies was targeted at people like me who are tagged as fans of director Ridley Scott. In any event, the ad worked. I ordered the set.

Twitter. In 2006, three college dropouts developed Twitter, a medium that combines elements of mobile text messaging, online instant messaging, and a good dose of blogging. By 2016, it had more than 310 million people answering the question, “What are you doing?” in 140 characters or less.49 Evan Williams, Jack Dorsey, and Biz Stone started the microblogging Twitter service as a project while they were working for the podcasting company Odeo.50 Twitter is designed to let people communicate with their friends, family, and coworkers using messages no longer than 140 characters. The little messages, known as tweets, can be delivered to your friends, your acquaintances, or anyone in the world who can be bothered to read them. You can send and receive tweets as e-mails, on Facebook, through a widget on a Web page, or on your cell phone as text messages.

WEB Twitter feeds to follow. CLICK TO SHOW

Social networking expert Clay Shirky told NPR’s On the Media

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/01/12/some-great-twitter-feeds/

http://www.flickr.com/photos/jackdorsey/182613360/

Jack Dorsey’s original sketch of what would become Twitter. In this version, he called it stat.us.

that the 140-character limit of Twitter is essential to its success:

There’s a certain relief . . . in being forced to write in short form. When you’re writing an email . . . you can end up agonizing over it and so forth. But if you can only say one thing, if you can only, you know, manage a sentence or even a sentence fragment, it really makes you concentrate on what it is you’re wanting to say.51

Although much of Twitter’s content is made up of reports of ordinary daily activities, it can move beyond the mundane. During the 2008 terror attacks in Mumbai, India, much of the news coming out of the country was through social networking tools such as Twitter. For many people, this was their first exposure to Twitter.52

WEB Who plays video game s? CLICK TO SHOW

Technology consultant Charlene Li told the Sunday Times of London that Twitter can be valuable to businesses because they can use it to set up a two-way relationship with their customers, creating a sense of interaction. At a time when many consumers decide not to watch television commercials by fast-forwarding through them using their DVRs, they are still willing to receive messages such as electronic coupons. “Twitter is a great platform to push out those messages,” Li said. “I don’t mind Starbucks making an announcement on my Twitter page but I don’t want them in my inbox.”53

Video Games as Mass Communication

In my own media literacy class, I used to raise the question as to

http://stat.us

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/06/05/link-ch-10-who-plays-video-games/

whether video games and video game consoles count as mass communication and whether they are a new mass medium. I think the answer is a definite yes, for a number of reasons54:

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY HOW MUCH PRIVACY DO YOU HAVE WITH YOUR SOCIAL MEDIA ACCOUNTS?

he point of having social media accounts such as Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and the like is to be able to share aspects of your life with your friends and the

rest of the world.

Which is fine when you are going out to dinner with your parents or working on a class project.

But what about when you are sharing pictures of the party you went to last night? The party where you were drinking and you are under age? The party that violated the rules of your athletic scholarship? The photo that shows you passed out as an example of how you acted in college five years ago might be one that an employer wants to look at today.

There’s been considerable talk lately about how much privacy you actually have with your social media. Start with the notion that anything that you don’t make private is by definition public. So anything that you post to social media that you don’t hide can be seen by everyone. Including your parents, your future employers, reporters, and the police.

Now that more and more adults are on social media, are you prepared to be friends with your parents? Your uncle? Your grandmother? Rebecca S. Fahrlander, writing in the Washington Post, said:

Social media is supposed to unite people by fostering

regular communication across generations and distance. But it can also divide families by making relatives more aware of differences and stirring up fights, as when several relatives argue over another’s stream of postings from a politician’s Web site, asking for support. . . .

Social media can also blur relatives’ roles. For example, a grandmother’s role in a family member’s life is different from that of a friend, but that distinction gets lost on social media. . . . Having Grandma on Facebook is sort of like taking Grandma to your fraternity party.1

With your relatives, you are presumably letting them into your account voluntarily, but what about being forced to grant access to your social media account to others? Consider the following:

• A Minnesota middle school girl says she was forced to reveal her Facebook password to police and school officials.

• Government agencies and colleges are asking for applicants’ Facebook passwords.

• Student athletes are being forced to “friend” coaches if they want to stay on the team.

• Revolutionaries in the Middle East are being forced to give up social media passwords upon arrest.2

Who is the source? What social media accounts do you have? Are you on Facebook? Twitter? LinkedIn? Snapchat? Instagram? Pinterest? Any others?

What are they saying? What do you have posted there? What kind of pictures? Personal information? Comments or status updates?

What evidence is there? What would your friends be able to see about you? What would someone who is not your “friend” see? If an employer, your parents, the police, a reporter, or a potential date were to look you up online, what would they learn about you? Would letting them “friend” you change what they would find?

What do you and your friends think about this? 1. Do you think that it’s an invasion of your privacy to have

someone investigate you online without your permission? Why or why not?

2. What would you look for if you were investigating someone online?

3. How would you feel about being asked to let an employer, coach, teacher, or the like into your accounts? Why do you feel that way?

4. Are you friends with older relatives? How does that shape what you do or do not post?

5. Can anything you put online be considered private? Why or why not?

6. What have you done to protect the image of your profile online?

1Rebecca S. Fahrlander, “Go Ahead, Get Grandma Out of Your Feed,” The Washington Post, May 15, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/u nfriending-your-family/2015/05/15/f3b3463e-dca7-11e4-be40-566e2653afe 5_story.html?hpid=z2.

2Bob Sullivan, “Up Against the Wall! Should District Be Allowed to Demand Middle-Schooler’s Facebook Password?” MSNBC, March 13, 2012, http://www. nbcrightnow.com/story/17146660/up-against-the-wall-should-district-be-allo wed-to-demand-middle-schoolers-facebook-password; Bob Sullivan, “Govt. Agencies, Colleges Demand Applicants’ Facebook Passwords,” MSNBC, March 6, 2012, redtape.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/03/06/10585353-govt- agencies-colleges-demand-applicants-facebook-passwords; Kashmir Hill, “Hey Teacher (And Employer), Leave Those Facebook Passwords Alone,” Forbes, March 7, 2012, www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/03/07/hey-teacher-a nd-employer-leave-those-facebook-passwords-alone/; “Watch What You Type:

https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/unfriending-your-family/2015/05/15/f3b3463e-dca7-11e4-be40-566e2653afe5_story.html?hpid=z2

http://www.nbcrightnow.com/story/17146660/up-against-the-wall-should-district-be-allowed-to-demand-middle-schoolers-facebook-password

http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/03/07/hey-teacher-and-employer-leave-those-facebook-passwords-alone/

Social Media a Tool for Revolutionaries, and Increasingly, for Security Agencies,” Knowledge @ Wharton, March 5, 2012, knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/arabic/article.cfm? articleid=2793&language_id=1.

WEB Read articles on social media privacy invasion. CLICK TO SHOW

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• Video game consoles are media content delivery devices. The PlayStation 2 was a DVD player as well as a game console, and the PlayStation 3 was among the early Blu-ray players. Microsoft’s Xbox One is now pitching itself as a general-purpose media entertainment hub that can be used to stream television programs and movies, play video games, and stream video game play back onto the Internet. 55 Video games, like television shows or movies, have stars. They have mascots. The most prominent of these is Super Mario, who has been a force in the gaming world for Nintendo since 1981, but the list also includes characters such as Sonic the Hedgehog for Sega, Pokémon’s Pikachu, and Halo’s Master Chief for the Microsoft Xbox.

• Video games are a new venue for advertising. Just like newspapers, magazines, and Web sites are funded by ad revenue, many game publishers are turning to the advertising world to help manage costs. Companies such as IGA Worldwide are devoted entirely to securing deals for companies to advertise in games, which have a near- perfect saturation in the eighteen- to thirty-four age market. When Barack Obama was making his first run for the presidency back in 2008, he advertised in video games —the first presidential candidate ever to do so.56 Video games, now more than ever, are the site of entire communities. One needs only to look to online-specific games, such as World of Warcraft, or to online versions of console games, such as the Halo or Call of Duty series. The concept of online communities has become commonplace today. Now, instead of gathering around the water cooler to discuss the latest news or entertainment item, people are using Bluetooth headsets to talk to friends and family

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/16/link-ch-10-who-has-the-rights-to-your-social-media/

PG/Bauer-Griffin/Getty Images

Pokémon Go, the augmented reality game, became the most downloaded mobile app in its first week of release in the history of the App Store. Since then, the app has been downloaded 100 million times on Android and iOS (combined) and generates about $10 million in revenue each day.

while playing capture the flag or fighting bosses to help their character rise to the next level.57

• Video games can be more profitable than the movies. In the summer of 2008, the controversial video game Grand Theft Auto IV was released at about the same time as the hit movie Iron Man. In its first two weeks of release, Iron Man grossed approximately $200 million, whereas Grand Theft Auto IV grossed $500 million over the same amount of time.58 In 2015, the movie industry had a record year when it came to total box office dollars, hitting more than $11 billion for the North American market. This was a year with really big movies being released, including Jurassic World, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens. But video game software sales were $16.5 billion for the U.S. market. And that’s not including system sales—just the games themselves. Total video game revenue topped $23 billion. (As Fortune magazine notes, while sales of games systems are important, software sales are considered the best measure of success in the gaming industry.)59

• Video games are protected by the First Amendment. A U.S. Supreme Court ruling in 2011 determined that states cannot pass laws that restrict the sale of video games to minors. (This does not, however, limit the right of the industry to set standards for who can buy which games.) The case Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association struck down a California law that prohibited the sale of video games to minors that depict “killing, maiming,

dismembering or sexually assaulting an image of a human being.”60 The opinion from conservative justice Antonin Scalia states that while these games may be disgusting, “disgust is not a valid basis for restricting expression.”

Given all this, it’s hard not to see video games as a mass medium or a form of mass communication. According to the Pew Research Center, 97 percent of teens aged twelve to seventeen play video games in one form or another, with fully 50 percent reporting having played “yesterday.” Of those who play video games, 86 percent play on consoles, 73 percent play on computers, and 60 percent play on portable game systems.61 Among adults aged eighteen and older, 53 percent play video games, and 21 percent play daily. Computers are the most popular place for older users to play video games; consoles are more common among younger players.62

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Video Games as a Spectator Sport

Video games are no longer just something you play. They are now a legitimate spectator sport. Back in the summer of 2014, a fish named Grayson captured the attention of gaming fans nationwide by playing the video games Pokémon Red and Blue on a Game Boy emulator using a motion sensor aimed at his fish tank. That a pair of technically oriented college students in New York would rig some equipment to allow their fish to randomly play a video game is not surprising. The fact that as many as twenty-two thousand people at a time would watch the fish play Pokémon using the video game streaming service Twitch is kind of amazing.63

WEB Read and watch more about Pokémon Go. CLICK TO SHOW

Catherine Moresco and Patrick Facheris, Grayson’s owners, were likely inspired by the efforts of an anonymous Australian gamer who rigged the fifteen-year-old Game Boy game Pokémon Red to be played by the inhabitants of the stream’s

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2016/07/18/north-to-the-yukon-gotta-catch-em-all/

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Before you read this chapter, would you have considered video games to be a form of mass communication? Why or why not? In your mind, what does or does not make video games a mass medium?

chat room. At its peak, as many as seventy-five thousand people at a time were inputting controller commands with text comments. The stream differs from most of the video game viewing that takes place on Twitch because it combines the sport of watching someone play a video game on Twitch.tv with actually participating in the progress of the game.64 Streaming video games seems, on the surface, relatively straightforward, but the legal complications are . . . complicated.

After some initial uncertainty, video game manufacturers have gotten on board with their games being streamed and viewed. In fact, the latest consoles from Sony and Xbox (Microsoft) are designed to stream on Twitch. But the music contained within the video games, along with music the player or streamer might be listening to, is not licensed. For example, the music that plays on the radio station in the car within the Grand Theft Auto games is licensed for use in the game, but may not be legal for use over streaming video.65 This problem of unlicensed music leads to the audio for the game recordings being automatically blocked by software looking for violations, in much the same way that content gets blocked on YouTube. The problem is that the same sound blocking that cuts out the music also gets rid of all the video game sounds. Oddly enough, this is only an issue on videos that have been recorded and stored on Twitch’s servers, not the music that comes up on live streams.

In May 2014, stories originating in the entertainment press came out saying that Google was preparing to buy video game streaming service Twitch, but in the end, online retail giant Amazon bought the company for $970 million.66 The streaming service Twitch was founded in 2011 as an outgrowth of the live-streaming video site Justin.tv, and it now has more than one hundred million unique viewers per month, along with more than 1.7 million unique broadcasters.67 Amazon’s purchase of the video game streaming service is part of its larger commitment to gaming. It

http://Twitch.tv

http://Justin.tv

has an in-house gaming studio, and is one of the largest video game vendors in the world. (Note that while Amazon paid close to $1 billion for Twitch, legacy news provider the Washington Post sold for only $250 million to Amazon founder Jeff Bezos.)

SECRET 3 Broadcast of live video game play isn’t limited to long-tail channels like Twitch, however. In 2016, for the second year in a row, cable giant ESPN skipped showing traditional physical sports during prime time on an April Sunday night. Instead of showing an NBA game, viewers instead watched ten college students competing in the Grand Final round of the Heroes of the Dorm tournament, playing for a chance at free college tuition. The tournament began with more than four hundred teams from universities across the country, and ended with students from Arizona State winning up to $75,000 each in tuition for the rest of their college careers. ESPN is interested in getting some of the attention Twitch is getting with the broadcast of eSports (that is, organized team competition in video games for spectators), thus illustrating Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.68

Diversity and Representation in Video Games

Video games have traditionally not been a hot spot for representational diversity. The characters in games are typically portrayed as white, male heterosexuals (to the degree that sexuality enters into gaming characters). A 2015 study by media research company Nielsen (the folks who do the television ratings) found that lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT) and Asian American gamers feel that they have limited opportunities to create game characters who represent them in real life (IRL).6 9

AUDIO Listen to a discussion about diversity in video games. CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.npr.org/2015/01/16/377756754/diversity-in-video-games

The Sims 4

The Sims 4, the latest installment of EA’s simulation game, introduced a new update that allows unprecedented gender customization options. Players can now create avatar characters with any type of physique, walk style, tone of voice, and then accessorize them in any way they choose— regardless of gender.

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Among LGBT gamers, 65 percent do not feel that all sexual orientations are given adequate opportunity for representation, while only 28 percent of heterosexual gamers feel that opportunity is lacking. Asian American gamers are much more likely to feel video game characters are not inclusive than are Hispanic, African American, and non-Hispanic whites.

Interestingly enough, LGBT consumers are slightly more likely to play video games than are heterosexual consumers, and Asian American consumers are more likely to game than all other ethnicities. For the percentages of various populations who play video games, see T able 10.1.

There are, of course, games that are exceptions. The Xbox series Saints Row has in some editions of the game allowed for a wide range of body diversity, including extensive variation in body weight and level of masculinity and femininity. Comic artist Kiva Bay, an obese woman who has a nonbinary approach to gender identity, writes that having the opportunity to truly create a character in an open-world game who really represented her was liberating and life affirming. She writes, “In Saints Row 2, I am not a hero. But I am me. . . . And that’s a powerful feeling that I should get to have more often.”70

One game that has engendered a high level of controversy is the survival game Rust. The game has always randomized character features such as skin color, limb length, and other characteristics we won’t get into here. All of the characters in the game, however, were male. That is, they were up until the spring of 2016 when the game designers gave many players a

female avatar to play with, whether they wanted the gender swap or not.

Developers Garry Newman and Taylor Reynolds addressed the sometimes ugly complaints about the gender swap on their blog:

We understand that this is a sore subject for a lot of people. We understand that you may now be a gender that you don’t identify with in real-life. We understand that this causes you distress and makes you not want to play the game anymore. Technically nothing has changed, since half the population was already living with those feelings. The only difference is that whether you feel like this now is decided by your [game ID] instead of your real life gender.71

(We’ll talk more about gender and online conflict in Chapter 14.)

TABLE 10.1

Percentage of Consumers Who Play Video Games

Source: “How Diverse Are Video Gamers—and the Characters They Play?” Nielsen, March 24, 2015, http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/how-diverse- are-video-gamers-and-the-characters-they-play.html.

The Internet and Society

Despite having its roots in the world of military research, the Internet works primarily to permit the independent use of computers. The earliest users of time-sharing computer systems, in which several people on separate terminals could share a single computer, started seeing these large institutional computers as “theirs.” Stewart Brand, author of the Whole Earth Catalog, said that users soon began to understand how they could use computers for their own purposes:

Kennedy had said, “Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask rather what you can do for your country.” . . . Basically we were saying, “Ask not what your country can do for you. Do it yourself.” You just tried stuff and you did it yourself. You didn’t ask permission.72

Courtesy of O’Reilly Media

Author and journalist Steven Levy laid out the principles of hacker culture in his 1984 book Hackers, written years before the Internet became a popular mass medium.

This would become the rallying cry of the Internet: Take control of it for yourself. This attitude sent shock waves throughout the media industry because it transformed the model of mass communication from one in which a minimal number of producers delivered news, entertainment, and culture to a public whose choices were limited. Instead it became one in which consumers can choose for themselves what news they want to learn about, what movies they want to see, what music they will listen to, and when they will do so.

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This environment of uncontrolled information is not all bliss, however. Some critics point out that the same giant media companies that dominated the older forms of media produce much of the content available on the Internet. Others complain that information on the Internet is uncontrolled, unreliable, and often unsuitable for young people to view.

The Hacker Ethic

As a young man, Steve Jobs saw programming computers as a way of rebelling against and controlling an increasingly technological world. Jobs and Steve Wozniak, the cofounders of Apple, built electronic “blue boxes” that let them place long-distance phone calls for free by bypassing AT&T’s control system. Beyond allowing the two to steal phone service and play an occasional prank, the boxes taught Jobs that technology could empower individuals:

What we learned was that we could build something ourselves that could control billions of dollars’ worth of infrastructure in the world. . . . We could build a little thing that could control a giant thing. That was an incredible lesson.73

Jobs’s attitude embodied what is known as the hacker ethic. The ethic is summed up in Steven Levy’s book Hackers, originally published in 1984, before the Internet was a public medium and before many of the major Internet tools, most notably the World Wide Web, had been developed. (Levy uses the term hackers to refer to people who like programming computers and using them to their fullest potential. He prefers using digital trespassers to refer to people who break into institutional computers. It appears, however, that many of the “true” hackers are often also digital trespassers.)

Video Case 10.3: Department of Defense and hackers.

SECRET 3 Understanding the hacker ethic is critical to

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understanding the development of the Internet because its values shaped so many of the new medium’s developers. Levy lists four key principles of the hacker ethic:74

1. “Access to computers—and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total.” Hackers want to obtain programs, data, and computers, and they do not respect rules that keep them from these tools. They believe that they should be able to directly control any computer system they can find; what’s more, they believe that they can probably do a better job of running the system than the people who own it.

2. “All information wants to be free.” This translates into a disregard for copyright law. Hackers believe that all information should be available to anyone who wants to make use of it. This was at the heart of file-sharing pioneer Napster and user-video site YouTube. If you have music, photographs, artwork, writings, or programs on your hard drive, why shouldn’t you be able to share them? And if those same things exist on other computers, why shouldn’t you be able to access them? This idea of universally shared information is at the heart of Berners- Lee’s design of the World Wide Web. The problem, as the Napster and YouTube cases show, remains how the creators of these works are going to be paid for the digital copies that users share. Ironically, Levy got a taste of the “information wants to be free” movement in 2001, when he found the entire text of his book Hackers posted on a Web site at Stanford University.

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3. “Mistrust authority—promote decentralization.” The hacker culture distrusts centralized bureaucratic authority. Bureaucracies hide information and make rules controlling who can have access to it. So the best way to keep information free is to keep it out in the open.

4. You should be judged by your skills and not by “bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position.” On the Internet, traditional measures of individuals, such as age, education, sex, or income, matter less than they do under most other conditions because people are able to create identities for themselves that may or may not

correspond with their actual identities. In essence, this is an extension of the multiple roles and identities people have always had. You can simultaneously be a teacher, a parent, a spouse, and a child. On the Internet, users can further extend their identities, changing their sex, race, and background. On a listserv or newsgroup, people can construct entirely new identities for themselves. When all anyone knows about you is your e-mail address, you are free to be whoever you want to be.

The application of the values of the hacker ethic to the Internet in general provides an example of Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.

The Notion of Cyberspace

The word cyberspace is used extensively to describe the Internet and the interactions that take place there. But the word predates common use of the Internet and the shared culture it has created. The word cybernetics (from the Greek kybernetes, meaning “pilot” or “governor”) has been in use since 1948 to refer to a science of communication and control theory. Science- fiction writer William Gibson is generally credited with coupling the prefix cyber to the word space in his 1984 novel Neuromancer, although the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary (see Chapter 4) notes that Gibson originally used the word in a magazine story in 1982. Gibson defines cyberspace in this way: “Cyberspace is where the bank keeps your money. It’s where a long-distance telephone call happens. It’s this ubiquitous, non-physical place where increasingly a lot of what we think of as our civilization takes place.”75 Gibson sees cyberspace and the culture of the Internet as an expression of the hippie ideals of freedom and self-expression: “Tired as I am with all the hype about the Internet and the info highway, I suspect that from a future perspective it will be on a par with the invention of the city as a force in human culture.”76

Broadening Our Online World

Before the 1900s, it was relatively easy to define community:

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do you agree with the hacker ethic that “information wants to be free”? If media content is going to be free, who will pay the content creators? Should the government be stopping people from sharing copyrighted materials? Why or why not?

The community was made up of the people you interacted with every day. But the growth of the mass media led to changes in our understanding of community. People no longer need to be face-to-face with each other to interact. Larry Tesler, who helped develop the idea of computer communities at the Xerox PARC research center and at Apple Computer, has said that

when we were human beings in small tribes hunting and gathering, everybody you had to deal with was somebody you saw every day. We’re a species that’s based on communication with our entire tribe. As the population grew and people had to split up into smaller tribes and separate, they got to the point where they would never see each other for their whole lives. The Internet is the first technology that lets us have many-to-many communication with anybody on the planet. In a sense, it’s brought us back to something we lost thousands of years ago. So one reason I think the Internet’s taken off so fast is that we always needed it. And we finally have it.77

Is It Really a World Wide Web? When Tesler claims that the Internet allows people to interact with others anywhere on the planet, he overstates the case. Worldwide, approximately 43 percent of the population has Internet access. In developing countries, that number can average 35 percent, compared to 82 percent of the population in developed nations.78 But the spread of mobile technology is helping bring change. Africa has the lowest percentage of people online, with only 20.7 percent having access, but that represents a 111 percent increase since 2010. This growth is coming because people are now getting access via phones using mobile broadband. And that technology is allowing for the 40 percent growth rate in Africa. Companies like Facebook and Google are putting substantial effort into bringing inexpensive over-the-air Internet services to poorer areas.

Sipa via AP Images

A Kenyan woman checks her cell phone at the Dandora dumpsite, one of the largest and most toxic in Africa. Located near slums east of the Kenyan capital Nairobi, the open dumpsite was created in 1975 and covers thirty acres. People in developing countries in areas like Africa are most likely to go online using mobile devices.

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The Digital Divide. Even in the United States, access to a high-quality Internet connection is not universal. Although there are not large systemic differences in access based on race and ethnicity, research by Pew shows that access to high-speed broadband connections go up as people’s education levels and income increase. Urban people are also more likely to have broadband than people in rural settings.79

Conflicts Over Digital Media

For all the benefits associated with the Web, the new medium has been criticized on a number of fronts. For one thing, a great deal of material on the Web is inappropriate for children. Another criticism is that Web surfers give up their privacy when they visit certain sites. Finally, it is argued that people spend so much time with their virtual communities and friends that they forget about their real lives.

Controlling Content on the Web. The World Wide Web differs from all other media in that it is essentially an open forum where anyone can publish anything. More importantly, anyone can access anything he or she wants to. Because of this lack of control, unsupervised Web surfing is not particularly suitable for children. As computers and the Internet came to classrooms in the 1990s, parents and teachers became concerned about the possibility of students viewing pornography, hate speech, or even instructions on how to build a homemade bomb.

WEB

http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/12/21/home-broadband-2015/

Read the whole Pew report on home broadband access. CLICK TO SHOW

One solution to this problem is the use of filtering software, which can block access to certain kinds of material. This approach has been successful to a degree, but no filtering scheme can block all offensive material and still allow access to a full range of sites. For example, in 1998, the Loudoun County, Virginia, public libraries installed filtering software. The software successfully blocked pornographic material, but it also blocked sites with information on sex education, breast cancer, and gay rights.80 The fundamental problem with trying to control information on the Net is that the network of networks was designed specifically to overcome blocks and breakdowns. Once information is on the Net, it is virtually impossible to stop it from spreading. Net pioneer John Gilmore summed up the issue neatly: “The Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it.”81

Protecting Intellectual Property on the Web. The year 2012 brought intense debate over how much control there should be to protect intellectual property online. There were two laws put before the U.S. Congress: SOPA and PIPA. The Stop Online Piracy Act and the Protect IP (intellectual property) Act were designed to allow the government to shut down Web sites that traffic in unlicensed media content and to prohibit American companies from doing business with Web sites that carry unlicensed media content. Big media companies argued that they need the protection such laws provide to protect them from massive economic losses from online piracy. But many tech companies, including Google, and individuals who make a living selling their own media content online claimed that laws such as SOPA and PIPA would stifle legal online media and hand over complete control of the Web to big media companies. While Congress was debating these laws, numerous Web sites, including online encyclopedia Wikipedia, went dark for the day, blacking out their pages in protest of the proposed controls.82

Eventually, both laws were withdrawn from consideration.83

The advocacy group Public Knowledge has provided suggestions for a more balanced approach that protects the rights of both consumers and producers. These ideas can be reviewed at Wonkblog, the policy blog of the Washington Post’s

http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/12/21/home-broadband-2015/

Brad Plumer84:

• Ways to punish companies that demand material be taken off the Web without any justification need to exist. As the law stands now, any request made that demands that material be taken down for copyright violation must be complied with. The person who posted the offending material can appeal, but in the interim, the content is down.

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• Copyright terms need to be shortened. (You can read more about the development of modern copyright law in Chapter 13.)

• “Fair use” law needs to be simplified and have penalties limited to actual damages suffered by the copyright holder.

• Companies need to be stopped from making overreaching copyright claims. Public Knowledge uses as an example the disclaimer that runs before NFL games. It prohibits “any pictures, descriptions, or accounts of the game without the NFL’s consent.”

• Consumers should be allowed to bypass electronic copy protection for legal uses of the media. As an example, most DVDs and Blu-ray discs have software in place that keeps consumers from making copies of the discs they have purchased. According to copyright law, consumers are allowed to make backup copies of media they own. At the same time, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act makes it illegal to break the copy protection that keeps you from making a legal copy of the media.



Video Case 10.4: Ashley Madison hack.

Privacy and the Web. A consumer walking into a conventional bookstore can wander from aisle to aisle, picking up titles of interest. After leaving the store, no one knows what books the consumer looked at. But when that same consumer shops at the online bookstore Amazon.com, the store keeps track of everything looked at. The Amazon software will then make recommendations to the shopper according to previous searches and purchases. Is this a great convenience or a serious loss of privacy?

Web users give up their privacy every time they go online. Each time they fill out a form, join a group, or buy something, information (name, address, interests, etc.) is stored so that the owner of the site will know more about its visitors. Web sites create tiny files called cookies to identify Web site visitors and potentially track their actions on the Web. Cookies may identify users so that they don’t have to reenter their names and passwords. Or, as Amazon’s cookies do, they might keep track of which types of items a visitor likes to look at. Cookies are generally designed to assist users as they visit one particular Web site, but they can also be used to track users’ Web-surfing habits or to provide evidence of what sites they have visited.

Web site developers can use cookies to tailor sites to a particular visitor. For example, a news site could use information from a cookie to provide the scores of your favorite teams, quotes for the stocks in your portfolio, or reviews of the style of music you like. This tailoring to individual tastes could take a more sinister cast, however. Web creator Tim Berners-Lee speculates that cookies could even be used to tailor propaganda



http://Amazon.com

to match the biases of the viewer:

Imagine an individual visiting the Web page of a political candidate, or a controversial company. With a quick check of that person’s record, the politician or company can serve up just the right mix of propaganda that will warm that particular person’s heart—and tactfully suppress points he or she might object to.85

Convergence of Old and New Media

There is lots of talk these days about convergence and new media, such as why the Web will replace the old dead-tree media (newspapers and magazines), broadcast media, and other formats as the main source for news. New media synergy, we are told, will bring together the depth of text with an abundance of photos, audio, and video. You get all of the advantages of the old media in one package.

There are signs that this is happening. NPR (formerly National Public Radio) launched its new NPR.org Web site in July 2009 with the goal of enabling journalists to present photos, video, audio, and written stories to go with streaming copies and transcripts of all the stories that have aired on NPR since May 2005. The site also makes these resources available on mobile media such as the iPhone and Android.89

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TEST YOUR VISUAL MEDIA LITERACY

HUMANS OF NEW YORK ack in 2010, Brandon Stanton was a young bond trader working in Chicago. He had a semiprofessional camera and

http://NPR.org

Brandon Staton

This is one of the thousands of portraits Brandon Stanton has shot and posted online as part of his Humans of New York blogging project.

spent some of his free time taking photos around Chicago. Then he

lost his job and suddenly had a lot more free time, so he started taking a lot more photos. “Instead of updating my resume and looking for a similar job, I decided to forget about money and have a go at something I really enjoyed.”86

After traveling around taking photos in a number of U.S. cities, he moved to New York City with the goal of taking ten thousand portraits of ordinary people. Anyone who has tried going up to random people on the street and asking them if he or she can take their picture knows how hard that can be. The project came to be known as Humans of New York, and Stanton posted his best photos, along with a short caption/story, on Facebook and Tumblr. It took about a year, but finally he started getting followers, and talk. His blog got some positive comments from Tumblr founder David Karp, but the Washington Post says that most of the credit for Humans of New York’s fifteen million followers goes to Stanton himself.

In a 2014 speech in Ireland, Stanton said it’s all about being willing to just go up and talk to people:

The way I figured this out was just by doing it 10,000 times and getting beaten down, beaten down, beaten down, beaten down. There was no way I’m the best photographer in the world, no way that I’m the best journalist in the world, but I have approached over 10,000 people on the streets of what is stereotypically . . . one of the colder cities in the world and have asked them for their photograph. So I’m thinking by about this time I might be just about the best in the world at stopping random people on the street and getting them to let me take their photograph.87

Stanton’s blog posts take a standard format—they have a photo of one or two people along with a quote that tells a very short story about the person(s).

While Humans of New York clearly exists and is shared on social media, it also illustrates the importance of social interaction outside of the online component. As Stanton says, the thing that makes Humans such a success is not the brilliant quality of the photos or writing, but the fact that he is socially interacting with all these people. Karp says, “It’s become this community effort where people actually send in stories about the dude that makes them a bagel every morning who just always has a great story to tell or the dude with an epic mustache that I see walking down the street every day. They send in these stories about these people and Brandon goes, finds them [and] takes these gorgeous portraits of them, and uploads them with that story that led him to that person.”88

Since his start in 2010, Stanton has traveled around the world taking Humans photos in a range of countries including Iran and Pakistan.

You can see some of your author’s favorite Humans at

http://ralphehanson.tumblr.com/search/humansofnewyork

You can see the entire blog on Facebook or at www.humanso fnewyork.com.

Who is the source? Who is Brandon Stanton? What did he do before he was a photographer?

What is he doing? Who is Stanton taking photos of? How does he present them?

What evidence is there?

http://ralphehanson.tumblr.com/search/humansofnewyork

http://www.humansofnewyork.com

How does Stanton find the people he takes photos of? How does he get their cooperation? How is his work on the Humans of New York project social media?

What do you and your friends think about this? Take a look at several of Stanton’s photographs and read the captions that go with them. Which one is a favorite of yours? Why? How does it capture your attention? Have you ever tried to go up to strangers to try to interview them or take their photograph? Was it easy or hard? Why? If you want, you can try doing your own Humans photos and post them through your social media channels.

Convergence is also delivering media that wouldn’t be available otherwise. As will be discussed in Chapter 15, the Arab news channel Al Jazeera started its English-language service in November 2006, but it had trouble finding any U.S. cable or satellite services willing to carry it. For the time being, Americans who are interested in watching Al Jazeera must do so primarily over the Internet or using a mobile device app, though a few cable services started carrying it following the Arab Spring movement in 2011.

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SECRET 7 Sometimes you get reverse synergy—the worst of the old and new media in one new package. A prime example of reverse synergy happened in 2008 when Bloomberg’s online financial news service posted a six-year-old news story about United Airlines (UAL) filing for bankruptcy. The story was true—it was just six years out of date. What happened was this: An undated story about UAL’s 2002 bankruptcy filing showed up on a Google search on “bankruptcy 2008” done by a reporter working for Income Securities Advisor. The story from the South Florida Sun-Sentinel dated back to December 10, 2002, when UAL did file for bankruptcy. The reporter who performed the search posted the story to Bloomberg News. In response to the story, investors started dumping their shares in UAL, dropping the stock from $12.17 a share to approximately $3 a share. Not realizing what had happened, United Airlines was baffled by the tanking of its stock, but it

quickly posted an online denial of the story. By the time the market closed, UAL stock was back up to $10.92.90

What can we learn from this? Think about Secret 7—There is no “they.” The story that sent the stock price crashing was a single story from a single Web site. Wouldn’t you think that if a major corporation had filed for bankruptcy twice in six years the story would be playing on every major news site, not just a single Florida paper that had no local connection to the story? At the risk of oversimplifying things, the story was posted because someone—a “they”—said it was so. This resulted in a huge destruction of wealth, albeit a temporary one, because of a story that had no truth value and apparently was posted completely by accident.

Everything Is Data

We are moving into an age where more and more media are delivered digitally. And that means we will be moving away from old channels like cable television, paper, or cellular phone service and moving into the use of data services.

Think about it—how often do you come close to using up your allocation of cell phone minutes? Maybe you don’t even have a limit on minutes anymore. The same is likely true of text messages (i.e., SMS).

But what about when it comes to data? Ah, that’s a different story. How long do you get into the month before you start getting warning notes from your provider that you’ve used 50 percent, 75 percent, 90 percent of your data allocation? Of course, your mobile provider is always quite happy to sell you another bucket of data . . .

Think about all the things you use data for on your mobile device: streaming audio and video, social media, games, maybe even a little old-school e-mail. You might also be sending photos and video back upstream through Snapchat, Instagram, Periscope, or Meerkat.

If you’re on an iPhone, you likely burn through a lot of data using FaceTime to make your audio and video calls (though if you’re

smart about it, you’re using Wi-Fi whenever possible). And everyone is burning through data one way or another with Skype.

Over in the world of the television, we are seeing this transformation as well. Right now, at least if you are old, you think of TV as something that comes in through cable or down from the skies via satellite. If you’re really old (or poor), you think of it as something that comes in over the air through an antenna.

But as we discussed in Chapter 9, increasingly we are getting our video programing from streaming services. When I asked my students in the fall of 2015 what the most recent programming they had watched on television was, the most common (with the possible exception of the World Series broadcast) was Netflix. Now Netflix is a streaming service that you get over the Internet using data. Netflix is just one of many sources of streaming video: Hulu, CBS’s All Access, Amazon Prime, and the list goes on.

Apple has offered a streaming box for several years called the Apple TV that the late Steve Jobs used to refer to as a hobby. But with the release of the newest version of it, Apple seems to be taking it much more seriously—with the idea that the new Apple TV could serve as a substitute to your cable or satellite service—assuming you have a big bucket of data to support it.91

As a side note, media giant and major Internet provider Comcast is now experimenting with offering subscribers an unlimited Internet package for about $35 more than its usual package that is capped at 300 GB of data.92 Time Warner Cable, which had been one of the nation’s largest cable/Internet providers before being acquired by Charter, has reportedly been experimenting with replacing its set-top cable box with a streaming app that could run on a Roku, Xbox, or other device.93

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In closing, it’s not just high-tech multimedia that’s going digital. The New York Times has been working on its digital strategy for years and has recently released a report that calls for doubling its digital revenue by 2020.94

CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The Internet arose in the late 1960s out of efforts to share expensive computer resources provided by the military to universities across the United States. The initial network, called ARPAnet, went online for the first time in the fall of 1969. The network operated using packet switching, a method of transferring information that breaks down messages into small packets that are transmitted separately across the network and reassembled once they are received. Through e-mail and file sharing, ARPAnet soon became a tool used by academics to collaborate and communicate across the country.

As the number of incompatible networks grew in the 1970s, Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf developed the TCP/IP protocols that allowed the networks to communicate with each other. In 1983, ARPAnet started using the TCP/IP protocols. This is commonly seen as the true beginning of the Internet.

The Internet is unique among the mass media in allowing interpersonal communication through e-mail and instant messaging and group communication through e-mail, instant messaging, SMS, the World Wide Web, search, mobile apps, blogs, podcasts, and streaming media.

The World Wide Web was developed in 1989 by British physicist Tim Berners-Lee while he was working at the European Organization for Nuclear Research in Switzerland. His goal was to produce a decentralized system for creating and sharing documents anywhere in the world. The Web has three major components: the uniform resource locator (URL), the hypertext transfer protocol (http), and the hypertext markup language (HTML). Berners-Lee published the code for the World Wide Web on the Internet in 1991 for anyone in the world to use at no cost.

A growing part of online interaction is through social media,

which is defined as media that allows for user-created content, comments, tagging, and social networking.

Video games are an emerging part of modern mass media that have been recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court as deserving full First Amendment protection. In addition to being a popular activity, video games, in the form of eSports, are also a spectator event now.

The Internet in general and the Web in particular were based on a set of values known as the hacker ethic. This ethic holds that information should be freely distributed and that individuals should have as much control over computers as possible.

The World Wide Web has turned the Internet into a major mass medium that provides news, entertainment, and community interaction. The Web offers a mix of content providers, including traditional media companies, new media companies offering publications available only on the Web, aggregator sites that offer help in navigating the Web, and individuals who have something they want to say.

The Web has been criticized for elevating rumors to the level of news, making inappropriate material available to children, collecting private information about users, and creating a false sense of intimacy and interaction among users.

Over the past several years, the transmission of media content has been moving from channels of legacy media into those of online digital media, allowing people to access content when and where they want to.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

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KEY TERMS

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-10/quiz

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-10/

Internet 246

packet switching 247

ARPAnet 248

TCP/IP 248

electronic mail (e-mail) 249

listservs 249

instant messaging (IM) 249

hypertext 250

World Wide Web 250

uniform resource locator (URL) 250

hypertext transfer protocol (http) 250

hypertext markup language (HTML) 250

Mosaic 251

social media 252

digital native 252

broadband service 253

Weblog (blog) 254

citizen journalism 255

eSports 260

hacker ethic 262

cookies 265

aggregator sites 268

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is Yik Yak not as anonymous as users think it is? 2. How was our first nationwide interactive computing

network built? 3. How does interacting online differ when you do it through

an app rather than through the World Wide Web? 4. How are social media and mobile media connected to each

other? How are social media changed when we use them with mobile devices?

5. If you were asked to defend video games as a medium of mass communication, how would you do that?

6. What does your author mean when he writes “Everything is data”? What kind of transformation is taking place in the legacy media industry as more media are transmitted digitally?

STUDENT STUDY SITE

edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

Sharpen your skills with SAGE edge!

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.

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http://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e

PRACTICE AND APPLY WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED

edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

CHECK YOUR COMPREHENSION ON THE STUDY SITE WITH...

Mobile-friendly practice quizzes on the open- access study site that give you opportunities for

http://edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

self-guided assessment and practice!

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PART IV STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION

Chapter 11

Advertising Selling a Message

Chapter 12

Public Relations Interactions, Relationshi ps, and the News

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CHAPTER 11

ADVERTISING Selling a Message

Vince Talotta/Getty Images

Media Library

CHAPTER 11 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 11.1: Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade and a dvertising.

Video Case 11.2: Future of advertising.

Video Case 11.3: Health warnings on soda.

Video Case 11.4: Target test store.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

Check out commercials with a list of famous advertising c atchphrases.

View examples of the classic ads.

See a collection of national ads

See the ads from American Apparel, Bud Light, and Guin ess.

Find out more about advertising legend David Ogilvy.

View several urban McDonald’s ads.

Take a look at some of the native ads discussed above.

Take a look at Kathryn Koegel’s analysis of successful mo bile advertising efforts, including the iButterfly campaign .

Check out examples of both punk polka and techno polka.

AUDIO

The black advertising pioneer who changed how markete

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/13/link-ch-11-advertising-catch-phrases/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/13/link-ch-11-ad-council-public-service-ads/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/03/29/link-ch-11-fun-commercials/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/05/29/creativity-tastelessness-and-grabbing-the-advertising-audience/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/14/link-ch-11-meet-david-ogilvy/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/16/link-ch-11-mcdonalds-urban-marketing/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/18/link-ch-11-native-ads/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/02/16/finding-success-through-mobile-advertising/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/17/link-ch-11-punk-polka-it-exists-as-does-techno-polka/

https://soundcloud.com/nprs-planet-money/episode-628-this-ads-for-you

rs talk to people of color.

TV networks hope new shows will attract advertisers.

WEB

Read more about Falwell v. Flynt

Free speech and students.

What are the implications of Hazelwood 25 years later?

Read about students getting expelled for posting online.

An example of why bloggers matter.

Is this the copyright law revision we need?

Have you read your social media Terms of Service lately?

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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ow private is the content of your smartphone? If you

have a recent iPhone with the latest operating system on it, pretty darn private. So private that even Apple’s engineers couldn’t get in and read your private messages, even if they wanted to. Which they don’t . . .

The level of privacy in iPhones became a national controversy in the winter of 2016, when the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) wanted to get access to an iPhone used by a married

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/27/link-ch-13-remembering-the-case-of-falwell-v-flynt/

http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/first-amendment-college-campus-millennials/477171/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2013/01/14/the-hazelwood-decisions-25th-anniversary/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/28/ch-13-links-students-expelled-for-what-they-post-online/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/04/16/who-is-the-press/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2013/05/20/could-this-be-the-copyright-law-update-we-need/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/18/link-ch-13-who-owns-your-social-media-content/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-13/

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-13/quiz

have been placed on free expression and other First Amendment rights, including those put in place since September 11, 2001.

3 Explain the three elements that must be present for libel to occur and the four major defenses against libel.

4 Name the four major forms of invasion of privacy.

5 Discuss the issue of whether the press can be legally required to behave ethically using three Supreme Court case examples.

6 Explain how the media industry is controlled through copyright law, broadcast, and Internet regulation.

couple who killed fourteen people and injured twenty- two others when they attacked a county employee holiday party in San Bernardino, California. The FBI was hoping the phone might contain information about motives for the attack and whether the couple had been influenced by Islamic extremist groups.

The FBI couldn’t get the access code from the attacker and owner of the phone—he was dead, shot by police. They also couldn’t simply guess at the four- digit access code. Apple’s software shuts down the phone if someone guesses unsuccessfully at the pass code a given number of times. Under some settings, the phone will erase itself if you guess wrong too many times.1

The FBI wanted Apple to write a new, special version of the phone’s iOS operating system that would disable all the anti-guessing features so the feds could rapidly do a brute-force attack to break into the phone. When Apple refused to do so, the FBI got a federal court order mandating that Apple comply. Apple again refused. Apple’s CEO Tim Cook, in an open letter to the company’s customers, wrote:

Smartphones, led by iPhone, have become an essential part of our lives. People use them to store an incredible amount of personal information, from our private conversations to

our photos, our music, our notes, our calendars and contacts, our financial information and health data, even where we have been and where we are going.

All that information needs to be protected from hackers and criminals who want to access it, steal it, and use it without our knowledge or permission. . . . Compromising the security of our personal information can ultimately put our personal safety at risk. That is why encryption has become so important to all of us. . . . We have even put that data out of our own reach, because we believe the contents of your iPhone are none of our business.2

Cook wrote that while he and Apple were horrified by the terrorist attack and wanted to help the FBI, they were unwilling to create a back door past the iPhone’s security system.

Apple put the new, enhanced security on the phone, security that makes it impossible for Apple itself to look at the contents of phones without the owner’s pass code, because the company has a history of cooperating with the government in unlocking dozens of phones in the post-9/11 era. Apple, along with most other major tech companies, was revealed to be turning over supposedly secure data to the government in the name of protecting national security. Apple added enhanced security features to its phones in 2014 so that it would no longer have access to users’ data, and therefore could no longer be compelled to turn the information over.3

Apple received support in its opposition to being forced to create less secure software from rivals and competitors such as Microsoft, Google, Facebook, and Twitter. Public support for Apple’s stand was less clear—public opinion polling by the Pew Research Center showed that about half of Americans thought Apple should cooperate with the government, while 38 percent said it should not.4

WEB Interview with Apple CEO Tim Cook about iPhone access for FBI. CLICK TO SHOW

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http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/exclusive-apple-ceo-tim-cook-iphone-cracking-software/story?id=37173343

The case ended with neither the FBI nor Apple backing down. Instead, the FBI apparently hired a hacker who managed to find a way into the one specific phone, reportedly at a cost of more than $1 million, though the FBI refused to be specific.5

Why was Apple so emphatic about not wanting to hack into its own phones? As mentioned earlier, it could be because the company is sensitive to charges that it had cooperated too readily with the government in the past to violate customers’ security. It could also be that the company was committed to protecting privacy. A third likely explanation is that while Apple might not object to helping the U.S. government investigate terrorism, it would object to helping a totalitarian government hack into dissidents’ phones. The argument goes that if Apple ever hacked for one government, it could find itself pressured to do so for others.

The question of how secure our smartphones are from the government’s ability to peek in on our lives is an important one. As we’ve discussed earlier, Americans have a love affair with mobile phones. At least 90 percent of American adults own some kind of mobile phone, and 64 percent own a smartphone. Mobile phones are so important that 44 percent of mobile phone owners have slept with their phone next to their bed in case an important call or message comes in while they are sleeping.6 For 34 percent of those who use their phones to go online, the phone is their primary method for going online. Think about how much personal information you have on your smartphone: a record of every call you make, your e-mail, your social media accounts, your address book, all your photos . . . It is quite possible that you have more private information on your phone than any other place in your life.

AUDIO Mom Asks: Who Will Unlock Murdered Daughter’s iPho ne? CLICK TO SHOW

In this chapter, we look at the laws that both protect and restrict our privacy, our freedom of speech, and our freedom of the press. We start by examining the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which established a minimally restrictive system of media law. We then look at media law in terms of how it

http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/03/30/472302719/mom-asks-who-will-unlock-her-murdered-daughters-iphone

protects individuals through laws governing libel, invasion of privacy, and the right to a fair trial. Next, we look at the controls that can be placed on the press, including requirements that the press tell the truth, restraints on publication, and regulation of obscenity. We then look at how the broadcast industry is regulated by the government in a somewhat stricter fashion than the rest of the media. Finally, we close out with regulation of online media.

Video Case 13.1: Gag rules for online reviews.

The Development of a Free Press

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is at the core of all U.S. laws concerning the media. It says simply that

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition

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the Government for a redress of grievances.

Although the First Amendment states that “Congress shall make no law,” the U.S. Supreme Court has long upheld certain limits on both speech and the press. People do not have “the right to say anything they please, any way they please, anywhere or under any circumstances.”7 In this section, we look at how the notion of freedom of expression and of the press has developed and what regulations and restrictions the government can place on that freedom.

The First Amendment: “Congress Shall Make No Law”

According to First Amendment scholar Fred Cate, the First Amendment is an essential component of a representative democracy because a democracy cannot function unless the people have the right to freely and openly discuss matters of public concern. It is through free and open speech that change takes place within society. The First Amendment does not just protect popular or conventional ideas; it protects all forms of expression, including offensive ideas. Even some level of false expression is allowed because the truth is not always clear. Thus, the solution to the expression of dangerous ideas is to permit more, rather than less, communication.8 The most basic right guaranteed by the First Amendment is freedom of speech without constraint by the government. The right of freedom of the press is an extension of the rights of individuals to express themselves.9 In addition to its explicit mention of the press and speech, the First Amendment provides a wide range of other rights, including freedom of religious practice, the right to assemble, and the right to petition the government.

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The Roots of American Free Speech

Speech was not always free in the American colonies. Colonial newspapers were published under licenses granted by the British colonial government, with the phrase “Published by

The Granger Collection, New York

The Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, established protection for all forms of expression, not just popular ideas.

Authority” printed at the top of each edition. This notice implied that the British government approved of what was being published, and editors violated that approval at their peril.

The Zenger Case. John Peter Zenger and his wife, Anna Catherine Zenger, were independent editors, printers, and small-business owners in the American colonies. Zenger started his New York Journal in 1733 and, like many editors of that time, was soon in trouble with the authorities. Zenger accused Gov. William Cosby of political corruption for replacing New York Supreme Court justices with whom he disagreed.10 The governor retaliated by throwing Zenger in jail on a charge of seditious libel (writing things critical of the government). When the case went to trial in 1735, Zenger, who was represented by prominent lawyer Andrew Hamilton, defended himself against the charge by claiming that what he had written was the truth. The shocked judge argued that the truth of the statement didn’t matter. But Zenger and Hamilton refused to back down, and the jury found Zenger not guilty, thus establishing truth as a defense against libel.

While her husband was in prison, Anna Catherine took over the operation of the paper, thus becoming one of the first women newspaper publishers in the country.11

Limits on Free Speech. In 1791, the states ratified the first ten amendments to the Constitution, commonly known as the Bill of Rights. But making the Bill of Rights a part of the Constitution did not end the government’s efforts to limit people’s right to freedom of expression.

In 1798, just seven years after the ratification of the Bill of

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Rights, Congress passed, and President John Adams signed, the Alien and Sedi tion Acts. These laws punished anyone who published “false, scandalous, or malicious writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress of the United States, or the President of the United States” with substantial fines, jail time, or deportation. One editor went to prison for accusing Adams of corruption, and a second went to prison for supporting the critical editor. All those charged under the acts were eventually pardoned by Thomas Jefferson when he became president.12

Sedition became a crime once again during World War I, when more than 1,900 people were prosecuted under sedition statutes for criticizing the government, the military draft, or U.S. involvement in the war. Following the war, some but not all of the anti–free speech provisions were repealed.13 Then, in 1940, during the run-up to U.S. involvement in World War II, Congress passed the Smith Act, which made it a crime to advocate the violent overthrow of the government or to belong to a group that advocated the violent overthrow of the government. The central purpose of the act was to suppress the Communist Party of the United States.14

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Limits on Free Speech in the Post-9/11 Era

SECRET 4 Forty-five days after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, Congress passed the USA PATRIOT Act, its name an acronym that stands for “Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism.”15 The PATRIOT Act follows in the tradition of previous wartime laws in changing the balance point between maximizing our civil liberties and protecting the United States from perceived threats. The act is one more example of Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again.

WEB Read more about the USA Patriot Act. CLICK TO SHOW

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http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/18/link-ch-13-patriot-act-readings/

Cagle Cartoons, Inc.

The National Security Agency has used a broad understanding of the PATRIOT Act Section 215 to justify collecting voice and e-mail data on almost any U.S. citizen.

Video Case 13.2: USA Patriot Act.

The law permitted a host of activities by the Justice Department, including the placing of wiretaps and increased domestic surveillance, and it also widened the definition of what constitutes terrorism. Most of the objections to the act fall under the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects against “unreasonable searches and seizures.”16 But there are First Amendment implications as well. One of the biggest is that Section 215 of the act allows the FBI to examine individuals’ media use by obtaining “library records, health-care records, logs of Internet service providers and other documents and papers.”17

Jameel Jaffer of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) says the fact that people may be watched can keep them from looking at things they might otherwise view: “If people think that the government is looking over their shoulders to see what books they are reading or what Web sites they are visiting, many are not going to read those books or visit those Web sites.”18 The law also makes it a crime for anyone to provide “expert assistance” to any group designated as a terrorist organization, even if there is no evidence that the advice leads to further terrorism.

Most controversial was the provision that people served with PATRIOT Act warrants couldn’t tell anyone that they had received them. That is, anyone served with a PATRIOT Act warrant lost his or her free speech rights when it came to discussing the warrant. Since the act was originally passed in 2001, it has undergone changes that have scaled back the limits on free speech. The most important of these changes is that people served with warrants under the act now have permission to consult an attorney.

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Does the First Amendment go too far in its protections of the press and of individuals? Why or why not? Why do you think the government periodically

The PATRIOT Act has also been used to identify journalists’ confidential sources. Brian Ross and Richard Esposito of ABC News wrote in their blog, the Blotter, that the federal government was tracking the phone numbers they called after they reported on the Central Intelligence Agency’s (CIA’s) secret prisons in Romania and Poland.19 Ross charges that this tracking of his calls was done under Section 215 of the act. “It’s a provision of the Patriot Act designed to fight terrorism—and it’s being used to fight journalists,” Ross said. “That’s really what it comes down to.”20

While there had been a variety of reports about potential misuse of Section 215 similar to those from Brian Ross, the world learned the extent of the collection of “metadata” in a series of stories from the Guardian newspaper based on documents leaked by former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden. As you may recall from Chapter 2, Snowden revealed that the NSA had been collecting bulk information that showed “who called whom, the date, time, duration and frequency of calls for millions of Americans who are not suspected of any crimes.”21 These data do not include the content of the calls, but just the metadata alone could establish someone’s political activities, health issues, or personal relationships. The PATRIOT Act underwent a fairly substantial revision with the passage of the USA FREEDOM (Uniting and Strengthening America by Fulfilling Rights and Ending Eavesdropping, Dragnet-Collection and Online Monitoring) Act in June 2015. Among the changes was an end to the NSA’s practice of bulk collection of phone data of millions of Americans. The revisions were passed by a coalition of liberal Democrats and libertarian-thinking Republicans.22

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Protection of Individuals

Although the press is censored only rarely in the United States, individuals do have a right

tries to limit our First Amendment rights?

to protect themselves from being harmed by the media. Rather than exercising prior restraint to prevent the press from printing or broadcasting potentially damaging material, U.S. law allows individuals to sue the press for any damage they feel they have suffered. Protection of individuals from the press focuses on three main issues: libel, invasion of privacy, and the right to a fair trial.

Libel

Although in general the press cannot be restricted from publishing something, it can be held accountable for what it does publish. This is accomplished primarily through libel law. Libel is any published statement that unjustifiably exposes someone to ridicule or contempt. In general, for a statement to be libelous, it needs to contain three elements: defamation, identification, and publication.

1. Defamation—To defame is to damage a person’s reputation in some way. This can involve calling someone, for example, a criminal, a communist, or a drunk. If a student newspaper ran an article falsely accusing Dr. Smith, a journalism professor, of selling an A grade in his Introduction to Mass Communication class for $100, Dr. Smith would probably have been defamed.

2. Identification—No person can sue for libel unless the defamation can be proved to apply to him or her; another reader or viewer must agree that the comment applies to the person who is suing. Just leaving that person’s name out of the article isn’t enough. If a person can be identified, he or she can sue. Going back to the example of Dr. Smith, suppose that the article did not mention his name but merely said that the teacher of the Introduction to Mass Communication course at Big State University was taking bribes for grades. If Dr. Smith was the only person teaching the course at Big State U, he would have been identified.

3. Publication—To be libelous, the statement must be published or broadcast and seen by someone other than the author and the person who was defamed.23

How can the media defend themselves against libel suits? After all, much of what gets printed or broadcast in the news has the potential to damage a person’s reputation. There are at least two approaches. When an article is genuinely false and defamatory, the media look to a landmark 1960s case, New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, which is discussed later in this chapter. First, let’s look at approaches that are used when the material in an article is true, privileged, or a statement of opinion.

WEB Read the court’s opinon on New York Times v. Sullivan. CLICK TO SHOW

The Defense of Truth. The Zenger case from the early 1700s established truth as an absolute defense against libel. It is not always an effective defense, however, because the truth is not always clear. In the article about Dr. Smith, it may well be true that a student accused Dr. Smith of selling grades, but it would be much more difficult to prove that Dr. Smith actually sold the grades.

The Defense of Privilege. Asserting privilege is a much better defense than truth in a libel case. As a legal defense against libel, privilege is the idea that statements made in government meetings, in court, or in government documents cannot be used as the basis for a libel suit. What is more, any fair and accurate report of what happened at the meeting, in court, or in a government document is also protected from libel.24 For example, the privilege defense protects a reporter who is covering a murder trial. The journalist is privileged to give a fair and accurate report of any testimony, no matter how inflammatory, without fear of being sued.

Opinions. Opinions are neither true nor false, so a statement of opinion cannot be used as the basis of a libel suit. Calling someone an idiot or a jerk would probably not be considered libelous; both words are expressions of opinion. Editorial cartoons, parodies, and reviews are all generally considered to be opinion and are given fairly broad latitude in their protection from libel. But remember that, to be protected, statements need to be clear expressions of opinion. An article that states “Dr. Smith, in my opinion, is selling grades” would most likely be considered libelous: Claiming that a fact is a statement of

http://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/10/text-of-the-supreme-courts-opinion-in-libel-case-against-the-new-york-times.html

recordsofrights.org

This is the ad from the Committee to Defend Martin Luther King and the Struggle for Freedom in the South that was printed in the New York Times that led Police Commissioner L.B. Sullivan to sue the paper for libel.

opinion does not protect the writer.

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New York Times Co. v. Sullivan. The defenses of truth, privilege, and opinion arise from the notion that the press has published something it is entitled to publish. But there are times when the press gets a story wrong, runs an advertisement containing factual errors, or makes a mistake in a headline. In these cases, the press is likely to look to the 1964 case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan.25

The 1960s were a period of racial unrest in the United States, marked by protests and rioting over efforts to integrate schools, lunch counters, and other public facilities, with white segregationists claimed that the national media were interfering with local issues that were none of their business.26

On March 29, 1960, a civil rights group ran a full-page ad in the New York Times to raise money for Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The ad included the names of numerous well-known individuals, such as Harry Belafonte, Marlon Brando, Nat King Cole, Jackie Robinson, and former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and was paid for by the Union Advertising Service for the Committee to Defend Martin Luther King and the Struggle for Freedom in the South.27 Among the sections of the ad that created trouble was the following:

In Montgomery, Alabama, after students sang “My Country

’Tis of Thee” on the State Capitol steps, their leaders were expelled from the school, and truck-loads of police armed with shotguns and teargas ringed the Alabama State College Campus. When the entire student body protested to state authorities by refusing to reregister, their dining hall was padlocked in an attempt to starve them into submission.28

This passage contained several false statements. The students did not sing “My Country ’Tis of Thee,” and the police did not literally surround the building.

Although Montgomery police commissioner L. B. Sullivan, who was in charge of the police department, was not mentioned by name in the advertisement, he felt that any accusations against the police department were accusations against him. He also charged that the advertisement contained numerous factual errors. He asked the Times to retract the ad, but the paper responded that it did not see how the ad reflected negatively on Sullivan’s reputation. So Sullivan filed suit, joining eleven other libel cases that were pending against the Times.29

In the initial three-day trial, the Times admitted that the ad contained errors, but friends of Sullivan testified that they did not think less of him as a result because they did not believe what they had read in the ad. Nevertheless, the judge instructed the jury that they could presume that the material in the ad was libelous and that it had damaged Sullivan’s reputation. The jury returned a verdict in favor of Sullivan, awarding him $500,000 in damages. The verdict was upheld by the Alabama Supreme Court.

The case then went before the U.S. Supreme Court, which reversed the lower courts with a sweeping ruling in favor of the Times. The Court could have overturned the lower court judgment simply by ruling that Sullivan had not been identified in the ad or by saying that Sullivan’s reputation had not suffered any damage. But it decided instead to use the case to consider whether the public had the right to criticize the government.30 The Court ruled that it was not enough to protect true statements; false statements against public officials made in good faith should also be protected.

With the Sullivan case, the Court established a new standard for

libel. It ruled that public officials would have to show that the media had acted with actual malice and displayed a reckless disregard for the truth or falsity of a published account. In the Sullivan case, the Court ruled, the paper had not acted with malice; at worst it had been negligent. One of the goals of the Court’s judgment was to help protect against self-censorship— to prevent publications from being so afraid of making a mistake that they would not print anything that might be controversial. The Court was attempting to balance the right of a public official to protect his or her reputation versus a critic’s right to speak out against that official.

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Libel and Public Figures. In 1967, the Supreme Court extended the actual malice standard to apply to public figures as well as public officials. The theory behind this extension of the Sullivan standard was that these people have voluntarily exposed themselves to public scrutiny and thus to the threat of being libeled.

WEB Learn more about libel, privacy and social media. CLICK TO SHOW

The standard was settled by the case of Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. in 1974.31 The John Birch Society’s magazine had run an article accusing Elmer Gertz of being a communist. The question was whether Gertz, an attorney, was a public figure. The Court ruled that private individuals deserve more protection because they have not voluntarily submitted themselves for public attention and because they are less able than public figures to defend themselves.32

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Video Case 13.3: Ted Cruz mobile app.

Libel and Social Media. In general, there are few differences in the standard for libel between legacy media and social media. The big difference is that legacy media have a legal staff to advise writers when they are writing or broadcasting something that could be problematic; people on Twitter or Facebook rarely do. Also, as attorney Ellyn Angelotti points out, social media like Twitter make publishing potentially defamatory content much easier.33 Finally, while newspapers or broadcasters are typically responsible for what they publish because they actively control what goes out in their name, social media sites themselves are not responsible for what people post using their service. In January 2014, the first Twitter libel case to be settled dealt with a tweet posted by singer/celebrity Courtney Love that suggested “one of her attorneys had been ‘bought off.’” The jury in the case ruled in favor of Love and against her attorney. The jury ruled that Love’s tweet contained false information but that she didn’t know that it was false.34 (Note to students: Don’t assume that other juries would rule the same way!)

Invasion of Privacy

What magazines do you subscribe to? What books do you check out from the library? How much money do you have in the bank? What movies have you rented from the video store? What do you buy at the grocery store? Why did you see the doctor last week? Are you uncomfortable with these questions? Most

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Ron Galella/Getty Images

Ron Galella is most famous for his dogged pursuit to photograph Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis which resulted in an injunction against him in 1972.

people would like to keep such information private.35 With all this information potentially available, what legal expectation do people have of maintaining a private life in the information age? The Constitution offers no explicit protection of privacy, but a right to privacy has been implied, and the issue shows up in a number of ways. The “freedom to associate” clause of the First Amendment prevents the government from requiring a group to release its membership list to the public. It also protects the right of an individual to possess any type of literature in the privacy of his or her own home. The Fourth Amendment limits searches and seizures, and the Fourteenth Amendment limits disclosure of personal information. In cases involving privacy, the courts try to balance an individual’s right to protect his or her privacy and reputation versus the public’s interest in a news or feature story that the press might publish.

In general, legal protection exists for four types of invasion of privacy: intrusion, embarrassment, false light, and misappropriation. Let’s look briefly at each of these.36

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Intrusion. Intrusion is invasion of privacy by physical trespass into a space surrounding a person’s body or onto property under his or her control. Reporters and photographers are not allowed to go onto private property to collect news without the permission of the owner, but in some cases, the news-gathering function and the right of the public to know can conflict with the rights associated with private property. For example, a reporter and a photographer were sued for intrusion when they pretended to be patients at a private California medical clinic that was being run by a plumber practicing medicine without a license. Their visit to the clinic was ruled to be trespass, but the

story won numerous prizes and resulted in the clinic’s being shut down.37

WEB More on privacy laws and photographers. CLICK TO SHOW

The courts have generally held that undercover reporting is legal, if not necessarily ethical, as long as it does not involve trespass. (For more about intrusion, see the section on Food Lion v. ABC later in this chapter.)

Embarrassment. Sometimes reporters come across true information that is so embarrassing and private that a person has reason to expect that it will not be published, especially if he or she is not well known. In general, embarrassment cases are difficult to win. If the information is true, it will often be considered newsworthy, which is the press’s strongest defense in privacy cases.

One of the best-known embarrassment cases arose in 1975, when Oliver “Bill” Sipple, a former U.S. Marine, helped save President Gerald R. Ford by knocking aside Sara Jane Moore’s gun as she attempted to shoot the president. Two days later, a columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle implied that Sipple was gay. Sipple sued the Chronicle for giving unwanted publicity to that information. The court ruled against Sipple, however, because he had been written about in gay magazines and had marched in gay pride parades. The court also ruled that the information about Sipple was legitimate news.

So when is something that is private not newsworthy? On October 13, 1961, an Alabama woman went into a fun house at the local county fair. As she came out, an air jet blew her skirt up, exposing her underwear, and a photographer from the local newspaper took her picture. The woman was recognized by friends and relatives, who teased her about the picture. She called the paper at least twice but received no sympathy. The paper’s editor says that had he apologized at that point, the case would have likely ended. But he didn’t, and the woman sued and won.38 What distinguishes Daily Times Democrat v. Graham from the Sipple case? Sipple had just saved the president’s life and hence was a part of the news. In the Alabama case, however,

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/26/link-ch-13-photography-and-privacy-around-the-united-states/

AP Photo/San Francisco Examiner, Gordon Stone

In 1975, Oliver “Bill” Sipple (left) helped save President Gerald R. Ford by foiling an assassination attempt by Sara Jane Moore. After the San Francisco Chronicle revealed Sipple was gay, he sued the paper, but the courts ruled that information about Sipple was newsworthy and, therefore, not an invasion of his privacy.

the woman had done nothing to make herself newsworthy.

False Light. False light is similar to libel, and people who file libel suits often simultaneously file false light suits. False light doesn’t really seem to be an invasion of privacy, but that’s how the law treats it.39 False light occurs when a journalist publishes untrue statements that alter an individual’s public image in a way that he or she cannot control. The Cleveland Plain Dealer lost a false light suit when reporter Joe Eszterhas (who later became famous for writing the screenplay for the movie Basic Instinct) described a poverty-stricken widow whose husband had been killed in a bridge collapse several months earlier in West Virginia—even though he had neither met nor spoken with the woman. He wrote:

Margaret Cantrell will talk neither about what happened nor about how they are doing. She wears the same mask of non-expression she wore at the funeral. She is a proud woman. Her world has changed. She says that after it happened, the people in town offered to help them out with money and they refused to take it.40

Regardless of whether the woman’s reputation was damaged, the portrayal was clearly false because Eszterhas had never been in contact with her.

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False light often arises more from context than from a deliberate attempt to deceive. For example, a television story about street prostitution might show men and women walking down the street, with the implication that the women are prostitutes and

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Does the press go too far in revealing private details about celebrities? Why or why not? Given that celebrities benefit from positive coverage, should they be given more power to control negative coverage?

the men are their customers. ABC television settled multiple lawsuits over just such a story (though without admitting guilt).

Misappropriation. The final form of invasion of privacy is quite different from the preceding three. Misappropriation is using a person’s name or image for commercial purposes without his or her permission. The right to control the commercial use of their names and images is of great importance to athletes and celebrities, who may make more money from endorsements than they do from competing or acting. For example, in 1997, basketball legend Michael Jordan earned $31.3 million in pay from the Chicago Bulls but over $40 million from endorsements.41 Clearly, it is in Jordan’s economic and financial interest to control the use of his name and image.

What of the paparazzi armed with telephoto lenses who make a business out of stalking celebrities? Television and movie star Jennifer Aniston has filed numerous invasion-of- privacy lawsuits to stop distribution or publication of topless photos taken of her. It is not clear how a court would rule on her cases, as most of them have been settled out of court. Aniston has used a range of legal strategies in her cases, including copyright infringement, intrusion, and misappropriation.42 (She apparently did not have a problem with her officially sanctioned topless photo that ran on the cover of GQ magazine in 2005, at the same time one of her lawsuits was in progress.43) In 2009, California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed a bill into law that allows lawsuits against media outlets that publish photos shot illegally. In general, freelance photographers can be sued for violating privacy laws, but the publications that buy their photos have been shielded from liability. Free-speech advocates argue that California’s new law could interfere with legitimate news gathering. Legal experts have questioned whether California’s law is enforceable because it can be difficult to prove when and where a photo was taken.44

Serge Lemoine/Getty Images

Press photographers outside Buckingham Palace in London for the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, 29th July 1981.

Social Media and Privacy. If we were to go ask Captain Obvious whether we had any right to privacy with things we post to social media sites, he would immediately reply, “Duh, no, it’s meant to be shared, obviously.” And from a practical point of view, he would be correct—once anything is posted to the Internet, it’s bound to go public. If you want to keep something secret, don’t post it. But from a legal point of view, you do have some protection. According to a 2012 ruling by the District Court of New Jersey, if you post something that is available only to a select group of people (i.e., “friends”), you may have a reasonable expectation of privacy. On the other hand, a 2009 California Court of Appeals ruling found that someone who posted a series of complaints about her hometown on MySpace had no grounds to sue for invasion of privacy when her comments were republished in a local newspaper.45 As this is being written in the summer of 2016, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is considering adding new regulations on what information about your online activity broadband providers would be allowed to share with others, such as advertisers, without your consent. One area of difficulty the commission is facing is that there could be differing rules for what broadband providers, mobile providers, mobile operating system providers, and search engine providers are allowed to do.

Privacy Law in Europe. When Britain’s beloved Princess Diana died in a car crash on August 30, 1997, the entire world mourned, and many people in Europe and the United States blamed the accident on overly aggressive photographers chasing the car in which she was riding. Although evidence soon came to light that Diana’s driver had been drunk at the time, the high-speed chase through the streets of Paris brought the privacy rights of the rich and famous to the forefront of the public’s attention.46

Jon Rawlinson

There's a massive demand for photos of celebrities doing even menial things like grocery shopping that paparazzi will go to extreme lengths to obtain. In recent years, there have been a number of high- profile privacy cases against paparazzi.

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France has relatively strict privacy laws that proclaim “each individual has the right to require respect for his private life. . . . Privacy revolves around the secrecy of one’s intimate life and the right to oppose investigation and revelation of this domain.” 47 This protects against coverage of a person’s family life, sexual activity or orientation, illness, and private leisure activities. The person suing does not need to show that he or she has been damaged; the law presumes that invasion of privacy, by its very nature, is damaging.

Despite the strength of the restrictions, the penalties for violating the laws are relatively mild.48 Most fines are under $50,000, and the French press view them largely as a cost of doing business. Although the law also allows the courts to confiscate the publications containing the offending photographs, in practice the courts almost never do so.49 Whereas France has relatively strict laws, until recently, British law did not recognize an individual’s right to privacy. For example, in 1987, British actor Gorden Kaye suffered a serious head injury in an accident. Kaye was subsequently interviewed while he was semiconscious and recovering from brain surgery. The British courts ruled that the only thing legally wrong with the article was that it implied that the actor had consented to the interview. Thus, the article was published without penalty.50 In 2000, the British Parliament put into law the Human Rights Act, which requires the press to observe a “proper balance” between privacy and publicity.51 It is too soon to tell exactly how the vague standard set out in this new law will be applied. So far, actors Michael Douglas and Catherine Zeta-Jones have sued under the act to prevent a magazine from running photos of their wedding. (The celebrity couple had sold exclusive rights to

the wedding pictures to a competing publication for a reported £1 million.) The British courts finally ruled seven years later that Douglas and Zeta-Jones had the right to sell photo access exclusively to a single publication.52 Model Naomi Campbell won her case against the Mirror tabloid for running a picture of her leaving a Narcotics Anonymous meeting, while singer Elton John lost a case claiming a newspaper photo taken on the street made him look bald.53 How much protection the law will provide and what balance it will strike between the rights of the press and the rights of individuals remain to be seen, however. According to British newspaper the Guardian, the Human Rights Act may be repealed, but it would likely be replaced with a very similar new law.54 At the other end of the spectrum, neither Spain nor Germany has laws governing the actions of the press regarding the private lives of public officials and celebrities. Italy, which gave the world the word paparazzi, has limited privacy laws, but they are not enforced with significant penalties.55 (There is more about European privacy law at the end of this chapter in the section on Internet regulation.)

Free Press/Fair Trial

The right to a free press often conflicts with the right to a fair trial. The Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees accused individuals the right to be tried by an impartial jury, and the Fourteenth Amendment requires that criminal defendants be tried fairly before an unprejudiced jury. Supreme Court justice Hugo Black wrote that “free speech and fair trials are two of the most cherished policies of our civilization, and it would be a trying task to choose between them.”56 Over the years, there have been repeated charges that pretrial publicity interferes with the ability to select an impartial jury and that media coverage turns trials into circuses. These complaints became particularly loud during O. J. Simpson’s 1994 murder trial, which attracted an inordinate amount of media attention. Media scholar Matthew D. Bunker argues that the conflict between a free press and a fair trial does not require that one right be sacrificed for another. Instead, he suggests that creative decisions by judges can lead to fair trials and open media coverage at the same time.57 The general rule is that the First Amendment must be upheld unless there is a compelling state interest in regulating the speech. If speech is regulated, it must

Staff Sergeant Preston Chasteen/Department of Defense

The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995 was the deadliest act of homegrown terrorism in U.S. history, resulting in the deaths of 168 people.

be done in the least restrictive way possible. The reasoning is that there should be no official version of the truth. Instead, people should be able to put forward contrasting ideas that compete for attention.

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The Case of Dr. Sam Sheppard. One of the most spectacular collisions between the right to a free press and the right to a fair trial involved the murder trial of Dr.Sam Sheppard. The case, later fictionalized in the television series and movie The Fugitive, involved the murder of Sheppard’s wife, Marilyn, who was found beaten to death in their home in 1954. In his defense, Sheppard, a prominent Cleveland doctor, claimed to have been awakened by his wife’s screams and to have fought with his wife’s attacker, who left him unconscious.

Sheppard’s story did not convince the police, and he soon became the leading suspect in his wife’s murder. Reporters found out that Sheppard had been having an affair with a woman named Susan Hayes. A newspaper headline demanded “Why Isn’t Sam Sheppard in Jail?” As the trial began, the Cleveland newspapers printed the names and addresses of prospective jurors, along with their pictures. Jurors were also allowed to view the media during the trial, despite a “suggestion” by the judge that they avoid doing so.

Sheppard was convicted of murder, but his conviction was

overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, and he was given a new trial. This time he was acquitted. The Court, in Sheppard v. Maxwell,58 said that the “carnival atmosphere” surrounding Sheppard’s trial had denied him due process. But the Court also noted that it was the judge’s responsibility to make sure the defendant received a fair trial. If stopping coverage of the trial was not an option, what could the courts do to avoid this problem? The Court suggested a number of possibilities:59

• Put a gag order on participants in the trial to keep them from talking to the press in the first place (although the press would be free to report on anything that happened in the courtroom itself).

• Sequester the jury. • Postpone the trial until the publicity dies down. • Change the venue for the trial. • Order a new trial.

Oklahoma City Bombing Case. Beyond the Sam Sheppard case, the most important free press/fair trail case over the last thirty years is undoubtedly the Timothy McVeigh trial for the 1995 bombing of the Oklahoma City Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building that resulted in the death of 168 victims including numerous children and eight federal agents. Chad F. Nye, in his book Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trials, found eleven major areas of free press/fair trial law to emerge from the case, including:

• Concerns about pretrial publicity in a case that affected directly or indirectly almost every family in the Oklahoma City area.

• The challenges of handling access for a huge press corps that produced more than 1,700 newspaper stories and more than 900 broadcast stories.

• The challenge of getting access to the trial for the people of Oklahoma City after the trial was moved to Denver, Colorado, because the defense argued that McVeigh and his accused collaborator Terry Nichols could not get a fair trial in Oklahoma. The judge ordered the court to have a closed-circuit television feed set up that would bring the

trial from the Denver courtroom into an auditorium in Oklahoma City where family members of the victims could see and hear testimony. The judge also allowed journalists who couldn’t get into the courtroom itself to listen to an audio feed of the trial, as long as they promised not to record or rebroadcast any of the testimony.

In the end, U.S. District Judge Richard Match kept everyone involved in the trial under tight control that satisfied both the rights of the accused and the rights of the public and the press to observe the trial.60

Cameras in the Courtroom. While there is no question that reporters and the public are entitled to view trials, there has been considerable debate over whether television and other cameras ought to be allowed in the courtroom.

The central argument in favor of allowing cameras is that the right to an open trial belongs to the public, not to the participants in the trial. Steven Brill, founder of the cable network Court TV (now truTV), argues that television coverage of trials

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch a segment about cameras in the courtroom. CLICK TO SHOW

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TEST YOUR VISUAL MEDIA LITERACY

SHOULD LEGAL PROTECTIONS EXTEND TO OFFENSIVE SPEECH? he Westboro Baptist Church (WBC) of Topeka, Kansas, has

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJ9prhPV2PI

Douglas Graham/Roll Call via Getty Images

What’s your first reaction to this photo? Does it shock and anger you? Why or why not? Should members of groups such as the Westboro Baptist Church have the right to picket near a soldier’s funeral?

made itself infamous over the last decade by picketing the funerals of U.S.

servicemen and women, as well as other high-profile funerals, carrying signs proclaiming “GOD HATES FAGS” and “THANK GOD FOR DEAD SOLIDERS.” The church, which is not connected to any other Baptist denomination, is generally described as being mainly composed of the extended family of its founder and former leader, the late Fred Phelps. The church argues that God is punishing the United States for homosexuality, and its members picket the funerals to draw attention to their group.1 (Phelps died in March 2014, but the WBC has continued with its pickets reportedly under the leadership of nonrelative Steve Drain.2)

In 2006, the Phelps family brought their pickets to the funeral of Lance Cpl. Matthew Snyder, who was killed in Iraq. The protesters were reportedly kept approximately one thousand feet away from the church where the funeral was being held. Then, a week later, a member of the WBC posted an “epic” to the church’s Web site that told a disparaging story about Snyder and his family, claiming that Snyder’s parents raised him to “defy his creator” and that they taught him that “God was a liar.” Albert Snyder, Matthew’s father, sued Phelps for intentional infliction of emotional distress and invasion of privacy. He was initially awarded an $11 million judgment, but that judgment was later reduced to $5 million by the judge. The case was then reversed by the federal appeals court, based in part on the Supreme Court’s ruling in Falwell v. Flynt that even speech that was “gross and repugnant in the eye of most” was still protected.3

When the case of Snyder v. Phelps reached the U.S. Supreme Court, there was an extensive public debate over the rights

of the Phelps family to free speech versus the rights of the Snyder family to bury their son in peace.

During arguments before the court, the attorney for the Snyder family testified, “We’re talking about a funeral. If the context is ever going to matter, it has to matter in the context of a funeral. Mr. Snyder simply wanted to bury his son in a private, dignified manner.”4 In response, Margie J. Phelps, daughter of Fred Phelps, argued that there is no constitutional law to keep her from exploiting a funeral for her cause. She told the court that “when I hear the language of ‘exploiting the bereavement,’ I look for: What is the principle of law that comes from this court? This notion of exploiting, it has no definition in a principle of law that would guide people as to when they could or could not.”5

The Court eventually ruled in favor of the Phelps family’s right to protest in an 8–1 decision, holding that the Phelps family had followed local laws and stayed the required thousand feet away from the funeral. Chief Justice John Roberts, writing for the majority, said that “speech is powerful. It can stir people to action, move them to tears of both joy and sorrow, and—as it did here—inflict great pain. On the facts before us, we cannot react to that pain by punishing the speaker. As a Nation we have chosen a different course—to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate.”6

In an odd twist, the WBC picketed the funeral of Supreme Court justice Antonin Scalia, who had voted with the majority in the Snyder v. Phelps case in favor of the church’s right to picket.7

Who are they? Who is Fred Phelps? Who is Albert Snyder?

What did they say? Why did Albert Snyder sue Fred Phelps and the Westboro Baptist Church? Why do Phelps and his family picket veterans’ funerals?

What evidence is there? What grounds would the Court have had for ruling in favor of Snyder? What grounds did the Court have for ruling in favor of Phelps?

What do you and your classmates think? Do you agree with how the Court ruled in the Phelps case? Why or why not? What would the consequences be for free speech if the Court had ruled against Phelps? What can communities do (if anything) about the WBC protests? Do you think people have a right to protest at or near funerals?

1Garrett Epps, “Westboro Baptist Church’s Surreal Day in Court,” The Atlantic, October 6, 2010, www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2010/10/westboro-b aptist-churchs-surreal-day-in-court/64167/.

2Caitlin Dickson, “This Man Is the Future of Westboro Baptist Church,” The Daily Beast, March 24, 2014, www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/24/t his-man-is-the-future-of-westboro-baptist-church.html.

3Stuart Taylor Jr., “Court, 8–0, Extends Right to Criticize Those in Public Eye,” The New York Times, January 25, 1988, www.nytimes.com/1988/02/25/us/cou rt-8-0-extends-right-to-criticize-those-in-public-eye.html.

4Robert Barnes, “Court Considers Westboro Baptist Church’s Anti-Gay Protests at Military Funerals,” The Washington Post, October 6, 2010, www.w ashingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/10/06/AR2010100603950. html.

5Ibid.

6John G. Roberts, “Snyder v. Phelps Excerpt: Robert’s Majority Opinion in Westboro Church Case,” The Washington Post, March 2, 2011, www.washingto npost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/02/AR2011030203069.html.

7Mark Joseph Stern, “Westboro Baptist Church to Protest Scalia’s Funeral, Exercising a Right He Voted to Protect,” Slate, February 19, 2016, http://www. slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2016/02/19/westboro_baptist_church_to_protes t_scalia_s_funeral.html

WEB Read more about Falwell v. Flynt CLICK TO SHOW

http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2010/10/westboro-baptist-churchs-surreal-day-in-court/64167/

http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/24/this-man-is-the-future-of-westboro-baptist-church.html

http://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/25/us/court-8-0-extends-right-to-criticize-those-in-public-eye.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/10/06/AR2010100603950.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/02/AR2011030203069.html

http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2016/02/19/westboro_baptist_church_to_protest_scalia_s_funeral.html

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/27/link-ch-13-remembering-the-case-of-falwell-v-flynt/

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offer[s] the public the chance to see the legal system at work and to judge with their own eyes whether it has performed properly. [It] can heighten public understanding of the system, counter rumors and speculation, and provide important insurance against abuses of defendants’ rights.61

Movie cameras were first allowed in courtrooms in 1917. But in 1935, when Bruno Richard Hauptmann was on trial for the kidnapping and murder of aviator Charles Lindbergh’s baby, the trial became a media circus. As a result, in 1937, a general ban was placed on movie and still photography in courtrooms. The fraud trial of the flamboyant Texas financier Billie Sol Estes in 1965 led to a Supreme Court decision that the time had not yet come for cameras to be allowed in the courtroom. But the Court went on to say that this might change when cameras became smaller and less intrusive.

In the 1970s and 1980s, electronic technology led to small, remote-controlled cameras. In 1977, the Florida Supreme Court started experimenting with allowing televised coverage of state court proceedings; by 1981, twenty-nine states had laws allowing partial television access.62 By 1999, the vast majority of states had begun to allow cameras in their courtrooms under certain circumstances, although the judge generally retained the discretion to control when they could be used. Most states limit coverage of jurors, and many allow witnesses to refuse to be shown on television.63 Experiments conducted in Illinois and Minnesota in the 2010s found that in general television cameras in the courtroom were not particularly disruptive. In fact, a Minnesota judge reported that she forgot the cameras were there.64 A judge in Illinois commented that the courts couldn’t use what happened in the circus-like televised O. J. Simpson murder trial because that case was “an aberration.”65 The one place cameras have not been allowed into is the U.S. Supreme Court. However, members of Congress and the judiciary have argued that the public should be able to watch the Supreme Court hear oral arguments on important cases such as the constitutionality of President Obama’s health care reform law.66

Controlling the Press

SECRET 4 Despite the First Amendment, Congress has repeatedly placed restrictions on speech and the press. These restrictions include bans on false advertising, libel, perjury, obscenity, reporting troop movements during time of war, and solicitation of murder.69 This section looks at some of these limits in detail as illustrations of Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again.

Honesty and the Press

The law clearly states that the press can be held responsible for printing material that is libelous or invades a person’s privacy, but can it require that the press behave ethically? Journalists certainly should behave ethically, but can the law require them to keep a promise or tell the truth? This question has been tested in a number of cases.

Cohen v. Cowles Media. In 1982, Republican Wheelock Whitney was running for governor of Minnesota. With just one week to go before the election, the campaign discovered that the Democratic candidate for lieutenant governor had been arrested and convicted of a minor theft eleven years earlier. What could Whitney’s campaign managers have done with this information? Simply revealing it to the public would have made them look as if they were engaging in a smear campaign. Instead, they hired local public relations practitioner Dan Cohen to leak the information to the press. Cohen spoke to a series of reporters, offering them a deal:

I have some documents which may or may not relate to a candidate in the upcoming election, and if you will give me a promise of confidentiality—that is, that I will be treated as an anonymous source, that my name will not appear in any material in connection with this, and you will also agree that you’re not going to pursue with me a question of who my source is—then I’ll furnish you with the documents.70

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Four reporters from the Minneapolis/St. Paul media agreed to

Cohen’s terms, and all received copies of the court documents. But once they had the documents, the media responded in three different ways. Television station WCCO decided not to run a story at all. The Associated Press distributed a brief story outlining the charges against the candidate that did not identify Cohen as the source of the story. But against the wishes of their reporters, both the Star Tribune and the Pioneer Press, the Twin Cities’ leading newspapers, ran stories that identified Cohen as the source of the story. In the end, the Democratic candidates won handily, and the information about the lieutenant governor seemed to have no effect on the election. There was, however, fallout for Cohen: He was immediately fired by his employer, who did not want to risk offending the new administration that Cohen had helped attack.

Cohen then sued the newspapers. He argued that the newspapers had entered into a verbal contract with him, exchanging a promise of confidentiality in return for the information he provided. The newspapers argued that they had done nothing wrong by printing Cohen’s name. Instead, they had simply printed a true and accurate story about dirty tricks during a political campaign. Although the papers clearly broke an agreement with Cohen, they said that they were entitled to do so because they were printing the truth, which was protected by the First Amendment.

SECRET 4 The trial court found in favor of Cohen and awarded him $200,000 in damages for being fired, as well as punitive damages of $500,000. The state court of appeals, however, struck down the punitive damages. When the case reached the U.S. Supreme Court, the justices ruled by a 5–4 vote that the First Amendment did not excuse the media from having to live up to the contracts into which they entered.71

Controversy over the verdict arose within the press. Although it was the source who sued the press, the conflict lay primarily between editors and reporters. Could editors overrule promises made by reporters? The local reporters’ union started urging reporters not to reveal their confidential sources to their editors unless the sources agreed to it. The newspaper publishers argued that the courts ought not to make judgments about journalistic ethics.

Food Lion v. ABC. In some instances, the courts have not punished the press for deceptive behavior. In 1992, the ABC television newsmagazine Primetime Live sent undercover reporters Lynn Dale and Susan Barnett to apply for jobs as food handlers at a Food Lion grocery store. The network had been tipped off by disgruntled union officials that the store had been cleaning, bleaching, and repackaging beef, chicken, and fish that had passed its freshness date. The reporters (who did not reveal their true occupation) wore hidden microphones and cameras to document the store’s misconduct. When the story ran, ABC charged that Food Lion had mixed old hamburger with new, sold improperly packaged chicken, and engaged in other unsanitary practices.72

SECRET 4 Food Lion sued ABC, but not for libel as might be expected. Instead, it sued the network and producers for résumé fraud and trespass. Although the story was substantially true, Food Lion was trying to punish ABC for its aggressive—some would say unethical—reporting techniques. In the initial trial, Food Lion won its case and was awarded $5.5 million in damages. (We’ll talk more about the ethics of reporters lying in Chapter 14.) But the judge reduced the award to $316,402, saying that $5.5 million was excessive for lying on a job application and entering a closed area of the store.

The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit reduced the damages to a symbolic $2: $1 for trespass and $1 for breach of loyalty (not serving their employer properly).73 The court made it clear that this was not really a résumé fraud or trespass case, but a libel suit in disguise (in which truth would be an absolute defense). Food Lion argued that the broadcast had damaged its reputation and that it deserved compensation, but the court held that the reporters’ only offense was lying on their résumés. The judgment, although technically ruling against ABC with the award of symbolic damages, preserved the right of journalists to report truthful information.

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Prior Restraint

The most extreme and least accepted form of control of the press in the United States is prior restraint, a judicial order that stops a media organization from publishing a story or image. In the American colonies, prior restraint was the rule rather than the exception. All newspapers were published by the approval of the Crown; if they did not have that permission, they could not publish. But since the ratification of the First Amendment, in only a handful of cases have stories been barred from being published or broadcast.

Near v. Minnesota. The landmark case on prior restraint is the 1931 case of Near v. Minnesota. Jay Near was the publisher of the Saturday Press, a racist, anti-Semitic newspaper. Among other things, Near used his paper to charge that the police were controlled by a “Jewish gangster” and therefore were not going after gamblers and bootleggers. A Minnesota court stopped publication of the paper, using a state law allowing prosecutors to suppress publications that were “malicious, scandalous, and defamatory.”

SECRET 4 On appeal, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the government did not have the right to suppress an entire publication merely because it was offensive. Instead, the Court said that the government could engage in prior restraint only to suppress the publication of military information during time of war, incitement to overthrow the government, or obscenity. Since none of Near’s material fell into those categories, he could not be restrained from publishing it. The case established a major precedent: Although obscenity and publication of military secrets were not protected by the First Amendment, virtually everything else, no matter how offensive, was.74

The Pentagon Papers. The second major case of prior restraint arose in 1971, when the federal government tried to suppress newspaper stories about a top-secret, forty-seven-volume report with the irresistible title “History of U.S. Decision-Making Process on Vietnam Policy.” The report, which came to be known as the Pentagon Papers, contained extensive background

information about how the United States had become involved in the Vietnam War, going as far back as the Truman administration’s assistance to France in its colonial war in Indochina. Along with this lengthy commentary were copies of the original documents on which the report was based.75

One of the authors of the report was Daniel Ellsberg, a former U.S. Marine who worked for the Rand Corporation think tank. Although he made only minor contributions to the massive report, he was one of the few familiar with its entire contents. Ellsberg became convinced that if the report was publicized, the public outcry would bring the war to a quicker end. So he started leaking copies of the papers to members of Congress and a few academics. Finally, in March 1971, he gave New York Times reporter Neil Sheehan nearly seven thousand pages from the report, withholding only the four “diplomatic” volumes, which he thought should be kept confidential.

Sheehan headed a team of reporters from the New York Times that read and verified what was in the papers. There was considerable debate at the Times about the ethics of publishing the papers.

On June 13, 1971, after three months of work, the New York Times started publishing stories about the Pentagon Papers. On June 14, President Richard Nixon’s attorney general asked the paper to stop publishing the information, but it politely declined to do so. On June 15, the third installment of the series was published, and the Justice Department obtained a restraining order against the Times to prevent it from publishing any additional stories. It was, as journalist Sanford Ungar put it, “the first time in the nation’s history that a newspaper was restrained in advance by a court from publishing a specific article.”76 Ellsberg started looking for another news organization to cover the story. All three of the major broadcast networks turned him down, but the Washington Post was eager to obtain a copy of the papers. Lawyers for the Post cautioned the paper not to run the stories because the Times had already received a court order not to publish. But to Washington Post managing editor Ben Bradlee, not publishing was unthinkable—a violation of what journalism was all about: “Not publishing the information when we had it would be like not saving a drowning man, or not telling the truth.”77 So on Friday, June 18, the Post published its first Pentagon Papers story, and on June 19, the government

AP Photo

Daniel Ellsberg (left) was cleared of espionage charges for leaking copies of a top-secret Pentagon report to the press after it was revealed that the Nixon administration had authorized a break-in of Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office.

obtained a restraining order against the Post.

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At this point, the documents and stories were spreading across the country. Although approximately twenty newspapers published articles based on the Pentagon Papers, only four were taken to court: the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Boston Globe, and the St. Louis Post-Dispatch.78

The U.S. Supreme Court heard arguments on the restraining orders on Saturday, June 26, and voted 6–3 to allow the newspapers to resume publishing their stories. Justice Potter Stewart raised the central issue in the case: Did the publication of the Pentagon Papers pose “such a grave and immediate danger as to justify prior restraint?” Stewart said that it did not: “The only effective restraint upon executive policy and power . . . may lie in an informed and enlightened citizenry—in an informed and critical public opinion which alone can here protect the values of democratic government.”79 Justice William O. Douglas wrote that one of the primary goals of the First Amendment is to stop the government from covering up embarrassing information. In fact, the reason the First Amendment was ratified in the first place was to put a stop to random charges of seditious libel against people who were exposing embarrassing information about the government. The court pointed out that the government had been engaging in activism, not analysis, when it sought to control the release of the Pentagon Papers.

Now, more than forty-five years later, the lessons of New York Times Co. v. United States80 (informally known as the Pentagon Papers case) are still relevant. While the Pentagon Papers were

classified “top secret,” the secrets they contained were embarrassing political secrets, not dangerous military secrets.81 In 1989, Erwin Griswold, who had argued the government’s case before the Supreme Court, said that he had “never seen any trace of a threat to the national security” from publication of the papers.82 But what about Daniel Ellsberg, the man who leaked copies of the Pentagon Papers to the press? The legality of Ellsberg’s releasing the documents was never really resolved. Ellsberg was indicted on charges of conspiracy, misappropriation of government property, and violating the Espionage Act. But the court eventually declared a mistrial and dismissed the charges against him after it was revealed that the Nixon administration had Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office burglarized and made illegal recordings of the sessions there. In recent years, Ellsberg has spoken out against the Persian Gulf War and the invasion of Iraq.83

The Progressive Case. In the Pentagon Papers case, the newspapers were desperately trying to publish their articles. But eight years later, author Howard Morland and the Progressive magazine wanted to have an article censored. Morland was an Air Force pilot turned antinuclear activist who maintained that the government was concealing details about how hydrogen bombs operate—not for security reasons but to stifle public opposition to the weapon. Morland used unclassified documents and interviews with scientists to write an article explaining how these weapons of mass destruction worked. Morland and the Progressive knew that censorship would transform the article from an obscure piece in a radical magazine into a cause célèbre that would receive nationwide publicity.

They got their wish. A former professor of Morland’s submitted an early draft of the article to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), which manages nuclear material in the United States. In addition, the magazine’s editor sent the article and drawings to the DOE to have them checked for accuracy. On March 1, 1979, a district court judge in Wisconsin issued a temporary restraining order against the Progressive because the article presented a “clear and present danger” to the United States.

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It initially appeared that the government might have a good case

against Morland and the Progressive. The Near case (discussed earlier in this chapter) had established that the government could censor a publication that published “the sailing dates of transports or the number and location of troops.” Although the types of information involved in national security had changed since Near, the same argument might be made—that the article would compromise national security by giving away military secrets. (It should be noted that although the article explained how a hydrogen bomb worked, it did not provide instructions for building one.)

Central to the Progressive’s defense was the argument that there were no secrets in the article because all the material it contained was available from nonclassified sources. The government argued that Morland’s organization of the material into an article made it a security problem.84 While the Progressive case was under appeal, a number of people started working on similar articles. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reporter Joe Manning re-created Morland’s research and published a two-part story that covered the three “secrets” from Morland’s article in fairly simple terms. Then nuclear hobbyist Charles Hansen wrote an eighteen-page letter to the editor of the Madison Press Connection that outlined much the same information as Morland’s article. On September 17, 1979, the day after the Hansen letter appeared, the government dropped its case, declaring that its attempt to suppress the information was “meaningless, superfluous, unnecessary, inconsequent.”85 The Progressive finally ran Morland’s article in November 1979 under the headline “The H-Bomb Secret: How We Got It, Why We’re Telling It,” but it was a somewhat hollow victory for the magazine.86 Its editors had gotten the attention they sought, but unfortunately for them, everyone saw the case as a freedom-of- the-press issue—not the important debate over nuclear weapons they were hoping for.

The Pentagon Papers and Progressive cases have two important implications. The first is that much information that the government would like to believe is secret is actually public knowledge. The second is that in a free and open society it is very difficult to keep information secret that determined people want to make public. And with the addition of the Internet to the range of available media, virtually anyone is able to publish any information widely and easily. Although it is still possible to punish individuals and media corporations after the fact for

publishing or broadcasting inappropriate material, prior restraint is becoming virtually impossible in the United States and the Western democracies.

Free Speech and Students

Do the rights that protect adult journalists also protect student reporters working on high school newspapers? More than twenty-five years ago, the U.S. Supreme Court decided the answer is no. In 1988, a group of high school students in Hazelwood, Missouri, sued the school system because their principal had barred articles about pregnancy and divorce from the student newspaper. The Supreme Court in Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier87 ruled that a principal could censor a student newspaper when it was produced as part of a class. It wrote:

WEB Free speech and students. CLICK TO SHOW

The First Amendment rights of students in the public schools are not automatically co-extensive with the rights of adults in other settings . . . A school need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with its “basic educational mission,” even though the government could not censor similar speech outside the school.88

The Court ruled that the student newspaper is a classroom exercise rather than a vehicle for free speech, and hence administrators may censor any content that is “reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns.”89

One way students have reacted against this censorship is by starting Web-based newspapers that are not sponsored by the school. In addition, at least eleven states have passed laws that restore to high school students the rights they had prior to the Hazelwood decision. These laws limit the circumstances under which student newspapers can be censored, generally allowing articles to be banned only if they are “libelous, obscene, or will create a substantial disruption of school activities.”90 Interestingly enough, in March 2016, the Missouri house passed the Walter Cronkite New Voices Act that restored the rights to

http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/first-amendment-college-campus-millennials/477171/

©Clay Good/ZUMA

Student Joseph Frederick was suspended from his high school in 2002 for displaying a sign reading “BONG HiTS 4 JESUS”. The U.S. Supreme Court supported his suspension in a 5–4 ruling.

student journalists they had lost in the Hazelwood case. According to the new law, students journalists are responsible for the content of their newspapers “unless such material is libelous, an invasion of privacy, a violation of the law or incites students to create a clear and present danger.” The bill did not make it through the state senate, however. It passed through committee but was never brought forward for an up or down vote.91

WEB What are the implications of Hazelwood 25 years later? CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Read about students getting expelled for posting online. CLICK TO SHOW

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There have also been several cases that dealt with schools trying to limit the free speech of students in other venues. Some schools have attempted to limit what students can post to either blogs or social networking sites such as Facebook and Myspace. Three middle school students in the Chicago area were suspended after they posted “obscene and threatening” comments about a teacher in their blog. Schools in the Washington, D.C., area have banned students from using their school-provided e-mail accounts to register with Facebook.92 And a student in Indiana was expelled from high school for a grammar joke laced with the “F word” that he tweeted late at night from what he claims was his own computer.93 Student Joseph Frederick was suspended from a Juneau, Alaska, high school in 2002 by the

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2013/01/14/the-hazelwood-decisions-25th-anniversary/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/28/ch-13-links-students-expelled-for-what-they-post-online/

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do students lose their First Amendment rights when they enter the schoolhouse door? Why or why not? Should school administrators be able to freely censor student publications?

principal, Deborah Morse, for holding up a giant sign saying “BONG HiTS 4 JESUS” across the street from his high school as the Olympic torch passed through his town.94 The school district in the case claims that the student was promoting drug use. The student responded, “I wasn’t trying to say anything about drugs. I was just trying to say something. I wanted to use my right to free speech, and I did it.”95 The case, known as Morse v. Frederick, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2007. The Court ruled on June 25, 2007, that principals could punish speech that could “reasonably be viewed” as promoting the use of illegal drugs.96

Interestingly enough, the student received support from the ACLU, gay rights advocates, and the Christian Legal Society (CLS). (The CLS and gay rights groups were concerned that other school districts might use the case as a way of limiting speech about religious or gay rights issues.)

Many students may not be aware that their rights are being limited or what their rights entail. A survey of more than one hundred thousand high-school-aged students found that three- fourths of them believed incorrectly that flag burning was a crime. The survey also found that 36 percent of students said newspapers should get government permission before publishing stories and that 32 percent said the press has “too much freedom to do what it wants.”97

Journalists Going to Jail

Many states have shield l aws that protect journalists from having to testify in court (and divulge sources) under certain circumstances, but there is currently no federal shield law in place. Many journalists are lobbying strongly for one.

The U.S. Senate has been considering bills creating a federal shield law for several years. The 2014 version of the bill easily passed out of the Judiciary Committee, but as of this writing had

not been put up for a vote of the full senate.98 Critiques of earlier versions of the bill noted that it would only cover a reporter or blogger who “obtains the information sought while working as a salaried employee of, or independent contractor for, an entity.”99 In other words, only professional, paid journalists would be covered. Citizen journalists, student journalists, or anyone who had a day job not in journalism would be excluded. Some journalists find shield laws of concern because they seem to define who is a journalist—and is thus protected—while excluding others who are not considered journalists. First Amendment attorney David Bodney says, “Any attempt to legislate the scope of our First Amendment rights is unsettling business.”100 Despite these concerns, Bodney does support the proposed federal law.

Since the 1960s, a number of journalists have been either fined or sent to jail for refusing to testify in federal courts. These have included journalists who witnessed drug crimes or the actions of the Black Panther Party and some who interviewed murder suspects.

More recently, journalists Matt Cooper and Judith Miller faced fines and jail time for refusing to testify to a federal grand jury about who had leaked information to them about the identity of a covert CIA officer. Both were eventually granted permission to testify by the source they sought to protect, vice presidential adviser I. Lewis “Scooter” Libby Jr. Time magazine’s Cooper testified without serving jail time after his employer ordered him to do so. New York Times reporter Miller went to jail for eighty- five days for refusing to testify in the same case. Miller finally accepted the release by Libby from her promise of confidentiality and testified.101

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Are Bloggers Protected. As concerned journalists are aware, the big question is who is entitled to shield law protection. There is no question that shield laws protect newspaper, television, and radio reporters, but what about independent bloggers? Are they considered journalists too? Possibly, but this isn’t a certainty. A California judge ruled that three blogging sites had to reveal their sources of company secrets about Apple Inc., but that decision was overturned on appeal when the court ruled

that bloggers were protected by California’s shield law.102

WEB An example of why bloggers matter. CLICK TO SHOW

San Francisco blogger Josh Wolf spent close to eight months in jail after refusing to testify about an anarchists’ demonstration he witnessed, the longest sentence to date served by a member of the media. Wolf answered two questions for prosecutors and released a copy of videotape he had shot, something he had been willing to do all along. What he was not willing to do was testify about all he had seen at the demonstration.103 While Wolf was in jail, a debate raged as to whether he deserved protection as a journalist. He had not made a promise of confidentiality, nor was he employed by a mainstream media outlet. But Wolf maintained that when he was shooting video, he was acting as a journalist. “It was journalism to the extent that I went out to capture the truth and present it to the public,” Wolf said. “It has nothing to do with whether or not I’m employed by a corporation or I carry a press pass.”104

Obscenity

The Near case, in addition to allowing prior restraint of sensitive military information, established that obscene material is not protected by the First Amendment. The term obscenity describes sexually explicit material that is legally prohibited from being published. This raises the question of what kinds of material can be considered obscene. Finding the answer has proved difficult, both for the courts and for society.105

Roth v. United States. The Supreme Court made its first contemporary attempt to answer the question of what constitutes obscenity in 1957 in Roth v. United States.106 Samuel Roth, who ran a business selling sexually explicit books, photos, and magazines, had been convicted of mailing obscene material through the U.S. Postal Service. He appealed his case to the U.S. Supreme Court, which eventually upheld his conviction. But more important, the Court used the case to start establishing standards for what was and was not protected by

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the First Amendment. The Roth case reaffirmed that the courts could regulate obscenity and that obscenity is not protected by the First Amendment. But the justices also cautioned that “sex and obscenity are not synonymous.”107

With Roth, the court established a three-part test to help determine whether something is obscene: “Whether to the average person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material taken as a whole appeals to prurient interests.”108 The three parts of this test can be analyzed as follows:

1. The standard for obscenity is set by individual “community standards” using the view of an “average person.” This means that neither the most liberal nor the most conservative view should be used, nor should there be a national standard.

2. The work must be “taken as a whole.” It’s not enough for there to be a single sexually explicit section; the work as a whole must be explicit to be obscene.

3. The work must appeal to “prurient interests.” This is the most difficult point. Prurient interest means, according to the Court, an “exacerbated, morbid or perverted” interest in nudity, sex, or excretory functions.109

Miller v. California. The standards established in the Roth case were refined with the Supreme Court’s ruling in Miller v. California. Like Roth, Miller had been convicted of sending obscene material through the mail. The Miller case upheld the basic standard from Roth but had further impact in two key areas. The first is that states have used this ruling to ban child pornography, and many states have added laws that ban other types of content.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

AP Photo/Dana Verkouteran

Photographers aren’t allowed to take pictures of the U.S. Supreme Court in action, so news outlets use sketch artists to portray the action there. This sketch from 2009 shows then U.S. solicitor general Elena Kagan arguing the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. Kagan went on to become an associate justice of the Supreme Court in 2010.

CITIZENS UNITED V. FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION

s spending money on behalf of a candidate or an issue the same as

speaking out in favor of or in opposition to it? According to the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, it is.1

In the case, a nonprofit company sued to be able to run a documentary film on cable television that some saw as a thinly disguised anti–Hillary Clinton political ad. The Federal Election Commission (FEC) said the film couldn’t be aired because the McCain- Feingold public law dealing with campaign financing prohibited corporate- funded commercials for or against a presidential candidate from being aired less than thirty days before the election.

Citizens United appealed the ruling, and the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that organizations such as corporations and labor unions, as well as individuals, could give money in unlimited amounts to political action committees (PACs). These so-called super PACs can bundle together contributions to either support or oppose a particular candidate or issue. The one caveat is that the committees are not allowed to directly coordinate their activities with those of a candidate’s official campaign.

How separate these are is a matter of some debate, with top campaign officials oftentimes being on the steering committees for the associated super PAC.

James Bopp, a conservative activist lawyer, argues that the Court’s decision makes it possible for individuals and organizations to create more political speech through their spending. As an example, multimillionaire Sheldon Adelson helped keep Newt Gingrich’s primary run for the Republican nomination going in 2012 by making a $10 million donation to Gingrich’s super PAC. Other supporters of the decision argue that the ads supported by the super PACs create a better informed public.2

Before the Citizens United case, an individual could spend unlimited money directly on advertising that supported or attacked a candidate, but he or she couldn’t give that money to a political action committee.3

Critics of the ruling argue that it puts almost unlimited political power in the hands of those who have the most money to spend.4

What is the source? What is the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission? What was Citizens United arguing?

What was the ruling? How did the U.S. Supreme Court decide in this case? What were the Court’s other options?

What evidence is there? Read the linked articles for more on the Citizens United case, then answer the following question: How has the Citizens United case changed politics in the United States? How did the justices make their ruling?

What do you and your classmates think about the Citizens United case?

Is the spending of money the same as political speech? How do you view the Citizens United case? Does it free up the

political process or put too much power in the hands of a few individuals?

1Jeffrey Toobin, “Annals of Law: Money Unlimited,” The New Yorker, May 21, 2012, www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/05/21/120521fa_fact_toobin.

2Terry Gross, “Understanding the Impact of Citizens United,” NPR, February 12, 2012, www.npr.org/2012/02/23/147294511/understanding-the-impact-o f-citizens-united.

3Richard L. Hasen, “The Numbers Don’t Lie,” Slate, March 9, 2012, www.slate.c om/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2012/03/the_supreme_court_s_citizens _united_decision_has_led_to_an_explosion_of_campaign_spending_.html.

4Joan Walsh, “John Roberts’ Gilded Age SCOTUS,” Salon, May 14, 2012, http:// www.salon.com/2012/05/14/john_roberts_gilded_age_scotus/.

AUDIO Listen to more on the Citizens United case. CLICK TO SHOW

The second key aspect of Miller is it held that material that has “serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value” cannot be banned. This protects, for example, information about sexual health and birth control. It also protects erotic literature, such as D. H. Lawrence’s novel Lady Chatterley’s Lover. Miller also reaffirmed that local communities could set their own standards. There is not an expectation, the Court said, that “the people of Maine or Mississippi accept public depiction of conduct found tolerable in Las Vegas or New York City.”110

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Obscenity in the Information Age. The Roth and Miller standards both assume that obscene material is being sold at a particular location in a particular community. Neither case anticipated the problems raised by the growth of the Internet and satellite television. What can the courts do about sexually explicit material that is located on a Web server in New York City but is viewed by a person in Morgantown, West Virginia? Attorney Rieko Mashima’s piece in Computer Lawyer explains the problem: “On the Internet, which is available to a nationwide audience, a sender of information can neither control where it

http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/05/21/120521fa_fact_toobin

http://www.npr.org/2012/02/23/147294511/understanding-the-impact-of-citizens-united

http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2012/03/the_supreme_court_s_citizens_united_decision_has_led_to_an_explosion_of_campaign_spending_.html

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will be downloaded or through which places it will travel, nor tailor contents for different communities.”111

Pay-per-view cable and satellite television provide a similar problem. In 1999, Larry W. Peterman, owner of a video store in Provo, Utah, was charged with renting obscene films and appeared to be headed to jail. Then his lawyer came up with the idea of recording all the erotic movies that could be seen on pay- per-view at the Provo Marriott Hotel across the street from the courtroom. A little more research found that far more people in Provo were buying adult movies from cable and satellite providers and in hotels than from Peterman’s video store. The jury promptly acquitted Peterman on all charges.112 The courts have yet to rule definitively on how to handle local control of pornography delivered by satellite or Internet, although Congress made an attempt to do so with the Telecommunications Act of 1996, discussed later in this chapter. And as of 2004, the FCC started cracking down on what it called “indecent” communication on broadcast television, as discussed in Chapter 9.

WEB Is this the copyright law revision we need? CLICK TO SHOW

Regulation of the Media Industry

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Riccardo S. Savi/Getty Images

Stanford University law professor Lawrence Lessig led the group that created the alternative copyright licenses known as Creative Commons.

Video Case 13.4: Digital culture and copyright.

The print media have been largely unregulated throughout the history of the United States beyond copyright and fair use provisions. But broadcast media have been necessarily controlled from the beginning, for two reasons: Radio and television stations have to meet certain technical standards to keep from interfering with each other’s broadcasts, and the government has an interest in making sure that the limited number of broadcast frequencies available are used in the public interest. In this section, we look at how these controls of the media industry have been applied.

Creators of books, newspapers, magazines, music, and other media products have been protected from having their works appropriated by others since the first U.S. copyright law was passed in 1790. In the law’s original form, works were protected for fourteen years, and copyright could be renewed for an additional fourteen years. This protection was extended only to U.S. authors and artists, however. It wasn’t until the 1890s that copyright was extended to works by authors and artists from other countries. Under the leadership of Barbara Ringer in the 1960s and 1970s, the length of copyright was increased from the original twenty-eight years to fifty years after the creator’s

death for an individual copyright. In 1998, the Copyright Term Extension Act extended individual copyright to seventy years after the creator’s death, and extended corporate copyright to ninety-five years. Why ninety-five years for the corporate copyright? If not for that extension, Mickey Mouse would have entered the public domain in 2003.113 The 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act expanded the copyright on materials that are recorded digitally, such as electronic books, CDs, and DVDs. It has long been illegal to distribute duplicate copies of electronic material without permission, but the act also makes it a crime to produce software or hardware designed to break the copy protection on movies, music, or other software. The act leaves users in an odd position: It is legal to make a backup copy of a DVD movie for personal use, but it is illegal to use a computer program that will make a copy of the protected movie. 114 In 2002, a group led by Sanford University law professor Lawrence Lessig created an alternative set of copyright licenses known as Creative Commons that allow authors and artists to reserve a limited set of rights for a creative work without using all the restrictions of a conventional copyright. For example, a photographer can license his or her photo so that anyone can use the image without permission as long as he or she attributes the photo to the original creator. The main advantage of Creative Commons is that it allows creators a middle ground between full copyright and placing their work in the public domain.115

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AUDIO What a “Goodnight Moon” Spinoff Tells Us About Copyri ght Law. CLICK TO SHOW

As the present edition of this book was close to completion, the courts were busy making rulings on several musical copyright issues, including Led Zeppelin’s “Stairway to Heaven.” For a multimedia look at the latest on this subject, visit my blog at ww w.ralphehanson.com/?s=copyright.

The Rise and Fall of Broadcast

http://www.npr.org/sections/money/2016/06/16/482214814/what-a-goodnight-moon-spinoff-tells-us-about-copyright-law

http://www.ralphehanson.com/?s=copyright

Regulation

Broadcast regulation began with the Radio Act of 1912, passed immediately after the sinking of the Titanic. But this regulation dealt only with point-to-point communication, such as ship-to- shore radio. Meanwhile, commercial broadcasting got its start in 1920 when radio station KDKA went on the air in Pittsburgh. By 1925, broadcasters were calling for regulation by the government to bring stability to the new industry.

The Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission. This act was also the first to charge broadcast stations with acting in the “public interest, convenience, and necessity.” With the Communications Act of 1934, the Radio Commission evolved into the Federal Communications Commission. The 1934 act brought all electronic communication, wired and wireless, under the control of the FCC, but the basic tenets of the 1927 act remained in place:116 The airwaves are licensed to broadcasters, but the broadcasters do not own them.

• The FCC has the power to regulate broadcasters to ensure that they act in the public interest.

• The FCC can tell broadcasters what frequencies and power to use and where their transmitters can be located.

Mandating Fairness on the Air

In addition to attempting to regulate the murky area of indecency, the FCC has regulated how broadcasters handle political campaigns and controversial issues.

The Equal Time Provision. The FCC’s equal time provision requires broadcast stations to make equivalent amounts of broadcast time available to all candidates running for public office. The rule does not require stations to provide time to candidates; it requires them only to ensure that all candidates have equal access. So if a station sells time to one candidate, it must be willing to sell an equal amount of similarly valuable time to all candidates who can afford it. The rule also states that if a station gives free non–news time to one candidate, it must provide similar amounts of free time to all candidates. The

purpose of the rule is to prevent stations from favoring one candidate over another while making use of a valuable public resource.117

The equal time provision has been subject to controversy in cases where candidates have sought to run ads that are either offensive or libelous. Because stations cannot edit or censor anything in political advertisements, the FCC has ruled that broadcasters are not responsible for libelous statements made in political ads. There has also been conflict over explicit antiabortion ads. In 1992 and 1994, some stations channeled the graphic messages and images contained in such ads to a “safe harbor” time between midnight and 6 a.m., when children were unlikely to see them. Indiana congressional candidate Michael Bailey objected to the channeling, saying that the explicit ads were an essential part of his campaign; he persuaded stations to run the ads during prime time, although the stations ran disclaimers before many of them. The FCC has since said that ads dealing with abortion could be channeled into the “safe harbor” time periods.118 There are limits to what candidates can do. When Hustler publisher Larry Flynt declared that he would run for president and would broadcast pornographic campaign commercials under the equal time provision, the FCC said that the “no censorship” clause would not apply to “obscene or indecent political announcements.”

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS WHO OWNS YOUR SOCIAL MEDIA CONTENT?

ou’ve posted a lot of material on social media. You’ve got several hundred photos of you and your friends, all tagged with your names and locations. You’ve got

stories about your vacation, a political rant or two, and tons of birthday wishes you’ve handed out. Most of those photos you post or tweet are of interest only to you, your family, or your friends. But suppose you share a photo you’ve taken of

breaking news on your Twitter feed, and a couple of legacy media outlets publish the photo without payment to you. Is that OK?

The question of who owns what you’ve posted to social media sites is complex, and it has big implications on how we pay for the sites with access online. The exact uses that a social media site can make of your content depend in part on its terms of service (TOS) agreement—the endlessly long document you clicked off on agreeing with to use the service.

Social media sites almost certainly are not allowed to provide or resell your content to other publishers. Freelance photographer Daniel Morel successfully sued for payment from both the photo agency Agence France-Presse (AFP) and the Washington Post for reprinting or distributing photos he had tweeted of the 2010 Haitian earthquake. AFP argued that because Morel had posted high-resolution images of his photos to Twitter he was allowing any use of his images.67 But if you post photos to a sharing service like Tumblr or Pinterest, other users of the service are allowed to reblog or pin what you’ve put up as long as they don’t claim the work as their own. And once you’ve posted an image, you have no guarantee that deleting the photo will ever get it completely off the social network.68 The one thing social media sites are absolutely able to do is target advertising at you based on the content you post or respond to online— which is why your author continues to get ads for science fiction and action movies on his Facebook page.

HaVe you ever posted something to a social media site that could have commercial value? What was it? What did you do to protect it?

HOW have you made use of photos, artwork, or other content you’ve found on social media sites?

WHY might legacy news outlets want to use materials that initially show up through social media channels?

WEB

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Have you read your social media Terms of Service lat ely? CLICK TO SHOW

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The Fairness Doctrine. More controversial than the equal time provision was the fairness doctrine. Under this 1949 rule, stations were required to cover controversial issues of public interest and to present contrasting views on those issues. The fairness doctrine required not that stations give the same amount of time to all sides of an issue, but rather that they “afford reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance.”119

The major objection to the fairness doctrine was that stations might avoid covering controversial issues because they did not want to present extreme viewpoints or cover every aspect of an issue. For example, stations would argue that they did not want to cover issues dealing with racism for fear of having to give the Ku Klux Klan an opportunity to participate. Critics argued that

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the public suffered because they received no coverage of issues rather than every possible variation.

A 1985 study by the FCC found that the fairness doctrine tended to inhibit free speech and was no longer needed because of new media outlets such as cable television. Moreover, the FCC had had to deal with thousands of complaints filed under the rule each year. Following publication of the 1985 study, the FCC essentially stopped enforcing the fairness doctrine, and it was repealed in 1987.120 Despite this, radio talk show hosts such as Rush Limbaugh continued to argue that the federal government was considering bringing back the fairness doctrine in order to silence conservative commentators.121 In a strange footnote, the FCC announced in the summer of 2011 that it was finally taking the language that authorized the fairness doctrine out of its regulation book. Why was it still listed there despite being repealed in 1987? Technically, it was still the rule even though the FCC had voted against its enforcement nearly twenty-five years earlier.122

The Telecommunications Act of 1996

The Telecommunications Act of 1996 has been called the biggest reform of broadcast regulation since the formation of the FCC in 1934.

Revising Broadcast Regulation. The section of the Telecommunications Act that attracted the most attention was the one calling for the creation of the V-chip, which allows parents to electronically block material with a particular content rating. But the greatest impact the act has had is that it relaxed most of the rules that restricted how many broadcast stations a particular company can own. This led to the rapid turnover of many broadcast properties and an increasing concentration of ownership, completing a trend that began in the 1970s and 1980s.123 (For more about concentration of media ownership, see Chapter 3.)

Regulation of the Internet. In addition to calling for the V-chip, the Communications Decency Act provision of the Telecommunications Act of

The Washington Post/Getty Images

Protestors march past the FCC headquarters in Washington, D.C. before the commission met to discuss a net neutrality proposal in 2014.

1996 attempted to regulate the Internet in a similar way to the regulation of broadcasting.

Figuring out what kind of medium the Internet is from a legal standpoint has been a problem for both Congress and the courts. On the one hand, the Internet looks something like television because it comes in over a wire and is displayed on a screen, and many Web sites are maintained by the same companies that operate television networks. On the other hand, the Internet can be seen as more like a newspaper or magazine. There’s a great deal of print on the Internet, and newspapers have a strong presence there. Also, the number of channels on the Internet is not limited, as is the case with broadcast or even cable television. But, unlike both television and print, the Internet has strong elements of interpersonal communication, resembling the telephone network in this respect. There is no central authority controlling what can and cannot be said on the Internet. Some observers argue that perhaps regulation of the Internet should model regulation of the telephone system. Others say the Internet might qualify as an open public forum, without any need for regulation at all.124 In reality, the Internet has elements of all these media—radio, broadcast and cable television, telephone, newspapers, and magazines. The companies that provide high-speed Internet service to the home are regulated to a degree, as are phone or cable television companies. First Amendment protection for media sites on the Web is similar to that given to print media. Individuals have the same levels of responsibility for what they say through the Internet as they do anywhere else. In general, Internet bulletin boards and chat rooms are treated in much the same way as telephone communication. The people posting to the bulletin boards, not the company providing Internet access, are responsible for what they say, just as a phone company is not responsible for a libelous or defamatory phone call or fax sent over its lines.

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Given that we can access huge amounts of video and audio online, is there any good reason for the government to continue regulating broadcast content? Why or why not?

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The many levels of communication on the Internet make it extremely difficult to control. The Communications Decency Act attempted to ban Internet messages that are “obscene, lewd, lascivious, filthy, or indecent.” The law was opposed by the American Library Association, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (an electronic communication rights group), and the ACLU, among others. Although the law banned only the transmission of indecent messages to minors, it seemed impossible to keep minors out of discussions involving adults.

In 1997, the Supreme Court struck down the Communications Decency Act as an unconstitutional limit on the free speech of adults. It ruled that the possibility of a minor being present in a chat room did not remove the adults’ First Amendment rights. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote in the majority opinion, “The interest in encouraging freedom of expression in a democratic society outweighs any theoretical but unproven benefit of censorship.”125 The only certainty is that Congress will continue to consider how to regulate communication on the Internet.

Since 1997, attempts have been made to pass new legislation that would control “indecent” content on the Web without infringing on the free speech of adults.126 You can read more about regulation of the Internet in Chapter 10.

Net Neutrality

In the fall of 2009, the FCC started working on writing rules on Net neu trality, rules that would require Internet providers to provide equal access to content from all providers. Under Net neutrality, telecommunication providers could not favor their own products over those of others. For example, without Net neutrality regulations, a company that provided its own

online video service could slow down access to video provider YouTube. Internet providers argue that forcing such companies to give unlimited bandwidth to applications such as streaming video could slow down access for the majority of their customers who don’t use such services.127 Cyber law attorney Tim Wu, who coined the term Net neutrality, says that creating a level playing field for content providers is essential in a world where there are a limited number of Internet service providers, such as Comcast and Charter, providing bandwidth to both senders and receivers. Complicating the debate is the fact that much of the Internet’s traffic comes from a limited number of content providers. As of 2014, half of the Internet’s traffic came from just thirty companies, including Google, Facebook, and Netflix.128

European Right to Be Forgotten Laws. In 2014, the European Court of Justice ruled that people who live in the European Union (EU) have a right to purge search engine results they consider to be out of date or irrelevant. The “right to be forgotten” ruling requires that Google and other search providers present the edited search results on any search conducted from within any of the countries covered by the ruling.129

The right to be forgotten ruling doesn’t force anyone to take down the offending material, only to omit it from search results. According to the New York Times, these requests have included removing links to news articles, a link to a mass shooter’s published manifesto, and an unkind slide show that called a reality TV star “an annoying, unbearable nag.”130

As of February 2016, Google had received more than 380,000 “right to be forgotten” requests and honored about 40 percent of them. The problem that Google, a U.S. company, faces is that Europe and the United States have differing notions of a right to privacy. Tanguy Van Overstraeten, a privacy lawyer in Brussels, told the New York Times, “There’s a cultural gap between Europe and the United States. “In Europe, we have a very strong position that views privacy as a fundamental right.”131

The editing of results will be don on searches within the European Union, but not in the United States or other countries outside the EU.

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CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution says that

This statement is at the core of all media law in the United States. The purpose of the amendment is to protect the free and open discussion necessary to a democratic society. Although the First Amendment guarantees the right of free speech, Congress has passed several laws that limit this freedom. These include the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798; the Espionage Act of 1917; the Smith Act of 1940; the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001; and laws controlling libel, invasion of privacy, publication of military secrets, and obscenity.

The rights of individuals are protected from actions of the media through libel law, invasion of privacy law, and guarantees of a fair trial. Libel is a statement that unjustifiably exposes someone to ridicule or contempt. For a statement to be libelous, it must include defamation, identification, and publication. In general, the media are allowed to publish defamatory material that is true, privileged, or a statement of opinion. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan established that public officials seeking to win a libel suit must show that the media acted with actual malice in publishing a false defamatory statement.

There are four basic forms of invasion of privacy: intrusion,

embarrassment, false light, and misappropriation. In some cases, journalists can defend themselves against charges of invasion of privacy by showing that the story in question was newsworthy. There is often a conflict between an individual’s right to a fair trial and the press’s right to cover that trial. The Supreme Court has generally ruled that the judge, not the press, is responsible for guaranteeing the defendant a fair trial. The Court has also ruled that protection of the right to a fair trial should require as few limits on the freedom of the press as possible. This can be done by imposing gag orders, sequestering the jury, postponing or changing the venue of a trial, or ordering a new trial.

Since 1977, courts in the United States have been experimenting with allowing cameras in the courtroom. Proponents of such a policy argue that televising trials allows the public to better understand how the justice system works. Opponents argue that cameras are intrusive and turn trials into media circuses.

Although the press is subject to the same laws as society as a whole, it is protected from censorship in most cases. The government is allowed to prevent publication of certain information only if the material is obscene or gives away military secrets during time of war. There have been only three major cases involving prior restraint: Near v. Minnesota, the Pentagon Papers case, and the Progressive H-bomb story. High school newspapers published as a classroom activity are not afforded the same level of protection, however. The courts have ruled that obscenity is not protected by the First Amendment, and they have established that the standard for obscenity will be set using state law and local community standards.

The broadcast media traditionally have been regulated much more heavily than the print media because they make use of the public airwaves. They are regulated both for technical reasons and to ensure that they serve the public interest. Major legislation controlling the broadcast media was passed in 1927, 1934, and 1996. Standards for regulating the Internet are still evolving, but they appear to be more similar to print regulations than to broadcast ones.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz

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KEY TERMS

Alien and Sedition Acts 327

libel 329

privilege 329

actual malice 330

intrusion 332

embarrassment 332

false light 332

misappropriation 333

prior restraint 339

shield laws 342

obscenity 343

equal time provision 346

fairness doctrine 346

user generated content (UGC) 347

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Net neutrality 349

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why did Apple not want to comply with the FBI’s order to hack into a terrorist’s iPhone?

2. How has the USA PATRIOT Act changed the freedoms for Americans since 9/11? How did the USA FREEDOM Act change the Patriot Act?

3. Why did the U.S. Supreme Court rule that public officials needed to meet a higher standard to win a libel suit than ordinary people do?

4. According to the U.S. Supreme Court, why do student publications have fewer First Amendment rights than do publications created by adults? What have states done in response to this?

5. Is there still a need to enforce the equal time provision on broadcast television? Why or why not? What has happened in the last ten years that might tend to change your opinion on the topic?

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CHAPTER 14

MEDIA ETHICS Truthfulness, Fairness, and Standards of Decency

Veronika Lukasova; AP Photo/Richard Drew

Media Library

CHAPTER 14 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 14.1: Moral injury.

Video Case 14.2: Journalistic ethics.

Video Case 14.3: Advertising and ethics.

Video Case 14.4: Erin Andrews trial.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO

See a multimedia 9/11 retrospective.

Watch Spock explain the principle of utility.

Watch and read about the Frey fabrication.

Watch an interview with Jose Vargas.

AUDIO

Media struggles with reporting gunman’s name.

BBC reporter arrested for talking to Qatar’s World Cup workers.

WEB

See coverage of a variety of sports injuries.

The role of tabloids in political campaigns.

Read the Press Herald apologies.

Ethics in photography.

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/09/13/sept-11-2001-retrospective/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/21/link-ch-14-spock-explains-principle-of-utility/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/02/14/link-ch-4-a-million-little-memoir-fabrications/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/06/29/jose-vargas-immigration-and-journalistic-truth-telling/

http://www.npr.org/2016/06/15/482206165/dont-say-their-name-media-struggles-with-reporting-on-orlando-gunman

http://www.npr.org/2015/05/22/408680072/talking-to-qatar-s-world-cup-workers-gets-bbc-reporter-arrested

http://www.ralphehanson.com/tag/sports-injury-photos/

http://www.npr.org/2016/03/25/471913749/tabloid-allegations-again-fly-in-a-political-campaign-and-why-no-one-can-look-aw

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2010/09/21/apologies-ramadan-911/

https://photographylife.com/the-importance-of-ethics-in-photography

P WHAT YOU’LL LEARN After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Define five major ethical principles affecting journalism.

2 Explain the Bok model for ethical decision making.

3 Explain the kinds of difficulties journalists and

Visit the website for the Organization of News Ombuds men.

View codes of ethics in the communications industry.

Visit the ethical guidance from the Public Relations Socie ty of America.

Guide to #gamergate.

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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hotographer Richard Drew got up on September 11,

2001, to work the 7:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. shift covering New York City for the Associated Press. His assignment for the morning was to photograph a maternity fashion show featuring pregnant models. Around 9:00 a.m., his cell phone rang, and his editor told him, “Bag the fashion show—you have to go.” An airplane had hit the south tower of the World Trade Center. No one yet knew that this was the start of a day of terrorist attacks on the United States that would include two planes hitting the twin towers of the

http://newsombudsmen.org/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/22/link-ch-14-codes-of-ethics/

https://www.prsa.org/aboutprsa/ethics/#.V3ZwgWPLRo4

http://time.com/3305466/male-female-harassment-online/

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media writers have encountered in attempting to be truthful.

4 Discuss the ethical issues related to sensationalism in the news.

5 Explain how journalists can get into trouble trying to report on rapidly breaking stories.

6 Explain how and why advertisers attempt to control the media in which they place their ads.

7 Discuss the ethical conflict in public relations between serving the client and serving the public.

World Trade Center in New York, a plane crashing into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., and a plane crash landing in a field in rural Pennsylvania.1

When Drew got to the World Trade Center, he faced a chilling sight. People who were trapped in the towers above the floors where the airliners had struck the buildings faced an impossible choice: flames and jet fuel explosions behind them, or a plunge of eighty stories or more from the windows in front of them. Drew said, “I saw people coming down from the building. We were watching people falling from the building.”2 He did what any news photographer had to do—he started taking pictures. By the end of the day, he had shot 215 frames.

Among those frames were dozens of images that would become all too familiar to Americans in the ensuing days and weeks: the buildings collapsing in a cloud of dust, the explosions and flames, a person clinging to debris as it fell from the collapse.

As long as he could, Drew kept shooting pictures of what would come to be known as Ground Zero. He was pulled back by emergency workers when the first tower collapsed. When the second tower collapsed, Drew finally left the area, running from the cloud of ash that enveloped the site.

Drew recalled taking photos of a dozen or more people falling from the World Trade Center towers. But none attracted the attention or created the controversy of his “falling man” photo. The photo showed a man in a white jacket and black pants falling

headfirst from the tower. It appeared on page 7 of the New York Times and in hundreds of papers around the world. Drew told a reporter for Yahoo News that he didn’t think the photo was too explicit for the public. “To me, it’s a real quiet photograph,” he said. “There’s no violence in it.”3 Drew says that too many of the photos taken on September 11 were sterile, showing buildings and wreckage but not people. The photos he shot of people falling gave viewers a sense of what had really happened. “It has to do with putting a human element with this story. My recollection of watching these buildings fall was like a movie. And all the pictures we’ve seen don’t show the human element except for these people falling.”4

In the days following the attacks, Drew continued to shoot Ground Zero, taking pictures of the piles of flowers, the many dozens of teddy bears people left behind, and the hundreds of pictures people posted of their missing friends and loved ones. Two days passed before Drew slowed down enough to feel the impact of the attacks and their aftermath. He got a call on his mobile phone from his four-year-old daughter, who said, “I just want to tell you I love you.” Molly Gordy, Drew’s wife, said that his daughter’s call broke through Drew’s emotional wall. He called the office, said he had to take a day off, and went to see his family. “[He] accepted the fact that in order to take a moving picture, you have to be moved,” Gordy said.5 Drew says that he records history every day, although some days contain more history than others. He was one of the first photographers on the scene when presidential candidate Robert Kennedy was assassinated in 1968, and he photographed the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993. But nothing he had ever experienced was as monumental as September 11:

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO See a multimedia 9/11 retrospective. CLICK TO SHOW

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My peers have told me that I photographed the death of these people. But I feel that I’ve captured a piece of these people’s lives. I photograph what happened, and, in turn, I record and document history, and this is what happened. This is history.6

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QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

What is the difference between making an ethical decision and making a moral decision? How can it be problematic to make a moral decision? Can a decision be ethical without being moral?

Media ethics is a difficult subject because the news media are not always polite or nice, nor should they be. Their job is to keep the public informed, increase people’s understanding of the world, and aid the functioning of a democratic society. And as Drew has pointed out, journalists sometimes must show things that are uncomfortable, disturbing, and upsetting.

In this chapter, we look at and attempt to understand why media practitioners behave the way they do and how their behavior can be judged by the media-consuming public.

Ethical Principles and Decision Making

The words morality and ethics are often used interchangeably, but they are distinctly different concepts. Media ethics scholars Philip Patterson and Lee Wilkins explain that morals refer to a religious or philosophical code of behavior that may or may not be rational. Ethics, by contrast, come from the ancient Greek study of the rational way to decide what is good for individuals or society. A moral decision depends on the values held by a particular individual, but an ethical decision should be explainable to others in a way that they will appreciate, regardless of whether they accept it. In short, ethics consist of the ways in which we make choices between competing moral principles.7

AUDIO Media struggles with reporting gunman’s name. CLICK TO SHOW

Journalists in the United States have a wealth of competing ethical principles to draw upon beyond the basic Judeo- Christian values that constitute the core of American morality. (This is not to deny that there are many other significant religious traditions in the

http://www.npr.org/2016/06/15/482206165/dont-say-their-name-media-struggles-with-reporting-on-orlando-gunman

United States. But a recent survey of journalists showed that they come overwhelmingly from either Christian or Jewish households.8) Franklin Foer, writing in the New Republic, suggests that there are two approaches to judging journalistic ethics. The first considers the journalist’s process of producing the product. If the process has moral failings, such as conflicts of interest, then the product will be flawed. The other approach, which he advocates, suggests that the product itself should be judged. Apart from the process of production, what can be said about the ethical quality of the outcome?9 In this section, we examine the major ethical principles affecting journalism (all of which fall within Foer’s two categories), consider how they might be applied to journalistic decision making, and look at a contemporary model for deciding between competing ethical principles.

Video Case 14.1: Moral injury.

Aristotle: Virtue and the Golden Mean

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The Greek philosopher Aristotle was a student of Plato and the tutor of Alexander the Great. Although he lived more than 2,300 years ago (approximately 350 BC), his writings on ethics, logic, natural science, psychology, politics, and the arts contain insights that are still relevant, especially his comments on ethics and human endeavor. Aristotle argued that the ultimate goal of all human effort is “the good,” and the ultimate good is happiness. To Aristotle, achieving happiness involved striking a balance, a “just-right point between excess and defect.”10

Popularizers have labeled this valued midpoint the golden mea n.

The classic example of the golden mean is courage, which strikes a balance between the inaction and timidity of cowardice and the recklessness of foolhardiness, both of which are unacceptable behaviors. The example of courage also illustrates how the acceptable ethical middle ground is not a single defined place, but its parameters depend on the abilities and strengths of the individual.11 To behave ethically, according to Aristotle, individuals must

• know what they are doing, • select their action with a moral reason, and • act out of good character.

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In other words, Aristotle emphasized the character and the intent of the actor and how those determine the way in which he or she acts.

Media ethics scholar David L. Martinson cautions journalists not to take an overly simplistic view of the golden mean and assume that it refers only to compromise. Instead, they must recognize that finding the mean requires virtue. Martinson writes:

A virtuous journalist is one who communicates truthfully in a manner which will enable the reader or listener to better understand the reality of the community, nation, and world in which he or she lives. In that communication, the journalist will show respect for human dignity and

London Stereoscopic Company - Hulton Archive

John Stuart Mill has been called “the most influential English- speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century.” He explored the individual’s right to have freedom of thought, opinion, and action in society.

individual circumstances.12

To test this principle, consider the photo of Seattle Seahawks cornerback Jeremy Lane breaking his arm early in the game of Super Bowl XLIX, discussed in the nearby “Test Your Media Literacy” box. A newspaper editor trying to decide whether to run a sports injury photo might want to hit a mean between sensitivity and the need to report what happened. One extreme would be not running the photo at all; the other would be running a graphic image of the athlete writhing in pain. A possible middle ground would consist of running the photo of the hit taking place. Other forms of balance might be reducing the size of the photo so that it would have less impact than a large photo and placing it on an inside page rather than on the front of the sports page. The decision to run the photo could also be justified by the argument that the editor was acting out of good character by feeling an obligation to help readers understand the dangers of professional football.

Kant: The Categorical Imperative

German philosopher Immanuel Kant published his most important writings during the final decades of the eighteenth century. Kant differed from Aristotle in that Kant suggested that morality lies in the act itself and not in the character of the actor or the intent behind the action. He also put forward the Judeo- Christian value of seeing people as ends, never as a means to an end. In short, Kant emphasized that you can’t use people to achieve your goals.

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Kant’s ethics begin with the notion that we have the ability to reason and hence are able to base our actions on moral reasoning. Because of this, people are responsible for their own actions and are obliged to act in a moral way.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch Spock explain the principle of utility. CLICK TO SHOW

The basic summary of Kant’s categorical imper ative, written in the 1780s, states: “Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature.”18 In simpler terms, Kant asks people to consider what would be the result of everyone acting the same way they themselves wish to act. Kant does not worry particularly about the consequences of an action; rather, he looks at the act itself. This does not mean that Kant doesn’t consider outcomes important; it means only that he believes unethical behavior cannot be justified by its possibly desirable outcomes.

In the case of the sports injury photo, the philosopher might ask what moral decision the photographer made. The photographer’s decision was to tell the truth about what happened during the game. Would we be willing to accept the consequences of everyone telling the truth? What

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/21/link-ch-14-spock-explains-principle-of-utility/

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T Harry How/Getty Images

Have you seen photos of horrific sports injuries like this one that shows Jeremy Lane of the Seattle Seahawks breaking his arm after an interception as he is tackled by Julian Edelman of the New England

problems might arise out of a position of absolute truth?

John Stuart Mill: The Principle of Utility

In the movie Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, the emotionless Spock performs a rational yet selfless act. He saves the crew of the starship U.S.S. Enterprise by entering a reactor room to prevent an explosion that would have killed everyone on board the ship. But in doing so he absorbs a lethal dose of radiation. As he dies, he justifies his actions to his friends with the maxim, “The good of the many outweighs the good of the few, or the one.” In this moment, Spock sums up the central tenet of the nineteenth-century ethical philosopher John Stuart Mill’s princ iple of utility: the greatest good for the greatest number.

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TEST YOUR VISUAL MEDIA LITERACY

HORRIFIC SPORTS INJURIES

he television audience for the Patriots vs.

Seahawks Super Bowl XLIX game was enormous on Sunday, February 1, 2015. But everyone watching was horrified when they saw Seahawks cornerback Jeremy Lane land on his wrist, breaking his arm while intercepting a pass in the

Patriots in the first quarter during 2015’s Super Bowl XLIX in Glendale, Arizona? What is your reaction to this photo? Does a photo like this belong on the front of the sports page of the newspaper? Why or why not?

end zone from Patriot quarterback Tom Brady.13 The edgy sports blog Deadspin posted a tightly cropped version of the photo and told readers, “Please take our word for it. Don’t click through to the rest of this post. You really don’t want to.”14 The photo made it into the Denver Post, the tabloid New York Post, and an endless number of sports radio Web sites.

When a similarly gruesome photo of Washington Redskins quarterback Robert Griffin III injuring his knee in a 2013 playoff game against the Seahawks was published in the Washington Post,15 a longtime friend of mine (and journalism grad) was bothered by the photo and questioned the need for the paper publishing it. I tweeted about the photo and got an almost immediate response from a student in Iowa who also really didn’t think the photo should have been published, saying, “I’m not good with seeing things like that—makes me cringe. I can’t look at it!”16 Similar debates have emerged over video being shown over and over again on television of basketball players getting hurt during games, such as when Louisville’s Kevin Ware suffered a compound fracture of his tibia and fibula playing against Duke in 2013, or when the Indiana Pacers’ Paul George suffered a horribly broken leg during a Team USA showcase.17

What does this photo say?

What does this photo of Jeremy Lane say? What news value does it have? Does it tell you anything important about football and about that Sunday’s Super Bowl?

Why was this photo published?

Why do you think newspapers and Web sites published this photo? Why would editors decide not to publish the photo?

How do you and your classmates interpret this photo?

How does this photo make you feel? Does it change your

understanding of professional football? Are still images any better or worse than video? Does it matter whether the photo or video has explicit gore? Does that make it any less disturbing? You will have the opportunity to think about this photo and revisit these questions as you work your way through the first portion of this chapter.

WEB See coverage of a variety of sports injuries. CLICK TO SHOW

Mill did not create the idea of utility, but he did do a great deal to refine and promote the philosophy known as utilitarianism. Mill wrote that the consequences of actions are important in deciding what is ethical: “An act’s rightness is [a] desirable end.”1 9

Looking back to the Aristotelian notion of happiness as the ultimate public good, utilitarianism holds that which is virtuous is that which provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Or, looked at another way, that which causes the least pain is best. The challenge in applying this principle is that the same act can cause both happiness and pain. NBC News faced extensive criticism when it decided to air excerpts from a multimedia disk created by Seung-hui Cho, who shot and killed thirty-two students and faculty at Virginia Tech in April 2007. Family and friends of the victims said that they felt victimized all over again when they saw the video. NBC News president Steve Kapas said the network ran the excerpts from the disk so that the public might better understand what had happened. “This is as close as we’ll ever come to being in the mind of a killer,” he said.20 The network accepted the additional suffering it caused a smaller number of people who knew the victims in order to accomplish the greater good of informing the public at large.

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Mill also held that some forms of pleasure or happiness are morally superior to others. He suggested that actions and decisions that improve the lot of society as a whole may be superior to those that merely provide the most physical or emotional pleasure.21 Employing utilitarian reasoning, an editor

http://www.ralphehanson.com/tag/sports-injury-photos/

might decide not to run the photo of a badly injured athlete because of all the pain it would cause viewers of the image. Since the photo would likely cause a great deal of pain, there is a strong argument against running it.

John Rawls: The Veil of Ignorance

Contemporary philosopher John Rawls builds on the ideas of utilitarianism. His argument is that which is just is also that which is fair:

First: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. . . . Second: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all.22

To decide what is fair, the journalist must hide behind Rawls’s v eil of ignorance, a principle of ethics that says that justice emerges when we make decisions without considering the status of the people involved and without considering where we personally fall in the social system. In other words, we shouldn’t ask, “How does this affect me?” Behind this veil, everyone is equal. Journalists following this principle would not question whether they or their subjects were powerful or powerless, rich or poor, black or white, male or female.

Reporters deciding how to treat sources should make the same decision whether they like or dislike the person. They should imagine how they would want to be treated if they were the source and would have to live with the outcome of the story. The value of freedom of the press must be considered on an equal level with the protection of individual privacy, as reporters behind the veil of ignorance do not know whether they are a reporter or a source.23 It is difficult to say what a photo editor would decide to do with a sports injury photo using the veil of ignorance. On the one hand, taking the perspective of the family of the person in the photo, he or she might decide that publicizing the athlete in agony is an invasion of the athlete’s privacy. On the other hand, the editor might say that the photo will generate sympathy and support for the athlete.24

Hutchins Commission: Social Responsibility Ethics

In 1947, widespread concerns about the ethical behavior of the press led Henry Luce, the founder of Time magazine, to form a commission to study the responsibility of the press in the United States. Chaired by scholar Robert M. Hutchins, the commission concluded that the First Amendment, by itself, might not be enough to protect the free speech rights of the public because a small number of corporations controlled a large number of the available communication outlets. Although the government might not be limiting free speech, corporations might do so. The report reached two major conclusions:

1. The press has a responsibility to give voice to the public and to society.

2. The free press was not living up to that responsibility to the public because of its need to serve its commercial masters.

The social responsibility theory of the press, holding that the press has an ethical obligation to society, arose from the Hutchins report. (This theory is discussed further in Chapter 15.) The Hutchins Commission listed five requirements for a responsible press:

1. The media should provide a truthful, comprehensive, and intelligent account of the day’s events in a context that gives them meaning.

2. The media should serve as a forum for the exchange of comment and criticism (that is, the press should present the full range of thought and criticism).

3. The media should project a representative picture of the constituent groups within the society.

4. The media should present and clarify the goals and values of the society.

5. The media should provide full access to the day’s news.

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SECRET 2 Today, the range of long-tail media, including blogs and podcasts, allows both professional and citizen journalists to bypass legacy media (traditional big media) and go directly to the public, though it is hard for the long-tail news outlets to have the impact that a newspaper or television station can. Nevertheless, this is one more example of Secret 2 —There are no mainstream media.

Using a social responsibility approach, running the photo of Jeremy Lane’s injury can be defended, assuming that it is run with the goal of giving readers a better understanding of the risks and dangers of professional football.

The Bok Model for Ethical Decision Making

Given the many competing ethical principles journalists have to consider, it can be difficult to decide what is right or wrong, as our consideration of the decision about running a disturbing photo illustrates. But contemporary ethicist Sissela Bok provides a fairly straightforward three-step model for analyzing an ethical situation:

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Video Case 14.2: Journalistic ethics.

1. Consult your conscience—How do you feel about the action? What does your conscience tell you is right?

2. Seek alternatives—Is there another way to achieve the same goal that will not raise ethical issues? Is there an expert to whom you can turn for advice?

3. Hold an imaginary ethical dialogue with everyone involved —Ask, “How will my action affect others?” Discuss the issues involved from the point of view of each of the people whom it will affect. Think about who will be involved: the source, the news consumer, the public at large, a special interest group, and so forth.25

In her book Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, Bok suggests consulting experts and holding a public dialogue. It may not be practical for a working reporter or editor to apply her method fully, but the basic approach of consulting one’s conscience, considering alternatives, and taking the point of view of all affected parties is reasonable.26

Ethics and News

Journalists only rarely face ethical dilemmas on the scale of those surrounding the September 11 attacks, but they face many smaller choices every day. These can involve deciding how to report information from an authoritative source that the journalist knows to be lying, balancing the rights of various individuals, deciding how to present a story, or deciding which photograph to run. Some of these decisions are routine, but all of them require ethical choices. Of course, journalists and the people with whom they work don’t always live up to high ethical standards, so we look here at how news organizations deal with those problems.

AUDIO

http://www.npr.org/2015/05/22/408680072/talking-to-qatar-s-world-cup-workers-gets-bbc-reporter-arrested

BBC reporter arrested for talking to Qatar’s World Cup workers. CLICK TO SHOW

Truthfulness

Journalists have always claimed that they feel obliged to report the truth,27 and reporters or editors who violate this commitment to truth have paid dearly. The Washington Post’s credibility suffered a major blow when the paper discovered in 1981 that a Pulitzer Prize–winning story about an eight-year- old heroin addict by reporter Janet Cooke was fabricated. In the spring of 2003, young New York Times reporter Jayson Blair created shock waves throughout the news business when it was revealed that he had fabricated or plagiarized at least thirty-six stories for the nation’s most prestigious newspaper. The controversy concerns not only the poor behavior of particular journalists, but also the implications of that behavior for the publication and the resulting lack of trust in the institution. At issue, too, is the lack of commitment to the truth on the part of publications and editors that put exciting stories ahead of making sure those stories are true.

In her book on the nature of lying, Bok states that there are at least two factors to weigh when considering a lie. The first is whether the speaker is intending to transmit the truth or attempting to deceive people. The second is whether the statement itself is true or false. Bok argues that the major ethical problem related to truth-telling is intentionally deceiving people to “make them believe what we ourselves do not believe.” 28 Media ethics scholar David Martinson argues that telling the truth entails more than just stating facts that are not false. Instead, the press needs to report “the truth about the fact.” In the early 1950s, when Sen. Joseph McCarthy—without any evidence—started accusing people of being communists, the press reported his charges without giving any indication that the charges he was making might be false or without conducting independent verification. It was true that McCarthy had made the statements, but the statements themselves were not true. Martinson suggests that the press too often asks whether the story is factually true instead of asking whether the story helps the public understand the truth.29

http://www.npr.org/2015/05/22/408680072/talking-to-qatar-s-world-cup-workers-gets-bbc-reporter-arrested

Simon & Schuster

AMC is developing a miniseries

WEB The role of tabloids in political campaigns. CLICK TO SHOW

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The truthfulness of nonfiction books has also been called into question. The best-known instance of fabrication in recent years has been James Frey’s memoir, A Million Little Pieces. Published in 2003, Pieces was presented as a memoir about crime, violence, drugs, alcohol, and redemption. Despite some questions raised early on about its essential truthfulness, it was a wildly popular best seller, and many readers deeply identified with Frey.30

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch and read about the Frey fabrication. CLICK TO SHOW

But in January 2006, muckraking investigative Web site The Smoking Gun (TSG) reported that the book was filled with exaggerations and “a million little lies.”31 TSG investigated Frey after the site had trouble finding a mug shot from one of Frey’s numerous arrests portrayed in the book. (TSG has a big section devoted to celebrity mug shots.) What the site’s researchers found in their investigation was that Frey either fabricated or grossly embellished the accounts of his involvement in a train accident that killed a girl, the time he spent in jail, and the details of a friend’s suicide.32

In another memoir, a former U.S. secretary of labor

http://www.npr.org/2016/03/25/471913749/tabloid-allegations-again-fly-in-a-political-campaign-and-why-no-one-can-look-aw

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based on David Carr’s memoir, The Night of the Gun. His memoir covers the darkest time of his life.

fabricated testimony that he supposedly had given before Congress.33 And a prominent writer admitted including imagined conversations in a biography of Ted Kennedy. Presidential biographer Edmund Morris went so far as to insert himself as a fictional character in his biography of Ronald Reagan (a fact that he acknowledged in the introduction to the book).

In contrast, when late New York Times reporter David Carr wrote his memoir Night of the Gun about drugs, crime, alcohol, and single parenthood, he video recorded interviews with people he had interacted with over the years. In the book, he told things the way he remembered events and then also explained the way the people he interviewed remembered the same events. Carr, with his memoir, acknowledged the fact that a person’s memory of how something happened could be faulty and was subject to change over time, something many memoir writers seem to have trouble admitting. (If you go to the endnotes at the back of this book, you will find that David Carr, in his role as the New York Times’ media reporter, is one of the most cited people in the last couple of editions of this book.) Carr died of cancer in February 2015.

Catching Fabrications: How Stephen Glass Fooled the Fact-Checkers. With the exception of tabloid stories about a space alien having Elvis’s baby, articles in magazines and newspapers are generally assumed to be true, or at the very least based on fact. But occasionally that basic assumption is called into question.

Consider the following case: A twenty-five-year-old writer named Stephen Glass had written incredible stories for the New Republic, Rolling Stone, George, and Harper’s. Other writers— some would say jealous colleagues—thought Glass’s stories, with their customary “wow” opening paragraphs that set the scene, were too good to be true. Unfortunately, they were. In 1998, Glass was caught fabricating an article for the New Republic about teenage hackers, and his subsequent firing sent shock waves throughout the magazine industry.34 Follow-up investigations suggested that Glass had fabricated material for dozens of articles without the magazines’ fact-checkers catching on.

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Said Charles Lane, then the editor of the New Republic, “I don’t wish [Glass] ill. . . . I just don’t want him to be in journalism.”35 After becoming the poster boy for bad journalism, Glass left the magazine business, went to law school, and wrote a novel. Following the critical and commercial failure of his novel, Glass has reportedly worked as a paralegal and as an occasional member of a Los Angeles comedy troupe.36 How did Glass get away with his fabrications? First, the magazines didn’t conduct fact-checking as well as they should have. Second, Glass would submit articles late so that they couldn’t be checked, and he would fabricate substantiation for them, such as a phony Web page and voice mail message for the beleaguered high-tech company in the hacker story.37 In an article for the political magazine George, Glass wrote a description of presidential advisor Vernon Jordan based on anonymous sources. He avoided the fact-checking by saying that his sources would be fired if they were contacted at work. After editors found out that Glass had been fabricating articles, fact-checkers discovered that the sources he had cited didn’t exist. To be fair to the fact-checkers, their procedures were designed to catch mistakes, not outright fabrications.38 One result of the fallout from Glass’s fabrications was a renewed commitment to fact- checking at magazines; another was increased skepticism toward sensational stories, especially by young writers.

Lying About Who You Are. Former Washington Post reporter Jose Vargas was a successful young journalist. He was part of a reporting team that won a Pulitzer for covering the Virginia Tech massacre, he wrote a well-regarded profile of Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg for the New Yorker, and he’s written for numerous outlets around the country, including the Huffington Post and the San Francisco Chronicle.

The secret that Vargas kept until the summer of 2011 was that he is an undocumented immigrant who entered the United States illegally from the Philippines.

Vargas outed himself in a first-person article for the New York Times Magazine. In it, he told the story of how he came to the United States as a twelve-year-old boy to live with his grandparents in California. He

Alex Wong/Getty Images

Pulitzer Prize–winning reporter Jose Vargas revealed in the summer of 2012 that he was an undocumented immigrant who entered the country illegally from the Philippines when he was a child.

did not know that he had entered the country on forged papers until he took his supposed immigration status card to the Department of Motor Vehicles at age sixteen to get his driver’s permit. There he was told that his card was fake and that he should not come back again.39 As he told MSNBC’s Rachel Maddow, Vargas’s parents and grandparents intended for him to work shadow economy jobs until he could find a U.S. citizen to marry and get a permanent residency permit that way. Only one problem: When Vargas was in high school, he came out publicly as being gay. So while he was out of the closet as a gay male, he remained secretive about his immigration status.40 Vargas initially offered his story to the Washington Post, but the paper turned him down. Vargas then shopped it to the New York Times Magazine, which jumped at the chance. The editors went so far as to “tear up” the completed magazine and put the Vargas story on the cover.41 The story of Vargas and his outing of himself caused a fair amount of controversy in journalistic circles because Vargas had been lying about his immigration status for his entire adult life.42 Phil Bronstein, who had hired Vargas to write for the San Francisco Chronicle, writes that he felt duped by Vargas, especially since Vargas wrote about the experiences of undocumented workers without mentioning that he was one himself. On the other hand, Bronstein hopes that Vargas’s story may lead to meaningful immigration reform:

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Watch an interview with Jose Vargas. CLICK TO SHOW

But if he can come out, the force of his story—both good reaction and bad—and his project just might lubricate the politically tarred-up wheels of government and help craft sane immigration policy. If it has that effect, we should

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/06/29/jose-vargas-immigration-and-journalistic-truth-telling/

dailycaller.com Lowery, Wesley. Twitter Post, August 13, 2014, 5:44PM/ https://twitter.com/WesleyLowery/status/499718214281347072

forgive him his lies.43

At the heart of Vargas’s story is this central ethical conflict: A journalist lying about his or her identity is always troubling for any reason, but if Vargas had not lied about who he was, he could not have been a reporter. This is, at its core, the definition of an ethical problem. Because ethics are all about what you do when no answer seems right, when all answers are problematic, when telling the whole truth stands in the way of telling any truth.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY WHEN IS ARRESTING REPORTERS CONSIDERED ACCEPTABLE?

Washington Post reporter Wes Lowery was arrested while attempting to cover protests in Ferguson, Missouri. Do you think that reporters have a right to be at the scene of protests and violence? Why do you think the police wanted to get the reporters to leave the McDonald’s in Ferguson?

n the evening of Wednesday, August 13, 2014, Washington Post reporter Wesley Lowery was sitting in a McDonald’s restaurant in Ferguson,

Missouri, working on a story about the protests and violence

in Ferguson over the death of Michael Brown. Brown was an unarmed black man who was shot and killed by Ferguson police. Brown’s death set off nights of protests, looting, and killing in the St. Louis suburb. The McDonald’s was a popular place with journalists that night, with the availability of food, tables to work on, and Wi-Fi to file stories with.

A story from the Washington Post reported that after initially telling reporters they were fine staying in the restaurant, police returned and told reporters they had to leave. Lowery started packing up his belongings, but while he did so, he also started recording a video with his phone. As he was preparing to leave, Lowery said he was shoved up against a soda machine, cuffed, and arrested. Lowery told the Post:

This is probably the single point at which I’ve been more afraid than at any point. More afraid than the tear gas and rubber bullets, more afraid during the riot police. I know of too many instances where someone who was not resisting arrest was assaulted or killed.46

Huffington Post reporter Ryan Reilly was also arrested. Within half an hour of being taken to a holding cell, all the arrested members of the media were released without charges being filed.

But nearly a year later, both Reilly and Lowery were charged with trespassing and interfering with a police officer.47 Close to forty news organizations signed a letter from the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press that condemned the charges against the reporters. It said, “The fact that these journalists were kept from doing their jobs was troublesome enough. But the fact that your office—after having time to reflect on police actions for a full year—has chosen to purse criminal prosecution now is astonishing.”48 Not all news organizations were sympathetic toward Reilly and Lowery. John Nolte, writing for the strongly conservative Web site Breitbart.com, said, “Left-wing Washington Post activist Wesley Lowery (who identifies as a journalist) has been charged officially in St. Louis County of trespassing and interfering with a police officer.”49

Nearly two years after they were arrested, charges against

http://Breitbart.com

the reporters were dropped.50

Who are the sources? Who are Wesley Lowery and Ryan Reilly? Where do they work? Would you consider either of them to be mainstream newspapers?

What did they do? How did Lowery report his stories? What was he doing at the time he was arrested?

Why were the reporters in trouble with the police? If a reporter is ordered to leave the scene of a story by police, is it wrong for him or her to stay to report the story? Why did the police want the reporters to leave?

How do you and your friends feel about the presence of reporters at the scene of protests and violence?

Do reporters need to be at the scene of protests and violence? Should reporters be allowed to stay and report? Why or why not? Were the police justified in arresting the reporters? Why do you think the police eventually dropped all charges against the reporters?

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Corporate Conflict of Interest

Being fair and balanced are core journalistic values that have been discussed extensively in earlier chapters. At times, however, other factors can overwhelm that value, especially when the interests of the news organization’s owners are in conflict with the values of balance and fairness. This problem of a conflict of corporate interest extends beyond suppressing stories; it also involves actively promoting the company’s interests.

At the peak of the Internet boom in the late 1990s, for example, one of the highest-profile dot-com Web sites was Pets.com, a seller of pet supplies. The site’s “spokesthing” was a sock puppet that appeared on a number of programs, including Good Morning America and ABC’s Nightline, to eulogize comic strip artist Charles Schulz. The puppet was introduced on Good Morning America as the Pets.com sock puppet. This widespread use of the Web site’s name was likely the result of Disney, the owner of the ABC broadcast network, also owning 5 percent of Pets.com. The appearance of the puppet on the shows led to coverage of the appearance in the New York Times, as well as in several other media outlets.44 The promotion of Pets.com by a major media channel that co-owns the site is a clear example of synergy (discussed in Chapter 3), but it also illustrates a conflict of interest.

Traditionally, such conflicts of interest are recognized when reporters give favorable coverage to a company in which they have an interest or to a person who is their friend. Or a conflict could involve the negative coverage of someone they dislike. With the growth in size and concentration of media companies in the past decade, an increasing issue is conflict of interest by the owners themselves.

Conflicting investments don’t just occur with megacorporations. Newspapers have been investors in local professional sports teams, which can also raise conflict-of-interest issues. The best- known case of a newspaper investment in a sports team is that of the Chicago Tribune, which purchased the Chicago Cubs in 1981 and then sold the team in 2009. Even though the paper owned the team for close to three decades, the Tribune’s sports staff were often hard on the Cubs. (Of course, some observers argue that, given the Cubs’ performance over the past hundred years, it would be hard not to be critical of the team.45)

Newspapers always claim that they keep the business side of their operations separate from the newsroom, but it is sometimes hard for the public to see things that way.

Sensationalism

Along with political, international, economic, and other

http://Pets.com

significant news, journalists sometimes focus on news that may not be important but is certainly interesting, largely because that’s what audience members seem to enjoy. Cable television commentator Chris Matthews defends such news coverage on the basis of what he calls “the watercooler principle.” He says, “If people are talking about it at the office around the watercooler, then it should be on the show.”51 Pulitzer Prize–winning reporter Edna Buchanan describes it this way:

The best day is one when I can write a lead that will cause a reader at his breakfast table the next morning to spit up his coffee, clutch at his heart, and shout, “My God! Martha, did you read this?” That’s my kind of day.52

Sometimes such stories can move beyond being merely interesting and enter the realm of sensationalism—coverage of events that is lurid and highly emotional. In the winter of 2006–2007, celebrity starlets Britney Spears, Lindsay Lohan, and Paris Hilton became the big story. The three, famous primarily for being famous, were in the news continually for getting into catfights, being arrested for driving under the influence, and going in and out of rehab. Photos of them flashing various body parts to paparazzi showed up first on celebrity Web sites and in the tabloids. But the stories, if not the photos themselves, soon migrated into the mainstream press, and so we saw stories on them in every media outlet from ABC News to Fox News. Even the New York Times ran a bylined story on Spears’s “lack of wardrobe” malfunctions.53 USA Today ran a story on when it’s appropriate to “go commando.” And the Toronto Star in Canada gave the apparent trend story a political twist by noting that Margaret Trudeau, the wife of Canada’s former prime minister, inadvertently flashed a photographer at Studio 54 back in 1977.

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Sensational news clearly attracts viewers and readers, especially when it’s truly out of the norm. When Michael Jackson died unexpectedly in 2009, the coverage of his death and memorial service dominated the media for several weeks, matching the coverage of British princess Diana’s death in 1997. And when golfer Tiger Woods had a minor car accident in late 2009, the media coverage began to explode when the news

Karwai Tang/Getty Images

Photos of celebrities like Kim Kardashian and Kanye West often appear in newspapers and magazines to attract attention beyond the actual news value of the image.

started breaking that Woods had been having affairs with at least eleven different women.54

The mainstream media use occasions such as Michael Jackson’s death or Tiger Woods’s infidelity as an opportunity to engage in tabl oid laundering or tabloidi zation, which is when respectable media report on what the tabloids are reporting (without doing the reporting themselves). Journalist and commentator Margaret Carlson says, “We take what the tabloids do and write about, and that way get what we wouldn’t write about originally into the magazine. And then we run pictures of the pictures to show how terrible the pictures are.”55

But Newsweek editor Mark Whitaker defends his magazine’s reporting on the work of the tabloids:

When the subject of a legitimate news story is the paparazzi phenomenon, and you’re running these pictures in a way that’s used to illustrate . . . that news story, and not just titillate people with exclusive photographs that have never been seen that you pay a lot of money for, then I think that that is still a defensible and legitimate use of the photographs.56

Why has there been such a move toward tabloidization? The editors of the Columbia Journalism Review suggest that there are two major reasons for this:

1. Competition—With increased competition and more players in the field, newsmagazines feel compelled to release stories that they might have avoided in the past. Former television reporter Robert MacNeil, speaking in the 1990s, said,

I tremble a little for the next sizable crisis with three all- news channels, and scores of other cable and local broadcasters, fighting for a share of the action, each trying to make his twist on the crisis more dire than the next.57

2. The Internet—Competition from the Internet has quickened the process by which rumors fly. Because anyone is able to publish, stories move quickly to being “out there.” Journalist Jonathan Fenby says, “The Internet has a gun to the head of the responsible media. If you choose not to report a story, the Internet will.”58

SECRET 4 Although the 1990s saw an unusually high level of tabloid journalism, this wasn’t the only period of questionable taste in the news profession. In the 1830s, the biased partisan press ran real or imagined stories about political sex scandals. One paper, for example, claimed that President Andrew Jackson’s mother “was a common prostitute, brought to this country by the British soldiers.”59 And the wild stories published in the papers of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst (see Chapter 6) don’t seem all that different from the rumors presented today by TMZ or Perez Hilton on the Internet.60 (This brings to mind Secret 4— Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again.)

The ethical problem with sensationalism is multifaceted. First, there is the question of whether it lowers politics, public events, and public discourse to the level of crude entertainment that is not to be taken seriously, as Neil Postman has pointed out.61 Second, tabloid-style stories can displace significant news— politics, economics, international affairs, war, genocide, famine, environmental issues—about which people need to be concerned. Finally, tabloid stories appeal to people’s basest feelings and instincts rather than to their intellect and sense of decency.

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AFP/Getty Images

News of the World had at once been the highest-circulating newspaper in Britain and was known for its lurid covers and headlines, but News Corporation shut down the paper following its phone hacking scandal. The final edition was published on July 10, 2011.

Going Too Far: The News of the World Hacking Scandal

Can media outlets ever go too far with their sensationalism? It’s likely that was the case with the News of the World, which was for many years the biggest circulating British tabloid newspaper (8.4 million copies an issue at its peak) and long had a reputation for cutting ethical corners to report the sordid details of crimes and celebrity gossip. But it really outdid itself when reporters for the paper hacked into the phone of a murdered thirteen-year-old girl to listen to her voice mail messages. On other occasions, the paper’s reporters were accused of hacking into the phones of British terrorism victims, making payoffs to members of the Scotland Yard police force, and having improper connections to prominent British politicians.

Matters got bad enough that former editors and reporters at the paper were arrested or even sent to jail over the scandals. There was even talk for a time that News Corporation officials could be prosecuted in the United States for violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act for bribing British officials. The scandal finally became so intense that News Corporation shut down the embattled tabloid that had been published since 1843. This was all shocking, but should it have been, given that the News of the World’s sister paper, the Sun, runs a topless pinup on page 3 of every issue?

The fact that the News of the World was also owned by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation made this a big story within the press. After all, News Corporation is a major world news organization and a major media owner in the United States. It owns one of the most respected and largest circulating

newspapers in the United States, the Wall Street Journal.

SECRET 4 Through all this, it’s worth remembering Secret 4—Nothing’s new: Everything that happened in the past will happen again. The behavior of Murdoch’s tabloids is nothing new. As you read about in Chapter 6, if you consider the rise of the yellow press in New York City back in the late 1800s, about the time that modern standards of journalism were being established, you will see that Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World and William Randolph Hearst’s Evening Journal engaged in very similar escapades. In one case, the two papers battled over covering a spectacular murder case that involved dismemberment and a love triangle. One newspaper publisher even leased the apartment where the murder took place in order to keep competing reporters away.

When and How Do You Apologize?

Apologies are a hard thing for the media to handle. Too often they take the form of “If anyone was offended, we’re sorry you feel that way,” which is so weak that it lacks almost all meaning. Other times they can trivialize the seriousness of the error. But sometimes an apology can serve as a springboard for discussion about the original issue.

WEB Read the Press Herald apologies. CLICK TO SHOW

That’s what happened in the fall of 2010, when the Portland Press Herald in Maine ran a long, thoughtful story on its front page about the local observance of the end of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan.

What would normally be considered a relatively noncontroversial story became extremely controversial because this year the final day of Ramadan fell on September 11. Topping things off for the paper was the fact that it planned on running all of its September 11 anniversary stories in the

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2010/09/21/apologies-ramadan-911/

QUESTIONING

September 12 Sunday paper.

The response was instantaneous and furious. Letter writers, e- mailers, and callers were uniformly upset that the paper did not have a story on the front page about the 9/11 anniversary. And many were upset that there was a story about Ramadan on the front page that day.

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On Sunday, September 12, the day the paper planned to give extensive coverage of the 9/11 anniversary, the paper ran the following apology:

We made a news decision on Friday that offended many readers and we sincerely apologize for it.

Many saw Saturday’s front-page story and photo regarding the local observance of the end of Ramadan as offensive, particularly on the day, September 11, when our nation and the world were paying tribute to those who died in the 9/11 terrorist attacks nine years ago.

We have acknowledged that we erred by at least not offering balance to the story and its prominent position on the front page.

What you are reading today was the planned coverage of the 9/11 events. We believed that the day after the anniversary would be the appropriate occasion to provide extensive new coverage of the events and observances conducted locally and elsewhere.

In hindsight, it is clear that we should have handled this differently and with greater sensitivity toward the painful memories stirred by the anniversary of 9/11.62

But the apology wasn’t the end of the story. Why not? Because some people read that apology as saying there was some kind of connection between peaceful practitioners of Islam in the United States and the terrorists who attacked the nation back in 2001.

That was the central

THE MEDIA

Should a media outlet always apologize to the public when it makes a mistake? Why or why not? Can a media outlet actually make things worse by apologizing? If you believe so, can you come up with an example of this?

theme of a story that ran soon after on NPR’s On the Media (OTM). In the story, OTM’s Bob Garfield had a somewhat confrontational interview with Richard Connor, the Press Herald’s editor and publisher. In the interview, Garfield tried to get Connor to acknowledge that the apology made the “connection between Islam and radical Islamic terrorists.” Connor refused to do so. If you listen to the program, several things become clear: Connor had obviously had a bad week and was tired of being criticized by all sides about his paper’s coverage of the issue, and Garfield was just as clearly trying to hold Connor accountable for what he had to say.63 All this led to a follow-up to the September 12 apology that Connor published on September 19 that didn’t receive as much attention. Connor wrote:

I have failed my writing hero, E. B. White, whose guiding principle, outlined in the classic “Elements of Style,” was: “Omit needless words.”

If I’d followed that rule last week, I would have responded to criticism of our newspaper on 9/11 with this:

“Our coverage of the conclusion of the local Ramadan observance was excellent and we are proud of it. We did not adequately cover 9/11 on the 9/11 anniversary, which also should have been front-page news, in my opinion.”

Why would I have omitted the other words in last week’s column?

Their lack of precision led to mischaracterization and misunderstanding. They were used to prove the maxim that a lie travels faster than truth. Mostly they allowed those with a personal ax to grind or a political agenda to advance to twist and misinterpret.

I meant to apologize for what we did not print—front- page coverage of 9/11 on the anniversary of a day that stirs deep and unhealed wounds. I was in no way apologizing for what we did print in a deservedly prominent position—a striking photo of our local Muslim community in prayer.64

What Connor says here is what he probably should have said the previous week—that the paper did a good job of covering Ramadan and a bad job of covering the September 11 anniversary on September 11. This apology is particularly good because it doesn’t talk about “who might have been offended,” but rather talks about the quality of judgments made at the paper.

There Is No “They”: The Sago Mine Disaster

Few journalistic mistakes have been as cruel as the headlines that ran in newspapers across the country on Wednesday, January 4, 2006. The papers trumpeted that all of the coal miners trapped in West Virginia’s Sago Mine had been found alive after having been trapped for two days below ground, when, in reality, all but one of the thirteen had died.

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In the early morning hours of Monday, January 2, an explosion, likely triggered by lightning, trapped thirteen miners deep below ground in the Sago Mine. About 9:00 p.m. Tuesday, the first body was discovered in the mine, according to a timeline in the Washington Post.65 At 11:45 p.m., one miner was found alive more than two miles into the tunnel.

At this point, confusion reigned. According to the Post, at 12:18 a.m., the rescue command center heard a report from a rescue worker that twelve miners were found alive. Apparently, this early report was overheard and spread instantly through a crowd that had been praying for a miracle. Church bells started ringing. People cried, sang, and cheered.

According to the Charleston Daily Mail, then West Virginia governor Joe Manchin had come out to the mine to wait with

Karen Bleier/AFP/Getty Images

Newspapers and television news outlets across the United States struggled with tight deadlines and inaccurate information during the Sago Mine disaster in West Virginia. Though initial stories reported that some miners survived, the tragic truth was that twelve of them had died.

family members and had asked for confirmation of the good news. Although he didn’t get the confirmation, Manchin said he was quickly caught up by the joyous mood: “We went out with the people and they said, ‘They found them.’ We got swept up in this celebration. I said, ‘The miracle of all miracles has happened.’”66 A statement from the governor would seem to signal some level of official confirmation. But within the next half hour, reports started coming into the command center that only one miner was alive—reports that were not passed on to families or the press until nearly 3:00 a.m.

Morning papers, such as the Charleston Gazette in West Virginia and Denver’s now- defunct Rocky Mountain News, started printing around midnight (if not a little earlier). Newspapers have to make really tough calls on a breaking story, and unlike television, they leave a permanent reminder of the times that they get a story wrong. For example, the early edition of the Rocky Mountain News carried the headline “They’re Alive.” The headline was corrected in the final edition.

National papers also had problems with the story. USA

Today, which has perhaps the best national distribution of any newspaper in the country, devoted one-third of its front page to the rescue story on Wednesday. On Thursday, the press started an intense examination of how the story was botched.

According to industry newsweekly Editor & Publisher, the Inter- Mountain, an eleven-thousand-circulation afternoon daily out of Elkins, West Virginia, managed to get the story right, not only in its print edition but also on its Web site. Editor & Publisher quoted Inter-Mountain editor Linda Skidmore’s account of the paper’s handling of the story: “I feel lucky that we are an afternoon paper and we have the staff that we do. We had a reporter there all night at the scene and I was on the phone with her the whole time.” Skidmore also described how the false story started snowballing:

I was on the phone with [reporter Becky Wagoner] and I was hearing things on CNN and FOX that she was not hearing there. . . . She heard that the miners were alive just before it was broadcast, around midnight. She talked about hearing church bells ringing and people yelling in jubilation —but nothing official.67

“We heard that they were found alive through CNN, then it snowballed to ABC, then FOX and it was like a house afire,” recalled Wagoner, who said she was at the media information center set up by the mine’s operator, International Coal Group Inc., when the reports spread. “A lot of the media left to go to the church where family members were located, but I stayed put because this was where every official news conference was given—and we never got anything official here,” she said. “Something was not right. Then we were hearing reports that 12 ambulances had gone in [to the mine area] but only one was coming out. There was so much hype that no one considered the fact that there was no [official] update.”68

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SECRET 7 Then a resident of West Virginia, I went to bed Tuesday night with reports on the Internet announcing that the miners had been found alive. When I sat down to breakfast and

my local paper on Wednesday morning, though, it was immediately obvious that something was wrong with the story. The report from the Associated Press read:

Twelve miners caught in an explosion in a coal mine were found alive Tuesday night, more than 41 hours after the blast, family members and Gov. Joe Manchin III said.

Bells at a church where relatives had been gathering rang out as family members ran out screaming in jubilation.

Relatives yelled, “They’re alive!”

Manchin said rescuers told him the miners were found.

“They told us they have 12 alive,” Manchin said. “We have some people that are going to need some medical attention.”

A few minutes after word came, the throng, several hundred strong, broke into a chorus of the hymn “How Great Thou Art,” in a chilly, night air.69

What clues tipped me off? How could a reader, reading between the lines, tell there were problems with the story?

There were no official sources cited, other than the governor. Why didn’t reporters also quote a source from the coal company?

When the governor made his statement, he noted, “They told us . . .” Not a name—just “they.” My high school journalism teacher Judith Funk always took us to task about that word, asking, “Who’s ‘they’?” And the Sago story is probably one of the saddest examples of Secret 7—There is no “they.”

Later on, the story said, “The company did not immediately confirm the news.”

There were no details on the miners’ condition or where they were found.

In short, the story read like it was passing along secondhand

accounts. How did the press go so wrong with this story?

• There was the understandable problem of midnight deadlines. It’s very difficult to handle a breaking story under these circumstances. But news organizations certainly could have been clearer in emphasizing the unconfirmed nature of the information in their reports.

• News organizations have gotten way too comfortable passing on unconfirmed stories that originate in the realm of blogs and rumors because they are afraid of being “scooped.” No longer does a story have to be true; it just has to be true that the story is out there. When we are dealing with rumors about misconduct by politicians, whose realities are more subject to interpretation, perhaps this is OK (though I don’t really think so). But when we are talking about the lives of ordinary people, this irresponsibility just doesn’t cut it.

• The facts of the news didn’t match the story reporters were looking for. Journalists, especially the national press, were looking for a “miracle story,” in which people’s prayers would be answered and everything would turn out fine. When reporters thought they found that story, they reported it. Tragically, that wasn’t the way the story turned out.

So what can journalists do to make sure this doesn’t happen again? USA Today’s Mark Memmott, speaking as part of a panel at West Virginia University on the press coverage of Sago, said,

Our responsibility was to ask a lot of questions and be very, very careful about attributions and sourcing, and to make sure we told people not just about what we knew, but what we didn’t know. We hadn’t seen anybody come out of that mine. We hadn’t really talked to anybody who knew what was going on inside there. We had heard from family members, who had heard from somebody else, who in some cases couldn’t even tell reporters on the scene exactly who it was they had heard it from.70

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Photography

Photos seem to be at the heart of many of the most troubling ethical cases that journalists face. Whether it is showing live television video of the shooting at Columbine High School, moments of private grief following a drunk-driving accident, or the horrors of September 11, 2001, editors have always had to strike a balance between sensitivity toward readers, consideration for sources, and dedication to reporting the news accurately. Now they also have new tools, like Adobe Photoshop, that allow them to manipulate photos digitally, sometimes producing quite different images from those they started with.

WEB Ethics in photography. CLICK TO SHOW

How Much Photo Manipulation Is Too Much? Photographs have always been prone to manipulation. Photographers choose their films, lenses, and angles with a particular image in mind. Darkroom techniques extended the photographer’s ability to control the image. But now photographs are altered electronically in ways that can be almost undetectable. In fact, all photos published today are manipulated digitally in terms of size, shape, color, and contrast. For example, the light and dark contrasts in many of the photos in this book have been adjusted in preparation for the printing process so that they will look better.

So the question becomes “How much manipulation is too much?” Keep in mind that there are several issues here:

• What is an acceptable level of photo manipulation? • Should viewers know to what degree a photo has been

altered?

• Does intentionally making changes in a photo change the viewer’s response to the image?

In 2008, there was an intense discussion on an online photojournalism bulletin board about a college newspaper

https://photographylife.com/the-importance-of-ethics-in-photography

advisor who insisted that a photographer needed to make the sky bluer in a photo of a Martin Luther King Day march. Most of the photographers on the bulletin board were outraged at the demand, saying that deepening the sky’s color would be completely unethical. But how many photographers, seeing the pale winter sky, would have boosted the blue in the sky without a moment’s thought? Or if the photo had been taken in the predigital era, how many photographers would have chosen to shoot with Kodak’s Kodachrome film, which is known for giving intensely vibrant colors?71

On a similar, simple level, a photographer at the Charleston Gazette was disciplined for removing a television station’s logo from a reporter’s microphone. After the altered photo was noticed and commented on by West Virginia radio personality Hoppy Kercheval, the Gazette published an apology on Facebook along with the unaltered image:

A Gazette photographer went outside the boundaries of our standards when he obscured the name of a television station on a microphone in today’s front-page photo. Other than the photographer, no one at the Gazette was aware of what had taken place with the photo. Our photographers know that it is unacceptable to alter reality in news photos. The photographer believed his action helped direct the focus of the photo to the subject. He was wrong to do so. This is a singular incident. Disciplinary action will be taken to ensure it doesn’t happen again.72

Photo manipulation by magazines first came to the public’s attention in 1982, when National Geographic’s editors “moved” one of the Egyptian pyramids so that a photo of the pyramids would fit on the magazine’s cover. The change had no lasting moral significance—a similar effect could have been created by having the photographer reshoot the picture from a slightly different angle—but it forced the magazine industry to confront the implications of journalists altering images.73 (See Box 14.1.)

Conflicts over digital manipulation of photographs emerge on a regular basis. In June 2006, El Nuevo Herald, the leading Spanish-language paper in the United States, ran a photo that appeared to show four Cuban prostitutes soliciting tourists in Havana while two police officers looked on. The only problem was that the hookers weren’t actually there—they had been

added digitally by an editor.74 In another case, a Los Angeles Times photographer was fired in 2003 after he combined two images of a U.S. soldier supervising a group of refugees in Iraq to make the image more dramatic. But sometimes the alterations are on a smaller scale and are intended to help rather than to deceive. After a terrorist bombing of a train in Spain, some newspapers digitally removed a severed arm lying next to the tracks because they felt the image was too horrifying for a family newspaper. (See Chapter 15’s “Test Your Visual Media Literacy” box.)

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BOX 14.1

Standards for Digital Photo Manipulation

The Charlotte Observer has put together a very specific set of guidelines for how digital photos can be edited. Among its criteria are the following:

• “Dodging and burning,” similar to what could be done in a conventional darkroom, are acceptable.

• Colors can’t be changed. • Backgrounds can’t be eliminated or “aggressively

toned.”

• The original unedited image files need to be downloaded.

• Digital retouching (cloning) can be used only to remove things such as dust spots on the image.

• The only time these rules can be violated is with a photo illustration that is clearly labeled as such and can be clearly seen as an illustration.

Source: Kenny Irby, “Charlotte Observer Photo Correction/Editing Guidelines,” Poynter, September 25, 2003, poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=46958.

Enforcing Ethics

How should the media address ethical issues? Are such issues the responsibility of the individual journalist? Of his or her editor? Should there be a single person in charge of ethics? Perhaps a code of ethics, applied properly, could provide sufficient guidance. In reality, various methods are used. This section looks briefly at some of the choices for systematically handling ethics issues.

The Ombudsman. The ombudsman, also known as the reader’s representative or audience advocate, takes the point of view of those who purchase or consume the news. Sanders LaMont, former ombudsman for the Sacramento Bee, argues that the ombudsman is an essential part of the journalism ethics process because the ombudsman connects the news consumer with the news outlet, be it a magazine, newspaper, Web site, radio station, or cable news operation.

WEB Visit the website for the Organization of News Ombuds men. CLICK TO SHOW

The term ombudsman is derived from the word for a person who mediated between citizens and the government in Sweden in the early 1800s. Since that time, it has been used to describe anyone who mediates between two groups. News ombudsmen have a variety of tasks to perform:

• Listening to the concerns of readers or audience members —Readers tend to be enthusiastic about someone taking their point of view, whereas newsroom employees may be less so. Kenneth Starck, a former ombudsman for Iowa’s Cedar Rapids Gazette, told American Journalism Review, “News organizations need individuals who can withdraw from the bustle of the newsroom and get some perspective on performance by communicating—thoughtfully, intelligently, empathetically—with people who care enough to offer their views to the organization.”75

• Writing a regular column or commentary—The ombudsmen at news outlets such as the New York Times and NPR have regular commentaries posted online and sometimes within the news pages or broadcast.

http://newsombudsmen.org/

• Writing a regular memo for the news staff—The Washington Post’s former ombudsman wrote a blog on a regular basis that praises and criticizes the staff; he also wrote a column for the Sunday editorial page.76 Until the summer of 2003, the New York Times did not have an ombudsman because management believed that the job should be done by the editors. However, following the scandal surrounding reporter Jayson Blair’s fabrications, publisher Arthur Sulzberger Jr. appointed two editors to function as ombudsmen and enforce newsroom standards. 77 Although the position of ombudsman has been in a decline in recent years, these internal media critics continue to serve an important function. Poynter’s ethicist Kelly McBride points to several examples:78

Arthur Brisbane, writing for the New York Times about whether the paper ought to be a “truth vigilante” (discussed back in Chapter 6 on newspapers and the news), drew readers into a major discussion on the role of objectivity in the news.

ESPN’s Don Ohlmeyer discussed The Decision, the controversial program the sports channel carried about LeBron James’s decision in 2010 to move from Cleveland to Miami.

NPR’s Edward Schumacher-Matos wrote a thirty-five- thousand-word critique of the network’s 2011 investigative series on foster care for Native American children in South Dakota.

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Despite the decline in the number of news organizations with ombudsmen, Simon Dumenco, writing in Advertising Age, suggests that these reader representatives are less necessary because excellent press criticism sites are available online, including Jim Romenesko’s media blog.79

Codes of Ethics. News organizations have a variety of codes of ethics to consider. The Society of Professional Journalists has an extended code of ethics with three main principles:

1. Seek truth and report it as fully as possible.

2. Act independently.

3. Minimize harm.

Beyond those principles and the accompanying code, the organization’s ethics handbook contains a series of case studies and a collection of other codes of ethics to help journalists make ethical decisions. In their introduction, the authors argue that ethics are not merely a set of ideals; they are something journalists do that lead to good reporting.81 Obviously, a single code of ethics cannot cover all the issues encountered by the many different news outlets in the United States. “Can you even hope to have a common set of standards for the New York Times, the National Enquirer, and People magazine?” asks journalism professor Alex S. Jones, writing in the Columbia Journalism Review.82

If codes of ethics are to be effective, they need to be more than static documents, according to Jeffrey L. Seglin, an ethics columnist for the New York Times. A code of ethics must be central to the way the news outlet does business on a daily basis.83 Unless that is the case, ethics problems will continue to arise, Seglin warns. The New York Times management clearly had not followed up on a lower-level editor’s complaints about Jayson Blair a year before the young reporter was caught fabricating and plagiarizing stories for the paper.

The Cincinnati Enquirer encountered trouble for an exposé it ran on the banana company Chiquita. The story may or may not have been accurate, but the highly critical article about the company’s business practices was based on two thousand voice mail messages the reporter had listened to using stolen access codes. The paper ended up apologizing to the company and paid an out-of-court settlement of $14 million. But prior to writing the story, the reporter had signed a copy of the paper’s corporate code of ethics each year.

Video Case 14.3: Advertising and ethics.

In these and other cases, the people involved clearly knew that their behavior was wrong and that it violated their publications’ codes of ethics.

Ethics and Persuasive Communication

Many of the items we see in the media are not messages created by members of the news staff, but rather persuasive images created by advertising and public relations (PR) professionals seeking to influence people’s behavior. The question of what constitutes ethical behavior for people who are attempting to manipulate public opinion then arises.84 In this section, we examine ethical principles applied in the fields of advertising and public relations.

Advertising

A number of ethical issues concern the advertising industry today, including truth in advertising and the level of control advertisers can expect to have over the news content surrounding their ads.

WEB



http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/22/link-ch-14-codes-of-ethics/

View codes of ethics in the communications industry. CLICK TO SHOW

During World War II, the advertising industry formed the Advertising Council in response to charges of unethical behavior. The organization’s purpose was to promote both advertising and business in general. One of its first functions was to help build support for wartime austerity. The Ad Council worked on a communication campaign to stop the hoarding of scarce resources, promote the buying of war bonds, and build morale. After the war, it worked on a variety of public interest campaigns to maintain the positive image the group had fostered during the war. In recent years, the Ad Council has been responsible for a wide range of memorable public service ads, most notably the “Just Say No” and “This Is Your Brain on Drugs” campaigns.88

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY THE UNABOMBER'S MANIFESTO RAISES QUESTIONS

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/22/link-ch-14-codes-of-ethics/

Evan Agostini/Getty Images

ore than twenty years ago, the Washington Post published a long and rambling manifesto written by a terrorist known as the Unabomber. The

Unabomber said he would send another package full of explosives out through the mail if the paper did not publish his thirty-five-thousand-word statement. This was a threat to be feared—the Unabomber had already killed three people and injured twenty-three over the previous seventeen years. 80

The decision to publish the manifesto was not an easy one. The paper did not want to be giving in to blackmail. On the other hand, perhaps publishing the piece could stop the bombings. Just as importantly, publishing the manifesto might help someone recognize the author and lead to the bomber’s capture.

In the end, the publication of the manifesto did lead to the capture of Ted Kaczynski when his brother recognized the style of writing.

The Unabomber case shows how difficult journalistic ethics

can be. Remember that the tough ethical decisions are not between right and wrong but rather “What do you do when nothing seems right?”

Much has changed since the Washington Post published the manifesto on September 19, 1995. The Post now could publish Kaczynski’s ramblings online instead of in an eight- page special section; Kaczynski could publish his manifesto himself online without needing the help of a major newspaper.

But the basic question remains: How do you make a decision about publishing something when you don’t like any of your choices?

Who are the sources? Who was the Unabomber? What did he do?

What is the controversy? Why was having the Washington Post publish the Unabomber’s manifesto controversial?

What evidence is there? What are the arguments for and against the Post running the manifesto? What could the paper have done differently if the case had happened in the present day?

What do you and your classmates think about the publication?

Imagine that you are an editor at the Washington Post in 1995. Think back to the ethical principles described at the beginning of this chapter. Which one would give you a compelling justification for running the manifesto? Which one would give you a compelling justification for not running it? Remember, you don’t know in advance which way the story will turn out after the manifesto is published.

Truth in Advertising. Snapple claims to make its drinks from the “best stuff on earth.” But what is the “best stuff”? Papa John’s says “Better Ingredients. Better Pizza.” Is this true? Just as important, do consumers expect such claims to be true?

Typically, ads for prescription drugs and medicines are held to high standards of truthfulness, whereas claims that one article of clothing is more fashionable than another are held to a much lower standard of proof. However, a dog food company was once required to prove that dogs really did prefer one brand over another by showing how much of two competing brands dogs would eat.89 A number of groups keep tabs on honesty in ads. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) investigates many complaints. In 2014, the FTC took action against a number of companies making deceptive claims about weight-loss supplements.90 The National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus also investigates claims of false advertising. Says council representative Gunnar Waldman, “We care even about the seemingly frivolous or ‘less-important’ cases. The issues at stake—truth in advertising—are always broader than the products themselves.”91

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS

COOKIE MONSTERS: ONLINE PRIVACY AND DATA GATHERING

e all know (or at least we ought to know) that there’s no such thing as a free lunch. That means that when we get media that we don’t pay for,

such as broadcast television, we know that we’re paying for it by being exposed to advertising messages. Now, however, when we go online, we pay in a second, related currency— information. Who are we? Where do we shop? Where do we go? What kind of phone do we use? And the list goes on.

The difficulty is that it isn’t always obvious to consumers what kind of information is being collected about us. Think about Facebook. Yes, the social network giant shares its privacy policy, but that policy runs nine thousand words and is read by virtually no one. Geoffrey A. Fowler, writing for the Wall Street Journal, notes that Facebook not only tracks what you do on Facebook; it also looks at the cookies (small data files) left behind by other Web sites you’ve visited and the activity of the apps you use. The thing to remember is that although you don’t pay money for accessing Facebook, you do pay with access to your information. And that information, according to the Wall Street Journal, is worth about $7 a year per person.85

If you know where to look, you actually can see what Facebook thinks you are interested in. There’s a small icon in the upper right-hand corner of each ad that will eventually take you to a list of all the things that it categorizes you by, and you then have the opportunity to turn off any of the categories you don’t want connected to you. For example, my file includes, among many other things, interest in the movie Blade Runner, a comparison of Star Trek and Star Wars, and minimalist music (among several hundred other things).

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With consumers spending increasing amounts of their online time using mobile devices, advertisers have moved from wanting to target the right demographic for their product. They now want their carefully targeted ads to reach the “right person, at the right time, in the right place, with the right message.”86 Mobile devices are perfect for this because in addition to the rest of the data they hold about you, they generally know where you are. French carmaker Renault wanted to target adults who are interested in electric cars, so when a targeted consumer is within five miles of a dealership that carries the car, ads start appearing on the shopper’s screen. Facebook has even developed technology to target ads based on the particular mode of phone people are using. So, through Facebook, advertisers can target users of an iPhone 5s or a Samsung Galaxy S5.87

DO you ever read the privacy policies of the Web sites or social media sites you use? Have you ever quit using one because of its privacy policy?

ARe you ever troubled by the ads that start showing up on your browser after you’ve looked at a particular topic online?

DOeS it worry you that through mobile technology marketers know not only what you are interested in, but where you’ve been?

DO marketers do a good job of letting you know what kind of information they are collecting about you? What can you do if you don’t like their policies?

Advertising executive Michael Dweck says that claims of being “best” are dangerous: “So the only claims we’d make ought to be sufficiently humorous, exaggerated, and far-fetched that no one will take them seriously.”92 Chris Wall of advertising giant Ogilvy & Mather says that as long as companies are truthful in their ads, they have nothing to worry about: “The most powerful advertising tends to be fundamentally truthful anyway. The trick

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

Do advertisers ever produce messages specifically designed to be offensive? Is it proper for the news media to give attention to these offensive ads? Why or why not? Or should the news media just ignore offensive ads to avoid giving them free publicity?

is finding an honest point of advocacy for a product and then presenting it in a way that moves people, catches their attention, that they remember.”93

Advertising and Media Control. Sometimes concern about media content comes from advertisers rather than from critics of the media. Advertisers may want to control the kind of material that surrounds their messages, hoping to avoid stories that are critical of their products or simply to associate themselves with high-quality content. For example, a group of car dealers in California pulled all their advertising from the San Jose Mercury News after the paper ran an article that explained to buyers how to read the factory invoices on new cars so that they would be in a better negotiating position.94 At other times, advertising boycotts are driven by advertisers who don’t want to be associated with a program’s political point of view. In 2012, at least forty-five advertisers pulled their sponsorship from The Rush Limbaugh Show when the popular conservative radio talk show host called a law student and birth-control advocate a “slut” over the air.95

Magazine editors have long offered warnings to advertisers when potentially offensive articles will be included in a forthcoming issue. Better Homes and Gardens warned cigarette makers before running an article on the dangers of secondhand smoke and offered them the option of moving their advertising to another issue. “That’s just consideration,” said the magazine’s editor in chief. “You don’t want to purposely slap advertisers in the face.”96 It can also work the other way: Sometimes advertisers are contacted when positive articles are scheduled to appear. An energy company was solicited to advertise in the National Review when an article included a favorable mention of the company.

Occasionally companies want to know in advance what kind of

content is going to be included in forthcoming issues of magazines so that they can decide whether to include their advertising with it. Some publishers view this simply as a way of keeping important advertisers informed about how their advertising will look. However, the American Society of Magazine Editors warns “that some advertisers may mistake an early warning as an open invitation to pressure the publisher or editor to alter, or even kill, the article in question.”97 In 1995, Ford pulled all its advertising from the New Yorker for six months because one of its ads appeared next to a column by Ken Auletta that quoted an explicit song by Nine Inch Nails. And Esquire reportedly canceled a sixteen-page story about gay sex for fear that Chrysler would pull four pages of advertising from the magazine. In 1996, Chrysler sent a letter to one hundred major magazines requiring them to notify the carmaker “in advance of any and all editorial content that encompasses sexual, political, social issues or any editorial that might be construed as provocative or offensive.”98 Chrysler defended its policy in Advertising Age:

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We think we have a right to determine how and where we want to place our advertising. . . . We are not trying to get in the way of the editorial integrity of any magazine, but we do have the right to determine the editorial environment where our ads appear.99

Advertisers have also attempted to influence programming on television. Finding “family-friendly” shows to sponsor on television, especially broadcast television, is becoming increasingly difficult. The hit program Friends delivered a huge audience for NBC, but it did so with racy story lines and risqué humor. Companies such as consumer product giant Johnson & Johnson want to sponsor shows that parents and children can watch together so that they’ll see commercials for Band-Aids, baby powder, Motrin, and Mylanta. To combat this problem, Johnson & Johnson, along with companies such as Procter & Gamble, Coca-Cola, and Ford, formed a group called the ANA Alliance for Family Entertainment to promote the development of shows that are acceptable to the entire family (ANA stands for Association of National Advertisers). The group, which began back in 1998 as the Family Friendly Programming Forum, isn’t boycotting or criticizing adult-oriented shows; it just wants

to promote shows on which its members won’t be embarrassed to advertise.

The group funds the development of new shows that will meet these needs; in return, it receives the first right to advertise on them. The companies that belong to the forum control $20 billion worth of advertising, so their voices are important to television networks. In 2000, the first show whose development had been funded by the forum came on the air: Gilmore Girls.100 Since then, the forum has been responsible for the development of shows such as The New Adventures of Old Christine, Ugly Betty, and Friday Night Lights. It has also started partnering with YouTube in the production of family-friendly programming. 101

Ethics in Public Relations

It is easy to joke about a lack of ethics in public relations, but PR firms ignore ethical behavior at their own peril. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), founded in 1948, established its own code of ethics in 1954 not only to improve the profession’s behavior, but also to improve the industry’s image at a time when practitioners were “generally . . . perceived as slick con artists.” In its original form, the code said, “We pledge to conduct ourselves professionally, with truth, accuracy, fairness, and responsibility to the public.” The code was substantially revised and clarified in 1999. (See Box 14.2.)

WEB Visit the ethical guidance from the Public Relations Societ y of America. CLICK TO SHOW

Conducting War Through Public Relations: Citizens for a Free Kuwait. The ethical challenge of balancing the needs of truthfulness, the public interest, and the client’s interests became a major issue for one PR firm during the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Foreign governments often hire PR firms to represent their interests in the United States, but few have hired a major firm to promote the nation’s involvement in a war.102

https://www.prsa.org/aboutprsa/ethics/#.V3ZwgWPLRo4

Hill & Knowlton, the nation’s largest PR firm at the time, was hired by Citizens for a Free Kuwait, a group made up of members of the Kuwaiti government. The campaign was designed to create sympathy for Kuwait, opposition to Iraq and Saddam Hussein, and support for U.S. involvement in fighting Iraq. The campaign followed a typical pattern of lobbying Congress, calling press conferences, sending out press releases, and producing video news releases.103 What really attracted controversy and raised ethical questions throughout the industry was testimony that Hill & Knowlton arranged to have given before the Congressional Human Rights Caucus. This group of U.S. representatives held hearings on October 10, 1990, on the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. The centerpiece of these hearings was the eyewitness testimony of a fifteen-year-old Kuwaiti girl identified only as Nayirah. Nayirah told the caucus that she had personally seen atrocities committed following the invasion:

While I was there, I saw the Iraqi soldiers come into the hospital with guns, and go into the room where . . . babies were in incubators. They took the babies out of the incubators, took the incubators, and left the babies on the cold floor to die.104

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BOX 14.2

Public Relations Society of America’s Statement of Professional Values

The following is the Public Relations Society of America’s Statement of Professional Values:

This statement presents the core values of PRSA members and, more broadly, of the public relations profession. These values provide the foundation for the Member Code of Ethics and set the industry standard for the professional practice of public relations. These values are the fundamental beliefs that guide our behaviors and decision-making process. We believe our professional values are vital to the integrity of the profession as a whole.

Advocacy

• We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent.

• We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.

Honesty

• We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in advancing the interests of those we represent and in communicating with the public.

Expertise

• We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience.

• We advance the profession through continued professional development, research, and education.

• We build mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences.

Independence

• We provide objective counsel to those we represent. • We are accountable for our actions.

Loyalty

• We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest.

Fairness

• We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, and the general public.

• We respect all opinions and support the right of free expression.

Her testimony certainly was effective. President George H. W. Bush mentioned the “twenty-two babies ‘thrown on the floor like firewood’” on six separate occasions.105

Two years later, journalist John R. MacArthur revealed that Nayirah, who had not previously been identified, was actually the daughter of the Kuwaiti ambassador to the United States, who was a member of the Kuwaiti royal family. MacArthur, and others, charged that the incubator story was not true. Amnesty International found no evidence that the story was true, and ABC News reported that the story was “almost certainly false.”10 6 Since Nayirah’s testimony had not been given under oath, no questions were raised about the legality of Hill & Knowlton’s actions. The firm defended its actions on behalf of Citizens for a Free Kuwait, but the fact remains that it did not investigate Nayirah’s claims to see if they were true.107 Whether true or false, the testimony itself was certainly not enough to send the United States to war with Iraq; rather, it was a well-planned PR effort intended to make Iraq seem evil and Kuwait appear to be a victim in need of assistance.

Whom Do You Serve: The Client or the Public? One of the most difficult ethical problems facing PR practitioners is the conflict between serving the client’s interests and serving those of the public. David Martinson, a professor of journalism, argues that PR practitioners can internalize important ethical principles of honesty and serving the public interest by practicing them daily in small ways. Then, when the rare moral dilemmas arise, the practitioner is used to behaving in an ethical manner.108

As noted earlier, Aristotle suggested that ethical behavior arises from a golden mean, or balance, between two extremes of behavior or belief. Does this mean that PR practitioners can strike a balance between lying and telling the truth? No. Martinson says that PR practitioners must always be fully committed to the truth, but that it is possible to compromise between serving the public’s interests and serving the client’s. The PR practitioner must serve the client’s best interests, but not to the extent that his or her professional and ethical

Boston Globe/Getty Images

Brianna Wu is a software engineer and head of development at Giant Spacekat, which makes games

obligations to the public are compromised.

Attacks on Women Through Online Media

The Internet can be a scary place. Want to see how scary? Take a look at the comments that follow stories about the role of women in video games, comic books, or any other area of geek pop culture. Before too long, you are likely to encounter the terms gamergate and social justice warriors accompanied by harassing threats of rape and murder.

WEB Guide to #gamergate. CLICK TO SHOW

Gamergate, usually expressed as the hashtag #gamergate, started out as an attack on female game developer Zoe Quinn, her text-based game Depression Quest that deals with her own experiences with depression, and her personal sex life. An ex- boyfriend of Quinn’s published a series of long blog posts accusing Quinn of having affairs with five other men, some of whom worked in the gaming industry or games journalism. In essence, Quinn was being accused of using sex to promote her video game and to feminize the world of video gaming.

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According to the blog Gawker, before long, the people behind #gamergate expanded their critique, claiming that their real concerns were about ethics in video game journalism, not the behavior of a specific female game developer.109

So that brings us to the social justice warriors or #SJW. According to the 2015 update of the Oxford English

http://time.com/3305466/male-female-harassment-online/

with female protagonists. Wu is one of three woman targeted for abuse and death threats by the gaming community after posting online about the misogyny in the gaming industry. She stands next to poster of her video game characters.

Dictionary, social justice warrior is an informal, derogatory noun referring to “a person who expresses or promotes socially progressive views.” But to members of the #gamergate movement, SJWs are people promoting enhanced roles for women in geek culture.110

Members of the movement have been highly abusive to game developer Quinn and other women in the gaming community. Quinn had her home address and cell phone number posted online, along with her passwords and nude photos of her. She has had online threats from people saying they want to rape and then kill her. One person posted on Tumblr, “If I ever see you are doing a panel [sic] at an event I’m going to, I will literally kill you.” Another wrote, “I’m not going to stop spreading your disgusting nudes around and making sure your life is a living hell until you either kill yourself or I rape you to death.”111

Others receiving similar threats, or worse, include feminist gaming and culture critic Anita Sarkeesian (who helped publicize the Bechdel Test for the role of women in movies discussed in C hapter 8) and Brianna Wu, cofounder of game studio Giant Spacekat.

Caitlin Dewey, digital culture critic for the Washington Post, writes,



Video Case 14.4: Erin Andrews trial.

Whatever Gamergate may have started as, it is now an Internet culture war. On one side are independent game- makers and critics, many of them women, who advocate for greater inclusion in gaming. On the other side of the equation are a motley alliance of vitriolic naysayers . . . people convinced they’re being manipulated by a left- leaning and/or a corrupt press, and traditionalists who just don’t want their games to change.112

Women in the gaming/comics/geek culture world are not the only ones subject to severe online harassment. Erin Andrews, who now works for Fox Sports, was working for ESPN in 2008. While she was traveling for the network to Nashville, she was secretly filmed while undressing. A year later, the video was posted online and widely shared.

In a lawsuit Andrews filed against the hotel where the recording took place, Andrews testified, “This happens every day of my life, either I get a tweet or somebody makes a comment in the paper or somebody sends me a still of the video to my Twitter or someone screams it at me in the stands and I’m right back to this.”113 Andrews has been widely harassed about the video and has even been accused of creating it herself as a publicity stunt.

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CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Media ethics are a complex topic because they deal with an institution that must do things that ordinary people in ordinary circumstances would not do. Media ethics draw on a range of philosophical principles, including basic Judeo-Christian values, Aristotle’s ideas about virtue and balanced behaviors (the golden mean), Kant’s categorical imperative, Mill’s principle of utility, Rawls’s veil of ignorance, and the Hutchins Commission’s social-responsibility ethics. One way contemporary journalists can resolve their ethical problems is by using the Bok model for ethical decision making.

Reporters face a range of ethical issues on a regular basis. Those issues include the following:

Truthfulness—Journalists need to make a commitment to telling the truth. This includes not giving false or made-up reports and telling truthful stories that are not intended to deceive the audience. This may require reporters to provide not only the facts but also the context surrounding them. Truthfulness requires a commitment not only from the journalist but also from the organization he or she works for.

Conflicts of interest—The interests of a corporation that owns a news organization may sometimes be at odds with the nature of the news being reported. Journalists need to be careful not only to portray their parent company in an accurate light, but also to give no special favors to companies connected to the organization’s parent company.

Sensationalism—News organizations sometimes emphasize news that is interesting but unimportant. This happens when reporters put more effort into attracting and pleasing an audience than into reporting on the critical issues of the day. This can occur because of the increased pace of the news business brought about by cable television, the Internet, and the parent company’s desire for profits.

Authenticity and appropriateness of photographs—Photos can be among the most controversial media materials, both

because of their disturbing content and because they can be altered with digital editing tools.

Journalists and their employers can apply a variety of methods for enforcing and implementing ethical behavior. These include employing an ombudsman, requiring a commitment to ethical behavior on the part of all employees, and adhering to a code of ethics.

The advertising industry became concerned with protecting its image during World War II. Among the major ethical issues in advertising are the following:

Truthfulness—How important is it that claims such as “Tastes great” or “It’s the best” are demonstrably true?

Taste—Is it appropriate for ads to attract attention by shocking audiences?

Media control—Do advertisers have a right to control the editorial material that surrounds their advertisements?

In the public relations industry, practitioners need to work at balancing their clients’ interests against those of the public at large. This can become problematic when a client is attempting to influence the public to support an issue, such as going to war.

In online media, there is an ongoing problem of women who attempt to work in traditionally male areas getting harassed and receiving rape and death threats.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

KEY TERMS

morals 354

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-14/quiz

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-14/

ethics 354

golden mean 354

categorical imperative 355

principle of utility 356

veil of ignorance 357

sensationalism 362

tabloid laundering or tabloidization 363

ombudsman 369

#gamergate 375

social justice warriors (#SJW) 376

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How does Richard Drew defend the taking and publishing of disturbing photos from the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States?

2. How can two competing ethical principles lead us to making different ethical decisions?

3. Do reporters have an obligation to stay to report on protests and violence when police are telling them to leave the area? Why or why not? What factors might affect how you answer the question?

4. Should advertisers be able to shape the content of media they advertise in? Should they be able to veto ad placement next to certain types of content? Why or why not?

5. What was the #gamergate hashtag supposedly about, and how was it actually used?

STUDENT STUDY SITE

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Sharpen your skills with SAGE edge!

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.

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UNCOVER EXTENSIVE RESOURCES

edge.sagepub.com/Hanson6e

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HEAD TO THE STUDY SITE WHERE YOU’LL FIND:

eFlashcards to strengthen your understanding of key terms.

Practice quizzes to test your comprehension of key concepts.

Videos and multimedia content to enhance your exploration of key topics.

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CHAPTER 15

GLOBAL MEDIA Communication Around the World

AP Images/ Molly Riley

Media Library

CHAPTER 15 Media Library

PREMIUM VIDEO

VIDEO CASE

Video Case 15.1: Freedom of the press index.

Video Case 15.2: Cuban Political Shift.

Video Case 15.3: Murals created to show human rights in Iran.

Video Case 15.4: Watch a news clip covering President O bama's visit to Ethiopia.

AUDIO

Listen to discussion of Iranian court’s ruling on the Rezai an case.

Why we didn’t see the Charlie Hebdo cartoons.

What are the restrictions on journalists in Russia?

Listen to how a committee to protect journalists was bloc ked by a U.N. Panel.

WEB

Read about press freedom around the world.

Compare and contrast media outlets.

Balancing free speech, public safety and ethnic violence i n age of social media

Read about BBC programming.

Read the Guardian’s story on how and why they altered t he photo.

http://www.npr.org/2015/10/12/447911168/iranian-court-rules-on-rezaian-case-but-verdict-isnt-released

http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/01/10/376098073/why-youre-not-seeing-those-charlie-hebdo-cartoons

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/04/26/475634042/for-journalists-in-russia-no-one-really-knows-what-is-allowed

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/05/27/479740466/u-n-panel-blocks-accreditation-bid-by-committee-to-protect-journalists

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http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/29/link-ch-15-differing-views-of-world-news/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/07/14/dealing-globally-with-free-speech/

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/30/link-ch-15-the-bbc/

http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2004/mar/12/pressandpublishing.spain

O WHAT YOU’LL LEARN After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Discuss different media standards around the world by using four normative theories of the press.

Read more about the dangers of reporting from Syria.

Al Jazeera news.

Media use in the Middle East.

Explore the BBC’s Africa coverage.

Read the latest on press freedom in Russia.

Read about media censorship in China.

Review the violations of press freedom barometer.

Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog.

QUIZ

Take the Chapter Quiz

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n July 22, 2014, Washington Post Iran

correspondent Jason Rezaian was arrested by Iranian authorities, along with his wife, Yeganeh Salehi, an Iranian citizen who was also a reporter for a United Arab Emirates paper. Rezaian was taken to Iran’s notorious Evin Prison where he was kept in solitary confinement for months. He was eventually held captive for more than five hundred days until he and three other prisoners were swapped for seven

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/19/link-ch-15-dangers-of-reporting-from-syria/

http://www.aljazeera.com/connect/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOs5eArRG7M

http://www.bbc.com/news/world/africa/

http://www.cpj.org/europe/russia/

http://www.cfr.org/china/media-censorship-china/p11515

https://rsf.org/en/barometer

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-15/

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2 Explain the usefulness of a more recent “development theory” for describing the press in the twenty-first century.

3 Explain the importance of social media and other “small media” in the Middle East.

4 Describe the dangers journalists face when reporting from conflict zones.

5 Discuss whether Marshall McLuhan’s concept of the “global village” is relevant to the media world today.

people imprisoned or charged in the United States. Salehi had been released on bail.1

Imprisoned nearly five months before finally being charged during a closed court hearing without having an attorney, Rezaian’s captivity was the longest in Iran since the 1979 Islamic revolution. Almost a year after being arrested, Rezaian was tried on charges of “espionage, ‘collaborating with hostile governments,’ ‘propaganda against the establishment,’ and allegations that he gathered information ‘about internal and foreign policy.’” 2

In April 2015, at the White House Correspondents’ Association dinner, normally an evening for humor, President Obama took a serious turn, saying:

We remember the journalists unjustly imprisoned around the world, including our own Jason Rezaian. For nine months, Jason has been imprisoned in Tehran for nothing more than writing about the hopes and the fears of the Iranian people, carrying their stories to the readers of The Washington Post in an effort to bridge our common humanity.3

The Washington Post, under the leadership of executive editor Martin Baron, petitioned the United Nations for “urgent action” to get his release. (If the name Martin Baron is familiar to you, he was played by actor Liev Schreiber in the movie Spotlight.)

The Washington Post initially learned of the arrest of U.S.-born

Iranian American Rezaian and his wife over a bad cell phone connection from Tehran, not even sure it had heard correctly what had happened. At the time of their arrests, there were least two other Americans being held in Iran under questionable charges.

Baron and other Post editors quickly met with U.S. government officials, including Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State John Kerry. But for Baron and the rest of people at the Post, getting information out of the U.S. government was challenging. “All along, the administration was reluctant to get into a lot of details with us,” Baron said. Administration officials “remained concerned throughout, to the very end, that if they provided us details it would somehow end up being public.”4

Up to the very last minute before Rezaian left Iran, the story had all the hallmarks of a Hollywood movie. Rezaian’s wife and mother were supposed to be on the same plane leaving Iran, but because Salehi’s cell phone had been taken away from her, no one could reach the women. But Rezaian’s brother finally got ahold of the family members so they knew to get to the plane. And as the jet left Iranian airspace, the former prisoners were served champagne and chocolate. Post owner and Amazon founder Jeff Bezos met Rezaian and his family once the Swiss plane landed in Germany, and brought them back to the United States in his private plane.5

Iran has not been an easy place for journalists, both foreign and domestic, to work. At the time of Rezaian’s release, there were still at least nineteen other “reporters, cartoonists and editors” being held by the government there.6

AUDIO Listen to discussion of Iranian court’s ruling on the Rezai an case. CLICK TO SHOW

According to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), Iran held the third most journalists in prison with nineteen, behind China with forty-nine and Egypt with twenty-three.7

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http://www.npr.org/2015/10/12/447911168/iranian-court-rules-on-rezaian-case-but-verdict-isnt-released

Among these are Kurdish-Persian journalists who have been imprisoned since 2007. Freelance online journalist Arash Honarvar Shojaei has been imprisoned since 2010 after being sentenced to four years in prison and fifty lashes. Despite having been kept long past his initial sentence length, there is no sign of him being released.

Other journalists are being held for comic commentary and social media posts. Atena Farghadani was initially imprisoned in 2014 for depicting members of Parliament as monkeys and cows in a cartoon about contraception availability that she posted on Facebook. She was rearrested in 2015 after she posted a YouTube video where she discussed being abused by female agents and having had cameras in the restrooms and showers of Evin Prison.

Following his return after 545 days in prison, Rezaian spoke at the dedication of the new Washington Post headquarters:

For much of the 18months I was in prison, my Iranian interrogators told me that The Washington Post did not exist, that no one knew of my plight, and that the United States government would not lift a finger for my release. Today I’m here in this room with the very people who helped prove the Iranians wrong in so many ways.8

This had not been the first time that Rezaian ran into trouble with the Iranian government. In 2009, he left the country for a while when he felt it was too dangerous to stay. At the time, he told the media commentary show On the Media,

You know, I was living in my own apartment there, and I can tell you that nobody was standing at my door telling me I couldn’t go out of the house. But when I did leave the house, I’d get calls—you know, you should go back home— from unnamed officials. . . .

When you think about it, there’s very few foreign news representatives allowed in the country, in the first place. It’s not that hard to keep tabs on us. And now, you know, we’re hearing a lot of stories coming out of Iran that people are worried to speak on the telephone, worried that their emails are being monitored. That might be the case. I can’t see how they would be monitoring everybody. But when it

comes to foreign media, I think it would be very easy to monitor our comings and goings without too much extra effort.9

Aside from the suffering inflicted on Rezaian and his family, the biggest impact of his imprisonment is that the Washington Post is not planning on sending a replacement reporter to Iran anytime soon.

Baron told Voice of America in February 2016:

Right now we’re not in a position to be able to put a correspondent there. We’ve had no discussions with the Iranian government about having another correspondent there, and we would need some good assurances from the government that a correspondent there would not be arrested, as Jason was.10

And this is a big issue. This is why having reporters on the ground is so important.

In a somewhat strange twist, CNN’s world food personality Anthony Bourdain interviewed Rezaian and Salehi for an episode of Parts Unknown about Iran shortly before Rezaian was arrested. Bourdain, writing for a column in the Washington Post about that interview, said he couldn’t understand why Rezaian had been imprisoned: “I just met and talked at length with a guy who was so positive about Iran. So positive about the possibilities for a better future.”11

The notion of being able to print or broadcast almost any kind of news is central to the ideal of free speech in the United States and the democracies of the West. But different countries and cultures have differing ideas as to what constitutes the proper form for the media to take. And just because something is legally available in a country doesn’t mean that people will in practice actually have access to it. In this chapter, we look at ideals of how the media ought to behave and how the media function in different societies around the world. Finally, we consider what it means to live in a world with such a wide range of media.

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Mohamed Abdiwahab/AFP/Getty Images

Somalia is a difficult country to practice journalism within. Abdimalik Yusuf (left), head of Shabelle radio, and Mohamed Bashir, a journalist, stand chained near court in Mogadishu. The two journalists have been charged with defamation and insulting state institutions for covering the story of a woman who had been raped.

Media Ideals Around the World

So far in this book, we have primarily discussed the development of the media in economically developed democracies. But the relationship among politicians, citizens, and the press can take very different forms in other nations, depending on the country’s culture, government, and level of development.

In 1956, three journalism professors from the University of Illinois—Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm— outlined what they considered to be the major forms the press could take around the world in Four Theories of the Press. They built their argument around two basic value-oriented theories of how the press ought to behave: authoritarian and libertarian. They then created two variations on these: Soviet/communist and social responsibility.12

The authors argue that the nature of the press depends on the political and social structures of the society it serves. In other words, the structure and function of the press mirror the society it portrays. Since 1956, however, much has changed. The Cold War has ended, and the Soviet Union has collapsed. We’ve gone from talking about the influence of the press to talking about the influence of the media. The media industry has come to be dominated by a limited number of large owners. We have seen the rise of the Internet, which allows many more voices to be heard, though they can easily get lost in all the digital noise. And the importance of developing nations is being increasingly recognized.

In response to these changes, and many others, scholars started

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questioning whether the ideas from the book needed to be revisited. John C. Nerone and his contributing authors—also all from the University of Illinois—did just that in 1995 with Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press. As they pointed out,

WEB Read about press freedom around the world. CLICK TO SHOW

When Four Theories was written, many U.S. newspapers carried ads for segregated housing, it was still legal in a number of states for a husband to divorce his wife for being a bad housekeeper, and no one had ever seen what the earth looked like from outer space.13

Nerone and his colleagues suggested several things that contemporary readers of Four Theories should think about. Most important of these was that the four theories were not a timeless set of categories. Rather, they were a critique set within a particular time period that reflected the politics and economics of the day. Other critics have suggested that there should be a fifth theory of the press—development theory—to deal with countries that are in the process of building modern economies. 14 In this section, we look at the four original theories, along with development theory, and see how well they apply to press systems today.

Authoritarian Theory

The authoritarian theory is the oldest theory of the press. It says that the role of the press is to be a servant of the government, not a servant of the citizenry. Authoritarian theory has its roots in royal control of societies during the era when the printing press was

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first developed. Monarchs were believed to derive their authority to rule directly from God, and therefore they had the right and responsibility to control all aspects of society, including the printing press. Rulers felt that the proper role of the press was to provide the public with the information the rulers deemed appropriate. Keep in mind that the reach of the press was still fairly limited because relatively few people were literate. So the monarch gave formal permission to the publisher, who in return had a monopoly on the publishing business.

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Today, countries that are developing mass media often start by taking an authoritarian approach. Authoritarian rule is also practiced in most totalitarian states, which seek to control the press along with all other aspects of social life.

Authoritarian control of the press is carried out by the following means:

• Giving permits to only certain printers—However, as the number of trained printers grows and an increasingly literate public demands more and more printed materials, the ability of the government to control “outlaw” printers can become problematic.

• Prosecuting anyone who violates generally accepted standards for the press.

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Video Case 15.1: Freedom of the press index.

Totalitarian governments have been ruthless in controlling the press through arrests, torture, arson, and imprisonment, along with more subtle methods such as controlling the availability of supplies. For example, in the 1990s, Serbian president Slobodan Milošević shut down the capital city’s only independent radio station, Radio B92, and the opposition newspaper had trouble publishing because of newsprint shortages—which didn’t seem to affect the official state newspaper.15 Since 2009, strong antiterrorism laws have forced journalists in Ethiopia to self- censor to avoid arrest, and at least two Ethiopian journalists have been imprisoned for more than two and a half years on terrorism charges. In Eritrea, one of the most repressive African countries, there simply is no privately owned media.16

Nerone’s major critique of authoritarian theory is that it is more a description of the procedures a government uses to control the press than a philosophy of press behavior.17

Communist Theory

Although the Soviet Union no

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The Granger Collection, New York

This 1968 Soviet propaganda poster depicting Vladimir Ilyich Lenin reads: “Pravda: Our task is to overcome capitalist resistance—not only military and political resistance, but ideological resistance, which is the most profound and powerful.”

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

longer exists, a variety of governments around the world, including those in Cuba and China, continue to hold to communist ideals. The comm unist theory of the press is similar to the authoritarian theory but goes a step further. Instead of just being a servant of the government, the press is run by the government to serve the government’s own needs. The communist press is supposedly free to publish the truth. However, in the Soviet Union the press was not free, nor did it speak the truth. The communist view is that there is only one valid political and social philosophy, so there is no need for competing “false” ideals to be portrayed in the media. Moreover, communists argue that the American press is no freer than the communist press because the American media serve the needs of capitalist owners rather than those of society. Communist media theory proposes the following principles:

• The media are an instrument of the government and the Communist Party—An independent press is undesirable and should be suppressed.

• The media should be closely tied to other sources of government power and authority—In the United States, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government serve as checks and balances on each other, all overseen by the press. But communist theory holds that all elements of the state, including the press, should work toward a common goal.

• The media’s main purpose is to act as a tool for government propaganda.

The communist notion of absolute right and wrong leaves no room for the

If you knew you were going to risk imprisonment or torture, would you still be willing to speak out and criticize your government? Why or why not?

Joshua Lott/AFP/Getty Images

In a country with a libertarian theory of the press, journalists are free to cover protests against the government, such as this one in Ferguson, Missouri, where locals were carrying pickets protesting the killing of local resident Michael Brown.

media to debate the proper role of government. The press is not a watchdog, but rather a supporter of the Communist Party’s efforts to create a perfect state. Since the responsibility for enforcing this truth lies within the leadership of the state, the leadership should control the mass media. So the role of the press is to put forward the official party line. This is almost directly counter to the Western notion of the press as an outside observer keeping watch on the government.18

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In Last Rights, the authors point out that what we’ve been referring to as “the communist theory” was supposed to represent a generalized Marxist response to libertarian theory (discussed below) but really represented the Soviet approach at a given time.19 The communist theory of the press was an ideal that Soviet communists never came even close to obtaining. The Soviets may have had an ideal of a communist press, but in reality it was generally just authoritarian controls. The only time the Soviet media came close to acting as a force for the people and not just for those in power was under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s during his campaign for glasnost, or openness. Glasnost allowed citizens and the media to express their opposition to the official government position and to criticize corrupt local leaders. Since then, however, the Russian media have gone back to a level of authoritarian control, as we discuss later in this chapter.

Libertarian Theory

The opposite of authoritarian theory is libertarian theory. In this view, the press does not belong to the government but is instead a separate institution that belongs to the people and serves as an independent observer of the government. Libertarian philosophy views people as moral beings who can tell the difference between truthfulness and falsity. Because of this, they need a free and open press so that they can decide for themselves what is true and what is false. The libertarian theory thus holds that there must be a marketplace of ideas in which both true and false statements can compete for the hearts and minds of audience members. This is the basic idea of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.20 Libertarian theory is the basis of free speech in the democracies of the West and is the most well developed of the theories in Four Theories.21

Most noncommunist countries pay at least lip service to the libertarian ideal of the press, although many do not adhere to it. Again, even in the United States, there tends to be much more government control of the broadcast media than of print.

The free press of a libertarian society is based on the following principles:

• People want to know the truth and be guided by it. • The only way to arrive at the truth is for ideas to be freely

and openly discussed.

• Different people will have different opinions, and everyone must be allowed to develop his or her own.

• The most rational ideas will be the most accepted.

In the libertarian view, the major functions of the press are to inform, entertain, and advertise (to support itself). Overall, though, the goal of the media is to help people discover the truth. The press should be free of government control, and every idea, no matter how crazy or offensive, should be allowed a forum for expression. As Siebert et al. wrote in Four Theories, the ideal is “to let the public at large be subjected to a barrage of information and opinion, some of it possibly true, some of it possibly false, and some of it containing elements of both.”22 A

key problem with libertarian media theory is that it assumes that the primary threat to freedom of speech and communication comes from the government rather than from the marketplace. Under the American system, the voices that are profitable to present will be heard much more loudly than those that do not produce a profit. The ideas that attract advertising revenue and sales draw much more attention from the press than do those about the poor or disenfranchised. Hence we hear more in the news about the stock market than about job programs for the unemployed. Four Theories argues that the free market is the ultimate in freedom, rather than media owned by “community groups, nonprofit corporations, universities, religious groups, and municipalities.”23 The debate is framed in terms of external controls rather than access. There is a presumption that the ideal of freedom is corporate or individual ownership with no government intervention. But what about the BBC? Arguably one of the greatest broadcast news operations in the world, it is run with government funding, albeit with a relatively hands-off approach.

WEB Compare and contrast media outlets. CLICK TO SHOW

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Social Responsibility Theory

The social responsibility theory of the press is an outgrowth of libertarian theory. This theory is based on the concern that, although it may be free from interference by the government, the press can still be controlled by corporate interests. For example, in principle, anyone can start up a newspaper, but in reality, it is an expensive and difficult proposition. Moreover, only a limited number of radio and television station licenses are available. So, although the government does not control the press in a free society, the control exercised by a limited number of corporations and individuals can be as effective as that of any government. Social responsibility theory says that the high level of concentrated power in the hands of the media requires that they be socially responsible in covering all sides of controversial issues and

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/29/link-ch-15-differing-views-of-world-news/

providing voters with all the information they need to make considered choices. If the press is not sufficiently vigilant, it is the duty of some representative of the public to force it to be responsible.24

Under social responsibility theory, the press is obliged to serve several social functions:

• Provide the news and information needed to make the political system work.

• Give the public the information needed for self- governance.

• Serve as an overseer of the government. • Serve the economic function of bringing together buyers

and sellers through advertising.

• Provide entertainment. • Be profitable enough to avoid outside pressures.

Social responsibility theory essentially advocates nonauthoritarian media controls. France, Israel, and Sweden all operate under some form of social responsibility controls. The governments own and operate television channels, and the programming tends to promote the government’s point of view.2 5 The alternative is for the press to be in the hands of private business, which may allow for more political views but limits the media to carrying programming that is profitable. Government ownership frees the media from the constraint of having to make a profit.

The social responsibility theory was a response to the Hutchins Commission report from the late 1940s on the social responsibility of the press, which we discussed in Chapter 14. However, it does describe an approach to the press that is common in the world, for example, in the Israeli press, which we discuss

Library of Congress

In the nineteenth century, the telegraph served to transmit news across the United States and around the world far faster than any vehicle could travel. It was the first step toward the creation of global electronic media.

later. The press does not necessarily like the idea that it has responsibilities to go with the freedoms it claims. The question really is, to whom does the freedom of the press belong? Is it to a corporate institution, or is it to people with voices wanting to be heard? Does giving a voice to one limit the voice of the other? Should we automatically favor the rights of those who can afford the press over those who cannot?26

Norms for the Press in the Twenty-First Century

Perhaps the biggest problem with these normative theories of the press is that it may take two or more of them to describe a given country’s media system. For example, theocratic countries whose media operate under a strong social responsibility theory may incorporate elements of the communist media theory, substituting the values of the state religion for those of the Communist Party.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

UPDATING THE FOUR THEORIES ohn Nerone and the contributing authors of Last Rights1 say that Four Theories of the Press2 was a map of the world’s media drawn at a specific time—the mid-

1950s. And although it was a good map for its day, it was limited by what could be seen at that time and does not take into account the massive transformations that have taken

place since then—the fall of communism, the end of the Cold War, globalization, and media consolidation. So they ask, “Do we need to draw a new map?” Or the even bigger question: “Can we draw a new map?”3 This new map will need to deal with the issues surrounding the press in developing nations, as well as the norms surrounding the controlled press in many Islamic nations.

Reread the section of this chapter describing the four theories, paying particular attention to the critique of the theories, and then answer the questions here.

Who is the source? Who is John Nerone? What have he and his colleagues written?

What is he saying? According to Nerone, what made Four Theories such a significant book? What are the major questions he raises about the theories for the current media world? Are there other notions of a free press than the libertarian theory?

What evidence is there? What evidence does Nerone provide that Four Theories needs to be updated to apply to the present media world? How do new media—the Internet, Web sites, blogs, and social networking sites—fit within these theories? What other critiques are there of the four theories? What evidence is there that the categories are still useful?

What do you and your classmates think? What role do you think the media should play within society? Should the media be forced to be responsible? If so, who should decide what it means to be responsible? Should the role of the media be to support the government or to be a watchdog over the government? Can they do both?

1 John C. Nerone, ed., Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995).

2 Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm, Four Theories of the Press (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1956).

3 Nerone, Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press.

WEB Balancing free speech, public safety and ethnic violenc e in age of social media CLICK TO SHOW

Several authors have suggested a fifth theory of the press, deve lopment theory, to address the special needs of emerging nations, whose governments may feel that they need to restrict freedom of the press in order to promote industry, national identity, and partnerships with neighboring nations. Media theorist Denis McQuail writes that less developed societies undergoing the transition from colonial rule to independence have different needs than do developed nations such as those of North America and Western Europe. These developing nations “lack the money, infrastructure, skills, and audiences to sustain a free-market media system.”27 Thus, in many cases, leaders in those nations resort to using authoritarian controls. In May 2007, for example, then Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez revoked the broadcast license of the country’s oldest and most watched television network, Radio Caracas Televisión, or RCTV. The network had been severely critical of Chávez and his administration, and lifting the network’s broadcast license effectively silenced it. Although the network has been kept off the air since 2007, it has stayed in business at a much smaller level producing programming for other channels. A ruling by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) called on Venezuela to relicense the station, but the Venezuelan Supreme Court said that the IACHR ruling was “unenforceable.” 28

The Internet in the Twenty-First Century

In The Victorian Internet, author Tom Standage argues that the

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/07/14/dealing-globally-with-free-speech/

nineteenth-century telegraph was also a significant global development, serving many of the same purposes as the Internet at the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first. According to him, the telegraph was “a world- wide communications network whose cables spanned continents and oceans, [and] it revolutionized business practice, gave rise to new forms of crime, and inundated its users with a deluge of information.”29

The telegraph system was followed by both radio and the telephone as media that could tie large areas of the world together. While the earliest components of the Internet were in use by 1969, the Net was limited largely to interpersonal communication until 1991, when Tim Berners-Lee released the World Wide Web as an easy and uniform way to access material on the Internet. Although the Internet owes a historical debt to the early telegraph and telephone systems, it has grown into a new medium unlike any other because it is the only one that incorporates elements of interpersonal, group, and mass communication. The unique nature of the Internet, especially in a global context, poses new moral dilemmas concerning national boundaries, corporate control, freedom of the press, and the rights of individuals. As you read about global media in different countries later in this chapter, keep in mind some of these issues.

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Going Global: Media Standards Around the World

There is a presumption that a direct connection exists between a country’s media system and its political system. Central to this presumption is the idea that a free press is essential for a functional democracy. But what constitutes a free press? Broadcasters in countries with commercially run media, such as the United States, presume that the freest press is that run by private-sector corporate control. Broadcasters in countries with strong traditions of public ownership, such as the United Kingdom, might argue that the commercial broadcasters are beholden to stockholders and advertisers and are no freer than

the media in totalitarian states.

Alan Wells suggests that the four theories of the press might be replaced by five dimensions over which media could be rated:

• Control—Who controls the media system? This could be the state, a public corporation, a private enterprise, or corporate sponsorship.

• Finance—How do broadcasters pay the bills? Options include license fees, taxes, advertising, private subsidies, subscription charges, or a combination of these.

• Programming goals—What are the media trying to accomplish with their programming? Providing entertainment, educating the audience, selling products, promoting cultural goals, promoting a political ideology, or just putting up the cheapest possible imported material is each a possible programming goal.

• Target audience—For whom are the media producing and distributing content? These could be social or economic elites, the masses, or specialized/targeted audiences.

• Feedback mechanism—How do media organizations hear back from their audiences? Such feedback could be in the form of field reports, audience participation rates, polls and ratings, or response from critics and sponsors.30

As you can see, these five properties can be combined in an endless number of ways to describe a wide range of media systems. As we travel around the world looking at the various approaches to running the media, think about how these properties are being applied. You might also consider which of the normative theories of the press discussed previously would apply.

Canada, Western Europe, and Great Britain

Canada, Western Europe, and Great Britain have liberal democracies that have free speech and media that are relatively free to criticize their governments. But their media differ in

Orphan Black/Photofest

Thanks to the success of Orphan Black, Canada is now a noted producer of television rather than

significant ways from the media in the United States, if only because the United States has the largest media industry in the world.

Canadian Media. Canada has a free press patterned in part on the U.S. model but modified by a desire to preserve Canadian culture in the face of the massive U.S. media industry. Canada can be characterized as a country with a large geographic area offset by a relatively small population, which makes media transmission relatively expensive. Canada’s vastness means that it has strongly regional media, amplified by the fact that both English and French are official languages.

One area of resentment has been the somewhat one-way direction of media influence from the United States. As one major Canadian mass communication text points out,

In Canada, more American television programming is available to the vast majority of Canadians than is Canadian programming. On most Canadian commercial radio stations, more American material is available to listeners than Canadian material. On virtually all magazine racks in Canada more American magazines are available to the reader than Canadian magazines, in spite of the fact that about 2,000 magazines are published in Canada. More American authors than Canadian authors are read by the average Canadian school child.31

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Despite these issues, the Canadian media industry has been seeing growth. Canada’s recording industry has been increasing steadily for the past two decades, as has the book publishing industry. The Canadian film industry has benefited from U.S. movie and television productions shooting north of the border, with Canada now being the second-largest producer of television programming in the

just being a friendly location to film programming.

world, after the United States. The movie and TV industry in western Canada generated $20.4 billion in gross domestic product in 2014.32 In an effort to protect and enhance Canada’s media industry, the government has put in place a number of “Canadian content” regulations requiring broadcasters to carry a certain level of Canadian- produced material. For example, programming on Canadian radio must be at least 35 percent domestically produced. Canadian television attracted widespread attention in spring 2007 when the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation put a sitcom on the air called Little Mosque on the Prairie, which follows the travails of a rural Muslim community in small-town Canada.33 (No, I’m not making this up. It was a hit series in Canada that ran six seasons through 2012, and it’s recently been available in the United States on Hulu and Hulu Plus.)

These policies put the country at odds with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which calls for products to flow freely across the borders of Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The problem Canada faces is that the United States’ largest export is not wheat or steel, but rather media content. Nevertheless, Canada has worked hard at maintaining its cultural production, exporting media content produced by authors such as Margaret Atwood and Douglas Coupland; filmmakers such as James Cameron and Jason Reitman; actors including Ryan Reynolds, Ryan Gosling, and Rachel McAdams; and musicians such as Drake, The Weeknd, deadmau5, and—of course—Justin Bieber.34

Western European and British Media. Western Europe covers a wide range of countries, from Spain and Portugal up through France, Germany, and Scandinavia. These are the countries of the European Union.35 Cable television is common in some regions, such as Belgium and Germany, while satellite programming is more common in Scandinavia. European broadcasting was dominated by state-run monopolies until the 1980s and 1990s, when commercial alternatives became more common. With this switch, broadcasters started moving away from subsidies to advertising revenues. But even the commercial stations remain heavily regulated and have strong controls and guidelines on the amounts and placement of advertisements. Part of the drive to privatize broadcasting was

due to pirate radio stations located offshore on ships that broadcast into the countries.

WEB Read about BBC programming. CLICK TO SHOW

Broadcasting in France typifies the European approach, with networks having a strong public service obligation and a desire to preserve French culture from foreign encroachment. According to broadcast scholar Matthew Rusher, “Each country in Western Europe seeks to preserve its own culture and language and sees the foreign produced programming on the international channels as a threat to its cultural integrity.”36 These stations want to attract audiences and make money, but they also want to preserve their distinctive national culture.

Globally, the BBC may well be the best-known non-U.S. broadcaster. Britain, a pioneer in broadcasting from its earliest days, used radio to reach out to its far-flung empire, which once covered a quarter of the globe.37 As we discussed in Chapter 7, this reputation comes from the BBC World Service, much of which is now carried digitally via the Internet. The BBC operates under a public service model in which audience members pay the cost of the programming through equipment licensing fees. Although the BBC is the best known of the British broadcasters, it also competes with several commercial channels, though these channels have not had the worldwide influence of the BBC. Alan Wells argues that the public service orientation of the BBC has helped it deliver more innovative and less bland programming than the American commercial model. (It should, however, be pointed out that international viewers only see the best of the BBC’s programming, missing out on the more routine soap operas and game shows.38)

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TEST YOUR VISUAL MEDIA

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2012/05/30/link-ch-15-the-bbc/

LITERACY

REUTERS/El Pais; ©Telegraph Media Group Limited 2004

What’s different about these two photos of the 2004 Madrid train bombing? The original photo on the left was distributed by Reuters news service, but the one on the right was edited by the Telegraph. Does one shock or offend you more than the other? Do you even notice the differences? As a news consumer, does it bother you to think the images you see may be edited?

ARE THERE LIMITS TO WHAT MEDIA IMAGES SHOULD DISPLAY?

t first glance, the photo of the terrorist bombing of a Madrid train in 2004 taken by Spanish photographer Pablo Torres Guerrero is disturbing enough, with its

visage of carnage and death. But after you look at the original photo for a few moments, you realize that there is a portion of a severed arm in the foreground, bright red with blood.1

How was the photo changed to be printed in the British newspaper the Telegraph? Do these changes make the photo less graphic? Do these changes make the photo less honest? What else could have been done to tone down the gore in this photo? Or is it wrong to take the horror out of the photo?

The Telegraph wasn’t the only newspaper to tone down the graphic image of the train bombing. The Guardian (not pictured) left the limb in the photo but took the color out of the limb so it wasn’t so graphic. And the Times of London took the limb out of the photo all together. Paul Johnson, an editor at the Guardian, said that removing the color from the photo was the best compromise the staff could come up with:

We could have cropped it out, but someone came up with the suggestion that we bleed out the colour. It is not perfect by any means but I felt it was the best solution all round because it didn’t eradicate anything from the picture.2

1 Claire Cozens, “Editors ‘Clean Up’ Bomb Photo,” The Guardian, March 12, 2004, www.guardian.co.uk/media/2004/mar/12/pressandpublishing.spain.

2 Ibid.

WEB Read the Guardian’s story on how and why they altere d the photo. CLICK TO SHOW

Media are pervasive throughout Western Europe, with almost every household owning at least one television set and close to half owning two or more. Most homes also have a radio, and two-thirds have VCRs. Computers and the Internet are not as pervasive as in the United States; roughly one-third of homes in Western Europe have a personal computer. The big change in European media is the growth of privately owned television channels. As recently as 1990, Europe had only 47 national stations; by 2010, there were more than 9,800, with 300 of them launched in 2010 alone.39

As we discussed in Chapters 2 and 6, European newspapers tend to take a more obvious political point of view than the detached, objective approach of U.S. papers. These papers have a clearly understood viewpoint designed to appeal to members of particular political parties.40 While newspaper readership is higher in Europe than anywhere else in the world, papers in

http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2004/mar/12/pressandpublishing.spain

Darren Bell/Cartoon Group

This editorial cartoon was drawn by artist Darrin Bell in memory of the cartoonists and others killed in the Charlie Hebdo attacks of January 15, 2015.

European countries are still facing the same kinds of declines experienced by those in North America.41

Charlie Hebdo, the Danish Cartoons, and Terrorism. On Wednesday, January 15, 2015, three masked gunmen attacked and killed at least twelve people at the Paris offices of the satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in what was one of the deadliest attacks on journalists ever.

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Charlie Hebdo is known for its controversial covers and provocative cartoons, which are known for skewering religion and politics of every stripe. One of the paper’s most famous covers published shortly after its offices were firebombed in 2011 depicts a male Charlie Hebdo cartoonist giving a slobbery open-mouth kiss to a bearded man in traditional Muslim garb.42 (We are not reprinting any of the Charlie Hebdo cartoons here, but you can see links to a number of them at a blog post that goes with this section. Even trying to describe some of the cartoons would go beyond the standards at SAGE.)

The killings were allegedly provoked by cartoons published in the paper that depicted the prophet Muhammad and mocked the leader of the Islamic State (also known as ISIS). It is important to remember, however, as Ezra Klein at Vox points out, that we do not need to try to analyze whether the paper was being too provocative. The attack was an act of terrorism and act of violence, not a response to a legitimate provocation. It should also be noted that Charlie Hebdo describes itself as a “secular and atheist newspaper” and routinely publishes material that is offensive to every major world religion.43

This explains, in part, why many U.S. news outlets did not

reprint any of the Charlie Hebdo covers. Mark Memmott, writing for NPR’s The Two-Way blog, said that NPR did not reprint any of the magazine’s covers in part because they would give viewers the mistaken idea that the cartoons inside the publication are not as graphic as they actually are:

AUDIO Why we didn’t see the Charlie Hebdo cartoons. CLICK TO SHOW

Photos showing just a few of the magazine’s covers could lead viewers to mistakenly conclude that Charlie Hebdo is only a bit edgier than other satirical publications. But a comprehensive display of Charlie Hebdo’s work would require posting images that go well beyond most news organizations’ standards regarding offensive material.44

In essence, Memmott is arguing that to give readers a realistic view of what the cartoons are like would require violating NPR’s rules for decency. The New York Times also declined to publish any of the most offensive Charlie Hebdo cartoons, including all of those that depicted the Prophet Mohammad. Margaret Sullivan, who was at the time the public editor at the Times, wrote in her column that while she understood the paper’s reasons for not publishing the explicitly offensive cartoons that the magazine had run previously, she questioned why the paper had not run the cover from the week following the attack that showed a crying Mohammad holding a sign that loosely translated to “Sorry Charlie.”45

The attacks in Paris bring back to mind the rioting and attacks that followed the publication (and republication) of the cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten. A Pew Research Center poll back in June 2006, at the time of the response to the Danish cartoons, asked whether Americans thought that the controversy was more about “Western disrespect” or “Muslim intolerance.” Not surprisingly, Americans (by a 3-to-1 margin) blamed the problems on Muslim intolerance.46

The Danish cartoons were drawn in a range of styles. One made fun of the editors of Jyllands-Posten for trying to provoke attention, another put a Danish anti-immigration politician in a

http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/01/10/376098073/why-youre-not-seeing-those-charlie-hebdo-cartoons

police lineup, and one portrayed the Prophet with a bomb in his turban with a quote from the Koran printed on the front.47

At the time the cartoons were published, they drew relatively little attention. But in the winter of 2006, a number of European and American newspapers reprinted the cartoons. Following these reprints came rioting throughout the Middle East that led to dozens of deaths.48

So why was half the world infuriated over cartoons published in a conservative Danish newspaper? The answer is both simple and complex. At the heart of the controversy is Islam’s prohibition on depicting the Prophet Muhammad. According to news accounts, it is a sin for a Muslim to create such an image and the “ultimate sort of insult” for a non-Muslim to do so. The Washington Post’s culture critic Philip Kennicott gives a compelling explanation of why the cartoons were so controversial and why he believes that publishing them was a bad idea:

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They were created as a provocation—Islam generally forbids the making of images of its highest prophet—in a conservative newspaper, which wanted to make a point about freedom of speech in a liberal, secular Western democracy. Depending on your point of view, it was a stick in the eye meant to provoke debate, or just a stick in the eye.49

He points out that we would be unlikely to see many cartoons quite that offensive toward Christianity in the United States:

No serious American newspaper would commission images of Jesus that were solely designed to offend Christians. And if one did, the reaction would be swift and certain. Politicians would take to the floors of Congress and call down thunder on the malefactors. Some Christians would react with fury and boycotts and flaming e-mails that couldn’t be printed in a family newspaper; others would react with sadness, prayer, and earnest letters to the editor. There would be mayhem, though it is unlikely that semiautomatic weapons would be brandished in the streets.50

The response to the cartoons was massive: At least four people were killed when Afghan troops fired on demonstrators, the cartoonists themselves went into hiding for fear of being killed, two Jordanian newspaper editors who reprinted the cartoons were arrested, the cartoons were banned in South Africa and the editor who published them there received death threats, and protesters burned the Danish embassy in Beirut. American commentators have written lengthy pieces on the controversy, the effects of which still linger. As recently as 2012, a Somali man who attacked one of the cartoonists was sentenced to ten years in prison.51

While many American news outlets did not reprint the Danish cartoons, the Philadelphia Inquirer did reprint the most offensive of the images. Muslims in the Philadelphia area responded by picketing the paper, thus illustrating the commonsense idea that the proper response to offensive speech is more speech, not less. In fact, Inquirer editor Amanda Bennett said of the protesters: “Neither I nor the newspaper meant any disrespect to their religion or their prophet. I told them I was actually really proud of them for exercising their right to freedom of speech.”52 The cartoons also ran in the University of Illinois student paper, the Daily Illini, which sparked debate about the issue on the campus and led to peaceful protests.

But far more papers decided against running the cartoons. The Boston Globe, in an editorial, explained the paper’s reasoning:

Depicting Mohammed wearing a turban in the form of a bomb with a sputtering fuse is no less hurtful to most Muslims than Nazi caricatures of Jews or Ku Klux Klan caricatures of blacks are to those victims of intolerance. That is why the Danish cartoons will not be reproduced on these pages.53

Central and Latin America

Video Case 15.2: Cuban Political Shift.

Most of Latin American commercial broadcasting is dominated by North American, Mexican, and Brazilian programming. Brazil and Mexico have among the largest and most sophisticated broadcasting operations of any nation in the world. In fact, Mexico and Brazil export culture back to the United States through sports programming and the extremely popular telenovelas. Latin American broadcasters tend to follow the American for-profit model rather than the BBC’s public-service orientation. One reason for the larger scope of South American broadcasting is that, unlike Africa (which we discuss shortly), Latin America has only two dominant languages to deal with— Spanish and Portuguese.54 Since the 1990s, Latin American governments have grown more stable and less repressive, and the economies of these countries have grown. All these factors have contributed to the growth of the media industry in Latin America. Unlike in much of the world, newspaper circulation has been growing in Latin America, with more than one thousand newspapers being published and daily readership exceeding one hundred million.55 Journalists in Central and South America do face threats of violence, however, coming from organized crime and paramilitary groups, and to a lesser extent from the government.56

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REUTERS/LOUAFI LARBI

American photojournalist James Foley (right) had been taken prisoner twice before being murdered by the terrorist group ISIS. He had been held by soldiers loyal to former Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi before being taken hostage in Syria.

Islamic Countries and the Middle East

The press in the Middle East seems to straddle the fence between social responsibility and authoritarian media control. For example, although Israel is a modern, liberal democracy, reporters there are required to submit stories on sensitive military issues to the government for approval.5 7 During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, all news coming out of Israel via commercial media had to be cleared by military censors. Israeli authorities are also quick to control the dissident Palestinian press.

Even before the terrorist group ISIS (the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) took over sections of the country, Syria was the world’s most dangerous country for journalists, according to the group Reporters Without Borders. Between 2011 and 2016, more than ninety-five news workers were killed there, and more than sixty journalists were taken prisoner or hostage.58 Among the highest-profile deaths in Syria was that of American journalist/photographer James Foley, who was beheaded by Islamic State militants in August 2014 after having been held hostage since November 2012. This was not the first time Foley had been taken prisoner. He had previously been held prisoner by Libyan soldiers loyal to Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi.59 Even before the recent revolutions and violence in Syria and Libya, the press there was under authoritarian control at best. Jordan and Egypt both tightened their controls on the press after the Arab Spring movement in 2011.60 Along with the official state-controlled media, many Arab nations also have Al Hayat, a regional Arabic newspaper published in London, and the Al Jazeera satellite channel, which originates in Qatar. The other alternative is to listen to news from a neighboring Arab

state, which will not hesitate to criticize the government of its neighbor. By listening to a range of reports, one can gain a more complete picture of the news.61

WEB Read more about the dangers of reporting from Syria. CLICK TO SHOW

Video Case 15.3: Murals created to show human rights in Iran.

Satellite and Internet delivery have vastly changed media in the Middle East, and they bypass authoritarian rule. During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, people in the Middle East received news from CNN, which they believed was being censored by the U.S. government. But Western media are not that influential in Arab- speaking countries. First, not everyone speaks English or French, the languages typically spoken on international channels. And the middle class, as well as members of Islamist movements in the Middle East, have an understandable thirst for regional media.62

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http://www.ralphehanson.com/2014/10/19/link-ch-15-dangers-of-reporting-from-syria/

Kai Hafez, a scholar at American University in Cairo, has distinguished three types of press in the Arab world: the “mobilized press,” which is controlled by the government to promote the government; the “loyalist press,” which is run by private industry but is supportive of people in power, especially those who can control access to resources such as paper and electricity; and finally the “diverse press,” which is relatively free. 63

Many of these countries espouse freedom of the press, and the level of criticism of the government that a country tolerates varies from administration to administration, from year to year. However, even in countries without an Islamist government, it can be a crime to “insult” the country, which puts definite limits on what can be reported.

WEB Al Jazeera news. CLICK TO SHOW

The Importance of “Small” Media. Long before we spoke of social media, so-called small media were significant channels for small-scale communication. Small media include fax machines, photocopy machines, and video cameras, along with computers, blogs, and mobile social media, such as Twitter and SMS text messages. Hafez has written about the importance of alternative independent media—of which small media are a crucial component—in the Middle East.

Although Palestinian media in the West Bank have been subject to Israeli censorship, Palestinians have been able to use the Web to post accounts and images of demonstrations and violence that bypass government censorship.64

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SECRET 2 During the Arab Spring protests and revolutions of 2011, social and mobile media were frequently credited as both a source of news about the protests and an organizing tool for the protesters. These small media

http://www.aljazeera.com/connect/

alternatives have taken the spot formerly occupied by cheaply produced short-run magazines. The alternative-independent media provide for a range of voices, even in countries such as Iran that have strict Islamic control of the mainstream media (which shows us that, even in other parts of the world, Secret 2 —There are no mainstream media—still holds).

Religion professor Fred Strickert notes that while the Israelis and Palestinians are still capable of manipulating the news, the Internet allows for the expression of a wider range of views:

Yes, the Palestinian Authority can still censor damaging video footage, as it did in the case of the mob lynching of two Israeli soldiers, and the Israeli government can put its spin on the news. But the truth is on the Internet for anyone who cares to find it.65

Whereas legacy media using Internet and satellite delivery receive a great deal of popular attention, the small media have also done a good job of transmitting messages outside the realm of censorship. Following the disputed Iranian presidential elections in 2009 (discussed in Chapter 10), the Iranian government began to crack down on news media, going so far as to kick reporters out of the country.66 The government blocked many forms of social media, reduced Internet speed to block online video, shut down mobile phone towers, and threatened retaliation against those who used new media, such as mobile phones and the Internet, to transmit information out of Iran. Legacy media, including CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, and even the BBC, had to turn to online video, blogs, and Twitter feeds of questionable reliability to report on what was happening within Iran. As social media expert Gaurav Mishra points out, mobile phone–based social media are increasingly going to be the medium through which news breaks.67

Old and New Media in the Islamic World. Media in the Arab world are heavily controlled by the government, though the presence of satellite broadcasting and mobile technology is challenging governmental control. Until recently, it’s been very difficult to get a handle on media use in the Middle East. But in 2013, researchers with Northwestern University in Qatar started taking a long-term, in-depth look at how people in Egypt,

Achilleas Zavallis/Getty Images

Migrants from Syria charge their phones outside of a Greek refugee camp. For many of the refugees, mobile phones are the only channel for communication they have access to.

Lebanon, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates used and thought about a full range of media, the social and political climate in their countries, and the state of freedom of expression. The “Media Use in the Middle East” study does not look at the same issues each year. For example, in 2015, the focus was on use of entertainment media and leisure time.68

WEB Media use in the Middle East. CLICK TO SHOW

The study found that almost everyone in the study watched television (97 percent) and 65 percent listened to the radio. Less than half of those participating read newspapers (49 percent), books (43 percent), or magazines (38 percent). When it comes to time spent with the media, the Internet was clearly the winner, with people in the region going online for an average of twenty-six hours per week. Television followed that with nineteen hours and radio with eight. It should be noted that there were significant differences between young people and older people when it came to media choices. Younger adults spent thirty-one hours a week online and watched TV for nineteen hours. Older adults (forty-five and over), on the other hand, were online for nineteen hours per week and watched twenty-three hours of television.69

SECRET 5 In the Arab world, online media are most definitely mobile media, with a higher percentage of people going online with their phones rather than their desktop or laptop computers. The one exception to this was Egypt, where desktop access narrowly beat mobile use. For Syrian refugees

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOs5eArRG7M

attempting to escape from ISIS, smartphones are often the only media they have. Budget Android phones can be purchased for under £100, and second-generation iPhones can be found for approximately £25.

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FIGURE 15.1

Popularity of Various Media in the Middle East

Source: Dennis, E. E., Martin, J. D., & Wood, R. (2015). Media use in the Middle East, 2015. Northwestern University in Qatar. Retrieved from www.mideastmedia.org

Social media are everywhere, with 93 percent of people using a direct-message service such as WhatsApp. Facebook is used by 83 percent of the population, Twitter by 40 percent, and Instagram by 28 percent. Text messaging is often used as a way to communicate with a whole group of people, something that is done by anywhere from 67 percent to 96 percent of users belonging to at least one direct-messaging group.

Unsurprisingly, residents of most countries in the Middle East prefer their own country’s media over the media from other Arab nations. The one exception was the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, where 51 percent of those surveyed preferred news from another Arab country. Given the extraordinarily high level of government control of the media there, this isn’t the most unexpected result.

Egypt, which is more secular than much of the Arab world, has a large media industry and produces movies, music, and television programming for much of the Arab and Islamic world.70 Access to television, especially direct-broadcast satellite signals, varies significantly throughout the Islamic nations of the Middle East.

The Saudi Arabian monarchy built a substantial television network in the 1960s, in part to respond to anti-Saudi broadcasts coming into the country from Egypt. In March 1994, Saudi Arabia officially banned ownership of satellite receivers to satisfy religious conservatives who objected to Western programming. The ban has not been enforced, however, and both the dishes and the receivers are readily available.

Online censorship in Saudi Arabia has been “relentless” in the words of Reporters Without Borders. In its “World Press Freedom Index 2016,” the group notes that in 2014 Saudi blogger Raif Badawi was arrested and sentenced to ten years in prison and one thousand lashes for “denigrating the religious police.” Badawi is one of ten professional and citizen journalists currently jailed in Saudi Arabia. The kingdom was ranked 165th out of 180 countries for press freedom by the 2016 “World Press Freedom Index” report.71

Al Jazeera. The most significant of the advertising-supported channels is Al Jazeera.72 Broadcast via satellite from the small Arab country of Qatar since 1997, the channel is not censored by the government.73 Al Jazeera has carried interviews with everyone from Osama bin Laden to Colin Powell and has been criticized for doing so by both the United States and Arab countries. During the current war in Iraq, Al Jazeera came to worldwide attention, presenting an Arab point of view to the fighting between the United States and Iraq. It has a regular audience of forty million, which dwarfs CNN or Fox in scope.74

QUESTIONING THE MEDIA

In the Arab Middle East, satellite news channels that can cross over national borders are clearly the top source of international news, and Al Jazeera is the most popular of the many Arab- language satellite channels. It is the most watched, or perhaps the most important, though many claim to dislike the controversial channel. According to NPR’s On the Media, a recent survey shows that only 10 percent of Arabs who have access to satellite TV never watch Al Jazeera. In Iraq, the Saudi Arabia–based Al Arabiya is popular. But American channel Alhurra is clearly the last choice, with 53 percent saying they never watch it. Interestingly enough, the Hezbollah channel, Al- Manar, is similarly unpopular.75

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Although some observers accuse Al Jazeera of being a pro-Arab propaganda channel, others have described it as the CNN of the Arab world. Perhaps neither label is completely fair or completely accurate. It would seem instead that Al Jazeera is committed to presenting an Arab view of the world. That is, it works at telling the news accurately, but it tells it from a clear point of view. (Interestingly enough, taking a page from the American media synergy playbook, there is also an Al Jazeera sports channel.) What makes Al Jazeera interesting is that while its headquarters are in Qatar, it tends to take a broad Arab point of view, rather than that of one particular country. Too often, all Arab or Muslim countries are seen in the West as being the same, rather than having distinctly different views. It’s easy for Americans to forget that Iraq and Iran were at war with each other for at least ten years.76 Al Jazeera was founded by Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, the emir of Qatar, in an effort to diversify his nation’s economy. He started the satellite news channel following the failure of a 1994 BBC experiment with an Arab-language, Saudi-financed station. Hiring 120 of the unemployed journalists from the project gave Al Jazeera its start. Although Western governments have been highly critical of Al Jazeera, the network has carried criticism of Qatar’s government, the Palestinian Authority, the Jordanian government, the Kuwaiti government, and the Israeli government.77

Al Jazeera journalists certainly don’t receive

Can global news operations such as Al Jazeera rely on cell phones and cell phone video to report from war zones around the world? Are Twitter feeds from people in war zones a reliable source of news? Why or why not?

special treatment by Arab governments. In fact, they are often targeted for the in-depth reporting. Three reporters for Al Jazeera, Peter Greste, Baher Mohamed, and Mohamed Fahmy, were arrested in December 2013, and were convicted of multiple offenses against the Egyptian government in the summer of 2014. Fahmy and Mohamed received presidential pardons and were released in September 2015 for the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha. Greste was released in February 2015 and sent back to his native Australia, apparently without having charges dropped.78

Africa

The African continent provides a prime example of the range of approaches to development media theory—from a strong social responsibility approach to out-and-out authoritarian controls. The mass media first came to Africa through the European colonial powers; they were created to serve the needs of the colonists. Newspapers and early broadcast stations covered only white news and ignored black Africans, or else treated them as “subhuman beings.”79 After independence, colonial media continued to exist in some countries, whereas in other countries the press was taken over by the new governments, which did not permit private media. Although the media were serving a new population, they continued to focus on the needs of the elite.

WEB Explore the BBC’s Africa coverage. CLICK TO SHOW

Africa is still largely rural, and its smaller towns often do not have newspapers. However, according to Tawana Kupe, a media scholar from Zimbabwe and South Africa, most countries have a dominant daily newspaper that is distributed primarily in the capital city. Newspaper circulation is limited by high levels of

http://www.bbc.com/news/world/africa/

REUTERS/David Rae Morris

South Africa’s vibrant pop music scene has gained fans around the world. Groups such as Mahlathini and

poverty and illiteracy.80 Radio is the most important medium in Africa, but both radios and the batteries to run them are expensive, and transmission equipment often is not good enough to reach an entire country. Television is not available in many countries. Even where there are broadcasts, television can be received only where there is reliable electrical service, primarily in urban areas. Most of the programming consists of old European, American, and Australian reruns. Although many African countries seek to use television and radio to foster development by teaching people how to improve their standard of living, most of the development programming consists of speeches by politicians calling for development.

The Committee to Protect Journalists reports that press freedom varies wildly across the continent, with many of the countries embracing a development theory of the press. A 2011 report from the CPJ notes that many African leaders are claiming that they cannot achieve what they say are contradictory goals of balancing economic and social stability with freedom of the press. This approach goes so far as to shape how sports are covered. A star Cameroonian soccer player complained to a Senegalese reporter after the journalist raised a critical question about the team’s play, saying, “You journalists, certain journalists like you, you who do not want Africa to advance, you who do not want Cameroon to advance, you are always negative. Try to change a little.”81

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Cléa Kahn-Sriber of Reporters Without Borders said that press freedom is “grim” in sub-Saharan Africa: “Several countries have lapsed into conflict or have continued to be in a conflict situation. . . . And over the whole continent we see that the issue of security and the fight against terrorism is often an argument that is being used by governments to justify a crackdown on the press.”82

the Mahotella Queens, pictured here, and Ladysmith Black Mambazo routinely draw crowds in the United States and Europe.

Language continues to be an issue for African media. Many African nations use the former colonial language (typically French or English) in their nation-building efforts, but this tends to be the language of the educated class, not of the majority of the people.83 Except in Kenya and Tanzania, which have a Swahili press, virtually no major newspapers are published in African languages.

It is tempting in the West to view Africa as something akin to South America, but unlike South America, Africa as a continent does not share common languages or cultures. Africa is exceedingly culturally diverse, with more languages spoken there than on any other continent in the world.84 Politically, many of the countries are dominated by single-party or military governments, though there are notable exceptions, such as South Africa, Mali, and Ghana.

South Africa was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to have radio, and today it has the best-developed system in that area of the world. Most of the country’s radio is handled by the South African Broadcasting Corporation. Following heavy censorship in South Africa during the apartheid era, the South African press in the early twenty-first century has an organization of publishers, journalists, and members of the public that can reprimand newspapers when necessary. A committee made up of lawyers and media professionals regulates the broadcast industry.85 South African television broadcasts in seven different languages: English, Afrikaans, northern and southern Sotho, Tswana, Xhosa, and Zulu. As you can see, language is a big barrier when you consider the linguistic diversity within just a single country—South Africa has eleven language groups. African media experts Osabuohien P. Amienyi and Gerard Igyor recognize this dilemma: “This plurality [of languages] presents broadcasting with the dilemma of how to fulfill the natural desire of every community to be addressed in its own language or dialect.”86 If stations hope to reach a large group with a single language, they are likely going to have to transmit in the languages of the colonial whites, typically English, French, Portuguese, or Spanish. This furthers the problem of programming that will be accessible primarily to urban elites and not the rural population who need the service the most.

Video Case 15.4: Watch a news clip covering President Obama's visit to Ethiopia.

South Africa has also been a major source of inspiration for Western pop music. Among the Western musicians who have worked at bringing African music to the forefront of American pop culture are Paul Simon, Peter Gabriel, and Talking Heads frontman David Byrne.87 Simon, a singer and songwriter, was captivated by the sounds of South Africa’s township jive and in 1985 traveled to Johannesburg to record there with artists such as Miriam Makeba.88 This collaboration resulted in the best- selling album Graceland and a world tour. Township jive emerged as a style during the apartheid era in South Africa. The music combines traditional African drumming and rhythms with Western instruments to create a unique musical style. Among the South African musicians who have found success in the West are the a cappella men’s choir Ladysmith Black Mambazo, the group Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens, and musician Johnny Clegg and his band Juluka. Groups such as Bongo Maffin have combined the South African pop music style with rhythm and blues, reggae, and rap.89 African pop music is no

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Alexander Nemenov/Getty Images

Russian President Vladimir Putin is rarely if ever challenged by the Russian media. News outlets in the former Soviet country are dominated by government control.

newcomer to the United States. In 1961, the Tokens recorded a hit single, “The Lion Sleeps Tonight,” which was based on an African chant.90

One thing that has inhibited world music’s popularity in the United States is the language barrier, though language differences have not stopped people in other countries from listening to American music. “People around the world have been listening to American and British music for the last thirty years, very often not understanding the words but enjoying the ways people put things together,” says producer D. A. “Jumbo” Vanrenen. “As Third World artists have access to the same recording studios, it’s becoming easier to present their music in a clear way. Language becomes less important. People go for the dance rhythms and the fine quality of people’s vocals.”91 You can hear this branch of world music on Public Radio International’s Afropop Worldwide or on the BBC’s world music programming.

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Russia and the Former Soviet Republics

Media developed slowly in the old Soviet Union if for no other reason than the vast scale of its empire, which covered one-sixth of the world at its peak, inhibited its development. Along with the more conventional media, such as radio, people in the Soviet Union also made use of alternative media, such as sending broadcasts out over phone lines that would then be played in communities over a loudspeaker system. Under communism, there was no ideal of an independent press. The goal of newspapers and broadcasters was to support the goals of communism, not to be detached and critical external observers. Janis E. Overlock, who specializes in study of the

media of the old Soviet empire, describes the problem:

WEB Read the latest on press freedom in Russia. CLICK TO SHOW

One of the main problems of the media in the countries of the former Soviet Union is a basic lack of understanding of the role of the media in a democracy. After years of Soviet domination, many of the governments as well as journalists view the media as a propaganda tool for the government.92

She further explains that even if the government professes a belief in the free press, that freedom simply doesn’t exist within the culture.93

AUDIO What are the restrictions on journalists in Russia? CLICK TO SHOW

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Russian press has had a troubled existence. Although many of the media are now in private hands, they are not necessarily free of government control, and they experience very high levels of self- censorship. The independent media in Russia are owned by a small group of businesspeople who support the government and want to maintain control of their own media monopolies.

Russian media scholar Nataliya Rostova told the Huffington Post that Russian president Vladimir Putin keeps tight control over the Russian media, appointing the editors and managers of all major media outlets either officially or unofficially. “The editors and directors have so-called weekly meetings with the presidential administration to talk about the upcoming events, what will be significant in the next week, what the administration wants to cover,” she said. “Additionally, media outlets are dependent on state funding and the TV advertising market is almost monopolized as well.”94

As an example, prior to the 2012 Russian presidential election, Kremlin officials warned journalists not to cover antigovernment protests. Editors who did not follow this “suggestion” could find themselves quickly unemployed.95 The

http://www.cpj.org/europe/russia/

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/04/26/475634042/for-journalists-in-russia-no-one-really-knows-what-is-allowed

government-controlled media are emphatically serving the needs of the ruling party. A reporter for Russian television told an American friend, “Our new executive producer has been going over my copy with a fine-tooth comb. Anything that’s in the least bit critical of the government is taken out.”96

Asia

Although Asia has many countries and cultures, in most of its nations, the broadcast media are either government controlled or run by public corporations. In many of these countries, we see a development philosophy for the media, in which broadcasters are expected to work to support the economic and social development goals of the government. China, Japan, and India stand apart from the rest of the continent as major media forces. Communist and former Soviet bloc countries, such as North Korea, continue to operate under the old Soviet-style communist model. Southeast Asia, which includes countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, tends to operate under a development philosophy. This can be seen in particular in Malaysia, where the Ministry of Communications and Multimedia sets guidelines on how broadcasters can portray Malaysian education, art, culture, and identity.97

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India. As of 2013, approximately 60 percent of India’s households—an astonishing 129 million—had television sets.98 Residents in about 40 percent of Indian households read a newspaper as well. A report on Indian media estimates that 90 percent of India’s population has access to a radio set. Print media in India are heavily supported by advertising, and hitting a balance between serving the public and making advertisers happy is a major issue.

Newspapers are big business in India, with a daily circulation of seventy-two million, second only to China, which circulates eighty-five million copies a day. Whereas the big newspapers face the same sort of competitive pressures from newer media that U.S. papers do, community newspapers dealing with local issues are seen as a growth industry.99 Journalists in the Kashmir and Chhattisgarh regions face both censorship and

Subhendu Sarkar/Getty Images

At a time when numerous American newspapers are

physical violence from a variety of sources, including police and security forces, criminal groups, and political party supporters.1 00 All India Radio (AIR) is the dominant radio service and the exclusive source of radio news and public affairs programming. There are broadcast television stations in India, but the television market is dominated by cable and satellite networks. As was discussed at the beginning of the chapter, television is going through a period of growth because of the rise of commercially run satellite channels. Internet access is growing, especially through cybercafés and mobile phones, and India’s major newspapers all have significant Web presences.

When a group of terrorists killed 171 people and held the city of Mumbai, India, hostage for more than sixty hours, local journalists had to figure out how to respond to the story.101 Arnab Goswami, chief editor of Times Now, India’s largest satellite news channel, says that the Indian government got very nervous about media coverage of the attacks, fearing that the reports were helping the terrorists. At one point, during the early phases of the attacks, the government shut down television news for forty-five minutes. But Goswami says that when the government cut off the news flow, the response from viewers was

massive, massive. . . . Every single phone was ringing. People were watching us so closely that if we were off for five seconds they would react, because cable and satellite television is largely the only form of receiving information at a time like this.102

Goswami says that he and his reporters often did not report everything they knew for fear of endangering people and drawing government censorship. He told NPR’s On the Media,

India has had a largely . . . closed media with only state-run television for 40 years after its independence—that’s 1947 to ’87. The television

downsizing, the Indian newspaper industry is booming. Local print newspapers will see double digit growth in 2017.

AP/Associated Press

A woman cycles past a building covered in portraits of Chinese

media in its present form and private TV channels are only 10 years old. And the power of the television media and news channels is something that sometimes even scares the government. . . . We are fighting for self-regulation, and it is very important that we don’t give the opportunity for anyone in the government to accuse us of giving away these kinds of details. That was uppermost in my mind when, on several occasions, I stopped my reporters from giving away such information.103

In one case, there were reports of explosives found at a railway station. Near the railway station thousands of people were gathered at the Gateway of India. Goswami said that if the news of the explosives had been televised, there might have been a deadly panic. Instead, he called editors at half a dozen other television stations, and they all agreed not to report it.

China. Until the 1970s and 1980s, the media in China were unapologetically political and propagandistic. The role of the media was not to entertain or market products; instead, they promoted public policies, such as water conservation programs; provided education to rural areas; and mobilized the public after natural disasters or industrial accidents.104

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Over the past thirty years, Chinese media offerings and availability have changed rapidly. In 1978, China had fewer than one television set per hundred people. As of 2010, China had become the world’s largest television market with more than 378 million households with television, and more than 180 million homes with multichannel television (i.e., cable/satellite). The average household watches

president Xi Jinping in Shanghai. Dissident Chang Ping says relatives have been abducted after he was linked to a letter criticizing the president.

approximately twenty-one hours per week. While international channels have only limited availability in China, local stations can get foreign programming blocks to put on the air.105 The number of newspapers has similarly expanded, from 42 papers in 1968, most of which were run by the Communist Party, to approximately 1,900 newspapers in 2016.106

Talk radio is the most open mass medium in China. Prior to the 1990s, radio provided primarily government propaganda. Now lively call-in programs have audience members talking about controversial topics without having to identify themselves. Although party officials have told talk show hosts what they ought to be talking about, the hosts have violated these rules without punishment.107

SECRET 6 In China, as in the United States, online media are mobile media. As of 2011, China had more than 920 million mobile phone users. Of these, 100 million are registered with an app store, indicating that they use their phone for accessing the Internet, and 35 million use mobile payments. China also has more than 640 million total people who are actively online.108 Mobile phones serve as a major channel for the flow of news. Chinese phone users tend to upgrade their phones frequently, so new mobile technology spreads through the country fairly rapidly.109

WEB Read about media censorship in China. CLICK TO SHOW

As of 2016, China was number 176 out of 180 on the “World Press Freedom Index” assembled by Reporters Without Borders. China is famous for its so-called Great Firewall that monitors all Internet traffic going in and out of the country.110 When your author was there in 2013, there was no access to Facebook or other social media sites, Google was censored, and

http://www.cfr.org/china/media-censorship-china/p11515

many news sites and blogs could not be accessed. “Making unauthorized criticisms” is against the law. China’s efforts to censor journalists extends beyond its borders. Two brothers and a sister of Chang Ping, a Chinese journalist who left the country to live in Germany in 2011 after constant censorship pressure from the government, were arrested in March 2016 in an attempt to get Ping to stop criticizing the Communist Party. In another incident, the parents and brother of Chinese expatriate Wen Yunchao—who is now a New York-based blogger—were arrested when Yunchao was rumored to have written an anonymous letter posted online criticizing the Chinese government.111

Japan. Japan is in many ways the technological heart of our modern media world. Many of our essential electronic media devices come from Japan. Broadcasting started in the country in 1925 and was run by the government for the next twenty-five years. In the era after World War II, U.S. policy helped shape what Japan offered, which became a mix of public and commercial broadcasting.112 NHK is Japan’s public broadcasting corporation, and it provides both domestic and international service. It is financed through a fee that all television owners must pay. Japan has relatively high levels of television broadcast viewership. The biggest difference between Japanese and U.S. broadcasting is that Japan has a much more even balance between commercial and public broadcasting.

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TEST YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

HOW FREE ARE THE WORLD’S MEDIA TO REPORT THE NEWS?

very year, the group Reporters Without Borders for Freedom of Information issues a report on the state of press freedom around the world. In it, the

organization analyzes the degree of freedom that

“journalists, news media, and netizens” have in 180 countries. Among the items quantified by the study are cultural pluralism, media independence, self-censorship, legislative framework, transparency, infrastructure, and the level of violence targeted against journalists. Countries gain points for things that discourage or limit freedom of the press, and they have points deducted for behavior that encourages free speech. In the 2016 study, scores ranged from 0 to 100 with Finland, the Netherlands, and Norway ranked in the top three for freedom of speech, all with scores of between 8 and 9. The countries in last place all had scores between 83 and 84, and included Turkmenistan, North Korea, and Eritrea.114 And how did the United States score? Take a look at the report’s summary. You might be surprised at where it was ranked. (Hint: The United States has been getting down-checked in recent years for prosecution of whistle-blowers like Edward Snowden who leak national security information about surveillance activities.)

You can find the most recent report at https://rsf.org/en/worl d-press-freedom-index.

Who is the source? Who are Reporters Without Borders? What do they do?

What do they say? Which three nations had the best records on freedom of the press? Which three nations were at the bottom of the list? Where did the United States fall in the rankings?Was it up or down from the previous year?

What evidence is there? For each of the countries you’ve listed above, why did it get the rating it did? How does each country behave as a democracy (or an authoritarian state)?

How do you and your classmates feel about the rankings? How would you describe each of the highest- and lowest-

https://rsf.org/en/world-press-freedom-index

ranked countries’ approaches to freedom of speech and of the press? Based on what you have read, how would you describe the United States’ approach to freedom of the press? What do you think about the rankings? Are they fair? Why or why not?

AUDIO Listen to how a committee to protect journalists was bl ocked by a U.N. Panel. CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Review the violations of press freedom barometer. CLICK TO SHOW

The most popular category of magazines in Japan is not fashion, lifestyle, or hobbies; it’s manga, or comic books. The word manga means comics or amusing drawings, and according to Publishers Weekly, the genre accounts for 40 percent of all books and magazines published in Japan. In the United States, manga-style comics are most popular with teenage boys and tend to feature action stories. Some examples are Yu-Gi-Oh!, Pokémon, and Sailor Moon. In Japan, manga cover just about every magazine genre. Douglas Wolk, who has covered manga in the United States, writes, “There are hundreds of manga for girls and for boys, men’s manga and women’s manga, romance manga, political manga, baseball manga, mah-jongg manga, and more.”113 Plots can range from the story of a teenage girl who becomes a superhero after using magic eye shadow to one that describes the aftermath of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. There’s even one that gives advice on how to get a divorce. Manga targeted at adults often contain violent or pornographic imagery.

Manga started out in the tenth century as illustrated Buddhist scrolls. By the seventeenth century, silk-bound books created using woodblock printing and featuring text and drawings about actors and actresses became popular. Current manga can be the size of a small telephone book.115 Estimates suggest that 95 percent of Japan’s population reads manga on a regular basis.11 6

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/05/27/479740466/u-n-panel-blocks-accreditation-bid-by-committee-to-protect-journalists

https://rsf.org/en/barometer

SECRET 3 The United States has been accused of imposing its culture on the world by exporting media products, but the same charges have been leveled against Japan, especially by other Asian countries. However, attempts to keep comics out of those countries have only led to the publication of pirate editions.117 Manga are growing in popularity in the United States. They are based primarily on books connected to anime cartoon programs. Featuring characters with spiky hair, big heads, and big eyes, manga are seen by young people as exciting, dynamic, and sexy. Many American translations of Japanese manga are printed to be read from the back of the book to the front, just as they would be in Japan. Why? In part because it’s cheaper than redoing the pages in the American front-to-back style, but also because teen readers see the reverse style as cool.118 Manga characters have also shown up in video games and on a wide range of products, such as clothing and plush toys. Manga’s popularity in the United States is also an example of Secret 3—Everything from the margin moves to the center.

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MEDIA TRANSFORMATIONS ARE WE REALLY LIVING IN A MEDIA WORLD?

arshall McLuhan is often better known for his catchphrases than for what he actually wrote. Aside from “the medium is the message,”

discussed in Chapter 2, he is best known for popularizing the term the global village. He first used it in his 1962 book, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man, in which he discusses how electronic media, primarily radio and television, help people live and interact globally. Since the rise of the Internet, it would seem that we are truly living in a world where we can interact with people in any place at any time. But this global village may be largely an illusion.

There is no question that through our media—what McLuhan would call the extension of our senses—we are able to travel to places we could never reach otherwise. In an IMAX theater, we can travel to the bottom of the ocean off the Grand Banks near Newfoundland and visit the wreck of the Titanic. Through the photos from the Mars rovers Curiosity, Spirit, and Opportunity, we can see into the craters on a distant planet. On a more down-to-earth scale, our electronic media take us into war zones, into the aftermath of disasters, and to celebrations in cities or countries we would likely never visit. But are we really becoming members of a global village, or are we just sightseers who get a glimpse of something we can’t really understand?

Media reporter Ken Auletta, whose work we have discussed extensively elsewhere in this book, suggests that perhaps there is not a single wired global village, but rather hundreds or thousands of them, “each broadcasting in its own language, with its own anchor and news team, its own weather and sports and local slant.”119 Communications scholar W. Russell Neuman suggests that McLuhan’s global village concept is misleading: “McLuhan envisioned Americans seeing what was going on live in an African village. But Americans may not want to watch that. And perhaps vice versa.”120

HOW often do you communicate with someone who lives in another country? How often, if ever, do you communicate with someone who doesn’t speak English? How do you communicate with that person?

DO you think that having access to a global communication network gives you a better understanding of people who live on the other side of the world?

DOeS our new communication technology make the world a better place? Why or why not?

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CHAPTER REVIEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Not all countries take the same approach to the relationship between the government and the press. This relationship can take a variety of forms, depending on the form of government and the culture of the country. Theories of the press include the authoritarian, communist, libertarian, social responsibility, and developmental theories. Although these normative theories of the press still have considerable value today, they have to be reexamined in terms of how the world has changed since they were first discussed in the 1950s. An alternative to the

normative theories of the press is to look at the media dimensions of control, finance, programming goals, target audience, and feedback mechanisms.

Media in Western democracies generally operate under a combination of libertarian and social responsibility theories. Many countries have free speech as a goal but are concerned about preserving their national cultures from the power of the American media industry.

Latin America has a vibrant media industry, especially in Brazil and Mexico. These countries export Spanish-language programming, especially sports programs and telenovelas, to the United States.

The electronic media have a powerful presence in the Middle East, and satellite television is able to bypass national borders and bring outside content into otherwise closed media systems. The most popular source of news in the Arab-speaking countries of the Middle East is the satellite news channel Al Jazeera. Small media also have a significant presence in the Middle East because of their ability to bypass official government censorship.

Media in Africa face a number of problems, including the lack of a common language, poor economies, and a lack of newsprint and reliable electricity.

While the news media in the old Soviet Union were designed to serve the needs of the government and the Communist Party, they went through a brief period of relative freedom in the 1980s. Since that time, the government has cracked down on free speech, and the press tends to serve the specific goals of its owners.

Media in Asia tend to follow either a social responsibility theory or development theory, depending on the region. The major exception is Japan, which has strong public and private broadcasting businesses. Japan also exports content and media technology to the West and to the rest of the world.

Reporting around the world, and especially in the Iraqi war zone, is dangerous for reporters, with forty-two journalists killed on the job in 2008, including eleven in Iraq. Journalists also face the

risks of injury and kidnapping.

Media theorist Marshall McLuhan suggested in the 1960s that the world would become a global village, linked together through electronic media. Although these media have become far more pervasive today than when McLuhan was writing, it is unclear whether they are bringing the world together or breaking it up into a series of disconnected villages.

QUIZ Take the Chapter Quiz CLICK TO SHOW

WEB Keep up-to-date with content from the author’s blog. CLICK TO SHOW

KEY TERMS

authoritarian theory 383

communist theory 384

libertarian theory 385

social responsibility theory 386

development theory 386

small media 393

Al Jazeera 395

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain a major outcome of what happens to journalism when countries take reporters prisoner.

2. Why do some people think there should be a development theory to go with the original four theories of the press?

https://edge.sagepub.com/hanson6e/student-resources/chapter-15/quiz

http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-15/

What do critics say is wrong with that theory? 3. How does freedom of speech in the United States differ

from that in Canada or France? 4. How do media in Africa differ from media in South

America? 5. Why are social media and small media important in the

Middle East?

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STUDENT STUDY SITE

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SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.

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p.405

NOTES

CHAPTER 1

1. Caitlin Dewey, “Who Is PewDiePie, the First Person to Ever Hit 10 Billion YouTube Views?” The Washington Post, September 9, 2015, https://www.wash ingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/09/09/who-is-pewdiepie-the-fi rst-person-to-ever-hit-10-billion-youtube-views/?tid=hybrid_collaborative_1_ na.

2. Laura Parker, “The Cult of PewDiePie: How a Swedish Gamer Became YouTube’s Biggest Star,” Rolling Stone, December 16, 2015, http://www.rolling stone.com/culture/news/the-cult-of-pewdiepie-how-a-swedish-gamer-became -youtubes-biggest-star-20151216.

3. Dewey, “Who Is PewDiePie, the First Person to Ever Hit 10 Billion You Tube Views?”

4. Patricia Hernandez, “Stephen Colbert Interviews Pewdiepie, Nails It,” Kotaku.c om, October 2, 2015, http://kotaku.com/stephen-colbert-interviews-pewdiepi e-nails-it-1734213218.

5. e-Marketer, “Consumers, Advertisers, Enter Gaming Video Zone,” E- Marketer.com, July 20, 2015, http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Consumers- Advertisers-Enter-Gaming-Video-Zone/1012746; David Thier, “20,000 People Are Watching a Fish Play Pokemon on Twitch,” Forbes, August 8, 2014, www.forbes.com/sites/davidthier/2014/08/08/20000-people-are-watching-a -fish-play-pokemon/; Jason Koebler, “An Exclusive Interview With the Fish Playing Pokemon,” Motherboard, August 8, 2014, motherboard.vice.com/read/an-exclusive-interview-with-the-fish-playing- pokemon.

6. Tim Baysinger, “Disney Is Giving PewDiePie His Own Network,” Adweek.com, January 13, 2016, http://www.adweek.com/news/television/disney-giving-pe wdiepie-his-own-network-168978.

7. Tim Baysinger, “YouTube Star PewDiePie Can Now Win Primetime TV Emmy,” Adweek.com, March 2, 2016, http://www.adweek.com/news/television/youtu be-star-pewdiepie-can-now-win-primetime-tv-emmy-169959.

8. Ralph Hanson, personal communication, April 4, 2016.

9. George Gerbner, “Mass Media and Human Communication Theory,” in Human

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/09/09/who-is-pewdiepie-the-first-person-to-ever-hit-10-billion-youtube-views/?tid=hybrid_collaborative_1_na

http://www.rollingstone.com/culture/news/the-cult-of-pewdiepie-how-a-swedish-gamer-became-youtubes-biggest-star-20151216

http://Kotaku.com

http://kotaku.com/stephen-colbert-interviews-pewdiepie-nails-it-1734213218

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Consumers-Advertisers-Enter-Gaming-Video-Zone/1012746

http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidthier/2014/08/08/20000-people-are-watching-a-fish-play-pokemon/

http://Adweek.com

http://www.adweek.com/news/television/disney-giving-pewdiepie-his-own-network-168978

http://Adweek.com

http://www.adweek.com/news/television/youtube-star-pewdiepie-can-now-win-primetime-tv-emmy-169959

Communication Theory: Original Essays, ed. Frank E. X. Dance (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1967), pp. 40–60.

10. Denis McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 5th ed. (London: Sage Publications, 2005).

11. Larry G. Ehrlich, Fatal Words and Friendly Faces: Interpersonal Communication in the Twenty-First Century (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2000), p. 82.

12. Ralph Hanson, personal communication, April 4, 2016.

13. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory; Benjamin Compaine et al., eds., Who Owns the Media? (White Plains, N.Y.: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1982); Harold Lasswell, “The Structure and Function of Communication in Society,” in Mass Communications, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960); Charles R. Wright, Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective, 3rd ed. (New York: Random House, 1986).

14. Ralph Hanson, personal communication, April 7, 2016.

15. Wright, Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective.

16. Ralph Hanson, personal communication, December 16, 2011.

17. C. W. Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959).

18. Toni Locy, “The Race for the First Report in Legal Journalism,” Jurist, June 29, 2012, jurist.org/forum/2012/06/toni-locy-ppaca-journalism.php; Adrienne LaFrance, “Anatomy of a Spike: How SCOTUS Blog Dealt With Its Biggest Traffic Day Ever,” Nieman Journalism Lab, June 28, 2012, www.niemanlab.org/ 2012/06/anatomy-of-a-spike-how-scotus-blog-dealt-with-its-biggest-traffic-d ay-ever/.

19. Brian Steinberg, “Who’s Buying What in Super Bowl 2012,” Advertising Age, February 3, 2011, adage.com/article/special-report-super-bowl/buying-super- bowl-2012/231122/.

20. Anthony Crupi, “’They’re Going to Beg Us for Two Spots’: All But Sold Out, CBS Holds Back a Little Super Bowl Ad Time,” AdAge.com, December 7, 2015, http: //adage.com/article/media/cbs-holds-back-a-super/301645/?utm_source=dail y_email&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_campaign=adage&ttl=1450140395.

21. Wayne Friedman, “NBCU Inks More Than $1 Billion in Rio Olympics Advertising,” MediaPost.com, March 20, 2016, http://www.mediapost.com/pu blications/article/272313/nbcu-inks-more-than-1-billion-in-rio-olympics-adv. html; Chris Chase, “Germany’s World Cup Rout of Brazil Was the Most Tweeted Event in History,” USA Today, July 9, 2014, http://ftw.usatoday.com/ 2014/07/germany-brazil-most-tweeted-event-history-miley-cyrus.

22. W. James Potter, Media Literacy, 5th ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2011).

23. Jon Katz, Virtuous Reality (New York: Random House, 1997).

http://www.niemanlab.org/2012/06/anatomy-of-a-spike-how-scotus-blog-dealt-with-its-biggest-traffic-day-ever/

http://AdAge.com

http://adage.com/article/media/cbs-holds-back-a-super/301645/?utm_source=daily_email&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_campaign=adage&ttl=1450140395

http://MediaPost.com

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/272313/nbcu-inks-more-than-1-billion-in-rio-olympics-adv.html

http://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/07/germany-brazil-most-tweeted-event-history-miley-cyrus

24. David Pugliese, “A Mountaineer’s Perspective,” Ottawa Citizen, May 18, 2002, p. A13.

25. Jon Krakauer, Into Thin Air: A Personal Account of the Mount Everest Disaster (New York: Villard, 1997), p. 114.

26. Olivia Goldhill, “4G Coverage on Mount Everest,” The Telegraph, July 5, 2013, www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/10161553/4G-coverage-on- Mount-Everest.html.

27. Lindsey Bever, “At Least 12 Killed, Others Missing After Mount Everest Avalanche,” The Washington Post, April 18, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost .com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/04/18/breaking-6-killed-and-9-still-missin g-after-mount-everest-avalanche-offwicials-say/?tid=hp_mm; Alan Arnette, “Everest 2014: Avalanche Near Camp 1—Sherpa Deaths: Update 9,” Alanarnet te.com, April 17, 2014, http://www.alanarnette.com/blog/2014/04/17/evere st-2014-avalanche-near-camp-1-sherpa-deaths/.

28. CNN Staff, “Death Toll in Nepal Tops 8,000,” CNN.com, May 10, 2015, http://w ww.cnn.com/2015/05/10/asia/nepal-earthquake-death-toll/index.html; Annie Gowen, Rama Lakshmi, and Anup Kaphle, “Rescue Efforts Intensify Amid Aftershocks in Nepal,” The Washington Post, April 25, 2015, http://www.washi ngtonpost.com/world/death-toll-in-nepal-quake-exceeds-1900/2015/04/26/ 50af52d2-eb95-11e4-8581-633c536add4b_story.html?hpid=z1.

29. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

p.406

30. Matthew Palevsky, “Twitter Breaks Record as News of bin Laden’s Death Spreads,” Poynter, May 2, 2011, www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/13 0585/twitter-sees-highest-sustained-rate-of-tweets-ever-as-news-of-bin-lad ens-death-breaks/. #404

31. Frank Ahrens, “Anti-indecency Forces Opposed,” The Washington Post, March 26, 2005.

32. Shankar Vedantam, “Two Views of the Same News Find Opposite Biases,” The Washington Post, July 24, 2006.

33. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

34. Katie Crowe, “Cartoonist Earns Readership, Freelance Deals With ‘Girls With Slingshots’ Strip,” The Frederick News-Post, April 26, 2013.

35. Anna Pearce, “The Transcontinental Disability Choir: Four Ways to Do It Right,” Bitch Media, November 25, 2009, http://bitchmagazine.org/post/four- ways-to-do-it-right.

36. Danielle Corsetto, “Danielle Corsetto on the End of Her Long-Running Comic “Girls with Slingshots,” The Washington Post, March 30, 2016, https://www.w ashingtonpost.com/news/act-four/wp/2015/03/19/danielle-corsetto-on-the-e nd-of-her-long-running-comic-girls-with-slingshots/.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/10161553/4G-coverage-on-Mount-Everest.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/04/18/breaking-6-killed-and-9-still-missing-after-mount-everest-avalanche-offwicials-say/?tid=hp_mm

http://Alanarnette.com

http://www.alanarnette.com/blog/2014/04/17/everest-2014-avalanche-near-camp-1-sherpa-deaths/

http://CNN.com

http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/10/asia/nepal-earthquake-death-toll/index.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/death-toll-in-nepal-quake-exceeds-1900/2015/04/26/50af52d2-eb95-11e4-8581-633c536add4b_story.html?hpid=z1

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/130585/twitter-sees-highest-sustained-rate-of-tweets-ever-as-news-of-bin-ladens-death-breaks/

http://bitchmagazine.org/post/four-ways-to-do-it-right

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/act-four/wp/2015/03/19/danielle-corsetto-on-the-end-of-her-long-running-comic-girls-with-slingshots/

37. Crowe, “Cartoonist Earns Readership, Freelance Deals With ‘Girls With Slingshots’ Strip.”

38. Ben H. Bagdikian, The New Media Monopoly (Boston: Beacon Press, 2004).

39. George Gerbner, “TV Violence and the Art of Asking the Wrong Question,” Center for Media Literacy, reprinted with permission from The World & I: A Chronicle of Our Changing Era, July 1994, http://www.medialit.org/reading-ro om/tv-violence-and-art-asking-wrong-question.

40. Potter, Media Literacy.

41. Arthur Asa Berger, Media Analysis Techniques, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2005).

42. Emma Forrest, “Iconography: Good for What, Exactly, Will Hunting?” The Guardian, March 16, 1998.

43. Dwight Garner, “Storm Over Everest,” Ottawa Citizen, August 23, 1998.

44. Potter, Media Literacy.

45. Linda Pershing and Margaret R. Yocom, “The Yellow Ribboning of the USA: Contested Meanings in the Construction of a Political Symbol,” Western Folklore 55, no. 1 (1996); Jack Santino, “Yellow Ribbons and Seasonal Flags: The Folk Assemblage of War,” The Journal of American Folklore 105, no. 415 (1992); George Mariscal, “In the Wake of the Gulf War: Untying the Yellow Ribbon,” Cultural Critique, no. 19 (1991).

46. Brooke Gladstone, “Never the Same Mainstream Twice,” NPR, November 24, 2006, www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/2006/11/24/06.

47. Amy Mitchell, “Pew State of the Media 2015 Overview,” State of the News Media 2015, Pew Research Center, April 2015, http://www.journalism.org/file s/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf.

48. Rodney Ho, “Rush Limbaugh Tops Talkers Heavy Hundred for Ninth Year in a Row,” AJC.com, March 26, 2015, http://radiotvtalk.blog.ajc.com/2015/03/26/ rush-limbaugh-tops-talkers-heavy-hundred-for-ninth-year-in-row/.

49. Parker, “The Cult of PewDiePie: How a Swedish Gamer Became YouTube’s Biggest Star.”

50. Michael Malone, “Google’s Big Red Video Play,” Broadcasting & Cable, March 23, 2016, http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/programming/google-s-bi g-red-video-play/154805.

51. Brittany Spanos, “Tim Curry Lands Role in ‘Rocky Horror Picture Show’ Remake,” Rolling Stone, January 15, 2016, http://www.rollingstone.com/tv/ne ws/tim-curry-lands-role-in-rocky-horror-picture-show-remake-20160115.

52. Hal R. Varian, “File-Sharing Is the Latest Battleground in the Clash of Technology and Copyright,” The New York Times, April 7, 2005.

53. Erik Barnouw, Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television, 2nd rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

54. Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication,

http://www.medialit.org/reading-room/tv-violence-and-art-asking-wrong-question

http://www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/2006/11/24/06

http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf

http://AJC.com

http://radiotvtalk.blog.ajc.com/2015/03/26/rush-limbaugh-tops-talkers-heavy-hundred-for-ninth-year-in-row/

http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/programming/google-s-big-red-video-play/154805

http://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/tim-curry-lands-role-in-rocky-horror-picture-show-remake-20160115

3rd ed. (White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1995).

55. Stan Soocher, They Fought the Law: Rock Music Goes to Court (New York: Schirmer Books, 1999).

56. Jesse Sheidlower, “If You Seek Amy’s Ancestors,” Slate, March 18, 2009, www. slate.com/id/2214106.

57. Wright, Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective.

58. Ibid.; Robert K. Merton, “Patterns of influence: A Study of Interpersonal Influence and of Communications Behavior in a Local Community,” Communications Research 1949 (1948): 180–219.

59. Keith Urbahn, @keithurbahn, May 1, 2011, http://twitter.com/keithurbahn/st atus/64877790624886784.

60. Joe Weisenthal, “Obama: The U.S. Has Killed Osama bin Laden,” Business Insider, May 1, 2011, http://articles.businessinsider.com/2011-05-01/news/3 0021488_1_barack-obama-pakistani-government-firefight.

61. Drew DeSilver, “32 Years Ago, Experts Foresaw Much of Today’s Digital World,” Pew Research Center, May 19, 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fa ct-tank/2014/05/19/32-years-ago-experts-foresaw-much-of-todays-digital- world/.

62. Nicholas Jackson, “Word of Osama bin Laden’s Death Spreads Over Twitter,” The Atlantic, May 1, 2011, www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/0 5/word-of-osama-bin-ladens-death-spreads-over-twitter/238111/.

63. David Pakman, “May I Have Your Attention Please?” Medium.com, August 10, 2015, https://medium.com/life-learning/may-i-have-your-attention-please-19 ef6395b2c3#.ejnprp479.

64. Joseph O’Halloran, “ESPN Digital Media Sets New Mobile Record for Sports,” RapidTV News, May 17, 2014, http://www.rapidtvnews.com/201405173369 7/espn-digital-media-sets-new-mobile-record-for-sports.html#axzz46wtKkwl 7.

65. Pakman, “May I Have Your Attention Please?”

66. James O’Malley, “Surprised the Syrian Refugees Have Smartphones? Sorry to Break This to You, but You’re an Idiot,” Independent, September 7, 2015, https: //www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=92aa1a27-7752-4f86-8a92-8be8bb79 e2b8&ses=1&sh=5&sds=5&x=102&xb=fd9573b3-becc-4a23-aa74-c6f3afaa a76e&.

CHAPTER 2

1. Glenn Greenwald, No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2014).

http://www.slate.com/id/2214106

http://twitter.com/keithurbahn/status/64877790624886784

http://articles.businessinsider.com/2011-05-01/news/30021488_1_barack-obama-pakistani-government-firefight

http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/05/19/32-years-ago-experts-foresaw-much-of-todays-digital-world/

http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/05/word-of-osama-bin-ladens-death-spreads-over-twitter/238111/

http://Medium.com

https://medium.com/life-learning/may-i-have-your-attention-please-19ef6395b2c3#.ejnprp479

http://www.rapidtvnews.com/2014051733697/espn-digital-media-sets-new-mobile-record-for-sports.html#axzz46wtKkwl7

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=92aa1a27-7752-4f86-8a92-8be8bb79e2b8&ses=1&sh=5&sds=5&x=102&xb=fd9573b3-becc-4a23-aa74-c6f3afaaa76e&

2. Janet Reitman, “Snowden and Greenwald: The Men Who Leaked the Secrets,” Rolling Stone, December 4, 2013, www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/snowd en-and-greenwald-the-men-who-leaked-the-secrets-20131204.

3. Greenwald, No Place to Hide, 2014.

4. Brooke Gladstone, “A Year of Snowden,” On the Media, June 6, 2014, www.ont hemedia.org/story/year-snowden/transcript/.

5. “Profile: Edward Snowden,” BBC News, December 16, 2013, www.bbc.com/new s/world-us-canada-22837100.

6. Barton Gellman, Julie Tate, and Ashkan Soltani, “In NSA-Intercepted Data, Those Not Targeted Far Outnumber the Foreigners Who Are,” The Washington Post, July 5, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/in-nsa-i ntercepted-data-those-not-targeted-far-outnumber-the-foreigners-who-are/2 014/07/05/8139adf8-045a-11e4-8572-4b1b969b6322_story.html.

p.407

7. Nafeez Ahmed, “Edward Snowden: ‘We Must Seize the Means of Communication’ to Protect Basic Freedoms,” Mint Press News, March 14, 2016, http://www.mintpressnews.com/edward-snowden-must-seize-means-c ommunication-protect-basic-freedoms/214728/.

8. Peter Schrag, Test of Loyalty: Daniel Ellsberg and the Rituals of Secret Government (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974).

9. “Missing the Point of WikiLeaks,” The Economist, December 1, 2010, www.eco nomist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2010/12/after_secrets; Marshall Soules, “Harold Adams Innis: The Bias of Communications & Monopolies of Power,” Malaspina University-College, 2007, www.media-studies.ca/articles/i nnis.htm.

10. W. James Potter, Media Literacy, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2005).

11. Melvin L. DeFleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication, 5th ed. (New York: Longman, 1989); Ferdinand Tönnies, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, trans. Charles P. Loomis (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1957).

12. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication.

13. Stanley Rothman, “Introduction,” in The Mass Media in Liberal Democratic Societies, ed. Stanley Rothman (New York: Paragon House, 1992).

14. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication.

15. Stephen Ansolabehere, Shanto Iyengar, and Adam Simon, “Shifting Perspectives on the Effects of Campaign Communication,” in Do the Media Govern? Politicians, Voters, and Reporters in America, ed. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1997).

16. Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet, The People’s Choice,

http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/snowden-and-greenwald-the-men-who-leaked-the-secrets-20131204

http://www.onthemedia.org/story/year-snowden/transcript/

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-22837100

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/in-nsa-intercepted-data-those-not-targeted-far-outnumber-the-foreigners-who-are/2014/07/05/8139adf8-045a-11e4-8572-4b1b969b6322_story.html

http://www.mintpressnews.com/edward-snowden-must-seize-means-communication-protect-basic-freedoms/214728/

http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2010/12/after_secrets

http://www.media-studies.ca/articles/innis.htm

3rd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).

17. Brooke Gladstone, “Trail of Years,” On the Media, February 23, 2007, www.ont hemedia.org/transcripts/2007/02/23/07.

18. Ansolabehere et al., “Shifting Perspectives on the Effects of Campaign Communication.”

19. Stephen Eric Bronner, Critical Theory: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 106.

20. Ibid, p. 115.

21. Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard, Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media, 5th ed. (New York: Longman, 2001).

22. Frances Martel, “CNN Report: Do Missing White Babies Get More Media Coverage Than Minorities?” Mediaite, October 22, 2011, http://www.mediait e.com/tv/cnn-report-do-missing-white-babies-get-more-media-coverage-than -minorities/; T. L. Stanley, “Nancy Grace Says ‘the Devil Is Dancing’ at Casey Anthony Verdict,” Los Angeles Times, July 5, 2011, http://latimesblogs.latimes .com/showtracker/2011/07/nancy-grace-says-the-devil-is-dancing-at-casey- anthony-verdict.html.

23. Mark Memmott, “Spotlight Skips Cases of Missing Minorities,” USA Today, June 16, 2005.

24. Edgar Allan Poe, “The Philosophy of Composition,” Graham’s Magazine, vol. XXVIII, no. 4, April 1846, 28: 163–167, http://www.eapoe.org/works/essays/ philcomp.htm.

25. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communication; Denis McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 5th ed. (London: Sage Publications, 2005); Potter, Media Literacy.

26. Doris A. Graber, Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide, 2nd ed. (New York: Longman, 1988).

27. David Hinckley, “Rush and Sean Tops in Talk,” Daily News, December 10, 2005.

28. Graber, Processing the News; Lazarsfeld et al., The People’s Choice.

29. The Editorial Board, “Young Voters, Motivated Again,” The New York Times, February 21, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/22/opinion/young-vot ers-motivated-again.html.

30. Arthur Asa Berger, Media Analysis Techniques, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2005).

31. Ibid.

32. Potter, Media Literacy.

33. “Interview With John Adams About ‘On the Transmigration of Souls,’” New York Philharmonic, September 2002, http://www.earbox.com/on-the-transmig ration-of-souls/.

34. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York:

http://www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/2007/02/23/07

http://www.mediaite.com/tv/cnn-report-do-missing-white-babies-get-more-media-coverage-than-minorities/

http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/07/nancy-grace-says-the-devil-is-dancing-at-casey-anthony-verdict.html

http://www.eapoe.org/works/essays/philcomp.htm

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/22/opinion/young-voters-motivated-again.html

http://www.earbox.com/on-the-transmigration-of-souls/

McGraw-Hill, 1964).

35. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

36. Joshua Meyrowitz, “Shifting Worlds of Strangers: Medium Theory and Changes in ‘Them’ Versus ‘Us,’” Sociological Inquiry 67, no. 1 (1997): 59–71.

37. Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

38. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

39. Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984).

40. Matthew Forney, “Testing Beijing’s Limits: In the Quest for China’s Lucrative— and Elusive—TV Market, Did Murdoch Bend the Rules?” Time, September 5, 2005; Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin Press, 2009).

41. Bagdikian, The New Media Monopoly.

42. Chris Anderson, The Long Tail (New York: Hyperion, 2006).

43. Potter, Media Literacy; Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication, 3rd ed. (White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1995); McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

44. Potter, Media Literacy.

45. Elihu Katz, “The Two-Step Flow of Communication,” in Mass Communications, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960).

46. Harold Lasswell, “The Structure and Function of Communication in Society,” in Mass Communications, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960).

47. Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, enlarged ed. (New York: Free Press, 1968).

48. Lasswell, “The Structure and Function of Communication in Society.”

49. Charles R. Wright, Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective, 3rd ed. (New York: Random House, 1986).

50. Everette E. Dennis, Justin D. Martin, and Robb Wood, “Social Media: Sharing Information and Connecting Online Nearly Universal,” in Media Use in the Middle East, 2015, (Northwestern University in Qatar, 2015), April 15, 2015, http://www.mideastmedia.org/survey/2015/chapter/social-media.html#.

51. Wright, Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective.

52. Jesse Holcomb, “Deficit Deliberations and a Surprise Verdict Top the News: PEJ News Coverage Index July 4–10, 2011,” Pew Research Center, July 10, 2011, www.journalism.org/index_report/pej_news_coverage_index_july_4_10_ 2011.

53. Mark Jurkowitz, “Two Explosive Scandals Top the News: PEJ News Coverage Index November 7–13, 2011,” Pew Research Center, November 13, 2011, htt

http://www.mideastmedia.org/survey/2015/chapter/social-media.html

http://www.journalism.org/index_report/pej_news_coverage_index_july_4_10_2011

http://www.journalism.org/2011/11/13/pej-news-coverage-index-november-713-2011/

p://www.journalism.org/2011/11/13/pej-news-coverage-index-november-71 3-2011/.

54. “Investors Now Go Online for Quotes, Advice,” Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, June 11, 2000.

p.408

55. Wright, Mass Communication; Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place.

56. Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place.

57. Everett M. Rogers, William B. Hart, and James W. Dearing, “A Paradigmatic History of Agenda-Setting Research,” in Do the Media Govern? ed. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1997).

58. Lowery and DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication.

59. Analysis by the GDELT Project using data from the Internet Archive Television News Archive. GDELT Project, “Presidential Campaign 2016: Candidate Television Tracker,” Accessed April 10, 2016, http://television.gdeltproject.or g/cgi-bin/iatv_campaign2016/iatv_campaign2016.

60. Lowery and DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication.

61. Elihu Katz, Jay G. Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch, “Utilization of Mass Communication by the Individual,” in The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, ed. Jay G. Blumler and Elihu Katz (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1974).

62. Berger, Media Analysis Techniques.

63. Albert Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication,” in Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillman (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1994).

64. Brian Stelter, “’Ashamed’: Ex-PR Exec Justine Sacco Apologizes for AIDS in Africa Tweet,” CNN.com, December 22, 2013, http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/ 22/world/sacco-offensive-tweet/index.html.

65. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934).

66. Robert K. Merton, “The Thomas Theorem and the Matthew Effect,” Social Forces 74, no. 2 (December 1, 1995): 379–422.

67. Michael J. Socolow, “The Hyped Panic Over ‘War of the Worlds,’” The Chronicle of Higher Education, October 24, 2008; Wright, Mass Communication: A Sociological Perspective.

68. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, “The Contribution of Spiral of Silence Theory to an Understanding of Mass Media,” in The Mass Media in Liberal Democratic Societies, ed. Stanley Rothman (New York: Paragon House, 1992).

69. Rothman, “Introduction.”

http://television.gdeltproject.org/cgi-bin/iatv_campaign2016/iatv_campaign2016

http://CNN.com

http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/22/world/sacco-offensive-tweet/index.html

70. Huiping Huang, “A Cross-Cultural Test of the Spiral of Silence,” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 17, no. 13 (2005).

71. Keith Hampton, Lee Rainie, Weixu Lu, Maria Dwyer, Inyoung Shin, and Kristen Purcell, “Social Media and the ‘Spiral of Silence,’” Pew Research Center Internet & American Life Project, August 26, 2014, www.pewinternet.org/20 14/08/26/social-media-and-the-spiral-of-silence/.

72. David L. Altheide and Robert P. Snow, Media Worlds in the Postjournalism Era (Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine De Gruyter, 1991).

73. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

74. Joanne Ostrow, “Authority on Media Violence Says Don’t Blame TV for Columbine,” Denver Post, April 25, 1999.

75. George Gerbner et al., “Growing Up With Television: The Cultivation Perspective,” in Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillman (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1994).

76. Lowery and DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication, p. 278.

77. Wilson Biographies, “Gerbner, George,” Wilson Web, hwwilsonweb.com.

78. Ibid.

79. Gerbner et al., “Growing Up With Television.”

80. Patrick E. Jamieson and Daniel Romer, “Violence in Popular U.S. Prime Time TV Dramas and the Cultivation of Fear: A Time Series Analysis.” Media and Communication 2, no. 2 (2014): 31–41.

81. Alyssa Rosenberg, “Is TV Making Us More Afraid of Crime? Or Burning Us Out on Violence?” Act Four, The Washington Post, June 20, 2014, www.washington post.com/news/act-four/wp/2014/06/20/is-tv-making-us-more-afraid-of-cri me-or-burning-us-out-on-violence/.

82. Caroline Framke, “#WheresRey and the Big Star Wars Toy Controversy, Explained,” Vox.com, January 9, 2016, http://www.vox.com/2016/1/7/10726 296/wheres-rey-star-wars-monopoly.

CHAPTER 3

1. Ralph Hanson, personal communication, February 12, 2016.

2. Kevin Kelly, “The Technium: 1,000 True Fans,” KevinKelly.com, March 4, 2008, kk.org.

3. David Carr, “At Sundance, Kickstarter Resembled a Movie Studio, but Without the Egos,” Media Decoder (The New York Times), January 30, 2012, mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/30/at-sundance-kickstarter- resembled-a-movie-studio-but-without-the-egos/? _php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0.

http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/08/26/social-media-and-the-spiral-of-silence/

http://hwwilsonweb.com

http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/act-four/wp/2014/06/20/is-tv-making-us-more-afraid-of-crime-or-burning-us-out-on-violence/

http://Vox.com

http://www.vox.com/2016/1/7/10726296/wheres-rey-star-wars-monopoly

http://KevinKelly.com

http://kk.org

4. Ben Bagdikian, The Information Machines: Their Impact on Men and the Media (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).

5. John Tebbel, The Media in America (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1974).

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Michael Schudson, The Power of News (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).

9. Margaret A. Blanchard, ed., History of the Mass Media in the United States (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1998).

10. Schudson, The Power of News.

11. Michael Balderston, “Netflix, DVR Populates 81 Percent of U.S. Homes,” TVTechnology, February 5, 2016, http://www.tvtechnology.com/news/0009/n etflix-dvr-populates-81-percent-of-us-homes/277872.

12. National Cable & Telecommunications Association, “Industry Data,” https://w ww.ncta.com/industry-data; Andrew Perrin and Maeve Duggan, “Americans’ Internet Access: 2000–2015,” Pew Research Center, June 26, 2015, http://ww w.pewinternet.org/2015/06/26/americans-internet-access-2000-2015/; Roger Yu, “USA Today, WSJ, NYT Are Top Three Papers in Circulation,” USA Today, October 28, 2014, http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2 014/10/28/aam-circulation-data-september/18057983/.

13. Open Society Institute EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program, Television Across Europe: Regulation, Policy and Independence, 2005, http://www.opens ocietyfoundations.org/reports/television-across-europe-regulation-policy-and -independence; Pew Research Center, “Mobile Technology Fact Sheet,” December 27, 2013, http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/mobile-technol ogy-fact-sheet/.

14. Gannett, “From Then Till Now,” Gannett.com; Pew Research Center, “Newspapers: Number of Daily Newspapers by Company,” http://www.journali sm.org/media-indicators/number-of-daily-newspapers-by-company/.

15. The Walt Disney Company Reports, “Fourth Quarter and Full Year Earnings for Fiscal 2015,” November 5, 2015, https://ditm-twdc-us.storage.googleapis.com /q4-fy15-earnings.pdf; Statista, “Revenue of the Walt Disney Company in Different Geographical Regions From 2010 to 2015 (in Million U.S. Dollars),” 2016, http://www.statista.com/statistics/193263/revenue-of-the-walt-disne y-company-in-different-regions/.

p.409

16. PBS, “Walt Disney’s Life: Timeline,” American Experience, http://www.pbs.org /wgbh/americanexperience/films/walt-disney/timeline/.

17. Richard Schickel, “Walt Disney,” Time, December 7, 1998.

18. “The House of the Mouse,” New Internationalist, December 1998.

http://www.tvtechnology.com/news/0009/netflix-dvr-populates-81-percent-of-us-homes/277872

https://www.ncta.com/industry-data

http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/06/26/americans-internet-access-2000-2015/

http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/10/28/aam-circulation-data-september/18057983/

http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/reports/television-across-europe-regulation-policy-and-independence

http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/mobile-technology-fact-sheet/

http://Gannett.com

http://www.journalism.org/media-indicators/number-of-daily-newspapers-by-company/

https://ditm-twdc-us.storage.googleapis.com/q4-fy15-earnings.pdf

http://www.statista.com/statistics/193263/revenue-of-the-walt-disney-company-in-different-regions/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/walt-disney/timeline/

19. Suzy Wetlaufer, “Common Sense and Conflict,” Harvard Business Review, January/February 2000; Wilson Biographies, “Walt Disney.”

20. Ken Auletta, The Highwaymen (New York: Random House, 1997).

21. Statista, “Revenue of the Walt Disney Company in Different Geographical Regions From 2010 to 2015 (in Million U.S. Dollars).”

22. Peter Schweizer and Rochelle Schweizer, Disney: The Mouse Betrayed (Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 1998); Robert F. Hartley, Marketing Mistakes and Successes, 7th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1998); Maureen Fan, “A Bumpy Ride for Disneyland in Hong Kong,” The Washington Post, November 20, 2006.

23. Schweizer and Schweizer, Disney: The Mouse Betrayed.

24. Richard Verrier, “Disney May Add 2nd China Park,” Los Angeles Times, July 20, 2002.

25. Walt Disney Company, “Investor Relations,” https://thewaltdisneycompany.co m/investor-relations/.

26. Fan, “A Bumpy Ride for Disneyland in Hong Kong”; Hoover’s Company Records —In-Depth Records: The Walt Disney Company.

27. “Hong Kong Disneyland Enjoys Fourth Record-Breaking Year,” China Daily, February 18, 2014.

28. Fan, “A Bumpy Ride for Disneyland in Hong Kong.”

29. Brooks Barnes, “Owners to Invest $800 Million More in Shanghai Disneyland,” The New York Times, April 29, 2014; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: The Walt Disney Company; MiceAge, “MiceAge Disneyland Update: Shanghai Surprise,” MiceChat.com, March 29, 2016, http://micechat.com/122 782-disneyland-cutbacks/.

30. Dean Alger, Megamedia: How Giant Corporations Dominate Mass Media, Distort Competition, and Endanger Democracy (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998).

31. Shannon Peavey, “Disney Believes It Can Duck Downturn,” Electronic Media, February 12, 2001; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: The Walt Disney Company.

32. David Lieberman and Laura Petrecca, “Disney, Pixar to Merge in $7.5B Deal,” USA Today, January 24, 2006; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: The Walt Disney Company; Box Office Mojo, “Biggest Animated Movies,” http: //boxofficemojo.com/showdowns/chart/?id=animationalltime.htm; Box Office Mojo, “Animation, 1980–Present,” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/char t/?id=animation.htm.

33. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: The Walt Disney Company; Georg Szalai, “Analysts Laud Disney’s Lucasfilm Acquisition Despite High Price Tag,” The Hollywood Reporter, October 31, 2012, http://www.hollywoodreport er.com/news/analysts-laud-disneys-lucasfilm-acquisition-384719.

34. Drew Harwell, “What $4,595 ‘Glass Slippers’ Say About Disney’s Princess

https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/investor-relations/

http://MiceChat.com

http://micechat.com/122782-disneyland-cutbacks/

http://boxofficemojo.com/showdowns/chart/?id=animationalltime.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/chart/?id=animation.htm

http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/analysts-laud-disneys-lucasfilm-acquisition-384719

Sales Machine,” The Washington Post, March 11, 2015, https://www.washingt onpost.com/business/economy/what-4595-glass-slippers-say-about-disneys-p rincess-sales-machine/2015/03/11/b58f28f6-c29d-11e4-ad5c-3b8ce89f1b8 9_story.html.

35. Clay Travis, “ESPN Has Lost 7 Million Subscribers the Past Two Years,” FoxSpo rts.com, November 25, 2015, http://www.foxsports.com/college-football/outk ick-the-coverage/espn-has-lost-7-million-subscribers-the-past-two-years-112 515.

36. Auletta, The Highwaymen.

37. News Corp., “Annual Report 2015,” https://newscorpcom.files.wordpress.com/ 2014/09/2015-annual-report.pdf; Statista, “Revenue Generated by 21st Century Fox in the Fiscal Years 2011 to 2015 (in Billion U.S. Dollars),” http://w ww.statista.com/statistics/262513/21st-century-foxs-annual-revenue/.

38. Auletta, The Highwaymen.

39. Tony Maglio, “50 Top Basic Cable Channels of 2015: From ESPN to H2,” The Wrap, December 17, 2015, https://www.thewrap.com/50-top-basic-cable-cha nnels-of-2015-espn-tbs-tnt-usa-disney-fox-news-tv-ratings/; Hoover’s Company Records—In Depth Records: 21st Century Fox.

40. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: News Corporation.

41. Sarah Kaplan, “National Geographic Fans Worry About Partnership With Climate Change Skeptic Rupert Murdoch,” The Washington Post, September 10, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/09/ 10/national-geographic-fans-worry-about-partnership-with-climate-change-s keptic-rupert-murdoch/.

42. Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, “The State of the News Media 2008: Newspapers,” March 15, 2008, pewresearch.org/pubs/767/state-of-the-news-media-2008.

43. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: News Corporation.

44. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: 21st Century Fox.

45. Ken Auletta, Three Blind Mice: How the TV Networks Lost Their Way (New York: Random House, 1991).

46. Ibid.

47. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Time Warner Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016); Time Warner, “Annual Report 2015,” http://phx.co rporate-ir.net/External.File?item=UGFyZW50SUQ9MzM1NjIyfENoaWxkSU Q9LTF8VHlwZT0z&t=1&cb=635975603376091314.

48. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Time Warner Inc.; Alger, Megamedia; AOL Time Warner, “AOL Time Warner 2002 Annual Report,” 2002.

49. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Time Warner Inc.

50. David Carr and Ravi Somaiya, “Saddled With Debt, Time Inc. Sets a Lonely

https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/what-4595-glass-slippers-say-about-disneys-princess-sales-machine/2015/03/11/b58f28f6-c29d-11e4-ad5c-3b8ce89f1b89_story.html

http://FoxSports.com

http://www.foxsports.com/college-football/outkick-the-coverage/espn-has-lost-7-million-subscribers-the-past-two-years-112515

https://newscorpcom.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/2015-annual-report.pdf

http://www.statista.com/statistics/262513/21st-century-foxs-annual-revenue/

https://www.thewrap.com/50-top-basic-cable-channels-of-2015-espn-tbs-tnt-usa-disney-fox-news-tv-ratings/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/09/10/national-geographic-fans-worry-about-partnership-with-climate-change-skeptic-rupert-murdoch/

http://phx.corporate-ir.net/External.File?item=UGFyZW50SUQ9MzM1NjIyfENoaWxkSUQ9LTF8VHlwZT0z&t=1&cb=635975603376091314

Course in a Shifting Market,” International New York Times, June 10, 2014.

51. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Viacom (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016); Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: CBS Corporation (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016).

52. Devin Leonard, “Who’s the Boss?” Fortune, April 16, 2001.

53. David Lieberman, “Viacom Plans Split to Spur Growth,” USA Today, June 14, 2005; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: CBS Corporation; Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Viacom Inc.; Standard & Poor’s, Standard & Poor’s Corporate Descriptions Plus News: Viacom Inc. (New York: Standard & Poor’s, 2011).

54. Ahiza Garcia and Brian Stelter, “Fight for Viacom and Sumner Redstone’s Empire Heats Up,” CNN Money, May 21, 2016, http://money.cnn.com/2016/0 5/21/media/sumner-redstone-viacom-philippe-dauman-cbs/index.html.

55. John Eggerton, “FCC Upholds Viacom Indecency Settlement,” Broadcasting & Cable, October 17, 2006; Krysten Crawford, “Howard Stern Jumps to Satellite,” CNN, October 6, 2004, money.cnn.com/2004/10/06/news/newsmakers/stern_sirius/index.htm? cnn=yes.

56. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin Press, 2009).

p.410

57. Bertelsmann, “Financial Figures,” Bertelsmann.com, http://www.bertelsmann. com/investor-relations/bertelsmann-at-a-glance/financial-figures/.

58. Alger, Megamedia.

59. “New Chapter,” The Economist, February 10, 2001; Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Bertelsmann AG.

60. Jack Ewing, “Bertelsmann’s Creed: Inner Growth,” Businessweek, March 17, 2005, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2005-03-17/bertelsmanns-c reed-inner-growth; Julie Bosman, “Penguin and Random House Merge, Saying Change Will Come Slowly,” The New York Times, July 1, 2013, http://www.nyti mes.com/2013/07/02/business/media/merger-of-penguin-and-random-house -is-completed.html.

61. Frank Gibney Jr., “Napster Meister,” Time, November 13, 2000; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Bertelsmann AG.

62. Jack Ewing, “Bertelsmann’s Slimmer Profile Generates Thinner Profits,” Businessweek, September 6, 2006, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles /2006-09-05/bertelsmanns-slimmer-profile-generates-thinner-profits.

63. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Bertelsmann AG.

64. Ewing, “Bertelsmann’s Creed: Inner Growth”; Ewing, “Bertelsmann’s Slimmer Profile Generates Thinner Profits.”

http://money.cnn.com/2016/05/21/media/sumner-redstone-viacom-philippe-dauman-cbs/index.html

http://Bertelsmann.com

http://www.bertelsmann.com/investor-relations/bertelsmann-at-a-glance/financial-figures/

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2005-03-17/bertelsmanns-creed-inner-growth

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/02/business/media/merger-of-penguin-and-random-house-is-completed.html

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2006-09-05/bertelsmanns-slimmer-profile-generates-thinner-profits

65. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Bertelsmann AG.

66. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: The Walt Disney Company; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Comcast Corporation; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Google Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2014); Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Apple Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2014).

67. Alger, Megamedia.

68. Auletta, Three Blind Mice.

69. Howard Kurtz, “Comcast-NBC Deal Possible,” The Washington Post, October 1, 2009; Paul Tobin, “Vivendi Wants to Exit NBC, Deal Is Complex, CFO Says,” Bloomberg, November 19, 2009, www.bloomberg.com; Shira Ovide and Amy Schatz, “Comcast-NBC Deal Would Draw Lengthy Scrutiny in Washington,” The Wall Street Journal, November 16, 2009; Brian Stelter and Tim Arango, “Comcast-NBC Deal Wins Federal Approval,” Media Decoder: The New York Times, January 18, 2011, http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/1 8/f-c-c-approves-comcast-nbc-deal/.

70. Amy Chozick and Brian Stelter, “Comcast Buys Rest of NBC in Early Sale,” The New York Times, February 12, 2013, mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/12/comcast-buying-g-e-s-stake- in-nbcuniversal-for-16-7-billion/?_php=true&_type=blogs&smid=tw- share&_r=0.

71. Meg James, “Comcast to Own All of Media Giant,” Los Angeles Times, February 13, 2013, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/feb/13/business/la-fi-ct -comcast-ge-20130213.

72. Comcast, “Comcast Reports 4th Quarter and Year End 2015 Results,” February 3, 2016, http://www.cmcsa.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=9530 74.

73. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Comcast Corporation (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016); Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: NBCUniversal Media, LLC (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2011).

74. George Szalai, “NBCUniversal to Acquire DreamWorks Animation in $3.8B Deal,” The Hollywood Reporter, April 28, 2016, http://www.hollywoodreporter .com/news/comcast-acquire-dreamworks-animation-888103.

75. Brian Stelter and Tim Arango, “Comcast-NBC Deal Wins Federal Approval.”

76. Google, “About Google News,” support.google.com/news/answer/106259? hl=en&ref_topic=2428790.

77. Drew Harwell and Hayley Tsukayama, “Google Becomes Part of a New Company, Alphabet,” The Washington Post, August 10, 2015, https://www.was hingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/08/10/google-becomes-part-of-a -new-company-alphabet/?hpid=z3.

78. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, “Form 10-K Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2015: Alphabet Inc. and Google Inc.,” https://a

http://www.bloomberg.com

http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/18/f-c-c-approves-comcast-nbc-deal/

http://articles.latimes.com/2013/feb/13/business/la-fi-ct-comcast-ge-20130213

http://www.cmcsa.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=953074

http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/comcast-acquire-dreamworks-animation-888103

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/08/10/google-becomes-part-of-a-new-company-alphabet/?hpid=z3

https://abc.xyz/investor/pdf/20151231_alphabet_10K.pdf

bc.xyz/investor/pdf/20151231_alphabet_10K.pdf.

79. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It.

80. Ben H. Bagdikian, The New Media Monopoly.

81. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Google Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2011); Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Comcast Corporation (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2011); Hoover’s Company Records —In-Depth Records: Apple Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2011).

82. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It.

83. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, “Form 10-K Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended September 26, 2015: Apple Inc.,” http://investor.apple.com/s ecfiling.cfm?filingid=1193125-15-356351&cik=320193.

84. Peter Burrows and Ronald Grover, “Steve Jobs’s Magic Kingdom,” Businessweek, January 26, 2006.

85. Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web (New York: HarperCollins, 1999).

86. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Apple Inc.; John Markoff, “Oh, Yeah, He Also Sells Computers,” The New York Times, April 25, 2004.

87. Jefferson Graham, “Jobs Has a Knack for Getting His Way,” USA Today, January 25, 2006.

88. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Pixar Animation Studios Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2009).

89. Burrows and Grover, “Steve Jobs’s Magic Kingdom.”

90. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It.

91. Brandon Keim, “Twitter Analysis: Massive Global Mourning for Steve Jobs (Infographic),” Wired, October 7, 2011, www.wired.com/epicenter/2011/10/g lobal-mourning-for-steve-jobs/.

92. Timothy B. Lee, “How Google Passed Apple to Become the World’s Most Valuable Company,” Vox.com, May 12, 2016, http://www.vox.com/2016/2/4/ 10911364/google-apple-most-valuable.

93. Chris Anderson, The Long Tail (New York: Hyperion, 2006).

94. Ibid.

95. Ed Christman, “Walmart to Cut Its CD Stock by Nearly Half,” Billboardbiz, April 8, 2014, http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/retail/6042188/walmart -to-cut-its-cd-stock-by-nearly-half.

96. Ibid.; Rhapsody, “Company Info,” http://www.rhapsody.com/about.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid.

99. Ibid.

100. Michael Liedtke, “Now Starring on the Internet: YouTube.com,” USA Today, April 9, 2006.

http://investor.apple.com/secfiling.cfm?filingid=1193125-15-356351&cik=320193

http://www.wired.com/epicenter/2011/10/global-mourning-for-steve-jobs/

http://Vox.com

http://www.vox.com/2016/2/4/10911364/google-apple-most-valuable

http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/retail/6042188/walmart-to-cut-its-cd-stock-by-nearly-half

http://www.rhapsody.com/about

http://YouTube.com

101. Charlie Rose, “Charlie Rose: A Conversation With the YouTube Co-Founders,” August 11, 2006, https://charlierose.com/videos/13874.

102. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: YouTube, LLC (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2009).

103. Michael Malone, “For ‘Red’ Generation, It’s PewDiePie, Not ‘Family Guy,’” Broadcasting & Cable, March 21, 2016, http://www.broadcastingcable.com/bl og/bc-beat/red-generation-it-s-pewdiepie-not-family-guy/154820.

p.411

104. YouTube, “Statistics,” https://www.youtube.com/yt/press/statistics.html.

105. Rose, “Charlie Rose: A Conversation With the YouTube Co-Founders.”

106. Diane Mermigas, “Mermigas on Media,” Hollywood Reporter, October 24, 2006.

107. Ibid.

108. Ibid.

109. Tom DiChristopher, “Verizon Closes AOL Acquisition,” CNBC, June 23, 2015, h ttp://www.cnbc.com/2015/06/23/verizon-closes-aol-acquisition.html; Brian Fung, “Verizon Is Buying AOL for $4.4 Billion,” The Washington Post, May 12, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/05/12/ve rizons-buying-aol-for-a-reported-4-4-billion/; Seth Sutel, “AOL Buys Time Warner for $162 Billion,” ABC News, January 10, 2000, http://abcnews.go.co m/Business/Decade/aol-buys-time-warner-162-billion/story?id=9279138; Brian Stelter, “ESPN, Fox, NBC: We’re Not Happy With New Verizon Pricing Plan,” CNN Money, April 22, 2015, http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/22/media/ verizon-unbundling-fox-nbc/index.html.

110. Michael Schudson, The Power of News (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996).

111. “Future Forum,” Advertising Age, September 20, 1999.

112. Bagdikian, The New Media Monopoly.

113. Jon Bershad, “Disney Bans ABC Affiliates From Talking to Johnny Depp About His New Movie,” Mediaite, October 24, 2011, www.mediaite.com/tv/disney-b ans-abc-affiliates-from-talking-to-johnny-depp-about-his-new-movie/.

114. Elizabeth Lesly Stevens, “Mouse-ke-fear,” Brill’s Content, January 1999.

115. Ibid.; Todd Gitlin, “Introduction,” in Conglomerates and the Media, ed. Eric Barnouw (New York: New Press, 1997).

116. Denis McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 5th ed. (London: Sage Publications, 2005).

117. Dave Phillips, “Chrysler Drops Censorship Policy,” Detroit News, October 14, 1997.

118. Jim Edwards, “Nicetv,” Brill’s Content, March 2001.

https://charlierose.com/videos/13874

http://www.broadcastingcable.com/blog/bc-beat/red-generation-it-s-pewdiepie-not-family-guy/154820

https://www.youtube.com/yt/press/statistics.html

http://www.cnbc.com/2015/06/23/verizon-closes-aol-acquisition.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/05/12/verizons-buying-aol-for-a-reported-4-4-billion/

http://abcnews.go.com/Business/Decade/aol-buys-time-warner-162-billion/story?id=9279138

http://money.cnn.com/2015/04/22/media/verizon-unbundling-fox-nbc/index.html

http://www.mediaite.com/tv/disney-bans-abc-affiliates-from-talking-to-johnny-depp-about-his-new-movie/

119. Johnnie L. Roberts, “All for One, One for AOL,” Newsweek, March 13, 2010, h ttp://www.newsweek.com/all-one-one-aol-155987?piano_t=1; Brian Stelter and Tim Arango, “Comcast-NBC Deal Wins Federal Approval.”

120. Auletta, The Highwaymen.

121. Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It.

122. Ralph Hanson, “Go See What All the Shouting Is About,” Charleston Daily Mail, February 15, 2006.

123. Herbert Gans, Deciding What’s News (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979); McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

124. Schudson, The Power of News.

125. Patrick M. Reilly, “Behind the Covers: How Stars End Up on Those Glossies,” The Wall Street Journal, November 18, 1997.

126. Ben Smith, “Clinton Campaign Kills Negative Story,” Politico, September 24, 2007, www.politico.com/news/stories/0907/5992.html.

127. Ibid.

128. Alexander Wolff, “Readers Select Eric LeGrand’s Return SI’s Moment of the Year,” Sports Illustrated, December 26, 2011, http://www.si.com/more-sports/ 2011/12/20/moment-ofyear.

129. Stephen Galloway, “Test Screenings; Looking to Shore Up Box Office Returns, Studios Have Become Increasingly Dependent on Findings From Research Screenings—Whether Filmmakers Like It or Not,” Hollywood Reporter, July 25, 2006; “Little Miss Sunshine,” Box Office Mojo, boxofficemojo.com/movies/? id=littlemisssunshine.htm.

130. Seth Schiesel, “Young Viewers Like Screen Translation,” The New York Times, November 19, 2001.

CHAPTER 4

1. Mark Yarm, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Fights the Power—Literally—With Black Panther,” Wired, April 6, 2016, http://www.wired.com/2016/04/ta-nehisi-coa tes-black-panther-comics/; NPR Staff, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Hopes ‘Black Panther’ Will Be Some Kid’s ‘Spider Man,’” NPR, April 6, 2016, http://www.npr. org/sections/codeswitch/2016/04/06/473224606/a-reluctant-king-ta-nehisi -coates-takes-on-marvels-black-panther.

2. NPR Staff, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Hopes ‘Black Panther’ Will Be Some Kid’s ‘Spider Man.’”

3. Yarm, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Fights the Power—Literally—With Black Panther.”

4. NPR Staff, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Hopes ‘Black Panther’ Will Be Some Kid’s ‘Spider Man.’”

http://www.newsweek.com/all-one-one-aol-155987?piano_t=1

http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0907/5992.html

http://www.si.com/more-sports/2011/12/20/moment-ofyear

http://www.wired.com/2016/04/ta-nehisi-coates-black-panther-comics/

http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/04/06/473224606/a-reluctant-king-ta-nehisi-coates-takes-on-marvels-black-panther

5. Yarm, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Fights the Power—Literally—With Black Panther.”

6. Ibid.

7. NPR Staff, “Ta-Nehisi Coates Hopes ‘Black Panther’ Will be Some Kid’s ‘Spider Man.’”

8. James D. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950).

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.; Bill Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book, 3rd English ed. (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995).

11. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

12. Ibid.; John J. Goldman and Eileen V. Quigley, “Gutenberg Bible Is Sold for Record $4.9 Million,” Los Angeles Times, October 23, 1987, http://articles.lati mes.com/1987-10-23/news/mn-10733_1_bids.

13. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

14. Ibid.

15. Stephen E. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

16. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

17. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste.

18. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

19. Ibid.

20. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste.

21. Ibid.

22. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book; American Library Association, “Number of Libraries in the United States,” September 2015, http://www.ala.org/tools/libf actsheets/alalibraryfactsheet01.

23. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

24. Chris Anderson, The Long Tail (New York: Hyperion, 2006).

25. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

26. Doreen Carvajal, “Book Publishers Seek Global Reach and Grand Scale,” The New York Times, October 19, 1998.

27. “About Us,” Penguin Random House, http://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/ab out-us/.

28. David Streitfeld, “Book Report,” The Washington Post, March 14, 1999.

29. “The World’s 60 Largest Book Publishers, 2013,” Publishers Weekly, July 19, 2013, www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/financial-repor ting/article/58211-the-global-60-the-world-s-largest-book-publishers-2013.h tml.

http://articles.latimes.com/1987-10-23/news/mn-10733_1_bids

http://www.ala.org/tools/libfactsheets/alalibraryfactsheet01

http://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/about-us/

http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/financial-reporting/article/58211-the-global-60-the-world-s-largest-book-publishers-2013.html

p.412

30. Florence Shinkle, “University Presses Seize Upon a Silver Lining,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 12, 1998.

31. Edwin McDowell, “New Best-Selling Novel at Naval Institute Press,” The New York Times, November 1, 1986.

32. Hannah Hess, “Senators Propose Rebranding GPO as Government Publishing Office,” Roll Call, January 22, 2014, www.rollcall.com/news/senators_propose _rebranding_gpo_as_government_publishing_office-230308-1.html; Steve Vogel, “Marking JFK Anniversary, GPO Releases Digital Warren Commission Report,” The Washington Post, November 18, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com /blogs/federal-eye/wp/2013/11/18/marking-jfk-anniversary-gpo-releases-di gital-warren-commission-report/.

33. Robert Kiely, “Armageddon, Complete and Uncut,” The New York Times, May 13, 1990, www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/lifetimes/king-stand.html.

34. “Writers and Authors,” Occupational Outlook Handbook, April 12, 2016, http:/ /www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/writers-and-authors.htm.

35. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Ingram Book Company (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2014); Book Distribution Worldwide, http://ww w.ingramcontent.com/publishers/distribution.

36. James Shapiro, “Wariness Greets the Latest Round in the Publishing Wars,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, November 27, 1998.

37. Stuart Lauchlan, “B&N Nukes the NOOK With a 15 March Deadline for Customers to Save Content,” Diginomica, March 7, 2016, http://diginomica.co m/2016/03/07/bn-nukes-the-nook-with-a-15-march-deadline-for-customers- to-save-their-content/.

38. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Barnes & Noble Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016).

39. Paul Collins, “Chain Reaction; Do Bookstores Have a Future?” The Village Voice, May 22, 2006; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: American Booksellers Association (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016).

40. Doreen Carvajal, “Triumph of the Bottom Line; Numbers vs. Words at the Book-of-the-Month Club,” The New York Times, April 1, 1996.

41. J. Gerry Purdy, “Inside Mobile: Why eBooks and eBook Readers Will Eventually Succeed,” eWeek.com, October 13, 2008, www.eweek.com/c/a/Mo bile-and-Wireless/INSIDE-MOBILE-Why-eBooks-and-eBook-Readers-Will-Ev entually-Succeed.

42. Noor Javed, “Digital Reader Meets Skeptics at Literary Fest,” Toronto Star, September 29, 2008.

43. Jenna Ross, “It’s Textbook Economics: Colleges Fight High Prices; Campuses Across the State Try New Techniques and Technology to Fight Soaring Book Prices,” Star Tribune, December 29, 2008; U.S. Government Accountability

http://www.rollcall.com/news/senators_propose_rebranding_gpo_as_government_publishing_office-230308-1.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/federal-eye/wp/2013/11/18/marking-jfk-anniversary-gpo-releases-digital-warren-commission-report/

http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/lifetimes/king-stand.html

http://www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/writers-and-authors.htm

http://www.ingramcontent.com/publishers/distribution

http://diginomica.com/2016/03/07/bn-nukes-the-nook-with-a-15-march-deadline-for-customers-to-save-their-content/

http://eWeek.com

http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Mobile-and-Wireless/INSIDE-MOBILE-Why-eBooks-and-eBook-Readers-Will-Eventually-Succeed

Office, College Textbooks: Students Have Greater Access to Textbook Information, June 2013, http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/655066.pdf; National Association of College Stores, “Higher Education Retail Market Facts & Figures,” 2016, http://www.nacs.org/research/industrystatistics/higheredfa ctsfigures.aspx.

44. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Barnes & Noble Inc.; Barnes & Noble, “2015 Annual Report,” http://www.barnesandnobleinc.com/document s/bn_annual_report_2015.pdf.

45. Associated Press, “Nevada Regents Seek Answers to Rising Textbook Costs,” Las Vegas Sun, November 6, 2006.

46. Marc Parry, “Students Get Savvier About Textbook Buying,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 27, 2013.

47. Jennifer Howard, “For Many Students, Print Is Still King,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 27, 2013.

48. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste.

49. Ibid.

50. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book.

51. Romance Writers of America, “Romance Industry Statistics,” 2014, http://ww w.rwa.org/p/cm/ld/fid=580.

52. Dana Flavelle, “Torstar Eyes Convergence,” Toronto Star, May 3, 2001.

53. Jeff Ayers, “Janet Evanovich Works Hard at Her Easy-to-Read Stephanie Plum Novels,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, June 23, 2006.

54. Allen Pierleoni, “Doubling Up: With Her Wisecracking Heroines Stephanie Plum and Alexandra Barnaby, Novelist Janet Evanovich Is on the Move,” Sacramento Bee, December 5, 2005.

55. Carol Memmott, “Janet Evanovich by the Numbers,” USA Today, June 25, 2009; Rachel Donadio, “Promotional Intelligence,” The New York Times, March 21, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/05/21/books/review/21donadio.html?pag ewanted=all&_r=0.

56. Julie Bosman, “A Classic Turns 50, and Parties Are Planned,” The New York Times, May 25, 2010.

57. Roger Cohen, “In Re: Marketing Parameters for Great American Novel,” The New York Times, March 25, 1990.

58. Jeff Gordinier, “Elvish Lives!,” Entertainment Weekly, December 14, 2001.

59. Douglas A. Anderson, “Note on the Text,” in The Lord of the Rings, J. R. R. Tolkien (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1994); Brian Bethune, “The Lord of the Bookshelves,” Maclean’s, December 23, 2002; Gordinier, “Elvish Lives!”; Lev Grossman et al., “Feeding on Fantasy,” Time, December 2, 2002; Karen Raugust, “Licensing Hotline,” Publishers Weekly, July 2, 2001.

60. Adam Whitehead, “The Updated SFF All-Time Sales List,” The Wertzone, March 7, 2015, http://thewertzone.blogspot.com/2015/03/the-updated-sff-al

http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/655066.pdf

http://www.nacs.org/research/industrystatistics/higheredfactsfigures.aspx

http://www.barnesandnobleinc.com/documents/bn_annual_report_2015.pdf

http://www.rwa.org/p/cm/ld/fid=580

http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/21/books/review/21donadio.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

http://thewertzone.blogspot.com/2015/03/the-updated-sff-all-time-sales-list.html

l-time-sales-list.html.

61. Doreen Carvajal, “Booksellers Grab a Young Wizard’s Cloaktails,” The New York Times, February 28, 2000.

62. Paul Gray, “Wild About Harry,” Time, September 20, 1999.

63. “Revised Times Children’s Bestseller List Creates Room for More Titles,” Book Publishing Report, September 18, 2000.

64. Martin Bentham, “Harry Potter: The Best Children’s Stories Ever: J. K. Rowling’s Books About the Schoolboy Wizard Top Survey of British Children, Their Parents,” Sunday Telegraph, September 23, 2002.

65. American Library Association, “Top Ten Frequently Challenged Books Lists of the 21st Century,” http://www.ala.org/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top 10.

66. Editorial Board, “Lust and Liberties,” Indianapolis Star, October 5, 1998.

67. “Book Bans Bring Storm of Debate,” Omaha World-Herald, September 28, 1998.

68. Chris Taylor, “The Truth About Banned Books Is Stranger Than You Think,” Mashable, October 1, 2015, http://mashable.com/2015/10/01/banned-books -truth/.

69. William Breyfogle, “Librarians See Banned Books Week as a Wake-Up Call to Society,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, September 25, 1997.

70. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste.

71. PBS, “Huck Finn Teacher’s Guide: About the Book: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,” 2000, www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/teachers/huck/aboutbook.html.

72. Amy E. Schwartz, “Huck Finn Gets the Revisionist Treatment,” The Washington Post, January 10, 1996.

p.413

73. Paul Vallely, “They Will Not Be Silenced,” The Independent, February 14, 1998.

74. Barbara Crossette, “Iran Drops Rushdie Death Threat, and Britain Renews Teheran Ties,” The New York Times, September 25, 1998.

75. Douglas Jehl, “New Moves on Rushdie Exposing Iranian Rifts,” The New York Times, October 21, 1998.

76. “Author Banned by British Air,” The New York Times, September 26, 1998.

77. Sarah Lyall, “Rushdie, Free of Threat, Revels in ‘Spontaneity,’” The New York Times, September 26, 1998.

78. Henry Foy, “Rushdie Speech Cancelled Amid Death Threats, Protests,” Reuters, January 24, 2012, http://in.reuters.com/article/india-rushdie-cancel- idINDEE80N0AT20120124.

79. Neal, “Sherry Jones Reacts to UK Jewel of Medina Firebombing,” GalleyCat,

http://www.ala.org/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10

http://mashable.com/2015/10/01/banned-books-truth/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/teachers/huck/aboutbook.html

http://in.reuters.com/article/india-rushdie-cancel-idINDEE80N0AT20120124

September 28, 2008, http://www.adweek.com/galleycat/sherry-jones-reacts-t o-uk-jewel-of-medina-firebombing/8806?red=as.

80. Vallely, “They Will Not Be Silenced”; “Write and Wrong—Taslima Has the Courage of Conviction,” Statesman (India), October 22, 1998; Melvyn Bragg, “Forging Links With the Writers in Chains,” Times (London), February 9, 1998.

81. Anderson, The Long Tail.

82. Ibid.

83. Jonathan Segura, “No More E-Books vs. Print Books Arguments, OK?,” Monkey See, January 31, 2012, http://www.npr.org/sections/monkeysee/201 2/01/31/146140663/no-more-e-books-vs-print-books-arguments-ok.

84. Ibid.

85. Ezra Klein, “Will Books Survive eBooks?,” The Washington Post, May 20, 2011, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/post/will-books-sur vive-ebooks/2011/05/19/AFHNqz7G_blog.html.

86. Jacob Weisberg, “Book End: How the Kindle Will Change the World,” Slate, March 21, 2009, www.slate.com/id/2214243/.

87. Marisa Bluestone, “U.S. Publishing Industry’s Annual Survey Reveals $28 Billion in Revenue in 2014,” Association of American Publishers, June 10, 2015, http://publishers.org/news/us-publishing-industry’s-annual-survey-reve als-28-billion-revenue-2014.

88. David Pogue, “Some e-Books Are More Equal Than Others,” The New York Times, July 17, 2009, pogue.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/17/some-e-books- are-more-equal-than-others/.

89. Anita Singh, “Jonathan Franzen: E-books Are Damaging Society,” The Telegraph, January 29, 2012, www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/hay-festival/9047 981/Jonathan-Franzen-e-books-are-damaging-society.html.

90. Weisberg, “Book End: How the Kindle Will Change the World.”

91. Charlie Rose, “The Charlie Rose Show: A Conversation With Jeff Bezos,” February 26, 2009, www.charlierose.com/guest/view/2618.

92. David Pogue, “Some e-Books Are More Equal Than Others,” The New York Times, July 17, 2009, pogue.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/17/some-e-books- are-more-equal-than-others/.

93. Jeffrey P. Bezos, “An Apology From Amazon,” July 23, 2009, www.amazon.com /tag/kindle/forum/ref=cm_cd_ef_tft_tp?_encoding=UTF8&cdThread=Tx1FXQ PSF67X1IU&displayType=tagsDetail.

94. Anderson, The Long Tail.

95. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Ingram Book Group Inc.

96. Bob Garfield, “Why the Publishing Industry Isn’t in Peril,” On the Media, March 11, 2016, http://www.wnyc.org/story/why-publishing-industry-isnt-peril/.

http://www.adweek.com/galleycat/sherry-jones-reacts-to-uk-jewel-of-medina-firebombing/8806?red=as

http://www.npr.org/sections/monkeysee/2012/01/31/146140663/no-more-e-books-vs-print-books-arguments-ok

https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/post/will-books-survive-ebooks/2011/05/19/AFHNqz7G_blog.html

http://www.slate.com/id/2214243/

http://publishers.org/news/us-publishing-industry’s-annual-survey-reveals-28-billion-revenue-2014

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/hay-festival/9047981/Jonathan-Franzen-e-books-are-damaging-society.html

http://www.charlierose.com/guest/view/2618

http://www.amazon.com/tag/kindle/forum/ref=cm_cd_ef_tft_tp?_encoding=UTF8&cdThread=Tx1FXQPSF67X1IU&displayType=tagsDetail

http://www.wnyc.org/story/why-publishing-industry-isnt-peril/

CHAPTER 5

1. Buzz Bissinger, “Caitlyn Jenner: The Full Story,” Vanity Fair, July 2015, http://w ww.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/caitlyn-jenner-bruce-cover-annie-leib ovitz/.

2. Cindy Boren, “Bruce Jenner: ‘Call Me Caitlyn,’” The Washington Post, June 1, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2015/06/01/br uce-jenner-to-appear-as-a-woman-on-vanity-fair-cover/.

3. Bissinger, “Caitlyn Jenner: The Full Story.”

4. Joanne Robinson, “Annie Leibovitz Speaks for the First Time About Her Historic Caitlyn Jenner Cover,” Vanity Fair, October 6, 2015, http://www.vanit yfair.com/news/2015/10/annie-leibovitz-caitlyn-jenner-cover.

5. Soraya Nadia McDonald, “Jenner on the Cover of Vanity Fair: ‘Call Me Caitlyn,’” The Washington Post, June 1, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/a rts-and-entertainment/wp/2015/06/01/bruce-jenner-on-the-cover-of-vanity- fair-call-me-caitlyn/.

6. Dhani Mau, “Caitlyn Jenner’s ‘Vanity Fair’ Debut Named Best Cover of the Year by ASME,” Fashionista, February 2, 2016, http://fashionista.com/2016/02/cai tlyn-jenner-vanity-fair-best-cover.

7. Kathryn Flett, “Focus: White House: Profile: Style Genius Who Frames the Stars,” The Observer, November 22, 1998.

8. George Lois, “Flashback: Demi Moore,” Vanity Fair, August 2011, http://www.v anityfair.com/hollywood/features/2011/08/demi-moore-201108.

9. Christine Ledbetter, “Annie Leibovitz Book Signings,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 16, 1999.

10. James Playsted Wood, Magazines in the United States, 3rd ed. (New York: Ronald Press Company, 1971).

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Michael L. Carlebach, The Origins of Photojournalism in America (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992).

15. Magazine Media Factbook 2015 (New York: Association of Magazine Media, 2015).

16. Ibid.

17. Charles P. Daly, Patrick Henry, and Ellen Ryder, The Magazine Publishing Industry (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1997).

18. Jeff Gremillion, “Tough Times for Trades,” Brandweek, September 20, 1999.

19. Lisa Granatstein, “The Big Deal,” Media Week, March 6, 2000.

http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/06/caitlyn-jenner-bruce-cover-annie-leibovitz/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2015/06/01/bruce-jenner-to-appear-as-a-woman-on-vanity-fair-cover/

http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2015/10/annie-leibovitz-caitlyn-jenner-cover

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2015/06/01/bruce-jenner-on-the-cover-of-vanity-fair-call-me-caitlyn/

http://fashionista.com/2016/02/caitlyn-jenner-vanity-fair-best-cover

http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/features/2011/08/demi-moore-201108

20. MarketingCharts Staff, “U.S. Online and Traditional Media Advertising Outlook, 2015–2019,” MarketingCharts.com, June 16, 2015, http://www.mar ketingcharts.com/traditional/us-online-and-traditional-media-advertising-out look-2015-2019-55869/.

21. Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, “The State of the News Media 2009: Magazines,” March 16, 2009, www.stateofthemedia.org/2 009/overview/; Caysey Welton, “The Atlantic Posts Profit for First Time in Years,” Folio, January 6, 2011, www.foliomag.com/2011/atlantic-posts-profit- first-time-years.

22. Jane Sasseen, Katrina-Eva Matsa, and Amy Mitchell, “News Magazines: Embracing Their Digital Future,” The State of the News Media 2013, stateofthemedia.org/2013/news-magazines-embracing-their-digital- future/#fn-12972-39.

23. Jeff Garigliano, “Victor Navasky and the State of the Nation,” Folio, September 1, 1998.

24. Ibid.

25. Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, “The State of the News Media 2009: Magazines.”

p.414

26. Bill Eichenberger, “Early Black Authors Featured in Series,” Columbus Dispatch, January 27, 1999.

27. Larry Bivins, “NAACP Tries to Revive Once-Weighty Magazine,” Detroit News, April 13, 1997.

28. James Bock, “Revived Crisis to Focus on Wide Range of Ideas Publishing: The Crisis, the NAACP’s Official Publication Founded by W. E. B. Dubois, Is to Reappear in July, and Readers May Be in for Stimulating Experiences,” The Sun, May 18, 1997; “Timeline,” The Crisis, 2012, www.thecrisismagazine.com/.

29. Wood, Magazines in the United States.

30. Louis Joughin, “Introduction,” in The Shame of the Cities, ed. Lincoln Steffens (New York: Hill and Wang, 1957).

31. Wood, Magazines in the United States.

32. Ibid.

33. Vicki Goldberg, Margaret Bourke-White (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. “Paid Circulation in Consumer Magazines for Six Months Ended December 31, 2008,” Advertising Age Data Center, adage.com/datacenter/datapopup.php?

http://MarketingCharts.com

http://www.marketingcharts.com/traditional/us-online-and-traditional-media-advertising-outlook-2015-2019-55869/

http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2009/overview/

http://www.foliomag.com/2011/atlantic-posts-profit-first-time-years

http://www.thecrisismagazine.com/

article_id=135166.

38. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Time Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016).

39. Wood, Magazines in the United States.

40. Ibid.; Patricia Okker, Our Sister Editors: Sarah J. Hale and the Tradition of Nineteenth-Century American Women Editors (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995).

41. Wood, Magazines in the United States.

42. Stuart Elliott, “Stuart Elliott in America,” Campaign, September 27, 2002.

43. Emma Bazilian, “Ladies’ Home Journal to Cease Monthly Publication [Updated],” Adweek, April 24, 2014, www.adweek.com/news/press/ladies-ho me-journal-shuts-down-157233; Kelsey Sutton, “Grand Editorial to Produce Ladies’ Home Journal,” PoliticoMedia.com, January 7, 2016, http://www.capit alnewyork.com/article/media/2016/01/8587189/grand-editorial-produce-ladi es-home-journal.

44. Paula Span, “Between the Covers: As Their Editors Switch Positions, Women’s Magazines Unveil a Familiar Look,” Washington Post, December 30, 1998.

45. Rita Zekas, “The Perfect Cosmo Girl Editor Bonnie Fuller Has It All—Career, Motherhood,” Toronto Star, June 8, 1997; Fionnuala McHugh, “Penetrating Asia,” South China Morning Post, April 27, 1997; “Paid Circulation in Consumer Magazines for Six Months Ended June 30, 2013.”

46. Zekas, “The Perfect Cosmo Girl Editor Bonnie Fuller Has It All—Career, Motherhood.”

47. Kate Dries, “Cosmo Is Taking Over the World, One International Website at a Time,” Jezebel.com, January 12, 2015, http://jezebel.com/cosmo-is-taking-ove r-the-world-one-international-websi-1679015736.

48. McHugh, “Penetrating Asia.”

49. Shirley Christian, “But Is It Art? Well, Yes: A Trove of Pinups at the University of Kansas Is Admired by All Sorts, Including Feminists,” The New York Times, November 25, 1998.

50. Bill Steigerwald, “Once-Great Esquire Is Paying Price for Too Many Silly Articles,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, July 14, 1997; Antonia Zerbisias, “Shriveled Esquire Gets Puffed ‘n’ Fluffed,” Toronto Star, June 7, 1997; Alasdair Reid, “Have Men’s Titles Stalled or Can They Shift Gear?” Campaign, February 14, 2002; Advertising Age Data Center, February 12, 2012, adage.com/datacenter/.

51. Wood, Magazines in the United States.

52. Michael Quintanilla, “Stylemaker/Hugh Hefner: The King of Swingers Reenters the Singles Scene,” Los Angeles Times, February 5, 1999.

53. Ravi Somaiya, “Nudes Are Old News at Playboy,” The New York Times, October 12, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/13/business/media/nud

http://www.adweek.com/news/press/ladies-home-journal-shuts-down-157233

http://PoliticoMedia.com

http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/media/2016/01/8587189/grand-editorial-produce-ladies-home-journal

http://Jezebel.com

http://jezebel.com/cosmo-is-taking-over-the-world-one-international-websi-1679015736

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/13/business/media/nudes-are-old-news-at-playboy.html?_r=0

es-are-old-news-at-playboy.html?_r=0.

54. Alexandra Steigrad, “Maxim Lowers Rate Base; Relaunches Magazine (Again),” WWD.com, October 15, 2016, http://wwd.com/media-news/fashion- memopad/maxim-relaunche-kevin-martinez-kate-lanphear-sardar-bilgari-102 63367/.

55. Alex Kuczynski, “Seeking More Sizzle, Details Magazine Hires Maxim’s Editor,” The New York Times, February 2, 1999; “Maxim’s ‘Hot Issue’ Is All Wrapped Up,” Toronto Star, April 24, 1999; “Paid Circulation in Consumer Magazines for Six Months Ended June 30, 2013”; “Magazine Ad Page Leaders, 4th Quarter 2013,” Advertising Age Data Center, adage.com/datacenter/datapopup.php? article_id=291966.

56. Matthew J. Rosenberg, “Media Talk: Men’s Journal Encounters Problems on Mount Rainier,” The New York Times, June 29, 1998.

57. Span, “Between the Covers: As Their Editors Switch Positions, Women’s Magazines Unveil a Familiar Look.”

58. Lisa de Moraes, “Fighting Words From a Bantamweight,” The Washington Post, July 2, 1999; Eils Lotozo, “Getting Real: No Skinny Models in Grace Magazine,” Hamilton Spectator, September 5, 2002.

59. Arlene Vigoda, “Calvin Cuts Ties With Kate,” USA Today, February 24, 1999; Reuters, “British Model Admits ‘Losing Plot’ on Drink, Drugs,” CNN Interactive, customnews.cnn.com/cnews/pna.show_story? p_art_id=3436180&p_section_name=world.

60. Karen S. Schneider et al., “Mission Impossible: Deluged by Images From TV, Movies, and Magazines, Teenage Girls Do Battle With an Increasingly Unrealistic Standard of Beauty—and Pay a Price,” People, June 3, 1996.

61. John Leland, Susan Miller, and Carol Hall, “The Body Impolitic,” Newsweek, June 17, 1996.

62. Nanci Hellmich, “Do Thin Models Warp Girls’ Body Image?” USA Today, September 26, 2006.

63. Stuart Elliott, “For Everyday Products, Ads Using the Everyday Woman,” The New York Times, August 17, 2005; Theresa Howard, “Dove Ads Enlist All Shapes, Styles, Sizes,” USA Today, August 29, 2005; Rebecca Traister, “Move Over, Dove Ads: Nike’s Posteriors and Scraped Knees Bring a Greater Dose of Reality to Marketing,” Chicago Sun-Times, August 23, 2005.

64. Justin Fenner, “PHOTO: Vogue Italia’s Gorgeous Plus Size Cover,” Styleite, June 2, 2011, www.styleite.com/media/vogue-italia-plus-size-cover-june-201 1/; Justin Fenner, “PHOTOS: Vogue Italia’s Very Naked Plus-Sized Spread,” Styleite, June 3, 2011, www.styleite.com/media/vogue-italia-plus-sized-sprea d-photos/; Julia Rubin, “Plus Size Model Poses With Straight Size Model in Controversial Spread,” Styleite, January 11, 2012, www.styleite.com/media/pl us-size-magazine-weight-statistics/.

65. Madeline Figueroa-Jones, “Plus Size Bodies, What Is Wrong With Them

http://WWD.com

http://wwd.com/media-news/fashion-memopad/maxim-relaunche-kevin-martinez-kate-lanphear-sardar-bilgari-10263367/

http://www.styleite.com/media/vogue-italia-plus-size-cover-june-2011/

http://www.styleite.com/media/vogue-italia-plus-sized-spread-photos/

http://www.styleite.com/media/plus-size-magazine-weight-statistics/

Anyway?” PLUS Model Magazine, January 8, 2012, plus-model- mag.com/2012/01/plus-size-bodies-what-is-wrong-with-them-anyway/.

66. Margaret Wheeler Johnson, “Plus Size Magazine ‘Reveals’ Low Weight Among Models,” Huffington Post, January 13, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/margar et-wheeler-johnson/plus-size-magazine-models-anorexia_ b_1205285.html.

67. Jenna Sauers, “V Magazine Can’t Put a Plus Size Model in Its Pages Without a Straight Size Model for Comparison,” Jezebel, December 22, 2009, jezebel.com/5432251/v-magazine-cant-put-a-plus-size-model-in-its-pages- without-a-straight-size-model-for-comparison.

p.415

68. Marissa Payne, “Did Sports Illustrated’s Cover Go Too Low With Hannah Davis’s Bikini Bottoms?” The Washington Post, February 5, 2015, https://www .washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2015/02/05/did-sports-illustrated s-swimsuit-issue-go-too-low-with-hannah-daviss-bikini-bottom/?tid=a_inl.

69. Cindy Boren, “Ronda Rousey in Nothing but Body Paint? SI Swimsuit Issue Dares to Go There,” The Washington Post, February 14, 2016, https://www.wa shingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2016/02/14/ronda-rousey-in-nothing- but-body-paint-si-swimsuit-issue-dares-to-go-there/?hpid=hp_no-name_hp-in- the-news%3Apage%2Fin-the-news.

70. Jessica Coen, “Here Are the Unretouched Images From Lena Dunham’s Vogue Shoot,” Jezebel, January 17, 2014, jezebel.com/here-are-the-unretouched- images-from-lena-dunhams-vogu-1503336657; Jodi Kantor, “Debate on Photo Retouching Flares Online, With Roles Reversed,” The New York Times, January 19, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/01/20/business/media/debate-on -photo-retouching-flares-online-with-roles-reversed.html.

71. Katy Waldman, “Lena Dunham Responds to the Vogue Haters,” Slate, January 17, 2014, www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2014/01/17/lena_dunham_respon se_to_vogue_photoshop_criticism_fashion_magazines_are.html.

72. Jessica Roy, “Kate Winslet’s Contract States L’Oréal Can’t Retouch her Photos,” The Cut, October 23, 2015, http://nymag.com/thecut/2015/10/kate- winslets-loral-contract-no-retouching.html.

73. Sara Ivry, “Liz Hurley, on the Cover and in the Ads,” The New York Times, August 29, 2005.

74. Jen King, “W Magazine March Issue Reevaluates Fashion Coverage With Social Media Input,” Luxury Daily, March 3, 2014, www.luxurydaily.com/9058 9/.

75. Amy Mitchell, “State of the News Media 2014—Overview,” Pew Research Center Journalism & Media, March 26, 2014, http://www.journalism.org/201 4/03/26/state-of-the-news-media-2014-overview/.

76. Katherine Rosman, “Stealth Advertising,” Brill’s Content, September 1998.

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/margaret-wheeler-johnson/plus-size-magazine-models-anorexia_

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2015/02/05/did-sports-illustrateds-swimsuit-issue-go-too-low-with-hannah-daviss-bikini-bottom/?tid=a_inl

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2016/02/14/ronda-rousey-in-nothing-but-body-paint-si-swimsuit-issue-dares-to-go-there/?hpid=hp_no-name_hp-in-the-news%3Apage%2Fin-the-news

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/20/business/media/debate-on-photo-retouching-flares-online-with-roles-reversed.html

http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2014/01/17/lena_dunham_response_to_vogue_photoshop_criticism_fashion_magazines_are.html

http://nymag.com/thecut/2015/10/kate-winslets-loral-contract-no-retouching.html

http://www.luxurydaily.com/90589/

http://www.journalism.org/2014/03/26/state-of-the-news-media-2014-overview/

77. Yuyu Chen, “How Sponsored Content Drives More Than 60 Percent of The Atlantic’s Ad Revenue,” Digiday, March 28, 2016, http://digiday.com/publisher s/sponsored-content-drives-60-percent-atlantics-ad-revenue/.

78. Magazine Publishers Association, “Circulation Trends & Data,” http://www.ma gazine.org/insights-resources/research-publications/trends-data/magazine-in dustry-facts-data/circulation-trends.

79. Joe Hagan, “Cover Creation 2002,” Folio, February 2002.

80. Ibid.

81. Kathleen Hays, “Why Aren’t Minorities on More Magazine Covers?” in The Biz (CNNFN, 2002); David Carr, “On Covers of Many Magazines, a Full Racial Palette Is Still Rare,” The New York Times, November 18, 2002.

82. Lauren Duca, “In Statistical Look at Cover Girls of Color, Maxim Is the Least Diverse,” Huffington Post, August 5, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/20 13/08/05/cover-girl-diversity_n_3696327.html.

83. Sophia Kerby, “The State of Women of Color in the United States,” Center for American Progress, July 17, 2012, www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/re port/2012/07/17/11923/the-state-of-women-of-color-in-the-united-states/.

84. Jessica Andrews, “Diversity Report: Magazine Covers in 2015 Weren’t as Inclusive as You Think,” theFashionSpot, December 9, 2015, http://www.thefas hionspot.com/runway-news/667129-model-diversity-report-2015-magazine- covers/.

85. Melanie Richtman, “2015 Fashion Magazine Covers Lacked Diversity, but Is It That Surprising?,” Bustle.com, December 2, 2015, http://www.bustle.com/artic les/127362-2015-fashion-magazine-covers-lacked-diversity-but-is-it-that-su rprising-photos.

86. Christina Mendez, “Latino Stars on the Cover of Sports Illustrated Swimsuit: 50 Years of Beautiful,” Latin Trends, February 4, 2014, http://www.latintrends. com/latinas-on-the-cover-of-sports-illustrated-swimsuit/; Tracie Egan Morrissey, “The ‘Evolution’ of Sexy: Every Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Cover Ever,” Jezebel, January 15, 2014, jezebel.com/the-evolution-of-sexy-every- sports-illustrated-swims-1501294755.

87. Hagan, “Cover Creation 2002.”

88. John Johanek, “Crafting Covers That Sell,” Folio, February 2002.

89. Span, “Between the Covers: As Their Editors Switch Positions, Women’s Magazines Unveil a Familiar Look.”

90. Staff, “The Many ‘Whys’ for Magazines,” MMR, April 22, 2002.

91. Leara D. Rhodes, “Magazines,” in Mass Media in 2025: Industries, Organizations, People, and Nations, ed. Erwin K. Thomas and Brown H. Carpenter (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001).

92. “Tablet Edition FAQs,” New Yorker, November 16, 2011, www.newyorker.com/ magazine/apps/faq.

http://digiday.com/publishers/sponsored-content-drives-60-percent-atlantics-ad-revenue/

http://www.magazine.org/insights-resources/research-publications/trends-data/magazine-industry-facts-data/circulation-trends

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/05/cover-girl-diversity_n_3696327.html

http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/report/2012/07/17/11923/the-state-of-women-of-color-in-the-united-states/

http://www.thefashionspot.com/runway-news/667129-model-diversity-report-2015-magazine-covers/

http://Bustle.com

http://www.bustle.com/articles/127362-2015-fashion-magazine-covers-lacked-diversity-but-is-it-that-surprising-photos

http://www.latintrends.com/latinas-on-the-cover-of-sports-illustrated-swimsuit/

http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/apps/faq

93. Sasseen, Matsa, and Mitchell, “News Magazines: Embracing Their Digital Future.”

94. Caysey Welton, “Study Says Tablet, E-Reader Users Haven’t Given Up Print,” Folio, June 30, 2011, http://www.foliomag.com/2011/study-says-tablet-e-rea der-users-haven-t-given-print.

95. Stefanie Botelho, “All 21 Time Inc. Magazines to Have Tablet Editions by Year- End,” Folio, August 3, 2011, http://www.foliomag.com/2011/all-21-time-inc-m agazines-have-tablet-editions-year-end.

96. Ken Doctor, “The Newsonomics of Apple’s/Google’s/Press+’s Pay-for-All,” Newsonomics, February 17, 2011, http://newsonomics.com/the-newsonomics- of-applesgooglespresss-pay-for-all/.

97. Rhodes, “Magazines,”

98. Staff, “Historical Subscriptions/Single Copy Sales.”

99. Amy Mitchell, “State of the News Media 2014—Overview.”

100. “Media Kit,” Countryside Publications, June 2015, http://www.swiftcom.com/ wp-content/uploads/CP_2015MediaKit-new.pdf, p. 5.

101. Matt Kinsman and Vanessa Voltolina, “The REAL Niche Publishing: Operating as an Independent Magazine in 2010,” Folio, January 5, 2010, www.foliomag.c om/2009/real-niche-publishing-operating-independent-magazine-2010#.Uzb 2sFylnlI.

102. Tony Case, “Triumph of the Niche: General-Interest Magazines Are Looking for a Place Among the Growing Number of Targeted Titles,” Media Week, March 4, 2002.

103. Michael Scherer, “Does Size Matter?” Columbia Journalism Review, November 2002.

104. Ibid.

105. Katerina-Eva Matsa, Tom Rosentiel, and Paul Moore, “Magazines: A Shakeout for News Weeklies,” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, 2011, stateofthemedia.org/2011/magazines-essay/; Tina Brown and Baba Shetty, “Turn of the Page for Newsweek,” The Daily Beast, October 18, 2012, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/10/18/a-turn-of-the- page-for-newsweek.html; Leslie Kaufman and Noam Cohen, “Newsweek Returns to Print and Sets Off a Bitcoin Storm,” The New York Times, March 7, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/03/08/business/media/newsweek-returns-to- print-and-sets-off-a-bitcoin-storm.html.

p.416

106. Sasseen, Matsa, and Mitchell, “News Magazines: Embracing Their Digital Future”; “Top 25 U.S. Consumer Magazines by Paid & Verified Circulation,” Audited Media, http://auditedmedia.com/news/blog/2014/august/top-25-us-c onsumer-magazines-for-june-2014.aspx.

http://www.foliomag.com/2011/study-says-tablet-e-reader-users-haven-t-given-print

http://www.foliomag.com/2011/all-21-time-inc-magazines-have-tablet-editions-year-end

http://newsonomics.com/the-newsonomics-of-applesgooglespresss-pay-for-all/

http://www.swiftcom.com/wp-content/uploads/CP_2015MediaKit-new.pdf

http://www.foliomag.com/2009/real-niche-publishing-operating-independent-magazine-2010#.Uzb2sFylnlI

http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/10/18/a-turn-of-the-page-for-newsweek.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/08/business/media/newsweek-returns-to-print-and-sets-off-a-bitcoin-storm.html

http://auditedmedia.com/news/blog/2014/august/top-25-us-consumer-magazines-for-june-2014.aspx

107. Jeremy W. Peters, “Web Focus Helps Revitalize the Atlantic,” The New York Times, December 12, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/12/13/business/media/ 13atlantic.html?.

108. Ibid.

109. Lauren Indvik, “Inside The Atlantic: How One Magazine Got Profitable by Going ‘Digital First,’” Mashable Business, December 19, 2011, mashable.com/2011/12/19/the-atlantic-digital-first/.

CHAPTER 6

1. David Shedden, “Today in Media History: Mr. Dooley: ‘The Job of the Newspaper Is to Comfort the Afflicted and Afflict the Comfortable,” Poynter, October 7, 2014, http://www.poynter.org/2014/today-in-media-history-mr-d ooley-the-job-of-the-newspaper-is-to-comfort-the-afflicted-and-afflict-the-co mfortable/273081/.

2. Anna Clark, “How an Investigative Journalist Helped Prove a City Was Being Poisoned With Its Own Water,” Columbia Journalism Review, November 3, 2105, http://www.cjr.org/united_states_project/flint_water_lead_curt_guyette _aclu_michigan.php.

3. Bob Garfield, “Figuring Flint Out,” On the Media, January 22, 2016, http://ww w.onthemedia.org/story/figuring-flint-out/transcript/?utm_source=sharedUrl &utm_medium=metatag&utm_campaign=sharedUrl.

4. Christopher Ingraham, “This Is How Toxic Flint’s Water Really Is,” The Washington Post, January 15, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ wonk/wp/2016/01/15/this-is-how-toxic-flints-water-really-is/.

5. Garfield, “Figuring Flint Out.”

6. Clark, “How an Investigative Journalist Helped Prove a City Was Being Poisoned With Its Own Water.”

7. Anna Clark, “How Covering the Flint Water Crisis Has Changed Michigan Radio,” Columbia Journalism Review, February 16, 2016, http://www.cjr.org/u nited_states_project/michigan_radio_flint_water_crisis.php.

8. Clark, “How Covering the Flint Water Crisis Has Changed Michigan Radio.”

9. Margaret Sullivan, “Should The Times Have Been a Tougher Watchdog in Flint?” The New York Times, January 27, 2016, http://publiceditor.blogs.nytim es.com/2016/01/27/flint-water-margaret-sullivan-new-york-times-public-edi tor/.

10. Sullivan, “Should The Times Have Been a Tougher Watchdog in Flint?”

11. Brian McNair, News and Journalism in the UK (London: Routledge, 1994).

12. Bill Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book, 3rd English ed. (Metuchen, N.J.:

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/13/business/media/13atlantic.html?

http://www.poynter.org/2014/today-in-media-history-mr-dooley-the-job-of-the-newspaper-is-to-comfort-the-afflicted-and-afflict-the-comfortable/273081/

http://www.cjr.org/united_states_project/flint_water_lead_curt_guyette_aclu_michigan.php

http://www.onthemedia.org/story/figuring-flint-out/transcript/?utm_source=sharedUrl&utm_medium=metatag&utm_campaign=sharedUrl

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/01/15/this-is-how-toxic-flints-water-really-is/

http://www.cjr.org/united_states_project/michigan_radio_flint_water_crisis.php

http://publiceditor.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/flint-water-margaret-sullivan-new-york-times-public-editor/

Scarecrow Press, 1995).

13. James D. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950).

14. Michael Schudson, Discovering the News (New York: Basic Books, 1978).

15. Katz, Dahl’s History of the Book, p. 218.

16. Hazel Dicken-Garcia, Journalistic Standards in Nineteenth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).

17. Schudson, Discovering the News.

18. George H. Douglas, The Golden Age of the Newspaper (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999).

19. McNair, News and Journalism in the UK.

20. Ibid.

21. Schudson, Discovering the News.

22. Dicken-Garcia, Journalistic Standards in Nineteenth-Century America, p. 52.

23. Paul H. Weaver, News and the Culture of Lying (New York: Free Press, 1994).

24. George Juergens, Joseph Pulitzer and the New York World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966).

25. Brooke Kroeger, Nellie Bly: Daredevil, Reporter, Feminist (New York: Times Books, 1994).

26. Ibid.

27. David Nasaw, The Chief (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000).

28. Vicki Goldberg, Margaret Bourke-White (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

29. Karin E. Becker, “Photojournalism and the Tabloid Press,” in Journalism and Popular Culture, ed. Peter Dahlgren and Colin Sparks (London: Sage Publications, 1992).

30. Jon Fine, “Sunday, Bloody Sunday: A New Turn in the Tab Wars,” Columbia Journalism Review, March/April 1999.

31. Stacy Jones, “Altered Photo Faux Pas,” Editor & Publisher 130 (1997).

32. William S. Paley, As It Happened: A Memoir (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979).

33. Ben H. Bagdikian, The New Media Monopoly (Boston: Beacon Press, 2004).

34. Paley, As It Happened.

35. Edward Bliss, Now the News: The Story of Broadcast Journalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).

36. Richard Zoglin, “Inside the World of CNN: How a Handful of News Executives Make Decisions Felt Round the World,” Time, January 6, 1992.

37. Ken Auletta, Three Blind Mice: How the TV Networks Lost Their Way (New York: Random House, 1991).

38. Peter Johnson, “Fox News Enjoys New View—From the Top,” USA Today, April

4, 2002.

39. Brian Lowry, “On Cable News, It’s All Shoutmanship,” Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2003.

40. John Maxwell Hamilton and George A. Krimsky, Hold the Press: The Inside Story on Newspapers (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996); “Newspaper Circulation Volume,” Newspaper Association of America, March 30, 2015, www.naa.org/Trends-and-Numbers/Circulation-Volume/Newspaper -Circulation-Volume.aspx.

41. McNair, News and Journalism in the UK.

42. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: Gannett Co. Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2016); “Newspapers: Numbers of Daily Newspapers by Company,” Pew Research Center, http://www.journalism.org/media-indicators /number-of-daily-newspapers-by-company/.

43. Bagdikian, The New Media Monopoly.

44. “The State of the News Media 2006,” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, www.stateofthemedia.org/2006.

45. “The State of the News Media 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2015, htt p://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA 1.pdf.

46. Rick Edmonds, Emily Guskin, and Tom Rosenstiel, “The State of the News Media 2011: Newspapers: Missed the 2010 Media Rally,” Pew Research Center, 2011, stateofthemedia.org/2011/newspapers-essay/; “Newspapers: Company Stock Prices,” Pew Research Center, http://www.journalism.org/med ia-indicators/newspaper-company-stock-prices/.

47. Johnnie L. Roberts, “The Paperless Paper,” Newsweek, October 28, 2008.

48. Sinéad O’Brien, “The Last of the Color Holdouts,” American Journalism Review, December 1997, p. 15.

p.417

49. “Newspapers: Circulation at the Top 5 U.S. Newspapers Reporting Monday- Friday Averages,” Pew Research Center, September 30, 2014, http://www.jour nalism.org/media-indicators/average-circulation-at-the-top-5-u-s-newspapers -reporting-monday-friday-averages/.

50. “The State of the News Media 2008: Newspapers,” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, www.stateofthemedia.org/2008.

51. James McCartney, “USA Today Grows Up,” American Journalism Review, September 1997.

52. “Newspapers: Circulation at the Top 5 U.S. Newspapers Reporting Monday- Friday Averages.”

53. McCartney, “USA Today Grows Up.”

http://www.naa.org/Trends-and-Numbers/Circulation-Volume/Newspaper-Circulation-Volume.aspx

http://www.journalism.org/media-indicators/number-of-daily-newspapers-by-company/

http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2006

http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf

http://www.journalism.org/media-indicators/newspaper-company-stock-prices/

http://www.journalism.org/media-indicators/average-circulation-at-the-top-5-u-s-newspapers-reporting-monday-friday-averages/

http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2008

54. John Morton, “Short Term Losses, Long Term Profits,” American Journalism Review, September 1997.

55. “About USA Today,” USA Today, 2016, http://marketing.usatoday.com/about.

56. Daniel Kadlec and Jyoti Thottam, “Extra! Dynasties Duel!” Time, November 4, 2002; Hoover’s Company Profile Database: The New York Times Company (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2014); “The New York Times International Media Kit,” The New York Times, 2016, http://www.nytmediakit-intl.com/newspaper s/international-new-york-times/audience-circulation.aspx.

57. David D. Kirkpatrick, “International Herald Tribune Now Run Solely by the Times,” The New York Times, January 2, 2003; Lucia Moses, “‘IHT’: Ads Playing in Prime Time,” Editor & Publisher, March 19, 2001.

58. Leonid Bershidsky, “Why the Financial Times Has a New Owner,” Bloomberg, July 24, 2015, https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2015-07-24/why-t he-financial-times-has-a-new-owner; Harriett Marsh, “The Battle for Business,” Ad Age Global, February 2001.

59. Ibid.

60. “The New York Times International Media Kit”; “Media Kit,” The Wall Street Journal, http://www.wsjmediakit.com/products/global; “About Us,” The Financial Times, http://aboutus.ft.com/corporate-information/ft-company/.

61. Rob Lenihan, “Marking Times’s Color Milestone,” Editor & Publisher 131, no. 39 (1998).

62. O’Brien, “The Last of the Color Holdouts.”

63. Hoover’s Company Profile Database: The New York Times Company (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2014).

64. O’Brien, “The Last of the Color Holdouts.”

65. Mario R. Garcia, “Color for a New Millennium,” Editor & Publisher 131, no. 39 (1998).

66. Ben Bradlee, A Good Life: Newspapering and Other Adventures (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).

67. Charles Rappleye, “Are New Ideas Killing the L.A. Times?” Columbia Journalism Review, November/December 1994.

68. “Pulitzer Prizes for the Los Angeles Times,” Los Angeles Times, http://www.lati mes.com/about/la-times-pulitzer-prizes-htmlstory.html.

69. Katherine Q. Seelye, “The Newspaper Publisher Who Said No to More Cuts,” The New York Times, September 28, 2006; “The State of the News Media 2009: Newspapers,” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2009/; Julie Moos, “More LA Times Newsroom Cuts Loom as Editor Exits,” Poynter, December 14, 2011, w ww.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/156056/more-la-times-newsroom-cu ts-loom-as-editor-exits/.

70. Joseph S. Coyle, “Now, the Editor as Marketer,” Columbia Journalism Review,

http://marketing.usatoday.com/about

http://www.nytmediakit-intl.com/newspapers/international-new-york-times/audience-circulation.aspx

https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2015-07-24/why-the-financial-times-has-a-new-owner

http://www.wsjmediakit.com/products/global

http://aboutus.ft.com/corporate-information/ft-company/

http://www.latimes.com/about/la-times-pulitzer-prizes-htmlstory.html

http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2009/

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/156056/more-la-times-newsroom-cuts-loom-as-editor-exits/

July/August 1998, pp. 37–41.

71. John Leo, “Quoting by Quota,” U.S. News & World Report, June 29, 1998.

72. Ibid.

73. Keith Woods, “The Essence of Excellence,” Poynter, October 16, 2001, www.p oynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5048.

74. Peter Schrag, “Is Doing the Right Thing Wrong?” Columbia Journalism Review, February 2002.

75. “Community Newspaper Facts & Figures,” National Newspaper Association, 2014, nnaweb.org/about-nna?articleCategory=community-facts-figures.

76. Charles Bermant, “Hometown Newspapers Use Web to Strengthen Communities,” CNN, August 21, 1998, http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/ 9808/21/hometown.idg/.

77. James O’Byrne, “Katrina: The Power of the Press Against the Wrath of Nature,” Poynter, August 22, 2006, http://www.poynter.org/uncategorized/76 853/katrina-the-power-of-the-press-against-the-wrath-of-nature/.

78. Robert E. Park, “The Natural History of the Newspaper,” in Mass Communications, ed. Wilbur Schramm (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960).

79. George A. Hough, News Writing, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988).

80. Richard M. Cohen, “The Corporate Takeover of News,” in Conglomerates and the Media, ed. Eric Barnouw (New York: Free Press, 1997).

81. Ibid.

82. Coyle, “Now, the Editor as Marketer.”

83. “The State of the News Media 2006.”

84. Doris A. Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 7th ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2006).

85. Peter Johnson, “Fox News Enjoys New View—From the Top,” USA Today, April 4, 2002.

86. Ibid.

87. Graber, Mass Media and American Politics.

88. Herbert Gans, Deciding What’s News (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979).

89. Nazila Fathi, “In a Death Seen Around the World, a Symbol of Iranian Protests,” The New York Times, June 23, 2009.

90. James O’Byrne, “Katrina: The Power of the Press Against the Wrath of Nature,” Poynter, September 1, 2006, www.poynter.org/content/content_view .asp?id=106352.

91. Gans, Deciding What’s News.

92. Stanley Rothman, “Introduction,” in The Mass Media in Liberal Democratic Societies, ed. Stanley Rothman (New York: Paragon House, 1992).

http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=5048

http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9808/21/hometown.idg/

http://www.poynter.org/uncategorized/76853/katrina-the-power-of-the-press-against-the-wrath-of-nature/

http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=106352

93. Michael Cavna, “The Charlie Hebdo Attack Was One Year Ago Today. But Just What Has Changed?” The Washington Post, January 7, 2016. https://www.wa shingtonpost.com/news/comic-riffs/wp/2016/01/07/the-charlie-hebdo-attac k-was-a-year-ago-today-but-just-what-has-changed/.

94. “73 Journalists Killed in 2015/Motive Confirmed,” Committee to Protect Journalists, 2015, www.cpj.org/killed/2015/.

95. “Journalism in Syria, Impossible job?” Reporters Without Borders for Freedom of Information, November 6, 2013, en.rsf.org/syrie-journalism-in-syria- impossible-job-06-11-2013,45424.html; Elle Shearer, “In Syria, Freelancers Like James Foley Cover a Dangerous War Zone With No Front Lines,” The Washington Post, August 22, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-syr ia-freelancers-like-james-foley-covera-dangerous-war-zone-with-no-front-line s/2014/08/22/25e4bfda-295b-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html; Karen DeYoung and Adam Goldman, “Islamic State Claims It Executed American Photojournalist James Foley,” The Washington Post, August 20, 2014, www.wa shingtonpost.com/world/national-security/islamic-state-claims-it-beheaded-a merican-photojournalist-james-foley/2014/08/19/42e83970-27e6-11e4-86c a-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html.

p.418

96. “Two Photojournalists Killed in Libyan City of Misrata,” BBC News, April 21, 2011, www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13151490.

97. David W. Dunlap, James Estrin, and Kerri Macdonald, “Parting Glance: Tim Hetherington,” The New York Times, April 20, 2011, lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/20/parting-glance-tim-hetherington/.

98. “BBC’s Alan Johnston Is Released,” BBC News, July 4, 2007, news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6267928.stm.

99. Howard Kurtz, “Mission Impossible,” The Washington Post, August 28, 2006, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/blog/2006/08/28/BL200608280 0239.html.

100. Patricia Ward Biederman, “Services to Mark Death of Reporter,” Los Angeles Times, February 19, 2003.

101. Terry Anderson, “He Took a Risk in Pursuit of the Truth,” Los Angeles Times, February 24, 2002, http://articles.latimes.com/2002/feb/24/opinion/oe-ande rson24.

102. Charles A. Simmons, The African American Press (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1998).

103. Ibid.

104. Roland E. Wolseley, The Black Press, U.S.A., 2nd ed. (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990).

105. Simmons, The African American Press.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/comic-riffs/wp/2016/01/07/the-charlie-hebdo-attack-was-a-year-ago-today-but-just-what-has-changed/

http://www.cpj.org/killed/2015/

http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-syria-freelancers-like-james-foley-covera-dangerous-war-zone-with-no-front-lines/2014/08/22/25e4bfda-295b-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/islamic-state-claims-it-beheaded-american-photojournalist-james-foley/2014/08/19/42e83970-27e6-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13151490

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/blog/2006/08/28/BL2006082800239.html

http://articles.latimes.com/2002/feb/24/opinion/oe-anderson24

106. Wolseley, The Black Press, U.S.A.

107. Jessica Madore Fitch, “Four Companies Vying for Chicago Defender,” Chicago Sun-Times, May 1, 2000; Jim Romenesko, “Chicago Defender Lays Off Top Editors, Falls Months Behind on Rent,” October 24, 2011, www.poynter.org/la test-news/mediawire/150742/chica go-defender-lays-off-top-editors-falls- months-behind-in-rent/.

108. “The State of the News Media 2015.”

109. “El Nuevo Herald,” McClatchy, 2016, http://www.mcclatchy.com/2012/06/27 /2739/el-nuevo-herald.html.

110. Brooke Gladstone, “Tale of Two Heralds,” NPR, October 6, 2006, http://www. wnyc.org/story/128569-tale-of-two-heralds/.

111. Eytan Avriel, “NY Times Publisher: Our Goal Is to Manage the Transition From Print to Internet,” Haaretz, February 8, 2007.

112. “Future Forum,” Advertising Age, September 20, 1999.

113. Michael Meyer, “Brick by Brick,” Columbia Journalism Review, June 26, 2014, www.cjr.org/cover_story/washington_post_jeff_bezos.php?page=all.

114. Diana McLellan, “Out in Front,” Washingtonian, March 1998, pp. 31–35.

115. Richard Pérez-Peña, “Washington Blade Newspaper Closes,” The New York Times, November 17, 2009; Erik Sass, “So Over: Window Media Closes,” MediaDailyNews, November 16, 2009, http://www.mediapost.com/publicatio ns/article/117466/so-over-window-media-closes.html?edition=.

116. “About,” Washington Blade, 2012, www.washingtonblade.com/contact-us/abo ut/.

117. Pérez-Peña, “Washington Blade Newspaper Closes.”

118. Kevin McAuliffe, “No Longer Just Sex, Drugs, and Rock ‘n’ Roll,” Columbia Journalism Review, March/April 1999, pp. 40–44.

119. “AAN Publications,” Association of Alternative Newsmedia, 2016, http://www .altweeklies.com/aan/Directories/Newsweeklies.

120. Lucia Moses, “Consider the Alternatives: Move to Mainstream Ownership a Sign of the Times,” Editor & Publisher 132, no. 22 (1999).

121. “The State of the News Media 2015.”

122. Peter Benjaminson, Death in the Afternoon (Kansas City, Mo.: Andrews, McMeel & Parker, 1984).

123. “The State of the News Media 2006.”

124. Roberts, “The Paperless Paper.”

125. David Lieberman, “Newspaper Closings Raise Fears About Industry,” USA Today, March 19, 2009.

126. Agence France-Presse, “Gannett Cuts Staff, Christian Science Monitor Drops Print Edition,” October 28, 2008; Rick Edmonds, “Christian Science Monitor Sees Traffic, Revenues Rising After 3 Years of Web-First Strategy,” Poynter,

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/150742/chica

http://www.mcclatchy.com/2012/06/27/2739/el-nuevo-herald.html

http://www.wnyc.org/story/128569-tale-of-two-heralds/

http://www.cjr.org/cover_story/washington_post_jeff_bezos.php?page=all

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/117466/so-over-window-media-closes.html?edition=

http://www.washingtonblade.com/contact-us/about/

http://www.altweeklies.com/aan/Directories/Newsweeklies

May 2, 2012, http://www.poynter.org/2012/christian-science-monitor-sees-t raffic-revenues-rising-after-3-years-of-web-first-strategy/171833/.

127. “The State of the News Media 2015.”

128. Jeffrey Gottfried and Elisa Shearer, “New Use Across Social Media Platforms 2016,” Pew Research Center, May 26, 2016, http://www.journalism.org/2016 /05/26/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2016/.

CHAPTER 7

1. Yohana Desta, “Ira Glass on ‘Serial’ and the ‘Secret Sauce’ That Makes ‘This American Life’ So Special,” Mashable, April 26, 2016, http://mashable.com/20 16/04/26/ira-glass-pandora/#iuweaMhP5sqD.

2. Ariel Stulberg, “Podcasting Is Getting Huge. Here’s Why,” Vox, December 15, 2015, http://www.vox.com/business-and-finance/2015/12/15/10126144/ser ial-podcast-huge-hit.

3. Erin Bacon, “Q&A With Serial Creator Sarah Koenig,” North by Northwestern, May 29, 2016, http://www.northbynorthwestern.com/story/qa-with-serial-cr eator-sarah-koenig/.

4. John Koblin, “‘Serial’ Podcast, Needing More Reporting Time, Goes Biweekly,” The New York Times, January 12, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/1 3/business/media/serial-podcast-needing-more-reporting-time-goes-biweekly .html?_r=0.

5. Desta, “Ira Glass on ‘Serial’ and the ‘Secret Sauce’ That Makes ‘This American Life’ So Special.”

6. Koblin, “‘Serial’ Podcast, Needing More Reporting Time, Goes Biweekly.”

7. David Carr, “‘Serial,’ Podcasting’s First Breakout Hit, Sets Stage for More,” The New York Times, November 23, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/24/ business/media/serial-podcastings-first-breakout-hit-sets-stage-for-more.ht ml?_r=0.

8. Stulberg, “Podcasting Is Getting Huge. Here’s Why.”

9. Ibid.

10. Carr, “‘Serial,’ Podcasting’s First Breakout Hit, Sets Stage for More.”

11. “State of the News Media 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2015, http:// www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.p df.

12. Neil Baldwin, Edison: Inventing the Century (New York: Hyperion, 1995).

13. Roland Gelatt, The Fabulous Phonograph (Philadelphia: L. B. Lippincott, 1955).

14. Baldwin, Edison: Inventing the Century.

http://www.poynter.org/2012/christian-science-monitor-sees-traffic-revenues-rising-after-3-years-of-web-first-strategy/171833/

http://www.journalism.org/2016/05/26/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2016/

http://mashable.com/2016/04/26/ira-glass-pandora/#iuweaMhP5sqD

http://www.vox.com/business-and-finance/2015/12/15/10126144/serial-podcast-huge-hit

http://www.northbynorthwestern.com/story/qa-with-serial-creator-sarah-koenig/

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/13/business/media/serial-podcast-needing-more-reporting-time-goes-biweekly.html?_r=0

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/24/business/media/serial-podcastings-first-breakout-hit-sets-stage-for-more.html?_r=0

http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf

15. Gelatt, The Fabulous Phonograph.

16. Ibid.

17. Charles Hamm, “The Phonograph as Time-Machine” (paper presented at The Phonograph and Our Musical Life, Brooklyn College, New York, 1980).

18. Isaac Asimov, Isaac Asimov’s Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, rev. ed. (New York: Avon Books, 1972).

19. Ibid.; Kenneth Bilby, The General: David Sarnoff and the Rise of the Communications Industry (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).

20. Bilby, The General.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Burton Paulu, Television and Radio in the United Kingdom (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1981).

p.419

25. Ibid.

26. Lewis J. Paper, Empire: William S. Paley and the Making of CBS (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987).

27. Muriel G. Cantor and Suzanne Pingree, The Soap Opera, ed. F. Gerald Kline, The Sage CommText Series (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1983).

28. Christine Fix, “General Hospital Celebrates 13,000 Episodes,” Soaps, February 20, 2014, http://soaps.sheknows.com/general-hospital/news/37373/general- hospital-celebrates-13000-episodes.

29. Ibid.

30. Geoffrey Wheatcroft and Stephen Sandy, “Who Needs the BBC?” Atlantic Monthly, March 2001, p. 53.

31. “BBC’s Combined Global Audience Revealed at 308 Million,” BBC, May 21, 2015, http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2015/combined-global- audience.

32. “Africa’s Dramas Played Out on the Beeb,” The Economist, January 16, 1999, p. 44.

33. Julius Lester, “Foreword,” in Playing the FM Band: A Personal Account of the Free Radio, ed. Steve Post (New York: Viking Press, 1974).

34. “State of the News Media 2015”; Edward Wyatt, “A Quest to Save AM Before It’s Lost in the Static,” The New York Times, September 9, 2013, http://www.n ytimes.com/2013/09/09/us/a-quest-to-save-am-radio-before-its-lost-in-the- static.html; Laura Houston Santhanam, Amy Mitchell, and Tom Rosenstiel, “Audio: By the Numbers: The State of the News Media 2012,” Pew Research

http://soaps.sheknows.com/general-hospital/news/37373/general-hospital-celebrates-13000-episodes

http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2015/combined-global-audience

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/09/us/a-quest-to-save-am-radio-before-its-lost-in-the-static.html

Center, http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2012/audio-how-far-will-digital-go/ audio-by-the-numbers/.

35. “SiriusXM Reports First Quarter 2016 Results,” April 28, 2016, http://investo r.siriusxm.com/investor-overview/press-releases/press-release-details/2016 /SiriusXM-Reports-First-Quarter-2016-Results/default.aspx.

36. Cecilia Kang, “Liberty Extends $530 Million Loan to Bail Out Sirius XM,” The Washington Post, February 18, 2009; Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Liberty Media Corporation (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2012).

37. Ana Marie Cox, “Howard Stern and the Satellite Wars,” Wired, March 2005.

38. Libby Copeland, “Is Howard Stern Going Soft or Just Getting Sharper?” The Washington Post, December 14, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifes tyle/is-howard-stern-going-soft-or-just-getting-sharper/2015/12/13/691d8c fe-9ddc-11e5-a3c5-c77f2cc5a43c_story.html.

39. Leonard Wiener, “Radio’s Next Wave: 9 Kinds of Latin Music,” U.S. News & World Report, August 2, 1999, p. 70.

40. “The Infinite Dial 2016,” Edison Research and Triton Digital, 2016, www.ediso nresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/The-Infinite-Dial-2016.pdf.

41. Ibid.

42. Byron Acohido, “Radio to the MP3 Degree: Podcasting,” USA Today, February 9, 2005; Marco R. della Cava, “Podcasting: It’s All Over the Dial,” USA Today, February 9, 2005; Erika Gonzalez, “Podcast Power: Diversity of Free Audio Programs Expands as Technology Catches On,” Rocky Mountain News, September 23, 2005, p. 26D.

43. Benny Evangelista, “Jobs Announces iTunes Will Accommodate Podcasts,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 23, 2005.

44. Nelson Branco, “Rob Cesternino Leads the Reality Tribe,” 24 Hours Toronto, November 25, 2015, http://www.toronto24hours.ca/2015/11/25/rob-cestern ino-leads-the-reality-tribe.

45. Tom Webster, “The Infinite Dial 2011: Navigating Digital Platforms,” Edison Research, April 15, 2011, http://www.edisonresearch.com/the_infinite_dial_2 011/; “State of the News Media 2015”; “The Infinite Dial 2016.”

46. Ronald Byrnside, “The Formation of a Musical Style: Early Rock,” in Contemporary Music and Music Cultures, ed. Charles Hamm, Bruno Nettl, and Ronald Byrnside (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975).

47. James Miller, Flowers in the Dustbin: The Rise of Rock and Roll, 1947–1977 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999).

48. Gerald Early, One Nation Under a Groove: Motown and American Culture (Hopewell, N.J.: Ecco Press, 1995).

49. Miller, Flowers in the Dustbin.

50. Ibid.

51. Byrnside, “The Formation of a Musical Style: Early Rock.”

http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2012/audio-how-far-will-digital-go/audio-by-the-numbers/

http://investor.siriusxm.com/investor-overview/press-releases/press-release-details/2016/SiriusXM-Reports-First-Quarter-2016-Results/default.aspx

https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/is-howard-stern-going-soft-or-just-getting-sharper/2015/12/13/691d8cfe-9ddc-11e5-a3c5-c77f2cc5a43c_story.html

http://www.edisonresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/The-Infinite-Dial-2016.pdf

http://www.toronto24hours.ca/2015/11/25/rob-cesternino-leads-the-reality-tribe

http://www.edisonresearch.com/the_infinite_dial_2011/

52. Miller, Flowers in the Dustbin.

53. Ibid.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Early, One Nation Under a Groove.

58. Ibid.

59. Allan F. Moore, The Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Patricia Romanowski, Holly George-Warren, and Jon Pareles, eds., The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll, completely revised and updated ed. (New York: Rolling Stone Press, 1995).

60. Moore, The Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.

61. Early, One Nation Under a Groove.

62. Miller, Flowers in the Dustbin.

63. Jon Wilde and David Edwards, “McCartney: I Have Tried Heroin,” Mirror, June 2, 2004.

64. Moore, The Beatles: Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.

65. Christopher John Farley, “A Hitmaker and a Gentleman,” Time, November 11, 1996, p. 90; “New Babyface/David E. Talbert Musical Set Premiering at Beacon Theater,” PR Newswire, May 31, 2001; “Bio,” Babyface, http://www.ba byfacemusic.com/bio/.

66. Romanowski et al., The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll.

67. Ibid.

68. Mickey Hess, ed., Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide (New York: Greenwood Press, 2010), p. viii.

69. Hess, Hip Hop in America, p. xi.

70. Brian Longhurst, Popular Music and Society (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1995).

71. Marina Terkourafi, Language of Global Hip Hop (London: Continuum International Publishing: 2010).

72. Bob Garfield, “North Africa’s Hip Hop Protest Music,” On the Media, February 11, 2011, www.onthemedia.org/story/133076-north-africas-hip-hop-protest- music/transcript/.

73. Bruce Feiler, “Gone Country,” New Republic, February 5, 1996, pp. 19–20.

74. Bobby Reed, “‘Murder’ Numbers; Country Radio Makes a Killing—Is It Killing Country?” Chicago Sun-Times, October 8, 2000.

75. Billboard Staff, “The 30 Greatest Country Artists of the Modern Era,” Billboard, November 12, 2015, http://www.billboard.com/photos/6721954/be

http://www.babyfacemusic.com/bio/

http://www.onthemedia.org/story/133076-north-africas-hip-hop-protest-music/transcript/

http://www.billboard.com/photos/6721954/best-country-artists-of-all-time

st-country-artists-of-all-time.

76. Feiler, “Gone Country.”

77. Ibid.

78. “Radio Today 2013: How America Listens to Radio,” Arbitron, 2013, http://ww w.arbitron.com/downloads/Radio_Today_2013_execsum.pdf; Nielsen, “Tops of 2015: Audio,” Media and Entertainment, December 17, 2015, http://www.niels en.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/tops-of-2015-audio.html.

79. “State of the News Media 2015.”

p.420

80. Arbitron, “Hispanic Radio Today,” 2011 edition (Arbitron, 2011).

81. Della de Lafuente, “Look Who’s Talking: Putting a Face on Hispanic Radio,” Adweek, September 17, 2007.

82. “State of the News Media 2015.”

83. Richard Corliss, “Look Who’s Talking,” Time, January 23, 1995, pp. 22–25.

84. Jennifer Harper, “Big Radio Companies Struggle to Sustain Volume Amid Losses,” The Washington Times, March 4, 2009; “State of the News Media 2015.”

85. Judy Rene Sims, “Talk, Talk, Talk: Opinion or Fact?” Journalism History 22 (Winter 1997): 173; Jeffrey Gottfried, Michael Barthel, Elisa Shearer, and Amy Mitchell, “The 2016 Presidential Campaign—A News Event That’s Hard to Miss,” Pew Research Center, February 4, 2016, http://www.journalism.org/ 2016/02/04/the-2016-presidential-campaign-a-news-event-thats-hard-to-mi ss/.

86. Corliss, “Look Who’s Talking.”

87. Brian Stelter, “For Conservative Radio, It’s a New Dawn, Too,” The New York Times, December 22, 2008.

88. Rodney Ho, “Rush Limbaugh Tops Talkers Heavy Hundred for Ninth Year in Row,” AJC.com, March 26, 2015, http://radiotvtalk.blog.ajc.com/2015/03/26/ rush-limbaugh-tops-talkers-heavy-hundred-for-ninth-year-in-row/.

89. Jonathan Foreman, “Howard’s End?” National Review, April 7, 1997, pp. 53– 54; Jacqui Goddard, “Shock Jocks’ Sick Jokes Slay Listeners,” Scotland on Sunday, November 17, 2002, p. 26.

90. Copeland, “Is Howard Stern Going Soft or Just Getting Sharper?”; Polly Mosendz, “Opie and Anthony No More: Inside the Nasty Breakup of Radio’s Most Notorious Shock Jocks,” Newsweek, April 4, 2015, http://www.newswee k.com/opie-and-anthony-no-more-inside-nasty-break-radios-most-notorious-s hock-jocks-321186; Ben Sisario, “Howard Stern and SiriusXM Sign New Deal for 5 Years,” The New York Times, December 15, 2015, http://www.nytimes.co m/2015/12/16/business/media/howard-stern-and-siriusxm-reach-new-deal.h

http://www.arbitron.com/downloads/Radio_Today_2013_execsum.pdf

http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/tops-of-2015-audio.html

http://www.journalism.org/2016/02/04/the-2016-presidential-campaign-a-news-event-thats-hard-to-miss/

http://AJC.com

http://radiotvtalk.blog.ajc.com/2015/03/26/rush-limbaugh-tops-talkers-heavy-hundred-for-ninth-year-in-row/

http://www.newsweek.com/opie-and-anthony-no-more-inside-nasty-break-radios-most-notorious-shock-jocks-321186

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/16/business/media/howard-stern-and-siriusxm-reach-new-deal.html

tml.

91. Jeff Borden, “ESPN Radio Shoots to Rack Up the Score,” Crain’s Chicago Business, September 21, 1998, p. 1.

92. Joseph P. Kahn, “Macho in the Morning: ‘Guy Talk,’” Boston Globe, September 7, 1999, p. A1.

93. Ibid.

94. Linda Werthheimer, ed., Listening to America: Twenty-Five Years in the Life of a Nation, as Heard on National Public Radio (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995).

95. William Buzenberg, “The National Public Radio Idea,” Nieman Reports 51, no. 2 (1997): 32.

96. “Audience,” NPR, http://nationalpublicmedia.com/npr/audience/; “NPR Fact Sheet,” NPR, http://www.npr.org/about/press/NPR_Fact_Sheet.pdf.

97. Laura Houston Santhanam, Amy Mitchell, and Tom Rosentiel, “The State of the News Media 2012—Audio: How Far Will Digital Go?” Pew Research Center, March 2012, stateofthemedia.org/2012/audio-how-far-will-digital-go/; “Programs: Morning Edition,” NPR, http://nationalpublicmedia.com/npr/progra ms/morning-edition/; A.J. Katz, “Morning Shows Ratings: Week of May 2,” TVNewser, May 12, 2016, http://www.adweek.com/tvnewser/morning-shows -week-of-may-2/293384.

98. National Public Radio, Inc., “Consolidated Financial Statements, Supplemental Schedules, and Independent Auditor’s Report: Years Ended September 30, 2015 and 2014,” http://www.npr.org/about/statements/fy2015/NPR_Consolid ated_Financial_Statements.pdf, pp. 7, 39.

99. Buzenberg, “The National Public Radio Idea”; NPR, “Support and Sponsor,” 2014, http://www.npr.org/about/support/; Santhanam, Mitchell, and Rosentiel, “The State of the News Media 2012—Audio: How Far Will Digital Go?”; National Public Radio, Inc., “Consolidated Financial Statements.”

100. “State of the News Media 2015.”

101. Catherine Apple Olson, “‘Mountain Stage’ Brings Roots to Radio,” Billboard, November 2, 1996, p. 14.

102. Ibid.

103. Brian Longhurst, Popular Music and Society (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1995).

104. Ken Auletta, The Highwaymen (San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace, 1998).

105. Richard Crawford, “Introduction: The Phonograph and the Scholar” (paper presented at The Phonograph and Our Musical Life, Brooklyn College, New York, 1980).

106. Chris Bonastia, “Sucking in the ’70s,” New Republic, January 30, 1995, pp. 11– 12.

107. Miller, Flowers in the Dustbin.

http://nationalpublicmedia.com/npr/audience/

http://www.npr.org/about/press/NPR_Fact_Sheet.pdf

http://nationalpublicmedia.com/npr/programs/morning-edition/

http://www.adweek.com/tvnewser/morning-shows-week-of-may-2/293384

http://www.npr.org/about/statements/fy2015/NPR_Consolidated_Financial_Statements.pdf

http://www.npr.org/about/support/

108. “The Walkman Man,” People Weekly, October 18, 1999, p. 132.

109. RiShawn Biddle, “Personal Soundtracks,” Reason, October 1999, pp. 58–59.

110. Ibid.

111. Ibid.

112. Gelatt, The Fabulous Phonograph.

113. Ben Sisario, “Sales of Streaming Music Top CDs in Flat Year for Industry,” The New York Times, March 18, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/19/busi ness/media/sales-of-streaming-music-top-cds-in-flat-year-for-industry.html.

114. Stephanie McKay, “Vinyl Records Get Their Groove Back; Record Store Day Celebrates Format’s Return,” Edmonton (Alberta) Journal, April 20, 2013, p. D10.

115. Ralph Hanson, personal communication, February 12, 2016.

116. Ken C. Pohlmann, “The Last Compact Disc,” Stereo Review, May 1996.

117. Nina Huntemann, “Corporate Interference: The Commercialization and Concentration of Radio Post the 1996 Telecommunications Act,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 23, no. 4 (1999): 390–407.

118. Roy Bragg, “Clear Channel: Owning the Waves,” San Antonio Express-News, February 4, 2003, p. 1; Kenneth Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation, 3rd ed. (Boston: Focal Press, 2000).

119. “House Members Call on FCC Inspector General to Investigate Hidden Studies on Media Consolidation,” US Fed News, September 21, 2006.

120. L. A. Lorek, “FCC Review Could Clip Clear Channel; Commission Might Limit Ownership of Radio Stations,” San Antonio Express-News, May 17, 2003, p. 1.

121. Seth Fiegerman, “End of an Era: Clear Channel Rebrands as iHeartMedia,” Mashable, September 16, 2014, mashable.com/2014/09/16/clear-channel- iheartmedia/.

122. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Clear Channel Communications Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2014).

123. Jeff Smith, “Radio Automation,” Radio, May 1, 2006, p. 22.

124. John Merli, “AM Holds Its Own in ‘98: Talk, Personalities to the Rescue,” Broadcasting & Cable, August 24, 1998, 46.

125. “The Infinite Dial 2016.”

126. “The State of the News Media 2009: Audio,” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2009/.

127. Ralph Hanson, interview, January 21, 2007.

128. Ibid.

129. Ibid.

p.421

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/19/business/media/sales-of-streaming-music-top-cds-in-flat-year-for-industry.html

http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2009/

130. Kevin Maney, “If Pirating Grows, It May Not Be the End of Music World,” USA Today, May 3, 2005.

131. Ibid.

132. Jefferson Graham, “Summer Tours Help Bands Pay Bills,” USA Today, August 5, 2004.

133. Mike Masnick, “The Future of Music Business Models (and Those Who Are Already There),” Techdirt, January 25, 2010, www.techdirt.com/articles/2009 1119/1634117011/future-music-business-models-those-who-are-already-th ere.shtml.

134. Mark Glaser, “Music Industry Losing Control Over Album Sales,” MediaShift, January 22, 2007, http://mediashift.org/2007/01/music-industry-losing-contr ol-over-album-sales022/.

CHAPTER 8

1. Alex Zalben, “That Insane ‘Mad Max’ Flame-Throwing Guitar Is No CGI Trick— Here’s How They Actually Made It,” MTV, May 15, 2015, http://www.mtv.com/ news/2161513/mad-max-fury-road-guitar-player-doof-warrior-colin-gibson/.

2. Bryan Curtis, “Hollywood’s Turn Against Digital Effects,” The New Yorker, January 20, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the- turn-against-digital-effects.

3. Ibid.

4. Kwame Opam, “2015 Is the Year of Hollywood’s Practical Effects Comeback,” The Verge, August 4, 2015, http://www.theverge.com/2015/8/4/9094383/pr actical-effects-cgi-mission-impossible-mad-max-star-wars.

5. Carolyn Siede, “Read This: Crafting Mad Max: Fury Road’s More Than 2,000 Visual Effects Shots,” A.V. Club, June 5, 2105, http://www.avclub.com/article/r ead-crafting-mad-max-fury-roads-more-2000-visual--220462.

6. Andrew Whitehurst, “Don’t Knock CGI: It’s Everywhere—You Just Don’t Notice It,” The Guardian, February 25, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmb log/2016/feb/25/dont-knock-cgi-its-everywhere-you-just-dont-notice-it.

7. Neil Baldwin, Edison: Inventing the Century (New York: Hyperion, 1995).

8. Eadweard Muybridge, “The Attitudes of Animals in Motion (1882),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

9. Gerald Mast and Bruce F. Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies, 6th ed. (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1996); John Fell, A History of Films (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979).

10. Mast and Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies.

http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20091119/1634117011/future-music-business-models-those-who-are-already-there.shtml

http://mediashift.org/2007/01/music-industry-losing-control-over-album-sales022/

http://www.mtv.com/news/2161513/mad-max-fury-road-guitar-player-doof-warrior-colin-gibson/

http://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the-turn-against-digital-effects

http://www.theverge.com/2015/8/4/9094383/practical-effects-cgi-mission-impossible-mad-max-star-wars

http://www.avclub.com/article/read-crafting-mad-max-fury-roads-more-2000-visual--220462

https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2016/feb/25/dont-knock-cgi-its-everywhere-you-just-dont-notice-it

11. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Boston Branch, “Fighting a Vicious Film: Protest Against ‘The Birth of a Nation,’” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

12. Mast and Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies.

13. 13. Linda Arvidson Griffith, “When the Movies Were Young (1925),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

14. Gerald Mast, “Introduction,” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

15. Mast and Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies; Fortune Magazine Staff, “Loew’s Inc. (1939),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); New York Center for Visual History, American Cinema: The Studio System (Burlington, Vt.: Annenberg/CBP, 1994), videotape.

16. Steven Bach, Final Cut: Dreams and Disaster in the Making of “Heaven’s Gate” (New York: William Morrow, 1985).

17. Mast, “Introduction.”

18. Fitzhugh Green, “A Soldier Falls,” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

19. Douglas Gomery, “Warner Bros. Innovates Sound: A Business History,” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

20. Harry Geduld, “The Voice of the Vitaphone (1975),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

21. Ralph L. Henry, “The Cultural Influence of the ‘Talkies,’” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

22. Gilbert Seldes, “Talkies’ Progress (1929),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

23. United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc., 334 U.S. 131 (1948).

24. Mast, “Introduction”; Michael Conant, “The Paramount Case and Its Legal Background (1961),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

25. House Un-American Activities Committee, “Hearings Regarding the Communist Infiltration of the Motion-Picture-Industry Activities in the United

States (1947),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

26. Gordon Kahn, “Hollywood on Trial (1948),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

27. John Cogley, “Report on Blacklisting,” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

28. Leonard Maltin, ed., Leonard Maltin’s Movie and Video Guide, 1997 ed. (New York: Signet, 2006).

29. Mast and Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies.

30. Daniel Engber, “Will the 3-D Revival Go the Way of Pixar’s Up?” Slate, June 2, 2009, www.slate.com/blogs/blogs/browbeat/archive/2009/06/02/will-the-3 d-revival-go-the-way-of-pixar-s-up.aspx.

31. Fortune Magazine Staff, “Color and Sound on Film (1930),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

32. Garth Jowett, Movies as Mass Communication, 2nd ed., vol. 4, The Sage CommText Series (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1989).

33. Elwin Green, “Big Screen Boom Goes Bust; Rash of Theater Closings Raises the Question: What to Do With an Empty Multiplex,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 4, 2005, p. C1; “Number of U.S. Movie Screens,” National Association of Theater Owners, http://www.natoonline.org/data/us-movie-screens/.

34. Thomas Schatz, “The Return of the Hollywood Studio System,” in Conglomerates and the Media, ed. Eric Barnouw (New York: The New Press, 1997).

35. Mast and Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies.

36. Rick Aristotle Munarriz, “Disney’s New ‘Frozen’ Ride Stirs Up a Blizzard of Controversy,” AOL News, September 17, 2014, http://www.aol.com/article/20 14/09/17/disneys-frozen-ride-controversy/20963183/.

p.422

37. Brady MacDonald, “Frozen Ever After Water Ride Coming to Epcot in 2016,” Los Angeles Times, October 28, 2015, http://www.latimes.com/travel/themep arks/la-trb-frozen-ever-after-epcot-20151028-story.html.

38. Arthur Levine, “The Eight Most-Anticipated New Theme Park Attractions in 2016,” USA Today Travel, June 9, 2016, http://experience.usatoday.com/ameri ca/story/theme-parks/2015/10/09/new-rides-attractions-theme-amusement -parks-2016/73587608/.

39. Brooks Barnes, “Universal Lifts the Veil on a Harry Potter Park,” The New York

http://www.slate.com/blogs/blogs/browbeat/archive/2009/06/02/will-the-3d-revival-go-the-way-of-pixar-s-up.aspx

http://www.natoonline.org/data/us-movie-screens/

http://www.aol.com/article/2014/09/17/disneys-frozen-ride-controversy/20963183/

http://www.latimes.com/travel/themeparks/la-trb-frozen-ever-after-epcot-20151028-story.html

http://experience.usatoday.com/america/story/theme-parks/2015/10/09/new-rides-attractions-theme-amusement-parks-2016/73587608/

Times, September 15, 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/09/16/business/media/ 16harry.html; Ben Fritz, “Universal Studios Unveils Harry Potter Attraction Plans for L.A.,” Los Angeles Times, December 7, 2011, articles.latimes.com/2011/dec/07/business/la-fi-ct-potter-park-20111207; Karla Cripps, “Universal Studios Japan’s ‘Wizarding World of Harry Potter’ Opens,” CNN Travel, July 16, 2014, www.cnn.com/2014/07/16/travel/univer sal-studios-japan-harry-potter/.

40. Data are from “Movie Records,” The Numbers, http://www.the-numbers.com/ movie/records/.

41. Leonard Klady, “Tara Torpedoes Titanic as the Real B.O. Champ,” Variety, March 2–8, 1998.

42. Arthur Asa Berger, Media Analysis Techniques, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2005).

43. Carol Cling, “Room With a View: Audiences Paying for IMAX Experience of Summer Blockbusters,” Las Vegas Review-Journal, July 17, 2009; Scott Mendelson, “‘Gravity’ Passes $100M in IMAX,” Forbes, February 7, 2014, http: //www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2014/02/07/gravity-passes-100m- worldwide-in-imax/2/.

44. Jowett, Movies as Mass Communication.

45. Motion Picture Association of America, “Theatrical Market Statistics 2014,” w ww.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/MPAA-Theatrical-Market-Statis tics-2014.pdf.

46. Paul Bond, “This Just In: Americans Love DVRs and Streaming Movies Online,” Hollywood Reporter, January 3, 2012, www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/just -americans-love-dvrs-streaming-277695; “For the First Time, More Than Half of Americans Will Watch Streaming TV,” eMarketer, February 3, 2016, http:// www.emarketer.com/Article/First-Time-More-Than-Half-of-Americans-Will- Watch-Streaming-TV/1013543.

47. Motion Picture Association of America, “Theatrical Market Statistics 2015,” h ttp://www.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/MPAA-Theatrical-Market -Statistics-2015_Final.pdf.

48. Anthony D’Alessandro, “Imax CEO Richard Gelfond on Large-Format Future: ‘Avengers: Age of Ultron,’ Rivals, TV Shows & Adult Fare,” Deadline, April 21, 2015, http://deadline.com/2015/04/imax-richard-gelfond-interview-avengers -age-of-ultron-star-wars-force-awakens-game-of-thrones-1201413428/.

49. Russ Burlingame, “Russos Reveal Captain America: Civil War IMAX Scenes,” C omicbook.com, April 10, 2016, http://comicbook.com/marvel/2016/04/10/rus sos-reveal-captain-america-imax-scenes/.

50. Maria Bartiromo, “Bartiromo: IMAX CEO Gelfond Has Global Outlook,” USA Today, July 22, 2014, www.usatoday.com/story/money/columnist/bartiromo/2 014/07/21/movies-bartiromo-imax-gelfond/12821501/.

51. J. W. Elphinstone, “Watercooler: DVDs’ Popularity Passes VCRs’, New Year’s

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/16/business/media/16harry.html

http://www.cnn.com/2014/07/16/travel/universal-studios-japan-harry-potter/

http://www.the-numbers.com/movie/records/

http://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2014/02/07/gravity-passes-100m-worldwide-in-imax/2/

http://www.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/MPAA-Theatrical-Market-Statistics-2014.pdf

http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/just-americans-love-dvrs-streaming-277695

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/First-Time-More-Than-Half-of-Americans-Will-Watch-Streaming-TV/1013543

http://www.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/MPAA-Theatrical-Market-Statistics-2015_Final.pdf

http://deadline.com/2015/04/imax-richard-gelfond-interview-avengers-age-of-ultron-star-wars-force-awakens-game-of-thrones-1201413428/

http://Comicbook.com

http://comicbook.com/marvel/2016/04/10/russos-reveal-captain-america-imax-scenes/

http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/columnist/bartiromo/2014/07/21/movies-bartiromo-imax-gelfond/12821501/

Resolutions, Bad Publicity,” Associated Press Financial Wire.

52. Dan Frost, “Consumers Changing DVD Buying Habits,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 5, 2005, p. E1.

53. Christopher Palmeri, “Online Video Revenue to Pass DVDs This Year, Theaters in 2017,” Bloomberg, June 2, 2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/ 2015-06-02/online-video-revenue-to-pass-dvds-this-year-theaters-in-2017.

54. Scott Bowles, “‘Sky Captain’ Takes CGI to Limit,” USA Today, September 14, 2004.

55. William Booth, “The Cyberspace Moviemaker,” The Washington Post, September 15, 2004.

56. Larry Carroll, “Reaching for the Sky,” FilmStew.com, January 30, 2004.

57. “Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow,” Box Office Mojo, http://boxofficemo jo.com/movies/?id=skycaptain.htm.

58. Duane Dudek, “‘Captain’ Director May Have Reinvented the Wheel,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 17, 2004.

59. “300,” Box Office Mojo, http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=300.htm.

60. Brandon Gray, “Hordes Drive 300 to Record,” Box Office Mojo, March 12, 2007, http://boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=2268&p=.htm.

61. Archie Thomas, “Half of Screens to Be Digital by 2013,” Variety, November 12, 2007, www.variety.com/article/VR1117975781.html?categoryid=13&cs=1& nid=2564.

62. Kendrick Macdowell, “Reflections on the Kind of Exhibition Industry That Best Serves Movie Patrons, Makers, and Exhibitors in the Digital Era,” Cinema Buying Group, http://www.cbgpurchasing.com; MKPE Consulting, “Digital Cinema Technology Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs),” http://mkpe.com/digi tal_cinema/faqs/tech_faqs.php.

63. Richard Verrier, “End of Film: Paramount First Studio to Stop Distributing Film Prints,” Los Angeles Times, January 17, 2014, http://articles.latimes.com/201 4/jan/17/entertainment/la-et-ct-paramount-digital-20140117; Richard Verrier, “Paramount Pictures to Make Some Exceptions to All-Digital Policy,” Los Angeles Times, January 28, 2014, touch.latimes.com/#section/-1/article/p2p-79073638/.

64. Peter Suderman, “There’s One Great Reason To See Quentin Tarantino’s The Hateful Eight in Theaters,” Vox, January 4, 2016, http://www.vox.com/2016/1 /4/10707828/hateful-eight-70mm-roadshow.

65. Ben Kenigsberg, “Tarantino’s ‘The Hateful Eight’ Resurrects Nearly Obsolete Technology,” The New York Times, November 11, 2105, http://www.nytimes.co m/2015/11/12/movies/tarantinos-the-hateful-eight-resurrects-nearly-obsole te-technology.html.

66. Dade Hayes, “Bombs Away: Biz Disavows Duds,” Variety, March 20–26, 2000, pp. 7–8.

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-06-02/online-video-revenue-to-pass-dvds-this-year-theaters-in-2017

http://FilmStew.com

http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=skycaptain.htm

http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=300.htm

http://boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=2268&p=.htm

http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117975781.html?categoryid=13&cs=1&nid=2564

http://www.cbgpurchasing.com

http://mkpe.com/digital_cinema/faqs/tech_faqs.php

http://articles.latimes.com/2014/jan/17/entertainment/la-et-ct-paramount-digital-20140117

http://www.vox.com/2016/1/4/10707828/hateful-eight-70mm-roadshow

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/12/movies/tarantinos-the-hateful-eight-resurrects-nearly-obsolete-technology.html

67. “The Martian,” Box Office Mojo, www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=scott20 16.htm.

68. “The Hunger Games,” Box Office Mojo, www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=h ungergames.htm.

69. “John Carter,” Box Office Mojo, July 22, 2014, www.boxofficemojo.com/movie s/?id=johncarterofmars.htm; Adam B. Vary, “Taylor Kitsch: ‘I Would Do “John Carter” Again Tomorrow,’” Entertainment Weekly, March 25, 2012, insidemovies.ew.com/2012/03/25/taylor-kitsch-on-john-carter-box-office/.

70. “The Lone Ranger,” Box Office Mojo, July 22, 2014, www.boxofficemojo.com/ movies/?id=loneranger.htm.

71. Ray Subers, “Weekend Report: ‘Stars’ Align for ‘Fault,’ Cruise Misses with ‘Edge,’ Box Office Mojo, June 8, 2014, www.boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=385 5&p=.htm; “2014 Domestic Grosses,” Box Office Mojo, www.boxofficemojo.co m/yearly/chart/?yr=2014&p=.htm.

p.423

72. “Miracles From Heaven,” Box Office Mojo, www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?i d=miraclesfromheaven.htm; Francisco Salazar, “Eugenio Derbez’s ‘Miracles From Heaven’ Proves Successful: Marketing to Latino, Black, and Christian Communities Is Probably Worthwhile,” Latin Post, March 21, 2016, http://ww w.latinpost.com/articles/118875/20160321/eugenio-derbezs-miracle-heave n-proves-successful-marketing-latino-black-christian.htm.

73. Susan Wloszczyna, “What Makes a Film a Phenom?” USA Today, May 12, 2006.

74. “Garden State,” Box Office Mojo, http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=garde nstate.htm.

75. Glenn Kenny, “Martin Scorsese and Spike Lee,” Premiere, October 1999, pp. 74–77.

76. Glenn Kenny, “The Movies That Changed America,” Premiere, December 1999, p. 86.

77. Mast, “Introduction.”

78. Jowett, Movies as Mass Communication.

79. David Mikkelson, “The Shirt Off His Back,” Snopes, May 10, 2014, www.snope s.com/movies/actors/gable.htm.

80. Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication, 3rd ed. (White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1995).

81. “Slumdog Millionaire,” Box Office Mojo, boxofficemojo.com/movies/? id=slumdogmillionaire.htm.

82. Victoria Young, “Bolly Good Show,” Sun Herald, June 30, 2002, p. 1.

83. Rani Singh, “Shah Rukh Khan—The Biggest Movie Star In the World,” Forbes,

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=scott2016.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=hungergames.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=johncarterofmars.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=loneranger.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=3855&p=.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=2014&p=.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=miraclesfromheaven.htm

http://www.latinpost.com/articles/118875/20160321/eugenio-derbezs-miracle-heaven-proves-successful-marketing-latino-black-christian.htm

http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=gardenstate.htm

http://www.snopes.com/movies/actors/gable.htm

December 26, 2015, www.forbes.com/sites/. . . /shah-rukh-khan-the-biggest- movie-star-in-the-world/.

84. Rama Lakshmi, “Hooray for Bollywood: Oscar Bid Lifts Hopes,” The Washington Post, March 24, 2002.

85. Young, “Bolly Good Show.”

86. Elham Khatami, “Is Bollywood Coming to Hollywood?” CNN, February 23, 2009, www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Movies/02/23/bollywood.hollywood.

87. Roger Ebert, “‘Lagaan’ Brings Out the Best of Bollywood,” Chicago Sun-Times, June 7, 2002, p. 33.

88. Khatami, “Is Bollywood Coming to Hollywood?”

89. “Nigeria Surpasses Hollywood as World’s Second Largest Film Producer—UN,” UN News Centre, May 5, 2009, www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30 707#.U869LCh910A; Alexander Bud, “Hooray for Nollywood? Nigeria Isn’t the World’s Second-Biggest Film Industry After All,” The Conversation, April 11, 2014, theconversation.com/hooray-for-nollywood-nigeria-isnt-the-worlds- second-biggest-film-industry-after-all-25527.

90. Emily Yahr, “Audiences Show Up to Movies With People of Color. So Why Are #OscarsSoWhite Again?” The Washington Post, January 14, 2016, https://ww w.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/01/14/oscars sowhite-again/; Todd VanDerWerff, “Oscars 2016: The Nominees Are Blindingly White. Again,” Vox, January 14, 2016, http://www.vox.com/2016/1 /14/10767662/oscar-nominations-2016-so-white.

91. Yahr, “Audiences Show Up to Movies With People of Color. So Why Are #OscarsSoWhite Again?”

92. Jessica Contrera, “Here’s What the People Boycotting the Oscars Are Watching Instead,” The Washington Post, February 28, 2016, https://www.was hingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/02/28/heres-what- the-people-boycotting-the-oscars-are-watching-instead/.

93. Manohla Dargis, Wesley Morris, and A. O. Scott, “Oscars So White? Or Oscars So Dumb? Discuss.” The New York Times, January 15, 2016, http://ww w.nytimes.com/2016/01/24/movies/oscars-so-white-or-oscars-so-dumb-disc uss.html.

94. Elahe Izadi, “Who Picked Those #OscarsSoWhite Nominees? Other White People,” The Washington Post, January 19, 2016, https://www.washingtonpos t.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/01/16/who-picked-those-osca rssowhite-nominees-other-white-people/?hpid=hp_hp-more-top-stories_ae-os carssowhite-859am%3Ahomepage%2Fstory.

95. John Horn, Nicole Sperling, and Doug Smith, “Unmasking Oscar: Academy Voters Are Overwhlemingly White and Male,” Los Angeles Times, February 19, 2012, http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/oscars/la-et-unmaski ng-oscar-academy-project-20120219-story.html.

96. Dargis et al., “Oscars So White? Or Oscars So Dumb? Discuss.”

http://www.forbes.com/sites/

http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Movies/02/23/bollywood.hollywood

http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30707#.U869LCh910A

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/01/14/oscarssowhite-again/

http://www.vox.com/2016/1/14/10767662/oscar-nominations-2016-so-white

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/02/28/heres-what-the-people-boycotting-the-oscars-are-watching-instead/

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/24/movies/oscars-so-white-or-oscars-so-dumb-discuss.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2016/01/16/who-picked-those-oscarssowhite-nominees-other-white-people/?hpid=hp_hp-more-top-stories_ae-oscarssowhite-859am%3Ahomepage%2Fstory

http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/oscars/la-et-unmasking-oscar-academy-project-20120219-story.html

97. VanDerWerff, “Oscars 2016: The Nominees Are Blindingly White. Again.”

98. Amanda Hess, “Asian-American Actors Are Fighting for Visibility. They Will Not Be Ignored,” The New York Times, May 25, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com /2016/05/29/movies/asian-american-actors-are-fighting-for-visibility-they-w ill-not-be-ignored.html.

99. Edward Wong, “‘Doctor Strange’ Writer Explains Casting of Tilda Swinton as Tibetan,” The New York Times, April 26, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016 /04/27/world/asia/china-doctor-strange-tibet.html.

100. Ann Hornaday, “‘Whiskey Tango Foxtrot’ and Hollywood’s Enduring Problem With Whitewashing,” The Washington Post, March 4, 2016, https://www.wash ingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/whiskey-tango-foxtrot-and-hollywoods-enduri ng-problem-with-whitewashing/2016/03/03/f33153ea-e16f-11e5-8d98-4b3 d9215ade1_story.html?hpid=hp_hp-cards_hp-card-lifestyle%3Ahomepage%2F card.

101. Hornaday, “‘Whiskey Tango Foxtrot’ and Hollywood’s Enduring Problem With Whitewashing.”

102. John Collier, “Censorship and the National Board (1915),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

103. Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, “Sex Pictures (1922),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

104. J. R. Rutland, “State Censorship of Motion Pictures,” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

105. Mast and Kawin, A Brief History of the Movies.

106. Anonymous, “The Sins of Hollywood (1922),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

107. Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, “The Don’ts and Be Carefuls (1927),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

108. Mast, “Introduction.”

109. Raymond Moley, “The Birth of the Production Code (1945),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

110. Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, “The Motion Picture Production Code of 1930s,” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Amy Wallace, “MPAA’s Dozen Judge Movies for Millions,” Los Angeles Times, July 18, 1999, p. A1.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/29/movies/asian-american-actors-are-fighting-for-visibility-they-will-not-be-ignored.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/27/world/asia/china-doctor-strange-tibet.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/whiskey-tango-foxtrot-and-hollywoods-enduring-problem-with-whitewashing/2016/03/03/f33153ea-e16f-11e5-8d98-4b3d9215ade1_story.html?hpid=hp_hp-cards_hp-card-lifestyle%3Ahomepage%2Fcard

111. Charles Lyons, The New Censors: Movies and the Culture Wars (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997).

p.424

112. Sharon Waxman, “Exclusive: Baron Cohen’s ‘Bruno’ Slapped With NC-17,” The Wrap, March 29, 2009, www.thewrap.com/article/2127?page=1.

113. “Sacha Baron Cohen,” Box Office Mojo, August 9, 2012, http://boxofficemojo. com/people/chart/?id=sachabaroncohen.htm.

114. Gary Arnold, “Between PG & R; Valenti Says New Rating Possible by Next Week,” The Washington Post, June 23, 1984, p. C1.

115. Ibid.

116. Ibid.

117. “Domestic Grosses by MPAA Rating,” Box Office Mojo, http://www.boxoffice mojo.com/alltime/domestic/mpaa.htm?page=G; “Domestic Grosses,” Box Office Mojo, http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm.

118. Jerome Hellman, “Problems With Movie Ratings Go Beyond Categories,” Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1999, p. F3.

119. Wallace, “MPAA’s Dozen Judge Movies for Millions.”

120. Ibid.

121. Pamela McClintock, “MPAA Tries to Remove NC-17 Stigma,” Variety, March 10, 2007, www.variety.com/article/VR1117960864.html? categoryid=13&cs=1&query=%22hard+r%2.

122. Joan Graves, “Survey Shows 93% of Parents Find Film Ratings Helpful in Making Movie Choices,” Motion Picture Association of America, November 30, 2015, http://www.mpaa.org/cara/#.V1l5rpMrI_U.

123. Brandon Gray, “‘Brokeback Mountain’ Most Impressive of Tepid 2005,” Box Office Mojo, February 25, 2006, http://www.boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=20 12.

124. Michael Medved, “Hollywood’s Disconnect,” USA Today, July 25, 2005.

125. Tim Purtell, “Our Favorite Year,” Entertainment Weekly, April 29, 1994.

126. “Domestic Movie Theatrical Market Summary 1995 to 2016,” The Numbers, www.the-numbers.com/market.

127. Cogley, “Report on Blacklisting.”

128. Schatz, “The Return of the Hollywood Studio System.”

129. “Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen,” Box Office Mojo, http://boxofficemojo. com/movies/?id=transformers2.htm.

130. “Digital Domain Collaborates With Michael Bay on ‘Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen’ Movie Tie-Ins,” CGArena, January 7, 2009, www.cgarena.com/archi ves/news/transformers_tieins.html.

http://www.thewrap.com/article/2127?page=1

http://boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?id=sachabaroncohen.htm

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic/mpaa.htm?page=G

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm

http://www.mpaa.org/cara/#.V1l5rpMrI_U

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=2012

http://www.the-numbers.com/market

http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=transformers2.htm

http://www.cgarena.com/archives/news/transformers_tieins.html

131. Sarah Mahoney, “Kmart Launches Transformers Tie-In,” Marketing Daily– Media Post News, June 1, 2009, http://www.mediapost.com/publications/arti cle/107088/kmart-launches-transformers-tie-in.html.

132. Garrett Kessler, “2010 Camaro Stars in Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, the Game,” Edmunds Inside Line, June 30, 2009; “Latest Buzz: Chevrolet Unveils Camaro ‘Transformers’ Edition,” USA Today, July 22, 2009, http://cont ent.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2009/07/68495117/1.

133. Richard Corliss, “Blair Witch Craft,” Time, August 16, 1999, pp. 58–64; Timothy L. O’Brien, “The Curse of the Blair Witch,” Talk, February 2002, p. 81.

134. Charlotte O’Sullivan, “Film: Hell Is Other People. We Should Know: The Makers of the Blair Witch Project, Ed Sanchez and Daniel Myrick, on the Nightmare of Collective Filmmaking,” The Independent, October 22, 1999, p. 13.

135. O’Brien, “The Curse of the Blair Witch.”

136. Glenn Whipp, “Searching for ‘Blair Witch’ a Decade Later,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 2009, http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/herocomplex/2009/07/search ing-for-blair-witch-project-a-decade-later.html.

137. 137. Ibid.

138. 138. Chris Anderson, The Long Tail (New York: Hyperion, 2006), p. 110.

139. 139. Chris Anderson, “Briefly Noted From Australia,” The Long Tail, December 22, 2006, www.longtail.com/the_long_tail/2006/12/briefly_noted_f.html.

CHAPTER 9

1. Meg James, “Univsion’s Jorge Ramos a Powerful Voice on Immigration,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 2013, www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-et-jorge-ra mos-immigration-20130604-dto-htmlstory.html; Marcela Valdes, “Jorge Ramos’s Long Game,” The New York Times, September 25, 2015, http://www.n ytimes.com/2015/09/25/magazine/jorge-ramoss-long-game.html.

2. Marcela Valdes, “Jorge Ramos Is Not Walter Cronkite,” The New York Times, August 31, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/31/magazine/jorge-ram os-is-not-walter-cronkite.html.

3. James, “Univision’s Jorge Ramos a Powerful Voice on Immigration.”

4. Ibid.

5. Reid Cherlin, “Talking TV Ratings, Immigration, and Salsa Sales With Univision Anchor Jorge Ramos,” New York, May 3, 2014, nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/05/jorge-ramos-on-ratings-and- immigration.html.

6. Brooke Gladstone, “Hispanic TV’s Star Newscaster,” On the Media, July 4,

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/107088/kmart-launches-transformers-tie-in.html

http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2009/07/68495117/1

http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/herocomplex/2009/07/searching-for-blair-witch-project-a-decade-later.html

http://www.longtail.com/the_long_tail/2006/12/briefly_noted_f.html

http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-et-jorge-ramos-immigration-20130604-dto-htmlstory.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/25/magazine/jorge-ramoss-long-game.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/31/magazine/jorge-ramos-is-not-walter-cronkite.html

2014, www.onthemedia.org/story/jorge-ramos/transcript/.

7. Paul Taylor and Mark Hugo Lopez, “National Latino Leader? The Job Is Open,” Pew Hispanic Center, November 15, 2010, www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports /131.pdf.

8. Ibid.

9. David Dugan, “Big Dreams, Small Screen,” WGBH Educational Foundation, 1997, www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/technology/bigdream/bigdreamts.html.

10. Neil Postman, “Philo Farnsworth,” Time, March 29, 1999, www.time.com/time /time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html.

11. Ibid.

12. Erik Barnouw, Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television, 2nd rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

13. Postman, “Philo Farnsworth.”

14. Barnouw, Tube of Plenty.

15. John Carman, “The 20 Series That Changed the Tube,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 24, 1998; Deborah Felder, The 100 Most Influential Women of All Time: A Ranking Past and Present (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1996); Douglas McGrath, “The Good, the Bad, the Lucy: A Legacy of Laughs; The Man Behind the Throne: Making the Case for Desi,” The New York Times, October 14, 2001.

16. Fred Kaplan, “Costs of High-Definition TV Make Its Future Look Fuzzy,” The Boston Globe, July 25, 2000.

17. Christopher Carey, “Ready or Not, High-Definition Television Starts on Sunday,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, November 1, 1998.

18. Patrick R. Parsons and Robert M. Frieden, The Cable and Satellite Television Industries (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1998).

19. Robert W. Crandall and Harold Furchtgott-Roth, Cable TV: Regulation or Competition? (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1996).

20. Ibid.

21. Priscilla Painton, “The Taming of Ted Turner,” Time, January 6, 1992.

22. Ibid.

p.425

23. “Prince of the Global Village,” Time, January 6, 1992.

24. Parsons and Frieden, The Cable and Satellite Television Industries.

25. Ken Auletta, Three Blind Mice: How the TV Networks Lost Their Way (New York: Random House, 1991).

26. Parsons and Frieden, The Cable and Satellite Television Industries.

27. National Cable & Telecommunications Association, “Industry Data,” 2016, ww

http://www.onthemedia.org/story/jorge-ramos/transcript/

http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/131.pdf

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/technology/bigdream/bigdreamts.html

http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html

http://www.ncta.com/industry-data

w.ncta.com/industry-data.

28. “Americans Cutting the Cable TV Cord at Increasing Pace,” eMarketer, December 10, 2015, http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Americans-Cutting-C able-TV-Cord-Increasing-Pace/1013327.

29. Barnouw, Tube of Plenty.

30. Satellite Broadcasting & Communications Association, “Facts & Figures,” April 10, 2012, www.sbca.com/receiver-network/industry-satellite-facts.htm; “Americans Cutting the Cable TV Cord at Increasing Pace.”

31. Sky Italia, 21st Century Fox, October 16, 2014, www.21cf.com/Sky_Italia.asp x.

32. Mark Dawidziak, “Satellite Television Providers to Include Local Programming,” Plain Dealer, December 17, 1999.

33. J. W. Elphinstone, “Watercooler: DVDs’ Popularity Passes VCRs’, New Year’s Resolutions, Bad Publicity,” Associated Press Financial Wire, December 19, 2006; Megan Garber, “58% of Americans Still Have a VCR in Their Homes,” The Atlantic, January 8, 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/20 14/01/58-of-americans-still-have-a-vcr-in-their-homes/282859/.

34. Richard Mullins, “VCR’s Demise Fast Forwards in Brave New World of DVDs,” Tampa Tribune, December 20, 2006; Wayne Freidman, “As Streaming TV Rises, DVR Penetration Slows,” Media Post, December 9, 2013, www.mediapo st.com/publications/article/215069/as-streaming-tv-rises-dvr-penetration-sl ows.html.

35. Leichtman Research Group, “75% of US Households Have a DVR, Netflix, or Use On-Demand,” Leichtman Research Group, January 2, 2015, http://www.lei chtmanresearch.com/press/010215release.html.

36. Joelle Tessler, “Senate OKs 4-Month Delay to Digital TV Changeover,” USA Today, January 27, 2009; Leslie Cauley, “Switch to Digital Television (DTV) Went Remarkably Well,” USA Today, June 15, 2009; Associated Press, “800,000 Callers Phone Digital TV Hotline,” USA Today, June 14, 2009.

37. Paul Farhi, “A Defining Moment for TV? As Digital Broadcast Age Begins, the Outlook Is Far From Clear,” The Washington Post, November 1, 1998.

38. Ibid.

39. Leichtman Research Group, “HDTV Sets Now In Over 80% Of US Households,” Leichtman Research Group, March 13, 2015, http://www.leichtmanresearch.c om/press/031315release.html.

40. Auletta, Three Blind Mice.

41. Anthony Smith, “Television as a Public Service Medium,” in Television: An International History, ed. Anthony Smith (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).

42. Laurence Jarvik, PBS: Behind the Scenes (Rocklin, Calif.: Prima Publishing, 1997).

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Americans-Cutting-Cable-TV-Cord-Increasing-Pace/1013327

http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/industry-satellite-facts.htm

http://www.21cf.com/Sky_Italia.aspx

http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/01/58-of-americans-still-have-a-vcr-in-their-homes/282859/

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/215069/as-streaming-tv-rises-dvr-penetration-slows.html

http://www.leichtmanresearch.com/press/010215release.html

http://www.leichtmanresearch.com/press/031315release.html

43. Ibid.

44. Emily Steel, “‘Sesame Street’ to Air First on HBO for Next 5 Seasons,” The New York Times, August 13, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/14/business /media/sesame-street-heading-to-hbo-in-fall.html.

45. Ken Auletta, The Highwaymen (San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace, 1998).

46. Gary Levin, “Viewers’ Shifting Habits Redefine ‘TV Hit,’” USA Today, October 23, 2007; Gail Pennington, “Here Are 2015’s Top-Rated TV Shows, According to Nielsen,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, December 8, 2015, http://www.stltoday.c om/entertainment/television/gail-pennington/here-are-s-top-rated-tv-shows- according-to-nielsen/article_ab1f8852-0808-51f0-9be7-0615ef7ca1ce.html.

47. “Intro to Nielsen Ratings: Basics and Definitions,” Spotted Ratings, September 3, 2013, www.spottedratings.com/2013/09/intro-to-nielsen-ratings-basics-a nd.html.

48. Nicholas Covey, “The State of the Console: Video Game Console Usage Fourth Quarter 2006” (Nielsen Wireless and Interactive Services, 2007); Nielsen Company, “Local Television Market Universe Estimates,” 2008.

49. James R. Walker and Douglas A. Ferguson, The Broadcast Television Industry (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1998).

50. Auletta, Three Blind Mice.

51. Ibid.

52. Clay Travis, “ESPN Has Lost 7 Million Subscribers the Past Two Years,” FoxSports, November 25, 2015, http://www.foxsports.com/college-football/ou tkick-the-coverage/espn-has-lost-7-million-subscribers-the-past-two-years-1 12515.

53. Pennington, “Here Are 2015’s Top-Rated TV Shows, According to Nielsen.”

54. Meg James, “Cable TV Networks Feel Pressure of Programming Costs,” Los Angeles Times, December 8, 2011, articles.latimes.com/2011/dec/08/business/la-fi-ct-cable-economics- 20111208.

55. John Koblin, “Netflix’s Opaque Disruption Annoys Rivals on TV,” The New York Times, January 17, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/18/business/me dia/disruption-by-netflix-irks-tv-foes.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2F Netflix%20Inc.

56. Farhad Manjoo, “Why Media Titans Would Be Wise Not to Overlook Netflix,” The New York Times, January 13, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/1 4/technology/why-media-titans-need-to-worry-about-netflix.html?rref=collec tion%2Ftimestopic%2FNetflix%20Inc.

57. Emily Steel, “At CES, Netflix Adds Over 130 Countries to Streaming Service,” The New York Times, January 6, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/07 /business/media/netflix-expands-its-streaming-service-worldwide.html?rref= collection%2Ftimestopic%2FNetflix%20Inc.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/14/business/media/sesame-street-heading-to-hbo-in-fall.html

http://www.stltoday.com/entertainment/television/gail-pennington/here-are-s-top-rated-tv-shows-according-to-nielsen/article_ab1f8852-0808-51f0-9be7-0615ef7ca1ce.html

http://www.spottedratings.com/2013/09/intro-to-nielsen-ratings-basics-and.html

http://www.foxsports.com/college-football/outkick-the-coverage/espn-has-lost-7-million-subscribers-the-past-two-years-112515

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/18/business/media/disruption-by-netflix-irks-tv-foes.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FNetflix%20Inc

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/14/technology/why-media-titans-need-to-worry-about-netflix.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FNetflix%20Inc

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/07/business/media/netflix-expands-its-streaming-service-worldwide.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FNetflix%20Inc

58. Bill Goodykoontz, “Where Have All the ‘Good Times’ Gone? Networks Skirt Minority Stars,” Arizona Republic, August 29, 1999.

59. Robert P. Laurence, “NBC Program Executive Says Network Has Lagged on Ethnic Diversity,” The San Diego Union-Tribune, July 31, 1999.

60. Meron Mogos, “Primetime Television: The New Color-Blind Medium?” HuffPost TV, January 29, 2013, www.huffingtonpost.com/meron-mogos/diver sity-in-primetime-tv_b_2574898.html.

61. Sarah Hughes, “American Television’s Real Scandal,” The Guardian, October 22, 2012, www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/oct/22/american-televisi on-real-scandal.

62. Tonya Pendleton, “Kerry Washington Talks ‘Scandal’ Shocker and Why It’s Great to Be a Black Woman on TV,” BlackAmericaWeb, February 16, 2015, htt p://blackamericaweb.com/2015/02/16/kerry-washington-talks-scandal-shoc ker-and-why-its-great-to-be-a-black-women-on-tv/.

63. Deboarah Plummer, “Diversity Lessons From Food Network’s Chopped,” Huff Post Black Voices, July 10, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/deborah-plummer/ linda-green-wins-chopped_b_1655355.html.

64. Ralph J. Bunche Center for African American Studies at UCLA, “2016 Hollywood Diversity Report: Busine$$ as Usual?,” February 2016.

p.426

65. Shadow and Act, “ABC Names Its First African American President—Channing Dungey,” IndieWire, February 17, 2016, http://www.indiewire.com/2016/02/a bc-names-its-first-african-american-president-channing-dungey-154994/.

66. “2010 Census Shows America’s Diversity,” U.S. Census Bureau, March 24, 2011, www.census.gov/2010census/news/releases/operations/cb11-cn125.h tml.

67. David Adams, “ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox . . . Univision?” St. Petersburg Times, June 5, 2005; Michael Schneider, “Novela Energizes Univision,” Variety, October 4, 2009; Steve Baron, “Univision Network Out-Delivered at Least One English- Language Network on 6 Nights Last Week Among Adults 18–34,” TV by the Numbers, September 1, 2015, http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/09/0 1/univision-network-out-delivered-at-least-one-english-language-network-on -6-nights-last-week-among-adults-18-34/; Amanda Kondolojy, “Univision Sets Milestone as No. 4 Network in February Sweeps Ahead of NBC in Key Demos,” TV by the Numbers, February 27, 2013, tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2013/02/27/univision-sets-milestone-as-no-4- network-in-february-sweeps-ahead-of-nbc-in-key-demos/171192/; Michael Schneider, “Most Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2015’s Winners and Losers,” TV Insider, December 28, 2015, http://www.tvinsider.com/article/625 72/most-watched-tv-networks-2015/; “State of the News Media 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2015, http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FI

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/meron-mogos/diversity-in-primetime-tv_b_2574898.html

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/oct/22/american-television-real-scandal

http://blackamericaweb.com/2015/02/16/kerry-washington-talks-scandal-shocker-and-why-its-great-to-be-a-black-women-on-tv/

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/deborah-plummer/linda-green-wins-chopped_b_1655355.html

http://www.indiewire.com/2016/02/abc-names-its-first-african-american-president-channing-dungey-154994/

http://www.census.gov/2010census/news/releases/operations/cb11-cn125.html

http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/09/01/univision-network-out-delivered-at-least-one-english-language-network-on-6-nights-last-week-among-adults-18-34/

http://tvbythenumbers.za

http://www.tvinsider.com/article/62572/most-watched-tv-networks-2015/

http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf

NAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf.

68. Lee Romney, “Markets: Univision Shares Drop Over Azteca News,” Los Angeles Times, September 9, 2000.

69. Meg James, “Univision Demonstrates Its Ratings Steel,” Los Angeles Times, December 28, 2010, latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2010/12/univision- demonstrates-its-ratings-steel-.html.

70. Scott Collins, “At ABC, a Hopeful Bet on ‘Betty,’” Los Angeles Times, August 14, 2006.

71. Ellie Kaufman, “It’s 2016 and Latino Representation on TV Is Finally Starting to Reflect Reality,” Mic, April 11, 2016, https://mic.com/articles/140331/it-s- 2016-and-latino-representation-on-tv-is-finally-starting-to-reflect-reality.

72. Julie Zellinger, “Laverne Cox, ‘Orange Is the New Black’ Star, on the Necessity of Diverse Female Characters,” Huff Post Women, August 14, 2013, www.huffi ngtonpost.com/2013/08/14/laverne-cox-orange-is-the-new-black_n_375054 4.html.

73. Roxane Gay, “The Bar for TV Diversity Is Way Too Low,” Salon, August 22, 2013, www.salon.com/2013/08/22/the_bar_for_tv_diversity_is_way_too_low/.

74. Terry Gross, “Behind ‘The New Black’: The Real Piper’s Prison Story,” NPR Books, August 12, 2013, www.npr.org/2013/08/12/211339427/behind-the- new-black-the-real-pipers-prison-story.

75. Hollywood Reporter, “Spanish-Language Network Challenges Regis,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, May 21, 2000.

76. Joanne Ostrow, “Risks, Pitfalls Are Plenty When Dubbing TV Shows,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, January 2, 2006.

77. Dennis Hunt, “BET Gambles on Revamped Framework; Network Chief Lists Challenges at Work,” USA Today, July 28, 2000; Steve Baron, “List of How Many Homes Each Cable Network Is In as of February 2015,” TV By the Numbers, February 22, 2015, http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/02/22 /list-of-how-many-homes-each-cable-network-is-in-as-of-february-2015/.

78. Keith L. Alexander, “Placing BET on the Net; Site Part of the CEO’s Plan to Expand,” USA Today, February 10, 2000.

79. Greg Braxton, “BET on the Past and Future of a Dream,” Los Angeles Times, May 6, 2000.

80. Leona Thompson, “BET Offers ‘Blessings’ Without Disguise,” Boston Herald, April 6, 2000.

81. Stuart Elliott, “General Motors Is Significantly Increasing Its Efforts to Aim Pitches at Black Consumers,” The New York Times, September 23, 1999.

82. Laura R. Linder, Public Access Television: America’s Electronic Soapbox (Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers, 1999).

https://mic.com/articles/140331/it-s-2016-and-latino-representation-on-tv-is-finally-starting-to-reflect-reality

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/14/laverne-cox-orange-is-the-new-black_n_3750544.html

http://www.salon.com/2013/08/22/the_bar_for_tv_diversity_is_way_too_low/

http://www.npr.org/2013/08/12/211339427/behind-the-new-black-the-real-pipers-prison-story

http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/02/22/list-of-how-many-homes-each-cable-network-is-in-as-of-february-2015/

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. Barnouw, Tube of Plenty.

86. Stephen Seplow and Jonathan Storm, “Window to a Culture: The Television Revolution Has Changed Everything, for Better and Worse,” The Arizona Republic, January 4, 1998.

87. Robert Kubey and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Television and the Quality of Life: How Viewing Shapes Everyday Experience (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990).

88. Victoria J. Rideout, Ulla G. Foehr, and Donald F. Roberts, Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8–18 Year-Olds (Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010).

89. Kubey and Csikszentmihalyi, Television and the Quality of Life.

90. Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication, 3rd ed. (White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1995).

91. Terry Gross, “Interview With Mary Tyler Moore,” Fresh Air/NPR, October 30, 1995, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1108624.

92. Elizabeth Kolbert, “What’s a Network TV Censor to Do?” The New York Times, May 23, 1993.

93. Warren Berger, “Censorship in the Age of Anything Goes; Where Have You Gone, Standards and Practices?” The New York Times, September 20, 1998.

94. Stephen Farber, “They Watch What We Watch,” The New York Times, May 7, 1989.

95. David Zurawik, “Ratings Deal Signed; TV: Starting Oct. 1, Symbols Will Give Parents More Clues About Content. Except on NBC,” The Baltimore Sun, July 11, 1997.

96. Berger, “Censorship in the Age of Anything Goes.”

97. Associated Press, “A Closer Look at Broadcast Indecency,” First Amendment Center, March 23, 2004, http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/a-closer-look -at-broadcast-indecency.

98. Ibid.

99. Brendan Sasso, “Supreme Court Won’t Take Up Janet Jackson ‘Wardrobe Malfunction’ Case,” The Hill, June 29, 2012, thehill.com/blogs/hillicon- valley/technology/235629-supreme-court-wont-take-up-janet-jackson-case.

100. Frances Martel, “Wardrobe Malfunction! Nancy Grace Lets a Nipple Slip During DWTS Performance (NSFW),” Mediaite, September 26, 2011, www.me diaite.com/tv/wardrobe-malfunction-nancy-grace-lets-a-nipple-slip-during-dw ts-performance/.

101. Associated Press, “Some Stations Hesitate to Air 9/11 Documentary,” First Amendment Center, September 5, 2006.

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1108624

http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/a-closer-look-at-broadcast-indecency

http://www.mediaite.com/tv/wardrobe-malfunction-nancy-grace-lets-a-nipple-slip-during-dwts-performance/

102. Associated Press, “‘Saving Private Ryan’ Not Indecent, FCC Rules,” First Amendment Center, March 1, 2005.

103. Adam Sherwin, “Amateur ‘Video Bloggers’ Under Threat From EU Broadcast Rules,” The (London) Times, October 17, 2006.

104. Gene Policinski, “Censorship in the Name of Decency?” First Amendment Center, September 5, 2006, http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/censorshi p-in-the-name-of-decency.

105. Crandall and Furchtgott-Roth, Cable TV: Regulation or Competition?

106. David Liberman and Laura Petrecca, “Deal Has Some ABC Affiliates Feeling Uneasy,” USA Today, October 12, 2005, www.usatoday.com/tech/products/ser vices/2005-10-12-abc-ipod-iger_x.htm.

p.427

107. Hoover’s Company Records—In-Depth Records: Netflix Inc. (Austin, Texas: Hoover’s Inc., 2012).

108. Meg James, “HBO Says Its HBO Now Streaming Service Has 800,000 Paying Subscribers,” Los Angeles Times, February 10, 2016, http://www.latimes.com/ entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-streaming-service-hbo-now-subscrib ers-20160210-story.html.

109. Cecilia Kang and Will Hobson, “Periscope and Other New Apps Threaten TV’s Golden Egg: Live Sports,” The Washington Post, May 5, 2015, https://www.wa shingtonpost.com/business/economy/new-apps-threaten-tv-networks-golden- egg-live-sports/2015/05/05/b5d0b836-f347-11e4-84a6-6d7c67c50db0_stor y.html.

110. Jim Romenesko, “My Valentine’s Day Break-Up With Comcast,” JimRomenesk o.com, April 17, 2012, jimromenesko.com/2012/04/17/my-valentines-day- break-up-with-comcast/.

111. Josh Herr, “The Long, Slow Death of Cable Just Reached a Tipping Point,” Yahoo Finance, March 12, 2015, http://finance.yahoo.com/news/long-slow-de ath-cable-just-152700220.html.

112. Lewis Painter, “Apple TV Streaming Service Release Data Rumors: CBS CEO Says Talks With Apple Have Stopped,” MacWorld, February 17, 2016, http://w ww.macworld.co.uk/news/apple/apple-streaming-service-itunes-subscription- release-date-rumours-espn-3610603/.

113. Brian Fung, “Comcast Rolls Out Trial of New Plan: Unlimited Data for an Extra $35,” The Washington Post, November 2, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost. com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/11/02/your-phone-company-already-limits-y our-data-your-cable-company-could-be-next/.

114. Auletta, The Highwaymen.

115. Freidman, “As Streaming TV Rises, DVR Penetration Slows.”

116. Staff, “Tune In, Log On, Go Play,” Newsweek, April 17, 2000.

http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/censorship-in-the-name-of-decency

http://www.usatoday.com/tech/products/services/2005-10-12-abc-ipod-iger_x.htm

http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-streaming-service-hbo-now-subscribers-20160210-story.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/new-apps-threaten-tv-networks-golden-egg-live-sports/2015/05/05/b5d0b836-f347-11e4-84a6-6d7c67c50db0_story.html

http://JimRomenesko.com

http://finance.yahoo.com/news/long-slow-death-cable-just-152700220.html

http://www.macworld.co.uk/news/apple/apple-streaming-service-itunes-subscription-release-date-rumours-espn-3610603/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/11/02/your-phone-company-already-limits-your-data-your-cable-company-could-be-next/

117. Ibid.

118. Susan Stellin, “Bad News for Old News,” Media Post, November 28, 2006, http ://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/51695/bad-news-for-old-news.ht ml.

CHAPTER 10

1. Jordan Onwiler, “Student Gets Jail, Probation for UNK Bomb Threat,” NTV News, April 17, 2015, http://www.nebraska.tv/story/28771564/student-gets- jail-probation-for-unk-bomb-threat.

2. Caitlin Dewey, “What Is Yik Yak, the App That Fielded Racist Threats at University of Missouri?” The Washington Post, November 11, 2015, https://w ww.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/11/11/what-is-yik-ya k-the-app-that-fielded-racist-threats-at-university-of-missouri/.

3. Austin Koeller, “Yik Yak User Tracked, Arrested After Evacuation,” The Antelope, September 30, 2014, http://unkantelope.com/wordpress_antelope/ 2014/09/30/yik-yak-user-tracked-arrested-after-evacuation/.

4. John Walker, “University Cancels Classes Over Racist Threats Posted on Yik Yak,” Fusion, November 24, 2015, http://fusion.net/story/238246/western-wa shington-university-yik-yak-racist-threats/.

5. Tasnim Shamma, “Yik Yak Tests Universities’ Defense of Free Speech,” NPR, January 23, 2016, http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/01/2 3/463197593/yik-yak-tests-universities-defense-of-free-speech.

6. Dewey, “What Is Yik Yak, the App That Fielded Racist Threats at University of Missouri?”

7. “Scientist Who Transformed the Internet,” Irish Times, June 24, 2000.

8. Peter Grier, “In the Beginning, There Was ARPANET,” Air Force Magazine, January 1997, p. 66.

9. Barnaby J. Feder, “Donald W. Davies, 75, Dies; Helped Refine Data Networks,” The New York Times, June 4, 2000.

10. Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Joseph Gallivan, “A Bit More Backbone: Internet II Is in the Wings,” The Independent, February 25, 1997; Jeffrey R. Young, “Internet2 Spurs Equipment Upgrades, but Use in Research Remains Limited,” Chronicle of Higher Education, August 13, 1999; “About Us,” Internet2, May 2016, http://w ww.internet2.edu/about-us/.

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/51695/bad-news-for-old-news.html

http://www.nebraska.tv/story/28771564/student-gets-jail-probation-for-unk-bomb-threat

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/11/11/what-is-yik-yak-the-app-that-fielded-racist-threats-at-university-of-missouri/

http://unkantelope.com/wordpress_antelope/2014/09/30/yik-yak-user-tracked-arrested-after-evacuation/

http://fusion.net/story/238246/western-washington-university-yik-yak-racist-threats/

http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/01/23/463197593/yik-yak-tests-universities-defense-of-free-speech

http://www.internet2.edu/about-us/

14. Stephen Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1: A Brief History of the Internet (New York: TV Books, LLC, 1998).

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. William J. Mitchell, City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995).

18. Jamie Tolentino, “Why Are People Still Using SMS in 2015?” TNW, February 16, 2015, http://thenextweb.com/future-of-communications/2015/02/16/peo ple-still-using-sms-2015/.

19. John Abbruzzese, “The Rise and Fall of AIM, the Breakthrough AOL Never Wanted,” Mashable, April 15, 2014, http://mashable.com/2014/04/15/aim-his tory/.

20. Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1.

21. Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web (New York: HarperCollins, 1999).

22. Anick Jesdanun, “From Two Users to 7 Million, Web’s Come a Long Way,” Associated Press, December 24, 2000.

23. Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1, p. 288.

24. Ibid., p. 291.

25. Ibid.

26. Peter Sayer, “Yahoo’s Legal Battle Over Nazi Items Continues,” Infoworld, August 24, 2004, http://www.infoworld.com/article/2664810/application-dev elopment/yahoo-s-legal-battle-over-nazi-items-continues.html.

27. Marc Gunther, “Yahoo’s China Problem,” CNN Money, February 22, 2006, money.cnn.com/2006/02/21/news/international/pluggedin_fortune/? cnn=yes.

28. Chris Anderson and Michael Wolff, “The Web Is Dead. Long Live the Internet,” Wired, August 17, 2010, http://www.wired.com/2010/08/ff_webrip/.

29. Amy Mitchell and Jesse Holcomb, “State of the News Media 2016,” Pew Research Center, June 15, 2016, http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/stat e-of-the-news-media-2016/.

30. Ibid.

31. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web.

32. Austin Bunn, “Human Portals,” Brill’s Content, May 2001.

33. Howard Kurtz, “After Blogs Got Hits, CBS Got a Black Eye,” The Washington Post, September 20, 2004; Alessandra Stanley, “The TV Watch; Signing Off, Rather’s Wish for Viewers Is Still ‘Courage,’” The New York Times, March 10, 2005.

34. Mark Memmott, “‘Milbloggers’ Are Typing Their Place in History,” USA Today, May 12, 2005.

35. Julia Darling, “Julia Darling in Person,” September 26, 2002, www.juliadarling.

http://thenextweb.com/future-of-communications/2015/02/16/people-still-using-sms-2015/

http://mashable.com/2014/04/15/aim-history/

http://www.infoworld.com/article/2664810/application-development/yahoo-s-legal-battle-over-nazi-items-continues.html

http://www.wired.com/2010/08/ff_webrip/

http://www.journalism.org/2016/06/15/state-of-the-news-media-2016/

http://www.juliadarling.co.uk

co.uk.

36. Howard Kurtz, “Throw Another Blog on the Fire,” The Washington Post, April 11, 2005.

37. Nazila Fathi, “In a Death Seen Around the World, a Symbol of Iranian Protests,” New York Times, June 23, 2009.

38. Ibid.

p.428

39. Hiawatha Bray, “Finding a Way Around Iranian Censorship,” The Boston Globe, June 19, 2009.

40. Gary Gentile, “Hollywood Net Survivor: IFILM Hopes to Build Media Company,” Billings Gazette, October 24, 2000, http://billingsgazette.com/busi ness/technology/hollywood-net-survivor-ifilm-hopes-to-build-media-company -from/article_d8cf30d6-55c0-5c6b-a648-1e41c31a6f02.html.

41. Hugh Hart, “New Media, Old Methods,” Los Angeles Times, February 18, 2001.

42. Jon Healey, “Pay-Per-View Sites Offer New Options for Computer Movie- Viewing,” San Jose Mercury News, May 21, 2000.

43. M. Chethan and Mohan Ramanathan, “Social Knowledge: The Technology Behind,” in Social Knowledge: Using Social Media to Know What You Know, ed. John P. Girard and JoAnn L. Girard (Hershey, Pa.: Information Science Reference, 2011).

44. Kellen Beck, “Snapchat Is Now the Most Popular Social Network Among Teens, According to New Study,” Mashable, April 14, 2016, http://mashable.com/201 6/04/14/snapchat-teens-winner/#DcB7YoZjeSqP.

45. Susannah Fox and Lee Rainie, “The Web at 25 in the U.S,” Pew Research Center, February 27, 2014, www.pewinternet.org/2014/02/27/the-web-at-2 5-in-the-u-s/.

46. “Three Technology Revolutions,” Pew Research Center, www.pewinternet.org/ three-technology-revolutions/; “Device Ownership Over Time,” Pew Research Center, http://www.pewinternet.org/data-trend/mobile/device-ownership/; Andrew Perrin and Maeve Duggan, “American’s Internet Access: 2000–2015,” Pew Research Center, June 26, 2015, http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015 /06/2015-06-26_internet-usage-across-demographics-discover_FINAL.pdf

47. Jose Antonio Vargas, “Letter From Palo Alto: The Face of Facebook,” The New Yorker, September 20, 2010, www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/09/20/10 0920fa_fact_vargas.

48. Ami Sedghi, “Facebook: 10 Years of Social Networking, in Numbers,” The Guardian, February 4, 2014, www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/feb/ 04/facebook-in-numbers-statistics; Maeve Duggan, “The Demographics of Social Media Users,” Pew Research Center, August 19, 2015, http://www.pewi

http://billingsgazette.com/business/technology/hollywood-net-survivor-ifilm-hopes-to-build-media-company-from/article_d8cf30d6-55c0-5c6b-a648-1e41c31a6f02.html

http://mashable.com/2016/04/14/snapchat-teens-winner/#DcB7YoZjeSqP

http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/02/27/the-web-at-25-in-the-u-s/

http://www.pewinternet.org/three-technology-revolutions/

http://www.pewinternet.org/data-trend/mobile/device-ownership/

http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/06/2015-06-26_internet-usage-across-demographics-discover_FINAL.pdf

http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/09/20/100920fa_fact_vargas

http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/feb/04/facebook-in-numbers-statistics

http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/08/19/the-demographics-of-social-media-users/

nternet.org/2015/08/19/the-demographics-of-social-media-users/; “Our Mission,” Facebook, http://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/.

49. Kevin Maney, “Short & Tweet,” Upstart, February 11, 2009, www.portfolio.co m/executives/features/2009/02/11/Twitter-CEO-Evan-Williams-Q-and-A; Britney Fitzgerald, “Twitter Use Is on the Rise, Daily Use Doubles: Pew,” The Huffington Post, June 1, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/01/twitter -use-stats-growth_n_1559716.html?ref=technology; “Company,” Twitter, https ://about.twitter.com/company.

50. Jon Swartz, “Twitter Has Millions Tweeting in Public Communication Service,” USA Today, May 26, 2009.

51. Bob Garfield, “How Tweet It Is,” On the Media, August 22, 2008, http://www.w nyc.org/story/131104-how-tweet-it-is/.

52. Ibid.

53. Dominic Rushee, “What Makes Twitter Worth a Billion Dollars?” The Sunday Times, September 27, 2009.

54. I would like to thank Charley Reed, a communications graduate student at the University of Nebraska at Omaha, for his research and work on the video game section of this chapter.

55. Andrew Edwards, “Video Games? Microsoft Pitches Xbox 360 as an Entertainment Hub,” Silicon Valley News, June 4, 2012, www.siliconvalley.com /news/ci_20779287/video-games-microsoft-pitches-xbox-360-an-entertainm ent; Paul Tassi, “Twitch Starts Swinging YouTube-Like Copyright Sledgehammer [Updated],” Forbes, August 7, 2014, www.forbes.com/sites/ins ertcoin/2014/08/07/twitch-starts-swinging-youtube-like-copyright-sledgeha mmer/.

56. Jim Rutenberg, “Obama Aims TV Ads at Younger Voters,” The New York Times, October 8, 2008, thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/10/08/obama-aims-tv- ads-at-younger-voters.

57. Seth Schiesel, “Finding Community in Virtual Town Squares,” The New York Times, November 5, 2005.

58. Derrick J. Lang, “How Iron Man Was Trounced by a Scruffy Car Thief,” USA Today, May 8, 2008.

59. Pamela McClintock, “Global 2015 Box Office: Revenue Hits Record $38 Billion-Plus,” The Hollywood Reporter, January 3, 2016, http://www.hollywood reporter.com/news/global-2015-box-office-revenue-851749; Chris Morris, “Level Up! Video Game Industry Revenues Soar in 2015,” Fortune, February 16, 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/02/16/video-game-industry-revenues-20 15/.

60. Ken Paulson, “Court’s Video-Game Ruling Shields Emerging Media,” First Amendment Center, June 27, 2011, www.firstamendmentcenter.org/courts-vi deo-game-ruling-shields-emerging-media.

61. Amanda Lenhart et al., “Teens, Video Games and Civics,” Pew Research

http://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/

http://www.portfolio.com/executives/features/2009/02/11/Twitter-CEO-Evan-Williams-Q-and-A

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/01/twitter-use-stats-growth_n_1559716.html?ref=technology

https://about.twitter.com/company

http://www.wnyc.org/story/131104-how-tweet-it-is/

http://www.siliconvalley.com/news/ci_20779287/video-games-microsoft-pitches-xbox-360-an-entertainment

http://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2014/08/07/twitch-starts-swinging-youtube-like-copyright-sledgehammer/

http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/global-2015-box-office-revenue-851749

http://fortune.com/2016/02/16/video-game-industry-revenues-2015/

http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/courts-video-game-ruling-shields-emerging-media

Center, September 16, 2008, www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2008/Teens-Vid eo-Games-and-Civics.aspx?r=1.

62. Amanda Lenhart, Sydney Jones, and Alexandra Macgill, “Pew Internet Project Data Memo: Adults and Video Games,” in Pew Internet and American Life Project (Pew Foundation, 2008).

63. David Thier, “20,000 People Are Watching a Fish Play Pokemon on Twitch,” Forbes, August 8, 2014, www.forbes.com/sites/davidthier/2014/08/08/2000 0-people-are-watching-a-fish-play-pokemon/; Jason Koebler, “An Exclusive Interview With the Fish Playing Pokemon,” Motherboard, August 8, 2014, motherboard.vice.com/read/an-exclusive-interview-with-the-fish-playing- pokemon.

64. Aaron Souppouris, “Playing ‘Pokemon’ With 78,000 People Is Frustratingly Fun,” The Verge, February 17, 2014, www.theverge.com/2014/2/17/5418690 /play-this-twitch-plays-pokemon-crowdsourced-gaming; thanks are due to my colleague Aaron Blackman who introduced me to Twitch Plays Pokémon and wrote a great guest blog post.

65. Tassi, “Twitch Starts Swinging YouTube-Like Copyright Sledgehammer [Updated].”

66. German Lopez, “Why Amazon Spent $970 Million to Buy Twitch,” Vox, August 26, 2014, www.vox.com/2014/8/26/6067085/amazon-twitch-tv-video-game s-live-streaming-league-of-legends-dota-2.

67. Joshua Brustein, “Buying Twitch Gets Google More Than Video Game Spectators,” Bloomberg Businessweek, July 25, 2014, www.businessweek.com /articles/2014-07-25/buying-twitch-gets-google-more-than-video-game-spec tators; “About,” Twitch, https://www.twitch.tv/p/about.

68. The material on eSports is drawn from the guest post “Heroes of the Dorm on ESPN 2” on the Living in a Media World blog written by my colleague Aaron Blackman, www.ralphehanson.com/2016/04/12/guest-blog-post-heroes-of-th e-dorm-on-espn2/, April 12, 2016.

69. “How Diverse Are Video Gamers—and the Characters They Play?” Nielsen, March 24, 2015, http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/how-div erse-are-video-gamers-and-the-characters-they-play.html.

70. James Poniewozik, “Streaming TV Isn’t Just a New Way to Watch. It’s a New Genre,” The New York Times, December 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2 015/12/20/arts/television/streaming-tv-isnt-just-a-new-way-to-watch-its-a- new-genre.html.

p.429

71. Leif Johnson, “This Game Is Forcing Some Players to Be Women, and They’re Freaking Out,” Motherboard, April 10, 2016, http://motherboard.vice.com/rea d/this-game-is-forcing-some-players-to-be-women-and-theyre-freaking-out.

http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2008/Teens-Video-Games-and-Civics.aspx?r=1

http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidthier/2014/08/08/20000-people-are-watching-a-fish-play-pokemon/

http://www.theverge.com/2014/2/17/5418690/play-this-twitch-plays-pokemon-crowdsourced-gaming

http://www.vox.com/2014/8/26/6067085/amazon-twitch-tv-video-games-live-streaming-league-of-legends-dota-2

http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-07-25/buying-twitch-gets-google-more-than-video-game-spectators

https://www.twitch.tv/p/about

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2016/04/12/guest-blog-post-heroes-of-the-dorm-on-espn2/

http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2015/how-diverse-are-video-gamers-and-the-characters-they-play.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/20/arts/television/streaming-tv-isnt-just-a-new-way-to-watch-its-a-new-genre.html

http://motherboard.vice.com/read/this-game-is-forcing-some-players-to-be-women-and-theyre-freaking-out

72. Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1.

73. Ibid.

74. Steven Levy, Hackers (New York: Penguin Books, 1994); Steven Levy, “The Day I Got Napsterized,” Newsweek, May 28, 2001.

75. Jamie Portman, “Confronting Cyberspace,” Calgary Herald, June 11, 1995.

76. Ibid.

77. Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1.

78. Salvador Rodriguez, “60% of World’s Population Still Won’t Have Internet by the End of 2014,” Los Angeles Times, May 7, 2014, www.latimes.com/busines s/technology/la-fi-tn-60-world-population-3-billion-internet-2014-20140507 -story.html; “ICT Facts and Figures—the World in 2015,” ITU, http://www.itu.in t/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx.

79. Perrin and Duggan, “American’s Internet Access: 2000–2015.”

80. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web.

81. Leslie Regan Shade, “Is There Free Speech on the Net? Censorship in the Global Information Infrastructure,” in Cultures of the Internet, ed. Rob Shields (London: Sage, 1996).

82. David A. Fahrenthold, “SOPA Protests Shut Down Web Sites,” The Washington Post, January 17, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/politics/sopa-protests-to-s hut-down-web-sites/2012/01/17/gIQA4WYl6P_story.html?hpid=z1.

83. Jennifer Martinez, “SOPA and PIPA Dead, for Now,” Politico, January 20, 2012, www.politico.com/news/stories/0112/71720.html.

84. Brad Plumer, “Now That SOPA’s Dead, Five Easy Ways to Reform Copyright Law,” The Washington Post, February 29, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/blo gs/ezra-klein/post/sopa-foes-offer-five-ways-to-fix-online-copy right- law/2012/02/29/gIQAjmeViR_blog.html.

85. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web.

86. Michael E. Miller, “‘Humans of New York’: Obama’s Comment Is Big Moment for Beloved, Controversial Blog,” The Washington Post, September 4, 2105, ht tps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/09/04/humans- of-new-york-obamas-comment-is-big-moment-for-beloved-controversial-blog/ ?tid=pm_national_pop_b.

87. Ibid.

88. Kathryn Dill, “Here’s the Tumblr Founder’s Favorite Tumblr (and Why It Matters),” Inc., February 20, 2013, http://www.inc.com/kathryn-dill/whats-yo ur-favorite-tumblr-founder-david-karp.html.

89. Daniel Jacobson, “API Update: New Transcript API and Much More,” NPR, July 29, 2009, www.npr.org/blogs/inside/2009/07/api_update_transcript_api_and. html.

90. Frank Ahrens, “2002’s News, Yesterday’s Sell-Off,” The Washington Post,

http://www.latimes.com/business/technology/la-fi-tn-60-world-population-3-billion-internet-2014-20140507-story.html

http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx

http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/sopa-protests-to-shut-down-web-sites/2012/01/17/gIQA4WYl6P_story.html?hpid=z1

http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0112/71720.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/sopa-foes-offer-five-ways-to-fix-online-copy

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/09/04/humans-of-new-york-obamas-comment-is-big-moment-for-beloved-controversial-blog/?tid=pm_national_pop_b

http://www.inc.com/kathryn-dill/whats-your-favorite-tumblr-founder-david-karp.html

http://www.npr.org/blogs/inside/2009/07/api_update_transcript_api_and.html

September 9, 2008.

91. Hayley Tsukayama, “Apple TV Review: If the Future of Television Is Apps, Sign Me Up,” The Washington Post, October 30, 2015, https://www.washingtonpos t.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/10/30/apple-tv-review-if-the-future-of-tele vision-is-apps-sign-me-up/.

92. Brian Fung, “Comcast Rolls Out Trial of New Plan: Unlimited Data for an Extra $35,” The Washington Post, November 2, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost. com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/11/02/your-phone-company-already-limits-y our-data-your-cable-company-could-be-next/.

93. David Lieberman, “Comcast Introduces Plan to Let TV Subs Watch Without Its Set-Top Boxes,” Deadline, April 20, 2016, http://deadline.com/2016/04/comca st-introduces-program-tv-customers-watch-without-set-top-box-120174094 2/.

94. Ken Doctor, “Newsonomics: The Thinking (and Dollars) Behind the New York Times’s New Digital Strategy,” Nieman, October 15, 2015, http://www.niemanl ab.org/2015/10/newsonomics-the-thinking-and-dollars-behind-the-new-york- times-new-digital-strategy/.

CHAPTER 11

1. Kashmir Hill, “How Target Figured Out a Teen Girl Was Pregnant Before Her Father Did,” Forbes, February 16, 2012, www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/20 12/02/16/how-target-figured-out-a-teen-girl-was-pregnant-before-her-fathe r-did/.

2. Charles Duhigg, “How Companies Learn Your Secrets,” The New York Times, February 16, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/magazine/shopping-habit s.html.

3. Bob Garfield, “Off Target: Transcript,” On the Media, October 16, 2009, http:// www.wnyc.org/story/132532-off-target/.

4. George E. Belch and Michael A. Belch, Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective (Boston: Irwin McGraw- Hill, 1998).

5. Pamela Walker Laird, Advertising Progress (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).

6. James W. Carey, “Advertising: An Institutional Approach,” in Advertising in Society, ed. Roxanne Hoveland and Gary B. Wilcox (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1989).

7. Laird, Advertising Progress.

8. Michael Schudson, “Historical Roots of Consumer Culture,” in Advertising in Society, ed. Roxanne Hoveland and Gary B. Wilcox (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/10/30/apple-tv-review-if-the-future-of-television-is-apps-sign-me-up/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/11/02/your-phone-company-already-limits-your-data-your-cable-company-could-be-next/

http://deadline.com/2016/04/comcast-introduces-program-tv-customers-watch-without-set-top-box-1201740942/

http://www.niemanlab.org/2015/10/newsonomics-the-thinking-and-dollars-behind-the-new-york-times-new-digital-strategy/

http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/02/16/how-target-figured-out-a-teen-girl-was-pregnant-before-her-father-did/

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/magazine/shopping-habits.html

http://www.wnyc.org/story/132532-off-target/

Business Books, 1989).

9. Laird, Advertising Progress.

10. Carey, “Advertising: An Institutional Approach.”

11. Schudson, “Historical Roots of Consumer Culture.”

12. Laird, Advertising Progress.

13. Michael Sebastian, “Ladies’ Home Journal Ends Monthly Publication, Lays Off All Staff,” Advertising Age, April 24, 2014, adage.com/article/media/ladies- home-journal-fold-131-years-print/292839/.

14. James B. Twitchell, Adcult USA: The Triumph of Advertising in American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996).

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Suzanne Goldenberg, “Big Ag Spending Millions to Defeat GMO Labeling Campaigns,” Alternet, October 24, 2014, http://www.alternet.org/big-ag-spen ding-millions-defeat-gmo-labeling-campaigns; “Colorado Mandatory Labeling of GMOs Initiative, Proposition 105 (2014),” Ballotpedia, https://ballotpedia.o rg/Colorado_Mandatory_Labeling_of_GMOs_Initiative,_Proposition_105_(201 4).

18. “Public Service Advertising That Changed a Nation,” Ad Council, 2014, www.ad council.org/Impact/Research/Public-Service-Advertising-that-Changed-a-Nat ion; Karen Egolf, “Ad Council Offers New Responsible Fatherhood PSAs,” Advertising Age, June 15, 2011, http://adage.com/article/goodworks/ad-coun cil-offers-responsible-fatherhood-psas/228199/.

19. Eugene H. Fram, S. Prakash Sethi, and Nobuaki Namiki, “Newspaper Advocacy Advertising: Molder of Public Opinion,” USA Today Magazine, July 1993, p. 90.

20. Belch and Belch, Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective.

21. Michael Schudson, “Advertising as Capitalist Realism,” in Advertising in Society, ed. Roxanne Hoveland and Gary B. Wilcox (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1989).

p.430

22. Herschell Gordon Lewis, Advertising Age Handbook of Advertising (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1999).

23. E. J. Schultz, “‘Got Milk’ Dropped as National Milk Industry Changes Tactics,” Advertising Age, February 24, 2014, http://adage.com/article/news/milk-drop ped-national-milk-industry-tactics/291819/.

24. Mike Snider, “Hunt for PlayStation 2 Becomes Easier for Shoppers,” USA Today, March 22, 2001.

25. Nancy Giges, “Coke’s Switch a Classic,” in Advertising Age: The Principles of

http://www.alternet.org/big-ag-spending-millions-defeat-gmo-labeling-campaigns

https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Mandatory_Labeling_of_GMOs_Initiative,_Proposition_105_(2014

http://www.adcouncil.org/Impact/Research/Public-Service-Advertising-that-Changed-a-Nation

http://adage.com/article/goodworks/ad-council-offers-responsible-fatherhood-psas/228199/

http://adage.com/article/news/milk-dropped-national-milk-industry-tactics/291819/

Advertising at Work, ed. Esther Thorson (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1989).

26. Jack Honomichl, “Missing Ingredients in ‘New’ Coke’s Research,” in Advertising Age: The Principles of Advertising at Work, ed. Esther Thorson (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1989).

27. Giges, “Coke’s Switch a Classic.”

28. Phil Edwards, “New Coke Debuted 30 Years Ago. Here’s Why It was a Sugary Fiasco,” Vox, April 23, 2015, http://www.vox.com/2015/4/23/8472539/new-c oke-cola-wars.

29. Stuart Elliott, “Gapo Inc. Puts ‘GAP’ Back in Logo,” The New York Times, October 12, 2010, mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/10/12/gap-inc- puts-gap-back-in-logo/.

30. Schudson, “Historical Roots of Consumer Culture.”

31. Laird, Advertising Progress.

32. Lewis, Advertising Age Handbook of Advertising.

33. C. Bruce Bartels, “Ad Agencies Must Look to Customers to Change,” Boston Business Journal, December 30, 1994.

34. Dylan Matthews, “One in Five Beers Sold in America Is a Bud Light,” Vox, April 16, 2014, www.vox.com/2014/4/16/5620170/one-in-five-beers-sold-in-amer ica-is-a-bud-light; Jeremy Mullman, “In Juvenile Bud Light Lime Spot, This Butt’s for You,” Advertising Age, September 8, 2009, adage.com/article/adages/juvenile-bud-lime-spot-butt-s/138877/.

35. Olivia Bergin, “American Apparel in Trouble Again With Advertising Watchdogs,” The Telegraph, April 10, 2013, fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news- features/TMG9983620/American-Apparel-in-trouble-again-with-advertising- watchdogs.html.

36. Adrianne Pasquarelli, “Back From the Brink: American Apparel Has a Marketing Budget Again,” Advertising Age, February 9, 2016, http://adage.co m/article/cmo-strategy/back-brink-american-apparel-ramps-marketing-spring /302596/.

37. Aaron Taube, “An Incredible New Guinness Ad Breaks Industry Stereotype,” Business Insider, September 5, 2013, www.businessinsider.com/new-guinness -ad-breaks-the-mold-2013-9.

38. Ibid.

39. David Ogilvy, Confessions of an Advertising Man (New York: Atheneum, 1963).

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Alf Nucifora, “Advertising 101: How to Get the Best Out of Your Media Buy,” Houston Business Journal, October 16, 1998.

http://www.vox.com/2015/4/23/8472539/new-coke-cola-wars

http://www.vox.com/2014/4/16/5620170/one-in-five-beers-sold-in-america-is-a-bud-light

http://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/back-brink-american-apparel-ramps-marketing-spring/302596/

http://www.businessinsider.com/new-guinness-ad-breaks-the-mold-2013-9

43. Bradley Johnson, “What’s Up at Agencies? Revenue, Jobs, Stocks—and Digital,” Advertising Age, May 1, 2016, http://adage.com/article/agency-news /agency-report-web-mainbar/303704/.

44. Johnson, “What’s Up at Agencies? Revenue, Jobs, Stocks—and Digital”; “2016 Marketing Fact Pack,” Advertising Age, December 20, 2015, http://adage.com /trend-reports/report.php?id=106.

45. Bradley Johnson, “Agency Report: U.S. Agency Revenue Jumped 7.7% in 2010,” Advertising Age, April 25, 2011, http://adage.com/article/agency-news /agency-report-u-s-agency-revenue-jumped-7-7-2010/227162/.

46. Esther Thorson, ed., Advertising Age: The Principles of Advertising at Work (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1989).

47. Twitchell, Adcult USA: The Triumph of Advertising in American Culture.

48. Rick Edmonds, Emily Guskin, Tom Rosenstiel, and Amy Mitchell, “Newspapers: Building Digital Revenues Proves Painfully Slow,” Pew Research Center, April 11, 2012, stateofthemedia.org/2012/newspapers-building-digital-revenues- proves-painfully-slow/.

49. “State of the News Media 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2015, http:// www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.p df.

50. Lewis, Advertising Age Handbook of Advertising; “The State of the News Media 2009: Newspapers,” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, http://stateofthemedia.org/2009/.

51. Katerina-Eva Matsa, Jane Sasseen, and Amy Mitchell, “Magazines: Are Hopes for Tablets Overdone?” Pew Research Center Project for Excellence in Journalism, 2012, stateofthemedia.org/2012/magazines-are-hopes-for- tablets-overdone/.

52. Outdoor Advertising Association of America, “About Digital Billboard Technology,” www.optec.com.

53. “2016 Marketing Fact Pack.”

54. Twitchell, Adcult USA: The Triumph of Advertising in American Culture; Outdoor Advertising Association of America, “Research and Data,” www.oaaa. org/press/ResearchandData.aspx.

55. Louise Story, “Times Sq. Ads Spread via Tourists’ Cameras,” The New York Times, December 11, 2006.

56. Michael Learmonth, “Online Advertising Spending Expected to Be Down for 2009,” Advertising Age, October 19, 2009, adage.com/digital/article? article_id=139785.

57. “Mobile Continues to Steal Share of US Adults’ Daily Time Spent With Media,” eMarketer, April 22, 2014, www.emarketer.com/Article/Mobile-Continues-St eal-Share-of-US-Adults-Daily-Time-Spent-with-Media/1010782.

58. “Growth of Time Spent on Media Devices Slows,” eMarketer, October 7, 2015,

http://adage.com/article/agency-news/agency-report-web-mainbar/303704/

http://adage.com/trend-reports/report.php?id=106

http://adage.com/article/agency-news/agency-report-u-s-agency-revenue-jumped-7-7-2010/227162/

http://www.journalism.org/files/2015/04/FINAL-STATE-OF-THE-NEWS-MEDIA1.pdf

http://stateofthemedia.org/2009/

http://www.optec.com

http://www.oaaa.org/press/ResearchandData.aspx

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Mobile-Continues-Steal-Share-of-US-Adults-Daily-Time-Spent-with-Media/1010782

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Growth-of-Time-Spent-on-Mobile-Devices -Slows/1013072.

59. David Berkowitz, “The Converging Paths of Mobile Advertising,” Advertising Age, January 22, 2014, http://adage.com/article/digitalnext/converging-paths -mobile-advertising/291204/.

60. Rebecca Piirto Heath, “Psychographics: Q’est-Ce Que C’est,” Marketing Tools, November/December 1995.

61. Emanuel H. Demby, “Psychographics Revisited: The Birth of a Technique,” Marketing Research 6, no. 2 (1994).

62. “VALS | Strategic Business Insights (SBI),” Strategic Business Insights (SBI), w ww.strategicbusinessinsights.com/vals/.

63. Ibid.

64. Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

65. Theresa Howard, “Being True to Dew,” Brandweek, April 24, 2000.

66. Richard Linnett, “A New Dew; A Soft Drink Finds Deliverance,” Print, November/December 2000.

67. Duane Stanford, “Mountain Dew Wants Some Street Cred,”Businessweek, April 26, 2012, www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-04-26/mountain-dew- wants-some-street-cred; Christopher Heine, “Mountain Dew Fiasco Shows Brands Desperately Want Street Cred,” AdWeek, May 1, 2013, www.adweek. com/news/advertising-branding/mountain-dew-fiasco-shows-brands-desperat ely-want-street-cred-149079.

68. Barbara Thau, “Courting the Gay Consumer,” HFN, February 27, 2006.

69. Charles A. Jaffe, “Dealers Say Wooing Gay, Lesbian Customers Is Good Business,” Automotive News, January 31, 1994.

70. “Marketing to Gay and Lesbian Consumers” (Rivendell Media, 2008).

p.431

71. Brett Chase, “Advertisements Land in Gay Publications,” Des Moines Business Record, August 8, 1994.

72. Thau, “Courting the Gay Consumer”; “Marketing to Gay and Lesbian Consumers.”

73. Kate Rockwood, “GLAAD’s Helping Hand,” Fast Company, November 2009.

74. Prime Access Inc., “2007 Gay Press Report” (Rivendell Media Company, 2008).

75. Laura Stampler, “15 Major Brands That Unabashedly Support Gay Marriage,” Business Insider, March 28, 2013, www.businessinsider.com/major-brands-th at-support-gay-marriage-photos-2013-3?op=1; Jim Edwards, “GUTSY: Expedia’s Gay Marriage Ad Is Narrated by a Homophobic Father,” Business

http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Growth-of-Time-Spent-on-Mobile-Devices-Slows/1013072

http://adage.com/article/digitalnext/converging-paths-mobile-advertising/291204/

http://www.strategicbusinessinsights.com/vals/

http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-04-26/mountain-dew-wants-some-street-cred

http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/mountain-dew-fiasco-shows-brands-desperately-want-street-cred-149079

http://www.businessinsider.com/major-brands-that-support-gay-marriage-photos-2013-3?op=1

Insider, October 17, 2012, www.businessinsider.com/expedias-gay-marriage- ad-2012-10.

76. Ira Teinowitz, “Crazy Horse Brew Incenses Sioux,” Advertising Age, April 6, 1992.

77. Dirk Johnson, “Complaints by Indians Lead to Bans on a Beer,” The New York Times, December 6, 1995.

78. Associated Press, “No Trademark for Crazy Horse Brew,” Marketing News, August 28, 1995.

79. Matt Wilson, “Shutterfly Earns Scorn for Mistakenly Sending New-Parent Congratulation,” Ragan.com, May 15, 2014, www.ragan.com/Main/Articles/4 8336.aspx#.

80. Kim Rotzoll, James E. Haefner, and Charles H. Sandage, “Advertising and the Classical Liberal World View,” in Advertising in Society, ed. Roxanne Hoveland and Gary B. Wilcox (Lincolnwood, Ill.: NTC Business Books, 1989).

81. M. Night Shyamalan, The Sixth Sense: A Conversation With M. Night Shyamalan (Burbank, Calif.: Hollywood Pictures Home Video, 2000), DVD.

82. Chuck Ross, “NBC Blasts Beyond the 15-Minute Barrier,” Advertising Age, August 7, 2000.

83. “Network, Cable Messages Buried in Commercial Avalanche,” Chicago Sun- Times, May 30, 2006.

84. Sheree Johnson, “New Research Sheds Light on Daily Ad Exposures,” SJ Insights, September 29, 2014, https://sjinsights.net/2014/09/29/new-resear ch-sheds-light-on-daily-ad-exposures/.

85. Brian Steinberg, “Spike’s Supersized Ad Breaks Buck TV’s Clutter-Busting Trend,” Advertising Age, September 13, 2010.

86. Brian Stelter, “Fox TV’s Gamble: Fewer Ads in Break, but Costing More,” The New York Times, February 13, 2009; “Fox Scraps ‘Remote-Free TV,’” The New York Times, May 14, 2009, mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/05/14/fox-scraps-remote-free-tv/.

87. “Numbers Don’t Lie,” MediaWeek, September 12, 2006.

88. Dick Morris, “Break Through the Clutter,” Chain Store Age, December 2000.

89. Diedtra Henderson, “Rise of Celebrity Testimonials Spurs FDA Scrutiny,” Boston Globe, October 30, 2005.

90. Martha Rogers and Christine A. Seiler, “The Answer Is No: A National Survey of Advertising Industry Practitioners and Their Clients About Whether They Use Subliminal Advertising,” Journal of Advertising Research 34, no. 2 (1994).

91. J. Leo, “Hostility Among the Ice Cubes,” U.S. News & World Report, July 15, 1991; J. Levine and J. L. Aber, “Search and Find,” Forbes, September 2, 1991.

92. Tom O’Sullivan, “Ridley Scott Returns to Ads With Orange Blitz,” Marketing Week, April 2, 1998.

http://www.businessinsider.com/expedias-gay-marriage-ad-2012-10

http://Ragan.com

http://www.ragan.com/Main/Articles/48336.aspx

https://sjinsights.net/2014/09/29/new-research-sheds-light-on-daily-ad-exposures/

93. Bob Garfield, “Breakthrough Product Gets Greatest TV Spot,” Advertising Age, January 10, 1994.

94. Bradley Johnson, “The Commercial, and the Product, That Changed Advertising,” Advertising Age, January 10, 1994.

95. Ibid.

96. Lenore Skenazy, “Keep Targeting Kids and the Parents Will Start Targeting You,” Advertising Age, May 19, 2008.

97. Thorson, ed., Advertising Age: The Principles of Advertising at Work; Carole Shifrin, “Ban on TV Ads to Children Is Proposed,” The Washington Post, February 25, 1978.

98. Caroline E. Mayer, “TV Ads Entice Kids to Overeat, Study Finds,” Washington Post, December 7, 2005.

99. Annys Shin, “Ads Aimed at Children Get Tighter Scrutiny; Firms to Promote More Healthful Diet Choices,” The Washington Post, November 15, 2006.

100. Mayer, “TV Ads Entice Kids to Overeat, Study Finds.”

101. “Selling Junk Food to Toddlers,” The New York Times, February 23, 2006.

102. Melanie Warner, “Food Industry Defends Marketing to Children,” The New York Times, July 15, 2005.

103. Mayer, “TV Ads Entice Kids to Overeat, Study Finds.”

104. Andrew Martin, “Leading Makers Agree to Put Limits on Junk Food Advertising Directed at Children,” The New York Times, November 15, 2006.

105. Dan Milmo, “Media: That’s All, Folks: As ITV Shuts Its Kids Production Unit and With a Ban on Lucrative Junk-Food Advertising Imminent, Producers Say Children’s Television Is in Mortal Danger,” The Guardian, July 31, 2006.

106. Maggie Brown, “Media: When the Chips Are Down: The Ban on Junk-Food Advertising in Kids’ Shows Is Expected to Cost the Industry £39m,” The Guardian, November 20, 2006.

107. Ibid.

108. Dawn Edmiston, “An Examination of Integrated Marketing Communication in U.S. Public Institutions of Higher Education,” International Journal of Educational Advancement 8, no. 3/4 (2009).

109. David Goetzl, “Denny’s Super Bowl Ad Value: ‘Incredible,’” MediaDailyNews, February 18, 2009, http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/100566/d ennys-super-bowl-ad-value-incredible.html?edition=.

110. Bruce Horovitz, “2 Million Enjoy Free Breakfast at Denny’s,” USA Today, February 3, 2009.

111. Ibid.

112. Brian Quinton, “Bowl Post-Game Pt. 1: The Drive for Integration,” Chief Marketer Network, February 18, 2009, http://www.chiefmarketer.com/blog/b ig-fat-marketing-blog/bowl-post-game-pt-1-the-drive-for-integration-180220

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/100566/dennys-super-bowl-ad-value-incredible.html?edition=

http://www.chiefmarketer.com/blog/big-fat-marketing-blog/bowl-post-game-pt-1-the-drive-for-integration-18022009

09; John Sternal, “Integrated PR and Marketing; A Grand Slam,” Merit Mile Communication, March 10, 2009.

113. Quinton, “Bowl Post-Game Pt. 1: The Drive for Integration”; “Denny’s Scores a Promotion Touchdown,” Stradella Road, February 4, 2009, www.stradellaroad. com.

114. Goetzl, “Denny’s Super Bowl Ad Value: ‘Incredible.’”

115. “Denny’s Scores a Promotion Touchdown.”

116. Goetzl, “Denny’s Super Bowl Ad Value: ‘Incredible.’”

117. Brian Clark, “Don’t Waste Your Time With Native Advertising (Do This Instead),” Say Daily, February 27, 2014, saydaily.com/2014/02/dont-waste- your-time-with-native-advertising-do-this- instead#awesm=~oFGdbhPAhcdesg.

118. Demian Farnworth, “Copyblogger’s 2014 State of Native Advertising Report,” Copyblogger, April 7, 2014, www.copyblogger.com/native-advertising-2014/.

119. Lucia Moses, “The Washington Post’s Native Ads get Editorial Treatment Borrowing From the Newsroom,” Ad Week, March 3, 2014, www.adweek.com/ news/press/washington-posts-native-ads-get-editorial-treatment-156048.

120. Antony Young, “Native Advertising Is Making Media Brands Count for More, Not Less,” Advertising Age, May 29, 2013, adage.com/article/digitalnext/media-native-good-news/241727/.

p.432

121. Demian Farnworth, “12 Examples of Native Ads (and Why They Work),” Copyblogger, April 14, 2014, http://www.copyblogger.com/examples-of-nativ e-ads/.

122. Erik Sass, “Consumers Can’t Tell Native Ads From Editorial Content,” Media Post, December 31, 2015, http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/26 5789/consumers-cant-tell-native-ads-from-editorial-con.html.

123. Tobi Elkin, “5 Key Things You Need to Know About the FTC’s Guidance on Native,” Media Post, January 6, 2016, http://www.mediapost.com/publication s/article/266074/5-key-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-ftcs-guid.html.

124. Ibid.; Julie Moos, “The Atlantic Publishes Then Pulls Sponsored Content From Church of Scientology,” Poynter.org, January 15, 2013, www.poynter.org/lates t-news/mediawire/200593/the-atlantic-pulls-sponsored-content-from-church -of-scientology/.

125. Jeff Sonderman, “Atlantic Introduces Sponsored Content Guidelines That Address the Scientology Incident,” Poynter.org, January 30, 2013, www.poynt er.org/latest-news/mediawire/202316/atlantic-introduces-sponsored-conten t-guidelines-that-address-the-scientology-incident/.

126. Wayne Freidman, “As Streaming TV Rises, DVR Penetration Slows,” Media Post, December 9, 2013, www.mediapost.com/publications/article/215069/a

http://www.stradellaroad.com

http://www.copyblogger.com/native-advertising-2014/

http://www.adweek.com/news/press/washington-posts-native-ads-get-editorial-treatment-156048

http://www.copyblogger.com/examples-of-native-ads/

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/265789/consumers-cant-tell-native-ads-from-editorial-con.html

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/266074/5-key-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-ftcs-guid.html

http://Poynter.org

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/200593/the-atlantic-pulls-sponsored-content-from-church-of-scientology/

http://Poynter.org

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/202316/atlantic-introduces-sponsored-content-guidelines-that-address-the-scientology-incident/

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/215069/as-streaming-tv-rises-dvr-penetration-slows.html

s-streaming-tv-rises-dvr-penetration-slows.html.

127. 127. Julie Bosman, “TV and Top Marketers Discuss the State of the Medium,” The New York Times, March 24, 2006; Julie Bosman, “A Match Made in Product Placement Heaven,” The New York Times, May 31, 2006.

128. Paul Davidson, “Ad Campaigns for Your Tiny Cellphone Screen Get Bigger: Marketers Leverage Growth in Text Messaging, Wireless Web,” USA Today, August 9, 2006.

129. “State of the News Media 2015.”

130. Kathryn Koegel, “Unilever Turkey’s Cornetto Ice Cream Wins Global Media Awards,” Advertising Age, February 15, 2011, adage.com/article/global- news/mobile-marketing-campaigns-u-s/148886/.

131. Stuart Elliott, “More Products Get Roles in Shows, and Marketers Wonder If They’re Getting Their Money’s Worth,” The New York Times, March 29, 2005.

132. Ibid.

133. Andrew Adam Newman, “Once a Seldom-Heard Word, Pregnancy Is Now in the Spotlight,” The New York Times, April 2, 2009.

134. Doreen Carvajal, “Placing the Product in the Dialog, Too,” The New York Times, January 17, 2006.

135. Learmonth, “Online Advertising Spending Expected to Be Down for 2009”; “100 Leading National Advertisers: 2009 Edition Index,” Advertising Age, June 22, 2009, http://adage.com/article/datacenter-advertising-spending/100-lea ding-national-advertisers/136308/.

136. “2016 Marketing Fact Pack.”

137. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York, Penguin Press: 2009).

138. Louise Story, “Marketers Demanding Better Count of the Clicks,” The New York Times, October 30, 2006.

139. Jefferson Graham, “Google to Experiment With Newspaper Ad Sales Online; Search Giant to Offer Print Options to Customer Base,” USA Today, November 6, 2006.

140. Ibid.

141. Michael Sebastian, “Brands Pay This Instagrammer $15,000 to Include Their Products in a Picture,” Advertising Age, May 20, 2015, http://adage.com/articl e/digital/brands-pay-instagrammer-15-000-include-products-a-picture/2987 09/; Kayleen Schaefer, “How Bloggers Make Money on Instagram,” Harper’s Bazaar, May 20, 2015, http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/a1094 9/how-bloggers-make-money-on-instagram/.

142. Michael Sebastian, “Publishers Sell Sponsored Content Made for Instagram, Snapchat,” Advertising Age, November 13, 2014, http://adage.com/article/me dia/publishers-sell-sponsored-content-instagram-snapchat/295822/.

143. RevZilla, “Stuff That Doesn’t Suck: Social Media Done Correctly,” http://www.r

http://adage.com/article/datacenter-advertising-spending/100-leading-national-advertisers/136308/

http://adage.com/article/digital/brands-pay-instagrammer-15-000-include-products-a-picture/298709/

http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/a10949/how-bloggers-make-money-on-instagram/

http://adage.com/article/media/publishers-sell-sponsored-content-instagram-snapchat/295822/

http://www.revzilla.com/common-tread/stuff-that-doesnt-suck-social-media-done-correctly?utm_campaign=boosted-posts&utm_source=facebook&utm_term=stuff-that-doesnt-suck-social-media-done-correctly&utm_content=stream&utm_medium=social

evzilla.com/common-tread/stuff-that-doesnt-suck-social-media-done-correctl y?utm_campaign=boosted-posts&utm_source=facebook&utm_term=stuff-tha t-doesnt-suck-social-media-done-correctly&utm_content=stream&utm_mediu m=social.

144. Sebastian, “Publishers Sell Sponsored Content Made for Instagram, Snapchat.”

CHAPTER 12

1. Elahe Izadi, “The Incidents That Led to the University of Missouri President’s Resignation,” The Washington Post, November 9, 2015, https://www.washingt onpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2015/11/09/the-incidents-that-led-to-the- university-of-missouri-presidents-resignation/.

2. Phillip Bump, “How the Missouri Football Team Just Took Down Its University President,” The Washington Post, November 9, 2015, https://www.washington post.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/11/09/missouri-football-players-and-the-un tapped-political-power-of-the-college-student-athlete/; “Brigham Young University Football,” The Kansas City Star, http://www.kansascity.com/sports/ college/sec/university-of-missouri/article6148809.ece/binary/Missouri-BYU %20FB%20Contract%202015%20&%202020.pdf.

3. Susan Svriuga, “U. Missouri President, Chancellor Resign Over Handling of Racial Incidents,” The Washington Post, November 9, 2015, https://www.wash ingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2015/11/09/missouris-student-govern ment-calls-for-university-presidents-removal/.

4. Nisha Chittal, “Some Mizzou Students Are Not Happy About President’s Resignation,” MSNBC, November 8, 2015, http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/som e-mizzou-students-yik-yak-are-not-happy-about-presidents-resignation.

5. Libby Nelson, “Student Protestors at the University of Missouri Want a ‘No Media Safe Space,’” Vox, November 9, 2015, http://www.vox.com/2015/11/9/ 9701376/missouri-protests-media.

6. Austin Hugulet and Daniel Victor, “‘I Need Some Muscle’: Missouri Activists Block Journalists,” The New York Times, November 9, 2015, http://www.nytim es.com/2015/11/10/us/university-missouri-protesters-block-journalists-pres s-freedom.html?_r=0.

7. Richard Pérez-Peña, “University of Missouri Fires Melissa Click, Who Tried to Block Journalist at Protest,” The New York Times, February 25, 2016, http://w ww.nytimes.com/2016/02/26/us/university-of-missouri-fires-melissa-click-w ho-tried-to-block-journalist-at-protest.html?smid=fb-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r =0.

8. Jack Suntrup, “Mizzou’s Relationship With Lawmakers ‘Terrible,’ but New

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2015/11/09/the-incidents-that-led-to-the-university-of-missouri-presidents-resignation/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/11/09/missouri-football-players-and-the-untapped-political-power-of-the-college-student-athlete/

http://www.kansascity.com/sports/college/sec/university-of-missouri/article6148809.ece/binary/Missouri-BYU%20FB%20Contract%202015%20&%202020.pdf

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2015/11/09/missouris-student-government-calls-for-university-presidents-removal/

http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/some-mizzou-students-yik-yak-are-not-happy-about-presidents-resignation

http://www.vox.com/2015/11/9/9701376/missouri-protests-media

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/10/us/university-missouri-protesters-block-journalists-press-freedom.html?_r=0

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/26/us/university-of-missouri-fires-melissa-click-who-tried-to-block-journalist-at-protest.html?smid=fb-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0

Chancellor Wants to Move Forward,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, February 2, 2016, http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/education/mizzou-s-relationship- with-lawmakers-terrible-but-new-chancellor-wants/article_be0511a5-4fd7-5 a72-a1ea-9dea23f38016.html.

9. Maureen Sullivan, “As Enrollment Drops at Univ of Missouri, Professor Melissa Click Blames ‘Racial Politics’ For Firing,” Forbes, April 26, 2016, http://www.for bes.com/sites/maureensullivan/2016/04/26/as-enrollment-drops-at-univ-of- missouri-professor-melissa-click-blames-racial-politics-for-firing/.

p.433

10. Marvin N. Olasky, Corporate Public Relations: A New Historical Perspective (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987).

11. Ibid.

12. Cynthia E. Clark, “Differences Between Public Relations and Corporate Social Responsibility: An Analysis,” Public Relations Review 26, no. 3 (2000).

13. Olasky, Corporate Public Relations.

14. Ibid.

15. H. Frazier Moore and Frank B. Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems, 9th ed. (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1985).

16. John C. Stauber and Sheldon Rampton, Toxic Sludge Is Good for You: Lies, Damn Lies, and the Public Relations Industry (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995).

17. Olasky, Corporate Public Relations.

18. Ray Eldon Hiebert, Courtier to the Crowd: The Story of Ivy Lee and the Development of Public Relations (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1966).

19. Edward L. Bernays, Public Relations (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952).

20. Hiebert, Courtier to the Crowd.

21. Ibid.

22. Bernays, Public Relations.

23. Stauber and Rampton, Toxic Sludge Is Good for You.

24. Bernays, Public Relations.

25. Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication, 3rd ed. (White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1995).

26. Bernays, Public Relations.

27. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems.

28. Bernays, Public Relations.

29. Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center, and Glen M. Broom, Effective Public Relations (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2000).

http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/education/mizzou-s-relationship-with-lawmakers-terrible-but-new-chancellor-wants/article_be0511a5-4fd7-5a72-a1ea-9dea23f38016.html

http://www.forbes.com/sites/maureensullivan/2016/04/26/as-enrollment-drops-at-univ-of-missouri-professor-melissa-click-blames-racial-politics-for-firing/

30. Raymond Moley, “The Birth of the Production Code (1945),” in The Movies in Our Midst: Documents in the Cultural History of Film in America, ed. Gerald Mast (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

31. Olasky, Corporate Public Relations.

32. Kathleen S. Kelly, “Stewardship; The Fifth Step in the Public Relations Process,” in Handbook of Public Relations, ed. Robert Lawrence Heath and Gabriel M. Vasquez (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, Inc., 2001).

33. Ibid.

34. Bloomberg News Service, “Anti-Snore Aids Score Big in Super Bowl of Marketing,” Los Angeles Times, August 20, 1996.

35. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems.

36. Bloomberg News Service, “Anti-Snore Aids Score Big in Super Bowl of Marketing.”

37. Della De Lafuente, “Pros Breathe Life Into Firm’s Profits,” Chicago Sun-Times, January 26, 1996.

38. Melanie Wells, “Small Ad Budgets Don’t Stop Super Bowl Play,” USA Today, January 23, 1996.

39. “Breathe Right® Celebrates Super Bowl With Commemorative Strips,” PR Newswire, January 16, 2001, www.thefreelibrary.com/Breathe+Right(R)+Celebrates+Super+ Bowl+with+Commemorative+Strips.-a069199900.

40. “Giants Fans Breathe Right and Love Their Team,” Partnership Activation, May 10, 2010, http://www.partnershipactivation.com/sportsbiz/2010/5/10/g iants-fans-breathe-right-and-love-their-team.html.

41. Joe Drape, “Ruling Clears Way for California Chrome to Run in Belmont,” The New York Times, May 19, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/05/20/sports/califo rnia-chrome-can-use-nasal-strip-in-the-belmont.html?hpw&rref=sports&_r=0; Paul Walsh, “California Chrome’s Nasal Strip OK Has Delano Company Breathing Easier,” Star Tribune, May 20, 2014, www.startribune.com/business /259820621.html.

42. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems.

43. Jerry Lazar, “Foot-in-Mouth Disease,” Electronic Business 26, no. 6 (2000).

44. David P. Bianco, ed., PR News Casebook: 1,000 Public Relations Case Studies (Potomac, Md.: Gale Research Inc., 1993).

45. Joseph Thornley, “Inside PR: Intranets and the New Face of Facebook,” ProPR, September 29, 2011, propr.ca/2011/inside-pr-intranets-and-the-new-face-of- facebook/.

46. Karleen Murphy, “10 Common Intranet Complaints—and How to Resolve Them,” Ragan.com, May 14, 2014, http://www.ragan.com/InternalCommunica tions/Articles/48317.aspx.

47. David E. Williams and Bolanle A. Olaniran, “Exxon’s Decision-Making Flaws:

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Breathe+Right(R

http://www.partnershipactivation.com/sportsbiz/2010/5/10/giants-fans-breathe-right-and-love-their-team.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/20/sports/california-chrome-can-use-nasal-strip-in-the-belmont.html?hpw&rref=sports&_r=0

http://www.startribune.com/business/259820621.html

http://Ragan.com

http://www.ragan.com/InternalCommunications/Articles/48317.aspx

The Hypervigilant Response to the Valdez Grounding,” Public Relations Review 20, no. 1 (1994).

48. David McCormack, “Inside Marketing & PR: The Pulling Power of the ‘Dark Side,’” The Guardian, January 22, 2007.

49. Susanne Courtney, “Measuring PR,” Marketing Magazine, October 30, 2000.

50. “Marketing & Communications: Headlining the Communications Plan,” University of Missouri Marketing & Communications Department, 2016, http s://marcom.missouri.edu/department/marcom/; “Mizzou Creative: MU’s Storytellers,” 2016, University of Missouri Marketing and Communications Department, https://marcom.missouri.edu/department/miz-creative/.

51. Lazar, “Foot-in-Mouth Disease.”

52. Fred Barbash, “Keurig’s K-Cup Screw-Up and How It K-Pitulated to Angry Consumers,” The Washington Post, May 7, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost .com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/05/07/keurigs-k-cup-screw-up-and-how-it- k-pitulated-wednesday-to-angry-consumers/; Brian Barrett, “Keurig’s My K- Cup Retreat Shows We Can Beat DRM,” Wired, May 8, 2015, http://www.wire d.com/2015/05/keurig-k-cup-drm/.

53. William J. Small, “Exxon Valdez: How to Spend Billions and Still Get a Black Eye,” Public Relations Review 17, no. 1 (1991).

54. Williams and Olaniran, “Exxon’s Decision-Making Flaws: The Hypervigilant Response to the Valdez Grounding.”

55. Wayne L. Pines, “Myths of Crisis Management,” Public Relations Quarterly 45, no. 3 (2000).

56. Lazar, “Foot-in-Mouth Disease.”

57. Alex Edge, “Yamaha Offers Buyback Option for 2006 R6 Owners,” Motorcycle Daily, February 14, 2006, http://www.motorcycledaily.com/2006/02/14febru ary06_r6buyback/.

58. John Holusha, “Exxon’s Public-Relations Problem,” The New York Times, April 21, 1989.

59. Dana James, “When Your Company Goes Code Blue,” Marketing News, November 6, 2000.

60. Williams and Olaniran, “Exxon’s Decision-Making Flaws: The Hypervigilant Response to the Valdez Grounding.”

61. N. R. Kleinfield, “Tylenol’s Rapid Comeback,” The New York Times, September 17, 1983.

62. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems.

63. Kleinfield, “Tylenol’s Rapid Comeback.”

64. Jeff Blyskal and Marie Blyskal, PR: How the Public Relations Industry Writes the News (New York: Morrow, 1985).

p.434

https://marcom.missouri.edu/department/marcom/

https://marcom.missouri.edu/department/miz-creative/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/05/07/keurigs-k-cup-screw-up-and-how-it-k-pitulated-wednesday-to-angry-consumers/

http://www.wired.com/2015/05/keurig-k-cup-drm/

http://www.motorcycledaily.com/2006/02/14february06_r6buyback/

65. Ibid.; Kleinfield, “Tylenol’s Rapid Comeback.”

66. Small, “Exxon Valdez: How to Spend Billions and Still Get a Black Eye.”

67. Holusha, “Exxon’s Public-Relations Problem.”

68. Williams and Olaniran, “Exxon’s Decision-Making Flaws: The Hypervigilant Response to the Valdez Grounding.”

69. Holusha, “Exxon’s Public-Relations Problem”; Small, “Exxon Valdez: How to Spend Billions and Still Get a Black Eye.”

70. Williams and Olaniran, “Exxon’s Decision-Making Flaws: The Hypervigilant Response to the Valdez Grounding.”

71. Small, “Exxon Valdez: How to Spend Billions and Still Get a Black Eye.”

72. Scott Fallon, “Hudson Oil Spill Would Be Difficult to Clean Up,” North Jersey News, June 18, 2016, http://www.northjersey.com/cm/2.1593/news/hudson-o il-spill-would-be-difficult-to-clean-up-1.1618062; Dan Joling, “Campaign Begins to Thwart Crowley’s Exit From Tanker Escort Contract,” Valdez Star, July 15, 2016, http://www.valdezstar.net/story/2016/06/15/main-news/camp aign-begins-to-thwart-crowleys-exit-from-tanker-escort-contract/1267.html; Kevin Jones, “Eye Opening Impacts of Poor Sleep,” Fleet Owner, June 16, 2016, http://fleetowner.com/driver-management-resource-center/eye-openin g-impacts-poor-sleep.

73. Anne C. Mulkern, “BP’s PR Blunders Mirror Exxon’s, Appear Destined for Record Book,” The New York Times, June 10, 2010, www.nytimes.com/gwire/2 010/06/10/10greenwire-bps-pr-blunders-mirror-exxons-appear-destined-98 819.html.

74. Jonathan Bernstein, “Crisis Manager University: My Top 5 Internet-Related Crisis Management Tips,” www.bernsteincrisismanagement.com.

75. Carole M. Howard, “Technology and Tabloids: How the New Media World Is Changing Our Jobs,” Public Relations Quarterly 45, no. 1 (2000).

76. Jonathan Bernstein, “Who Are These Bloggers, and Why Are They Saying Those Terrible Things?” Associations Now, October 2006.

77. Pamela Seiple, “How to Leverage Social Media for Public Relations Success,” HubSpot, 2012, www.hubspot.com/Portals/53/docs/hubspot_social_media_pr_ ebook.pdf.

78. E. J. Schultz, “Dip Dilemma: Is Kraft Running Out of Velveeta?” AdAge.com, January 7, 2014, http://adage.com/article/news/dip-dilemma-kraft-running-ve lveeta/290932/; Jenn Harris, “Kraft Confirms Velveeta Shortage, a.k.a. Cheesepocalypse,” Los Angeles Times, January 10, 2014, http://www.latimes. com/food/dailydish/la-dd-velveeta-confirms-liquid-gold-cheesepocalypse-shor tage-20140110-story.html.

79. “The #Cheesepocalypse Is Real: Your Reactions to the Velveeta Shortage,” Great Ideas, People, January 8, 2014, http://greatideas.people.com/2014/01/ 08/velveeta-shortage-cheesepocalypse/.

http://www.northjersey.com/cm/2.1593/news/hudson-oil-spill-would-be-difficult-to-clean-up-1.1618062

http://www.valdezstar.net/story/2016/06/15/main-news/campaign-begins-to-thwart-crowleys-exit-from-tanker-escort-contract/1267.html

http://fleetowner.com/driver-management-resource-center/eye-opening-impacts-poor-sleep

http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/06/10/10greenwire-bps-pr-blunders-mirror-exxons-appear-destined-98819.html

http://www.bernsteincrisismanagement.com

http://www.hubspot.com/Portals/53/docs/hubspot_social_media_pr_ebook.pdf

http://AdAge.com

http://adage.com/article/news/dip-dilemma-kraft-running-velveeta/290932/

http://www.latimes.com/food/dailydish/la-dd-velveeta-confirms-liquid-gold-cheesepocalypse-shortage-20140110-story.html

http://greatideas.people.com/2014/01/08/velveeta-shortage-cheesepocalypse/

80. Harris, “Kraft Confirms Velveeta Shortage, a.k.a. Cheesepocalypse”; Sandi Moynihan, “#Cheesepocaplypse: Surviving the Super Bowl Without Velveeta,” The Washington Post Style Blog, February 1, 2014, http://www.washingtonpo st.com/blogs/style-blog/wp/2014/02/01/cheesepocalypse-surviving-the-sup er-bowl-without-velveeta/.

81. Jack Neff, “How ‘Cheesepocalypse’ Helped Velveeta Bond With Its Biggest Fans,” Advertising Age, March 24, 2014, http://adage.com/article/media/chee sepocalypse-helped-velveeta-bond-biggest-fans/292297/?utm_source=daily_ email&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_campaign=adage&ttl=1396317492.

82. Christie Dedman, “Why the Velveeta Cheesepocalypse Shortage May Be a Good Thing,” AL.com, January 14, 2014, http://blog.al.com/bargain-mom/201 4/01/why_the_velveeta_cheesepocalyp.html.

83. Stephanie Clifford, “Video Prank at Domino’s Taints Brand,” The New York Times, April 16, 2009.

84. Emily Bryson York, “What Domino’s Did Right—and Wrong—in Squelching Hubbub Over YouTube Video; Pizza Purveyor Faulted for Waiting to Respond but Did Well in the End,” Advertising Age, April 20, 2009.

85. Ibid.

86. Raymund Flandez, “Domino’s Response Offers Lessons in Crisis Management,” The Wall Street Journal, April 20, 2009, http://blogs.wsj.com/independentstre et/2009/04/20/dominos-response-offers-lessons-in-crisis-management/.

87. Alice Gomstyn, “Brown’s, Domino’s and Beyond: Business Felled by Crime, Scandal,” ABC News, October 1, 2009, abcnews.go.com/Business/browns- chicken-dominos-crimes-hurt-stores-restaurants/story?id=8706183.

88. David L. Altheide and Robert P. Snow, Media Worlds in the Postjournalism Era (Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine De Gruyter, 1991).

89. Blyskal and Blyskal, PR: How the Public Relations Industry Writes the News.

90. Dana Harris, “Flack Pack Hits Burnout Track,” Variety, April 17–23, 2000.

91. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems; Tim LaPira, “How Much Lobbying Is There in Washington? It’s DOUBLE What You Think,” Sunlight Foundation, November 25, 2013, sunlightfoundation.com/blog/2013/11/25/how-much-lobbying-is-there-in- washington-its-double-what-you-think/.

92. “Lobbying Database,” Open Secrets, June 11, 2016, www.opensecrets.org/lob by/.

93. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems; LaPira, “How Much Lobbying Is There in Washington? It’s DOUBLE What You Think.”

94. Betsy Rothstein, “Capital Living: The Fine Art of Flacking,” The Hill, February 22, 2006

95. Ibid.

96. Betsy Rothstein, “Capital Living: Doing the Write Thing,” The Hill, January 3,

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/style-blog/wp/2014/02/01/cheesepocalypse-surviving-the-super-bowl-without-velveeta/

http://adage.com/article/media/cheesepocalypse-helped-velveeta-bond-biggest-fans/292297/?utm_source=daily_email&utm_medium=newsletter&utm_campaign=adage&ttl=1396317492

http://AL.com

http://blog.al.com/bargain-mom/2014/01/why_the_velveeta_cheesepocalyp.html

http://blogs.wsj.com/independentstreet/2009/04/20/dominos-response-offers-lessons-in-crisis-management/

http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/

2007.

97. Moore and Kalupa, Public Relations: Principles, Cases, and Problems.

98. Randy Sumpter and James Tankard, “The Spin Doctor: An Alternative View of Public Relations,” Public Relations Review 20, no. 1 (1994).

99. Ibid.

100. Daniel Zwerdling, “Fast-Food Deal a Big Win for Small Migrants’ Group,” NPR, June 16, 2005, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4706271.

101. David Halberstam, “And Now, Live From Little Rock,” Newsweek, September 29, 1997.

102. Stephen B. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound (New York: Harper & Row, 1982).

103. Ibid.

104. Martin Luther King Jr., The Autobiography of Martin Luther King Jr., ed. Clayborne Carson (New York: Warner Books, 1998); Steven Kasher, The Civil Rights Movement: A Photographic History, 1954–68 (New York: Abbeville Press, 1996).

105. All quotes in this section are from interviews with Ralph Hanson held on October 20, 2009, and April 25, 2012.

CHAPTER 13

1. Stuart Dredge and Danny Yadron, “Apple Challenges ‘Chilling’ Demand to Decrypt San Bernardino Shooter’s iPhone,” The Guardian, February 17, 2016, h ttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/feb/17/apple-challenges-chilli ng-demand-decrypt-san-bernadino-iphone?CMP=share_btn_link.

p.435

2. Tim Cook, “A Message to Our Customers,” Apple, February 16, 2016, https://w ww.apple.com/customer-letter/.

3. Kim Zetter, “Apple’s FBI Battle Is Complicated. Here’s What’s Really Going On,” Wired, February 18, 2016, https://www.wired.com/2016/02/apples-fbi-b attle-is-complicated-heres-whats-really-going-on/.

4. Maureen Morrison, “With Silicon Valley Support, Apple No Longer Risks Its Brand Alone,” Advertising Age, February 25, 2016, http://adage.com/article/di gital/silli/302853/; “More Support for Justice Department Than for Apple in Dispute Over Unlocking iPhone,” P®ew Research Center, February 2016, http: //www.people-press.org/files/2016/02/2-22-2016-iPhone-release.pdf.

5. Russell Brandom, “Apple’s San Bernardino Fight Is Officially Over as Government Confirms Working Attack,” The Verge, March 28, 2016, http://w

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4706271

https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/feb/17/apple-challenges-chilling-demand-decrypt-san-bernadino-iphone?CMP=share_btn_link

https://www.apple.com/customer-letter/

https://www.wired.com/2016/02/apples-fbi-battle-is-complicated-heres-whats-really-going-on/

http://adage.com/article/digital/silli/302853/

http://www.people-press.org/files/2016/02/2-22-2016-iPhone-release.pdf

http://www.theverge.com/2016/3/28/11317396/apple-fbi-encryption-vacate-iphone-order-san-bernardino

ww.theverge.com/2016/3/28/11317396/apple-fbi-encryption-vacate-iphone -order-san-bernardino; Ellen Nakashima, “FBI Paid Professional Hackers One- Time Fee to Crack San Bernardino iPhone,” The Washington Post, April 12, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/fbi-paid-prof essional-hackers-one-time-fee-to-crack-san-bernardino-iphone/2016/04/12/ 5397814a-00de-11e6-9d36-33d198ea26c5_story.html.

6. “Mobile Technology Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, December 27, 2013, ht tp://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/mobile-technology-fact-sheet/.

7. Fred H. Cate, Privacy in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1997).

8. Ibid.

9. Legal Information Institute, “Legal Information Institute,” Cornell University Law School, www.law.cornell.edu.

10. Kenneth Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation, 3rd ed. (Boston: Focal Press, 2000).

11. Ben H. Bagdikian, “Not Just Another Business,” University of Arizona, 1996, journalism.arizona.edu/.

12. Herbert N. Foerstel, Banned in the Media (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998).

13. Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation; Foerstel, Banned in the Media.

14. Don R. Pember and Clay Calvert, Mass Media Law, 2005–2006 ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005).

15. David L. Hudson Jr., “Libraries and First Amendment,” First Amendment Center, May 25, 2004, http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/patriot-act.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Brian Ross and Richard Esposito, “Federal Source to ABC News: We Know Who You’re Calling,” ABC News: The Blotter, May 17, 2006, blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2006/05/federal_source_.html.

20. Patrick W. Gavin, “ABC’s Ross: Anti-Terrorism Tools Turned on Journos,” Adweek, May 17, 2006, http://www.adweek.com/fishbowldc/abcs-ross-anti-t errorism-tools-turned-on-journos/3459.

21. Harley Geiger, “Issue Brief: Bulk Collection of Records Under Section 215 of the PATRIOT Act,” Center for Democracy and Technology, February 10, 2014, cdt.org/blog/issue-brief-bulk-collection-of-records-under-section-215-of-the- patriot-act/.

22. Cindy Cohn and Nadia Kayyali, “Understanding the New USA FREEDOM Act: Questions, Concerns, and EFF’s Decision to Support the Bill,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, August 7, 2014, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/08/underst anding-new-usa-freedom-act-questions-concerns-and-effs-decision-support;

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/fbi-paid-professional-hackers-one-time-fee-to-crack-san-bernardino-iphone/2016/04/12/5397814a-00de-11e6-9d36-33d198ea26c5_story.html

http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/mobile-technology-fact-sheet/

http://www.law.cornell.edu

http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/patriot-act

http://www.adweek.com/fishbowldc/abcs-ross-anti-terrorism-tools-turned-on-journos/3459

http://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/08/understanding-new-usa-freedom-act-questions-concerns-and-effs-decision-support

Erin Kelly, “Senate Approves USA Freedom Act,” USA Today, June 2, 2015, http ://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2015/06/02/patriot-act-usa-freed om-act-senate-vote/28345747/.

23. Rodney A. Smolla, Law of Defamation (New York: Clark Boardman Company, 1988).

24. Barbara Dill, The Journalist’s Handbook on Libel and Privacy (New York: Free Press, 1986).

25. 376 U.S. 254 (1964).

26. Dill, The Journalist’s Handbook on Libel and Privacy.

27. W. Wat Hopkins, Actual Malice: Twenty-Five Years after Times v. Sullivan (New York: Praeger, 1989).

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. 418 U.S. 323 (1974).

32. Dill, The Journalist’s Handbook on Libel and Privacy.

33. Ellyn Angelotti, “How Courtney Love and U.S.’s First Twitter Libel Trial Could Impact Journalists,” Poynter, January 14, 2014, www.poynter.org/latest-news /top-stories/235728/how-courtney-love-and-u-s-s-first-twitter-libel-trial-cou ld-impact-journalists/.

34. Associated Press, “Courtney Love Wins Twitter Libel Case,” CBS News, January 24, 2014, www.cbsnews.com/news/courtney-love-wins-twitter-libel- case/.

35. Cate, Privacy in the Information Age.

36. Deckle McLean, Privacy and Its Invasion (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995).

37. Dill, The Journalist’s Handbook on Libel and Privacy.

38. Ibid.

39. Pember and Calvert, Mass Media Law.

40. Ibid.

41. Oscar Dixon, “Jordan Reclaims Richest Athlete Title,” USA Today, December 1, 1997.

42. Associated Press, “Jennifer Aniston Settles Lawsuit With ‘Invasive’ Photographer,” Fox News, September 2, 2006, www.foxnews.com/story/0,293 3,211903,00.html?sPage=fnc.entertainment/aniston; “Blogger Sued Over Topless Aniston Photo,” ABC News, February 21, 2007, abcnews.go.com/Entertainment.

43. “Aniston Warns Over Topless Photos,” The Smoking Gun, December 5, 2005, ht tp://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/aniston-warns-over-topless- photos.

44. “Dionne Searcey, “A New California Law Places Paparazzi Under the Spotlight,”

http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2015/06/02/patriot-act-usa-freedom-act-senate-vote/28345747/

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/top-stories/235728/how-courtney-love-and-u-s-s-first-twitter-libel-trial-could-impact-journalists/

http://www.cbsnews.com/news/courtney-love-wins-twitter-libel-case/

http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,211903,00.html?sPage=fnc.entertainment/aniston

http://www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/aniston-warns-over-topless-photos

The Wall Street Journal, October 29, 2009.

45. Adrean S. Taylor, “Common Law Invasion of Privacy Claims in Social Media [Guest Post],” Wassom.com, July 2, 2013, www.wassom.com/common-law-inv asion-of-privacy-claims-in-social-media-guest-post.html.

46. Christopher Dickey, Mark Hosenball, and Geoffrey Cowley, “A Needless Tragedy,” Newsweek, September 22, 1997.

47. Larysa Pyk, “Legislative Update: Putting the Brakes on Paparazzi,” Journal of Art and Entertainment Law 187, no. 9 (1998).

48. Associated Press, “Magazine Fined Over Picture of Diana and Dodi,” Ottawa Citizen, April 29, 1998.

49. Ester Laushway, “What Price Privacy?” Europe, October 1997.

50. “Whose Life Is It Anyway?” Economist, March 9, 2002.

51. Jane Kirtley, “Privacy for Sale,” American Journalism Review, March 2001.

52. Steve Doughty and Richard Simpson, “OK! Magazine Wins Appeal Over Zeta- Jones Wedding Photos—but at a Price,” Daily Mail, May 3, 2007.

53. Dan Tench, “When Uncertainty Takes Precedence: Elton John’s Failed Injunction Against a Newspaper Printing a Photo of Him in the Street Highlights Our Hopelessly Confused Privacy Law,” The Guardian, July 24, 2006, 10.

p.436

54. Adam Wagner, “Is the Human Rights Act Dead?” The Guardian, October 3, 2011, www.guardian.co.uk/law/2011/oct/03/is-the-human-rights-act-dead.

55. Laushway, “What Price Privacy?”

56. Matthew D. Bunker, Justice and the Media: Reconciling Fair Trials and a Free Press (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997).

57. Ibid.

58. 284 U.S. 333 (1966).

59. 284 U.S. 333 (1966); Kyle Niederpruem, “Big Trials Prompt Judges to Issue More Gag Orders,” Quill, June 1997.

60. Ralph E. Hanson, Review of Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trends by Chad F. Nye, Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 70, no. 4 (December 2015), pp. 438–440.

61. Steven Brill, “Cameras Belong in the Courtroom,” USA Today Magazine, July 1996.

62. Joshua Sarner, “Comment: Justice, Take Two: The Continuing Debate Over Cameras in the Courtroom,” Seton Hall Constitutional Journal (2000).

63. “Cameras in the Courtroom,” Quill, September 1999.

64. Associated Press, “Minnesota Tests Cameras in the Courtroom,” Pioneer

http://Wassom.com

http://www.wassom.com/common-law-invasion-of-privacy-claims-in-social-media-guest-post.html

http://www.guardian.co.uk/law/2011/oct/03/is-the-human-rights-act-dead

Press, March 11, 2012, www.twincities.com/localnews/ci_20147979/pilot-pr oject-tests-photo-coverage-minn-courts.

65. Lisa Balde and Phil Rogers, “Judges Enthusiastic About Cameras in the Courtroom,” NBC Chicago, January 24, 2012, www.nbcchicago.com/news/loca l/Illinois-Supreme-Court-Approves-Cameras-in-Trial-Courtrooms-137966308 .html.

66. Zoe Tilllman, “Judges, Attorneys Debate Cameras in the Courtroom,” The BLT: The Blog of LegalTimes, March 28, 2012, legaltimes.typepad.com/blt/2012/03/judges-attorneys-debate-cameras-in- the-courtroom.html.

67. Kathy E. Gill, “Who Really Owns Your Photos in Social Media?” (Updated 2013 Edition), MediaShift, January 25, 2013, www.pbs.org/mediashift/2013/01/wh o-really-owns-your-photos-in-social-media-updated-2013-edition025/.

68. Kerry O’Shea Gorgone, “Who Owns Your Social Media Content?” Social Media Explorer, November 13, 2012, www.socialmediaexplorer.com/media-journalis m/who-owns-your-social-media-content/.

69. Bunker, Justice and the Media.

70. Elliot C. Rothenberg, The Taming of the Press: Cohen v. Cowles Media Company (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1999).

71. Cohen v. Cowles Media Company, 501 U.S. 663 (1991).

72. Lisa de Moraes, “With Appeals Court Ruling, ABC Won’t Pay Food Lion’s Share,” The Washington Post, October 21, 1999; Sue Anne Pressley, “Food Lion Challenges ABC’s Newsgathering; Lawsuit Attacks Hidden Cameras,” The Washington Post, December 12, 1996; James C. Goodale, “Shooting the Messenger Isn’t So Easy,” New York Law Journal, December 3, 1999.

73. Goodale, “Shooting the Messenger Isn’t So Easy.” See also Food Lion v. ABC, 194 F. 3d 505 (4th Cir. 1999).

74. Bunker, Justice and the Media; Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation. See also Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697 (1931).

75. Sanford J. Ungar, The Papers and the Papers (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972).

76. Ibid.

77. Ben Bradlee, A Good Life: Newspapering and Other Adventures (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).

78. Ungar, The Papers and the Papers.

79. Ibid.

80. 403 U.S. 713 (1971).

81. Peter Schrag, Test of Loyalty: Daniel Ellsberg and the Rituals of Secret Government (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974).

82. Francis Wilkinson, Essential Liberty: First Amendment Battles for a Free Press (New York: Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, 1992).

http://www.twincities.com/localnews/ci_20147979/pilot-project-tests-photo-coverage-minn-courts

http://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/Illinois-Supreme-Court-Approves-Cameras-in-Trial-Courtrooms-137966308.html

http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2013/01/who-really-owns-your-photos-in-social-media-updated-2013-edition025/

http://www.socialmediaexplorer.com/media-journalism/who-owns-your-social-media-content/

83. Duncan Campbell, “It’s Time to Take Risks,” The Guardian, December 10, 2002, http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2002/dec/10/biography.usa.

84. Foerstel, Banned in the Media.

85. Howard Morland, The Secret That Exploded (New York: Random House, 1981).

86. Foerstel, Banned in the Media.

87. 484 U.S. 260 (1988).

88. Ibid.

89. Mark Goodman, “Freedom of the Press Stops at the Schoolhouse Gate,” Nieman Reports, Spring 2001.

90. Ibid.

91. “The Legislation,” New Voices USA, http://newvoicesus.com/the-legislation; “Missouri,” New Voices USA, http://newvoicesus.com/missouri/; Kaitlin DeWulf, “Missouri House Overwhelmingly Passes Student Press Freedom Bill,” Student Press Law Center, March 16, 2016, http://www.splc.org/article/2016 /03/missouri-house-overwhelmingly-passes-student-press-freedom-bill.

92. Tara Bahrampour and Lori Aratani, “Teens’ Bold Blogs Alarm Area Schools,” The Washington Post, January 17, 2006, p. A01.

93. “Austin Carroll, Indiana High School Student, Expelled for Tweeting Profanity,” The Huffington Post, March 25, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/25/ austin-carroll-indiana-hi_n_1378250.html.

94. Case argued before the U.S. Supreme Court, March 19, 2007; 551 U.S. 393 (2007).

95. Robert Barnes, “Justices to Hear Landmark Free-Speech Case,” The Washington Post, March 13, 2007, p. A03; Charles Lane, “Court Backs School on Speech Curbs,” The Washington Post, June 26, 2007, p. A06.

96. Ibid.

97. Liz Harper, “First Amendment Understanding Lacking,” PBS, February 7, 2005, www.pbs.org/newshour/.

98. Cora Currier, “Pressure, Potential for a Federal Shield Law,” Columbia Journalism Review, June 13, 2014, www.cjr.org/behind_the_news/shield_law_r isen_etc.php.

99. Zachary M. Seward, “Shield Law: Definition of ‘Journalist’ Gets Professionalized,” Nieman Foundation at Harvard University, September 23, 2009, www.niemanlab.org/2009/09/shield-law-definition-of-journalist-gets-p rofessionalized/.

100. Casey Murray and Kirsten B. Mitchell, “Would a Shield Law Matter?” The News Media and the Law 30, no. 3 (2006), p. 4.

101. Ibid.; Howard Kurtz, “No More Miller Time,” The Washington Post, September 30, 2005, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/blog/2005/09/30/BL20 05093000363.html.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2002/dec/10/biography.usa

http://newvoicesus.com/the-legislation

http://newvoicesus.com/missouri/

http://www.splc.org/article/2016/03/missouri-house-overwhelmingly-passes-student-press-freedom-bill

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/25/austin-carroll-indiana-hi_n_1378250.html

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/

http://www.cjr.org/behind_the_news/shield_law_risen_etc.php

http://www.niemanlab.org/2009/09/shield-law-definition-of-journalist-gets-professionalized/

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/blog/2005/09/30/BL2005093000363.html

102. Ina Fried and Declan McCullagh, “Apple Thwarted in Bid to Unmask Leaker,” CNET News, May 26, 2006, news.cnet.com/Apple%20thwarted%20in%20bid%20to%20unmask%20leaker/2100- 1047_3-6077547.html?tag=item.

103. Howard Kurtz, “Blogger Makes Deal, Is Released From Jail,” The Washington Post, April 4, 2007, p. C01.

104. Ibid.

105. Edward Donnerstein, Daniel Linz, and Steven Penrod, The Question of Pornography (New York: Free Press, 1987).

106. 354 U.S. 476 (1957).

107. U.S. Supreme Court, “Samuel Roth, Petitioner v. United States of America, David S. Alberts, Appellant,” Communications & the Law 21, no. 4 (1999).

p.437

108. Donnerstein, Linz, and Penrod, The Question of Pornography.

109. Ibid.

110. Franklin Mark Osanka and Sara Lee Johann, Sourcebook on Pornography (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1989).

111. Rieko Mashima, “Problem of the Supreme Court’s Obscenity Test Concerning Cyberporn,” The Computer Lawyer 16, no. 11 (1999).

112. Timothy Egan, “Erotica Inc.—A Special Report; Technology Sent Wall Street Into Market for Pornography,” The New York Times, October 23, 2000.

113. Edward Rothstein, “The Owners of Culture vs. the Free Agents,” The New York Times, January 18, 2003.

114. Amy Harmon, “New Visibility for 1998 Copyright Protection Law, With Online Enthusiasts Confused and Frustrated,” The New York Times, August 13, 2001.

115. Minjeong Kim, “The Creative Commons and Copyright Protection in the Digital Era: Uses of Creative Commons Licenses,” Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication 13, no. 1 (2007).

116. Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation.

117. Linda Harowitz, “Laying the Fairness Doctrine to Rest: Was the Doctrine’s Elimination Really Fair?” George Washington Law Review 58, no. 994 (1990).

118. Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation.

119. Harowitz, “Laying the Fairness Doctrine to Rest: Was the Doctrine’s Elimination Really Fair?”

120. Thomas Blaisdell Smith, “Reexamining the Reasonable Access and Equal Time Provisions of the Federal Communications Act,” Georgetown Law Journal 74, no. 1491 (1986); Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation; Dan Fletcher, “The Fairness Doctrine,” Time, February 20, 2009.

121. Rush Limbaugh, “Mr. President, Keep the Airwaves Free,” The Wall Street Journal, February 20, 2009, online.wsj.com/article/SB123508978035028163.html.

122. Brooks Boliek, “FCC Finally Kills Off Fairness Doctrine,” Politico, August 22, 2011, www.politico.com/news/stories/0811/61851.html; Dylan Matthews, “Everything You Need to Know About the Fairness Doctrine in One Post,” Washington Post, August 23, 2011, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klei n/post/every thing-you-need-to-know-about-the-fairness-doctrine-in-one- post/2011/08/23/gIQAN8CXZJ_blog.html.

123. Creech, Electronic Media Law and Regulation.

124. Ibid.

125. Cecilia Kang, “FCC to Draft Net Neutrality Rules, Taking Step Toward Web Regulation,” The Washington Post, October 23, 2009.

126. Foerstel, Banned in the Media.

127. Ibid.

128. Robert McMillan, “What Everyone Gets Wrong in the Debate Over Net Neutrality,” Wired, June 23, 2014, http://www.wired.com/2014/06/net_neutr ality_missing/.

129. Samuel Gibbs, “Google to Extend ‘Right to be Forgotten’ to All Its Domains Accessed in EU,” The Guardian, February 11, 2016, https://www.theguardian.c om/technology/2016/feb/11/google-extend-right-to-be-forgotten- googlecom.

130. Farhad Manjoo, “‘Right to Be Forgotten’ Online Could Spread,” The New York Times, August 5, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/06/technology/per sonaltech/right-to-be-forgotten-online-is-poised-to-spread.html.

131. Mark Scott, “Google Will Further Block Some European Search Results,” The New York Times, February 11, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/12/t echnology/google-will-further-block-some-european-search-results.html.

CHAPTER 14

1. Richard Drew, text of speech delivered September 11, 2002, to the P.I. Reed School of Journalism, University of West Virginia; Kenny Irby, “Behind the Lens: Part 1,” Poynter Institute, October 5, 2001; Jeff Young, interviews with Richard Drew and Richard Pyle, 2002.

2. Irby, “Behind the Lens: Part 1.”

3. Joe Pompeo, “Photographer Behind 9/11 ‘Falling Man’ Retraces Steps, Recalls ‘Unknown Soldier,’” Yahoo News, August 29, 2011, news.yahoo.com/photographer-behind-9-11-falling-man-retraces-steps-

http://online.ws

http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0811/61851.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/every

http://www.wired.com/2014/06/net_neutrality_missing/

https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/feb/11/google-extend-right-to-be-forgotten-googlecom

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/06/technology/personaltech/right-to-be-forgotten-online-is-poised-to-spread.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/12/technology/google-will-further-block-some-european-search-results.html

recalls-unknown-soldier.html.

4. Drew, text of speech.

5. Irby, “Behind the Lens: Part 1.”

6. Mac Daniel, “America Prepares Aftermath of Attack/Images of Loss; Families Scan News Photos for Hope,” The Boston Globe, September 20, 2001.

7. Philip Patterson and Lee Wilkins, Media Ethics, Issues and Cases (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002).

8. Doug Underwood, “Secularists or Modern Day Prophets? Journalists’ Ethics and the Judeo-Christian Tradition,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 16, no. 1 (2001).

9. Franklin Foer, “The Wayward Critic,” New Republic, May 15, 2000.

10. Larry Z. Leslie, Mass Communication Ethics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000).

11. Patterson and Wilkins, Media Ethics, Issues and Cases.

12. David L. Martinson, “Ethical Decision Making in Public Relations: What Would Aristotle Say?” Public Relations Quarterly 45, no. 3 (2000).

13. Will Brinson, “Jeremy Lane Suffers Gruesome Arm Injury in Super Bowl 49 After INT,” CBS Sports, February 1, 2015, http://www.cbssports.com/nfl/eye-o n-football/25016260/jeremy-lane-suffers-gruesome-injury-in-super-bowl-49- after-int.

14. Timothy Burke, “Jeremy Lane’s INT Came at a Cost: This Very Gross Injury,” Deadspin, February 1, 2015, http://deadspin.com/jeremy-lanes-int-came-at-a- cost-this-very-gross-injury-1683141021.

15. Andrew Sharp, “Robert Griffin III and the Heartbreaking Washington Post Sports Page,” SB Nation, January 7, 2013, www.sbnation.com/nfl/2013/1/7/3 845826/robert-griffin-iii-redskins-injury-washington-post.

16. Nick Brincks, Twitter, January 7, 2013, twitter.com/NickBrincks/status/288296830947713026? uid=79253251&iid=d946026a-5679-45a9-b694- 68457e81cbc5&nid=4+246.

17. Timothy Burke, “Kevin Ware Suffered Maybe the Most Gruesome Injury in the History of Televised Sports [WARNING: VERY GROSS],” Deadspin, March 31, 2013, deadspin.com/kevin-ware-suffered-maybe-the-most-gruesome-injury- in-t-464789219; Sam Amick, “Paul George Injury Ends USA Basketball Scrimmage,” USA Today, August 2, 2014, www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nba /2014/08/01/paul-george-injury-team-usa/13498731/.

18. Leslie, Mass Communication Ethics.

19. Patterson and Wilkins, Media Ethics, Issues and Cases.

20. Howard Berkes, Barbara Bradley Hagerty, and Jennifer Ludden, “NBC Defends Release of Va. Tech Gunman Video,” NPR, April 19, 2007, www.npr.or g/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9604204.

http://www.cbssports.com/nfl/eye-on-football/25016260/jeremy-lane-suffers-gruesome-injury-in-super-bowl-49-after-int

http://deadspin.com/jeremy-lanes-int-came-at-a-cost-this-very-gross-injury-1683141021

http://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2013/1/7/3845826/robert-griffin-iii-redskins-injury-washington-post

http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nba/2014/08/01/paul-george-injury-team-usa/13498731/

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9604204

21. Leslie, Mass Communication Ethics.

22. Elizabeth Blanks Hindman, “Divergence of Duty: Differences in Legal and Ethical Responsibilities,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 14, no. 4 (1999).

23. Patterson and Wilkins, Media Ethics, Issues and Cases.

24. Irby, “Behind the Lens: Part 1.”

p.438

25. Patterson and Wilkins, Media Ethics, Issues and Cases.

26. Sissela Bok, Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).

27. Martinson, “Ethical Decision Making in Public Relations: What Would Aristotle Say?”

28. John C. Merrill, “Needed: A More Ethical Press,” in The Media and Morality, ed. Robert M. Baird, William E. Loges, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1999).

29. David L. Martinson, “Ethical Decision Making in Public Relations: What Would Aristotle Say?” Public Relations Quarterly 45, no. 3 (2000).

30. Adam Kirsch, “He Wrote What They Wanted,” The New York Sun, January 11, 2006; “A Million Little Lies,” The Smoking Gun, January 8, 2006, www.thesmok inggun.com/jamesfrey/0104061jamesfrey1.html.

31. Ibid.

32. Scott Eyman, “It’s My Story (and I’ll Lie If I Want to),” Palm Beach Post, February 21, 2006.

33. Steven Brill, “Rewind: What Book Reviews Don’t Review,” Brill’s Content, August 1999.

34. Paul Tullis and Lorne Manly, “Slipping Past the Fact Checkers: How Magazines Do and Do Not Check Their Stories,” Brill’s Content, July/August 1998.

35. Ann Reilly Dowd, “The Great Pretender: How a Writer Fooled His Readers,” Columbia Journalism Review, July/August 1998.

36. “Shattered Glass,” Vanity Fair, October 2007.

37. Tullis and Manly, “Slipping Past the Fact Checkers: How Magazines Do and Do Not Check Their Stories.”

38. Dowd, “The Great Pretender: How a Writer Fooled His Readers.”

39. Jose Antonio Vargas, “My Life as an Undocumented Immigrant,” The New York Times, June 22, 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/magazine/my-life-as-a n-undocumented-immigrant.html.

40. Jamil Smith, “Putting a Face to the Name ‘Illegal,’” MSNBC, June 29, 2011, ww w.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/putting-face-the-name-illegal.

41. Frances Martel, “The Washington Post Turned Down Jose Vargas’s Illegal

http://www.thesmokinggun.com/jamesfrey/0104061jamesfrey1.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/magazine/my-life-as-an-undocumented-immigrant.html

http://www.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/putting-face-the-name-illegal

Immigrant Story,” Mediaite, June 22, 2011, www.mediaite.com/online/the-wa shington-post-turned-down-jose-vargas-illegal-immigrant-story/.

42. Mike Pesca, “Journalist Jose Vargas’s Illegal Immigration Revelation,” On the Media, June 24, 2011, http://www.wnyc.org/story/142816-journalist-jose-va rgas-illegal-immigration-revelation.

43. Phil Bronstein, “I Was Duped by Jose Vargas, Illegal Immigrant,” Bronstein at Large, June 22, 2011, blog.sfgate.com/bronstein/2011/06/22/i-was-duped- by-jose-vargas-illegal-immigrant/.

44. Charles Davis and Stephanie Craft, “New Media Synergy: Emergence of Institutional Conflicts of Interest,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 15, no. 4 (2000).

45. Staci D. Kramer, “Another Newspaper Buys Into a Baseball Team,” Editor & Publisher, January 6, 1996; Richard Sandomir, “New Owner to Improve Wrigley, and Maybe the Cubs,” The New York Times, October 31, 2009.

46. Mark Berman, “Washington Post Reporter Arrested in Ferguson,” The Washington Post, August 13, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/p ost-nation/wp/2014/08/13/washington-post-reporter-arrested-in-ferguson/.

47. Ravi Somaiya and Ashley Southall, “Arrested in Ferguson Last Year, 2 Reporters Are Charged,” The New York Times, August 10, 2015, http://www.n ytimes.com/2015/08/11/us/arrested-in-ferguson-2014-washington-post-rep orter-wesley-lowery-is-charged.html.

48. Benjamin Mullin, “Major News Outlets Condemn Charges Against Reports in Ferguson Arrests,” Poynter, August 18, 2015, http://www.poynter.org/2015/m ajor-news-outlets-condemn-charges-against-reporters-in-ferguson-arrests/3 66985/.

49. John Nolte, “Ferguson: Washington Post Reporter Charged With Trespassing, Interfering With Police Officer,” Breitbart, August 11, 2015, http://www.breit bart.com/big-journalism/2015/08/11/ferguson-washington-post-reporter-cha rged-with-trespassing-interfering-with-police-officer/.

50. Niraj Chokshi, “Ferguson-Related Charges Dropped Against Washington Post and Huffington Post Reporters,” The Washington Post, May 19, 2016, https:// www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/05/19/ferguson-relat ed-charges-dropped-against-washington-post-and-huffington-post-reporters/ ?utm_term=.5041ce024aa8.

51. Lance Morrow, “Journalism After Diana,” in The Media and Morality, ed. Robert M. Baird, William E. Loges, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1999).

52. Edna Buchanan, The Corpse Had a Familiar Face (New York: Charter Books, 1987).

53. William L. Hamilton, “Low Down; Repulsed, yet Watching All the Same,” The New York Times, December 3, 2006.

54. Jacqueline Sharkey, “The Diana Aftermath,” in The Media and Morality, ed.

http://www.mediaite.com/online/the-washington-post-turned-down-jose-vargas-illegal-immigrant-story/

http://www.wnyc.org/story/142816-journalist-jose-vargas-illegal-immigration-revelation

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2014/08/13/washington-post-reporter-arrested-in-ferguson/

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/us/arrested-in-ferguson-2014-washington-post-reporter-wesley-lowery-is-charged.html

http://www.poynter.org/2015/major-news-outlets-condemn-charges-against-reporters-in-ferguson-arrests/366985/

http://www.breitbart.com/big-journalism/2015/08/11/ferguson-washington-post-reporter-charged-with-trespassing-interfering-with-police-officer/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/05/19/ferguson-related-charges-dropped-against-washington-post-and-huffington-post-reporters/?utm_term=.5041ce024aa8

Robert M. Baird, William E. Loges, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1999); Howard Kurtz, “Shakeup at ABC: Coverage of Tiger Woods,” CNN, December 13, 2009, http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS /0912/13/rs.01.html.

55. Sharkey, “The Diana Aftermath.”

56. Ibid.

57. Editors, Columbia Journalism Review, “What Do We Do Now?” in The Media and Morality, ed. Robert M. Baird, William E. Loges, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1999).

58. Ibid.

59. Adam Goodheart, “Sleaze Journalism? It’s an Old Story,” in The Media and Morality, ed. Robert M. Baird, William E. Loges, and Stuart E. Rosenbaum (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1999).

60. Ibid.

61. Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New York: Penguin Books, 1985).

62. Richard L. Connor, “A Note of Apology to Readers,” Portland Press Herald, September 19, 2010, www.pressherald.com/note-of-apology.html.

63. Bob Garfield, “For Some, an Apology Offends,” On the Media, September 17, 2010, http://www.wnyc.org/story/132914-for-some-an-apology-offends/.

64. Richard L. Connor, “Remembering E. B. White’s Sage Advice,” Portland Press Herald, September 19, 2010, www.pressherald.com/news/remembering-e_b_- whites-sage-advice_2010-09-19.html.

65. Tamara Jones and Ann Scott Tyson, “After 44 Hours, Hope Showed Its Cruel Side,” The Washington Post, January 5, 2006.

66. “Manchin at a Loss to Explain Rescue Miscommunication: Governor Says He Got Caught Up in Families’ Celebration,” Charleston Daily Mail, January 4, 2006.

67. Joe Strupp, “Local W. Va. Paper Says Skepticism Helped It Avoid Mining Story Goof,” Editor & Publisher, January 4, 2006.

68. Ibid.

69. Vicki Smith, “Family Members Report 12 Trapped Miners Are Alive,” Charleston Gazette, January 4, 2006.

70. Ralph Hanson, “Searching for a Miracle: Media Lessons From the West Virginia Mine Disaster,” Montana Journalism Review (2006).

p.439

71. “Asked to Do Something Unethical,” SportsShooter, January 29, 2008, www.sp ortsshooter.com/message_display.html?tid=28059.

72. Ralph Hanson, “Lesson of the Day: Don’t Photoshop Details Out of News

http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0912/13/rs.01.html

http://www.pressherald.com/note-of-apology.html

http://www.wnyc.org/story/132914-for-some-an-apology-offends/

http://www.pressherald.com/news/remembering-e_b_-whites-sage-advice_2010-09-19.html

http://www.sportsshooter.com/message_display.html?tid=28059

Photos,” Living in a Media World, December 3, 2013, www.ralphehanson.com/ 2013/12/03/lesson-of-the-day-dont-photoshop-details-out-of-news-photos/.

73. Gil Klein, “Computer Graphics Now Allow Subtle Alteration of News Photos,” The Christian Science Monitor, August 1, 1985.

74. Chuck Strouse, “Listen Up, McClatchy,” Miami New Times, July 27, 2006.

75. Jennifer Dorroh, “The Ombudsman Puzzle,” American Journalism Review, February/March 2005, ajrarchive.org/article.asp?id=3824.

76. Andrew Alexander, “Welcome to the Omblog,” The Washington Post, May 4, 2009, voices.washingtonpost.com/ombudsman- blog/2009/05/welcome_to_the_omblog.html.

77. Sanders LaMont, “Lending an Ear,” Organization of News Ombudsmen, 1999, www.newsombudsmen.org.

78. Kelly McBride, “NPR Ombud’s Latest Report Raises Important Questions, but It’s Not Without Flaws,” Poynter, August 19, 2013, www.poynter.org/latest-n ews/creating-a-framework-for-ethical-decision-making-among-journalists-and -those-who-care-about-democracy/221221/npr-ombuds-latest-report-raises-i mportant-questions-but-its-not-without-flaws/.

79. Simon Dumenco, “Is the Newspaper Ombudsman More or Less Obsolete? Five Reasons Why Having a ‘Public Editor’ at the Times and Other Papers No Longer Makes Much Sense,” Advertising Age, March 24, 2008.

80. Paul Farhi, “How Publishing a 35,000-Word Manifesto Led to the Unabomber,” The Washington Post, September 19, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com /lifestyle/style/how-publishing-a-35000-word-manifesto-led-to-the-unabomb er/2015/09/18/e55229e0-5cac-11e5-9757-e49273f05f65_story.html.

81. Jay Black, Bob Steele, and Ralph Barney, Doing Ethics in Journalism (Birmingham, Ala.: EBSCO Media, 1993).

82. Alex S. Jones, “Facing Ethical Challenges: The Integrity/Judgment Grid,” Columbia Journalism Review, November/December 1999.

83. Jeffrey L. Seglin, “Codes of Ethics: Why Writing Them Is Not Enough,” Media Ethics, Spring 2002.

84. Robert Jackall and Janice M. Hirota, Image Makers: Advertising, Public Relations, and the Ethos of Advocacy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

85. Geoffrey A. Fowler, “What You Can Do About Facebook Tracking,” The Wall Street Journal, August 5, 2014, online.wsj.com/articles/what-you-can-do- about-facebook-tracking-1407263246.

86. Julian Smith, “What Matters in Mobile,” The Drum, August 4, 2014, www.thed rum.com/opinion/2014/08/04/promise-right-person-right-time-right-place-ad -targeting-becoming-reality-mobile.

87. Gavin O’Malley, “Facebook Improves Mobile Ad Targeting to Specific Devices,” Mobile Marketing Daily, July 23, 2014, www.mediapost.com/publications/arti

http://www.ralphehanson.com/2013/12/03/lesson-of-the-day-dont-photoshop-details-out-of-news-photos/

http://www.newsombudsmen.org

http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/creating-a-framework-for-ethical-decision-making-among-journalists-and-those-who-care-about-democracy/221221/npr-ombuds-latest-report-raises-important-questions-but-its-not-without-flaws/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/how-publishing-a-35000-word-manifesto-led-to-the-unabomber/2015/09/18/e55229e0-5cac-11e5-9757-e49273f05f65_story.html

http://online.ws

http://www.thedrum.com/opinion/2014/08/04/promise-right-person-right-time-right-place-ad-targeting-becoming-reality-mobile

http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/230623/facebook-improves-mobile-ad-targeting-to-specific.html

cle/230623/facebook-improves-mobile-ad-targeting-to-specific.html.

88. Patterson and Wilkins, Media Ethics, Issues and Cases.

89. Rogier van Bakel, “Tall-Claims Court,” The Christian Science Monitor, February 14, 2000.

90. “Health Claims,” Federal Trade Commission, August 20, 2014, www.ftc.gov/ne ws-events/media-resources/truth-advertising/health-claims.

91. Van Bakel, “Tall-Claims Court.”

92. Ibid.

93. Ibid.

94. M. L. Stein, “Auto Dealers Banned From Boycotting Calif. Media Outlets,” Editor & Publisher, April 19, 1995.

95. M. J. Lee, “Rush Limbaugh Loses 45 Advertisers,” Politico, March 6, 2012, ww w.politico.com/news/stories/0312/73675.html.

96. Paul D. Colford, “Whose Copy Is It Anyway?” Los Angeles Times, June 5, 1997.

97. News Services, “Is Esquire Slip a Step Up for Mankind?” Star Tribune, July 12, 1997.

98. Dave Phillips, “Chrysler Drops Censorship Policy,” Detroit News, October 14, 1997.

99. Carol Krol, “MPA Joins Editors to Limit Advertiser Interference,” Advertising Age, September 29, 1997.

100. Jim Edwards, “Nicetv,” Brill’s Content, March 2001.

101. Valerie Kuklenski, “All in the Family; Advertisers Praise—and Fund—Shows for Everyone,” Daily News of Los Angeles, December 7, 2006; Stuart Elliot, “Marketers, Seeking Family Show, Hold Script Contest,” The New York Times, www.nytimes.com/2012/01/23/business/media/marketers-seeking-family-sh ows-hold-a-script-contest.html; “About,” ANA Alliance for Family Entertainment, http://www.anaafe.net/about/.

102. John C. Stauber and Sheldon Rampton, Toxic Sludge Is Good for You: Lies, Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995).

103. Ibid.; Susanne A. Roschwalb, “The Hill & Knowlton Cases: A Brief on the Controversy,” Public Relations Review 20, no. 3 (1994).

104. Stauber and Rampton, Toxic Sludge Is Good for You.

105. Mary McGrory, “PR Ploy Exaggerated Case Against Iraq,” St. Louis Post- Dispatch, January 16, 1992.

106. Robert L. Koenig, “Testimony of Kuwaiti Envoy’s Child Assailed,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, January 9, 1992.

107. Cornelius B. Pratt, “Hill & Knowlton’s Two Ethical Dilemmas,” Public Relations Review 20, no. 3 (1994).

108. Martinson, “Ethical Decision Making in Public Relations: What Would

http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/media-resources/truth-advertising/health-claims

http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0312/73675.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/23/business/media/marketers-seeking-family-shows-hold-a-script-contest.html

http://www.anaafe.net/about/

Aristotle Say?”

109. Jay Hathaway, “What Is Gamergate, and Why? An Explainer for Non-Geeks,” Gawker, October 10, 2014, http://gawker.com/what-is-gamergate-and-why-a n-explainer-for-non-geeks-1642909080.

110. Abby Ohlheiser, “Why ‘Social Justice Warrior,’ a Gamergate Insult, Is Now a Dictionary Entry,” The Washington Post, October 7, 2015, https://www.washin gtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/10/07/why-social-justice-warrior -a-gamergate-insult-is-now-a-dictionary-entry/.

111. Caitlin Dewey, “In the Battle of Internet Mobs vs. the Law, the Internet Mobs Have Won,” The Washington Post, February 17, 2016, www.washingtonpost.c om/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/02/17/in-the-battle-of-internet-mobs-vs-th e-law-the-internet-mobs-have-won/.

112. Caitlin Dewey, “The Only Guide to Gamergate You Will Ever Need to Read,” The Washington Post, October 14, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/n ews/the-intersect/wp/2014/10/14/the-only-guide-to-gamergate-you-will-ev er-need-to-read/.

113. Sarah Kaplan, “The Ordeal of Sportscaster Erin Andrews: ‘Oh, My God . . . I Was Naked All Over the Internet,’” The Washington Post, March 1, 2016, http s://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/03/01/the-ordeal -of-espns-erin-andrews-target-of-nude-peephole-videos-and-sexist-affronts/? hpid=hp_no-name_morning-mix-story-f-duplicate%3Ahomepage%2Fstory.

CHAPTER 15

1. Joby Warrick and Swati Sharma, “The Ordeal of Post Reporter Jason Rezaian,” The Washington Post, January 16, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/w orld/the-washington-posts-jason-rezaian-has-now-spent-a-full-year-in-an-iran ian-jail/2015/07/21/811bb46e-2cd7-11e5-bd33-395c05608059_story.html.

p.440

2. “2015 Prison Census: 199 Journalists Jailed Worldwide,” Committee to Protect Journalists, December 1, 2015, https://cpj.org/imprisoned/2015.php.

3. Warrick and Sharma, “The Ordeal of Post Reporter Jason Rezaian.”

4. Karen DeYoung and Carol Morello, “Freeing a Reporter: Secret Diplomatic Talks and Private Back Channels,” The Washington Post, January 17, 2016, htt ps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/freeing-jason-secret- diplomatic-talks-and-private-back-channels/2016/01/17/aaf01484-bc7d-11 e5-829c-26ffb874a18d_story.html.

5. Andrew Roth, “Post Owner Jeff Bezos Flies Reporter Jason Rezaian to U.S.

http://gawker.com/what-is-gamergate-and-why-an-explainer-for-non-geeks-1642909080

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/10/07/why-social-justice-warrior-a-gamergate-insult-is-now-a-dictionary-entry/

http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/02/17/in-the-battle-of-internet-mobs-vs-the-law-the-internet-mobs-have-won/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2014/10/14/the-only-guide-to-gamergate-you-will-ever-need-to-read/

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/03/01/the-ordeal-of-espns-erin-andrews-target-of-nude-peephole-videos-and-sexist-affronts/?hpid=hp_no-name_morning-mix-story-f-duplicate%3Ahomepage%2Fstory

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the-washington-posts-jason-rezaian-has-now-spent-a-full-year-in-an-iranian-jail/2015/07/21/811bb46e-2cd7-11e5-bd33-395c05608059_story.html

https://cpj.org/imprisoned/2015.php

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/freeing-jason-secret-diplomatic-talks-and-private-back-channels/2016/01/17/aaf01484-bc7d-11e5-829c-26ffb874a18d_story.html

After Iran Release,” The Washington Post, January 22, 2016, https://www.was hingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/post-reporter-rezaian-flies-to-us-after-re lease-by-iran-checkups-in-germany/2016/01/22/b47273ba-c09e-11e5-bcda- 62a36b394160_story.html.

6. Editorial Board, “Iran’s Appalling Treatment of Journalists Has Not Ended,” The Washington Post, January 24, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinio ns/irans-appalling-treatment-of-journalists-has-not-ended/2016/01/24/58d8 bc42-c131-11e5-bcda-62a36b394160_story.html.

7. “2015 Prison Census: 199 Journalists Jailed Worldwide.”

8. Dana Milbank, “After 18 Months in an Iranian Prison, a Triumphant Return for Jason Rezaian,” The Washington Post, January 29, 2016, https://www.washin gtonpost.com/opinions/after-18-months-in-an-iranian-prison-a-triumphant-re turn-for-jason-rezaian/2016/01/29/6bf3a3ba-c63f-11e5-a4aa-f25866ba0dc 6_story.html.

9. Brooke Gladstone and Bob Garfield, “Leaving the Story,” On the Media, June 26, 2009, http://www.wnyc.org/story/132412-leaving-the-story/#transcript.

10. “Rezaian Case Will Affect Iran Coverage, Washington Post Editor Says,” Voice of America, February 2, 2016, http://www.voanews.com/content/jason-rezaia n-washington-post-reporter-editor-iran-coverage/3174439.html.

11. Khushbu Shah, “Anthony Bourdain Calls Journalist Jason Rezaian’s Espionage Conviction a ‘Sickening Injustice,” Eater, October 12, 2015, http://www.eater. com/2015/10/12/9512231/anthony-bourdain-jason-rezaian-espionage-iran.

12. Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm, Four Theories of the Press (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1956).

13. John C. Nerone, ed., Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995).

14. Denis McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 5th ed. (London: Sage Publications, 2005).

15. “Censorship Has Many Faces,” World Press Review, April 1997.

16. “World Press Freedom Index 2016,” Reporters Without Borders for Freedom of Information, April 20, 1016, rsf.org/en/news/2016-world-press-freedom- index-leaders-paranoid-about-journalists.

17. Nerone, Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press.

18. Siebert et al., Four Theories of the Press.

19. Nerone, Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press.

20. Siebert et al., Four Theories of the Press.

21. Nerone, Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press.

22. Siebert et al., Four Theories of the Press.

23. Nerone, ed., Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press.

24. Siebert et al., Four Theories of the Press.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/post-reporter-rezaian-flies-to-us-after-release-by-iran-checkups-in-germany/2016/01/22/b47273ba-c09e-11e5-bcda-62a36b394160_story.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/irans-appalling-treatment-of-journalists-has-not-ended/2016/01/24/58d8bc42-c131-11e5-bcda-62a36b394160_story.html

https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/after-18-months-in-an-iranian-prison-a-triumphant-return-for-jason-rezaian/2016/01/29/6bf3a3ba-c63f-11e5-a4aa-f25866ba0dc6_story.html

http://www.wnyc.org/story/132412-leaving-the-story/#transcript

http://www.voanews.com/content/jason-rezaian-washington-post-reporter-editor-iran-coverage/3174439.html

http://www.eater.com/2015/10/12/9512231/anthony-bourdain-jason-rezaian-espionage-iran

25. Doris Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 7th ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2006).

26. Nerone, ed., Last Rights: Revisiting Four Theories of the Press.

27. McQuail, McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

28. Bob Garfield, “Pulling the Plug,” On the Media, May 18, 2007, http://www.wny c.org/story/129427-pulling-the-plug/; Associated Press, “Anti-Chavez TV Company Struggles to Survive,” The San Diego Union-Tribune, May 22, 2012, h ttp://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/2012/may/22/anti-chavez-tv-co mpany-struggles-to-survive/; Silvia Higuera, “Venezuela’s Supreme Court: Inter-American Court’s Ruling on RCTV Is ‘Unenforceable,’” Journalism in the Americas Blog, September 22, 2015, https://knightcenter.utexas.edu/blog/00 -16310-venezuelas-supreme-court-inter-american-courts-ruling-rctv-unenfor ceable.

29. Thomas Standage, The Victorian Internet (New York: Berkley Books, 1998), pp. xvii–xviii.

30. Alan Wells, “Introduction,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

31. Rowland Lorimer and Mike Gasher, Mass Communication in Canada, 5th ed. (Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press, 2004).

32. Ibid.; Brian Morton, “Feature Film Sector Slows as TV Production Ramps Up,” Vancouver Sun, May 28, 2012, http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=94c7dc 72-2cca-4115-8403-a674526ca52f; Toronto City Council Economic Development Committee, “Film and Television Industry Facts,” ACTRA Toronto, April 2015, http://www.actratoronto.com/advocacy/industry-facts/..

33. Bob Garfield, “God Is Great (Funny, Too),” On the Media, May 18, 2007, http:// www.wnyc.org/story/129430-god-is-great-funny-too/.

34. Ibid.

35. Lorimer and Gasher, Mass Communication in Canada.

36. Ibid.

37. Wells, “Introduction.”

38. Ibid.

39. Kevin Williams, European Media Studies (London: Hodder Arnold, 2005); “Facts & Figures,” Association of Commercial Television in Europe, 2012, www. acte.be/.

40. Graber, Mass Media and American Politics.

41. Williams, European Media Studies.

42. Brooke Gladstone, “On Je Suis Charlie,” On the Media, January 9, 2015, http:/ /www.wnyc.org/story/on-je-suis-charlie/#transcript.

43. Brian Love, “Refile-No Rule, No Regrets for French Cartoonists in Mohammad Storm,” Reuters, September 19, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/film-pr

http://www.wnyc.org/story/129427-pulling-the-plug/

http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/2012/may/22/anti-chavez-tv-company-struggles-to-survive/

https://knightcenter.utexas.edu/blog/00-16310-venezuelas-supreme-court-inter-american-courts-ruling-rctv-unenforceable

http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=94c7dc72-2cca-4115-8403-a674526ca52f

http://www.actratoronto.com/advocacy/industry-facts/

http://www.wnyc.org/story/129430-god-is-great-funny-too/

http://www.acte.be/

http://www.wnyc.org/story/on-je-suis-charlie/#transcript

http://www.reuters.com/article/film-protests-charlie-idUSL5E8KJE6320120919

otests-charlie-idUSL5E8KJE6320120919.

44. Mark Memmott, “Why You’re Not Seeing Those ‘Charlie Hebdo’ Cartoons,” NPR, January 10, 2015, http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/01/1 0/376098073/why-youre-not-seeing-those-charlie-hebdo-cartoons.

45. Margaret Sullivan, “With New Charlie Hebdo Cover, News Value Should Have Prevailed,” The New York Times, Jan 14, 2015, http://publiceditor.blogs.nytim es.com/2015/01/14/with-new-charlie-hebdo-cover-news-value-should-have- prevailed/?_r=0.

46. Aaron Blake, “How Do Americans Feel About Muhammad Cartoons?” The Washington Post, January 7, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/th e-fix/wp/2015/01/07/how-do-americans-feel-about-muhammad-cartoons/.

47. Flemming Rose, “Why I Published Those Cartoons,” The Washington Post, February 19, 2006.

48. Daryl Cagle, “Two Kinds of Offensive Cartoonists,” Cagle Cartoons, February 13, 2006, http://www.caglecartoons.com/column.asp?ColumnID=%7B3FA565 D3-2A09-4772-8135-174B4DDF1AD4%7D.

49. Philip Kennicott, “Clash Over Cartoons Is a Caricature of Civilization,” The Washington Post, February 4, 2006.

50. Ibid.

p.441

51. Agence France-Presse, “Danish Cartoonist Attacker Has 10-Year Sentence Confirmed,” Vancouver Sun, May 2, 2012, www.vancouversun.com/.

52. Angela Charlton, “Depictions Put Press Freedoms to the Test,” Star-Ledger, February 7, 2006.

53. Staff, “Forms of Intolerance,” The Boston Globe, February 4, 2006.

54. Donnalyn Pompper, “Latin America and the Caribbean,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

55. Thomas L. McPhail, Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2006).

56. “World Press Freedom Index 2016.”

57. Nicole Gaouette, “Mideast’s Clash of Images,” The Christian Science Monitor, October 21, 2000.

58. “96 Journalists Killed in Syria Since 1992/Motive Confirmed,” Committee to Protect Journalists, https://www.cpj.org/killed/mideast/syria/.

59. “Journalism in Syria, Impossible Job?” Reporters Without Borders for Freedom of Information, November 6, 2013, en.rsf.org/syrie-journalism-in-syria- impossible-job-06-11-2013,45424.html; Elle Shearer, “In Syria, Freelancers Like James Foley Covers a Dangerous War Zone With No Front Lines,” The Washington Post, August 22, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-syr

http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/01/10/376098073/why-youre-not-seeing-those-charlie-hebdo-cartoons

http://publiceditor.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/01/14/with-new-charlie-hebdo-cover-news-value-should-have-prevailed/?_r=0

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/01/07/how-do-americans-feel-about-muhammad-cartoons/

http://www.caglecartoons.com/column.asp?ColumnID=%7B3FA565D3-2A09-4772-8135-174B4DDF1AD4%7D

http://www.vancouversun.com/

https://www.cpj.org/killed/mideast/syria/

http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-syria-freelancers-like-james-foley-covera-dangerous-war-zone-with-no-front-lines/2014/08/22/25e4bfda-295b-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html

ia-freelancers-like-james-foley-covera-dangerous-war-zone-with-no-front-line s/2014/08/22/25e4bfda-295b-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html; Karen DeYoung and Adam Goldman, “Islamic State Claims It Executed American Photojournalist James Foley,” The Washington Post, August 20, 2014, www.wa shingtonpost.com/world/national-security/islamic-state-claims-it-beheaded-a merican-photojournalist-james-foley/2014/08/19/42e83970-27e6-11e4-86c a-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html.

60. “World Press Freedom Index 2016”; “96 Journalists Killed in Syria Since 1992/Motive Confirmed.”

61. Ibid.

62. Kai Hafez, ed., Mass Media, Politics, and Society in the Middle East (Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 2001).

63. Ibid.

64. Fred Strickert, “War on the Web,” Christian Century, May 16, 2001.

65. Ibid.

66. I would like to thank Charley Reed, a communications graduate student at University of Nebraska at Omaha, for his research and work on the new media coverage of the Iranian protests section of this chapter.

67. Ali Arouzi, “Iran to Media: No Cameras Allowed,” World Blog, June 16, 2009, h ttp://worldblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2009/06/16/4376296-iran-to-media-no -cameras-allowed; Brian Stelter, “Journalism Rules Are Bent in News Coverage from Iran,” The New York Times, June 29, 2009; Brian Stelter, “In Coverage of Iran, Amateurs Take the Lead,” The New York Times: Media Decoder, June 17, 2009, mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/17/in- coverage-of-iran-amateurs-take-the-lead; Gaurav Mishra, “The Digital News Lifecycle: Why Breaking News on Twitter Isn’t News Anymore,” MSFS 556 at Georgetown University, January 18, 2009, https://blogs.commons.georgetow n.edu/msfs-556-spring2009/the-digital-news-lifecycle-why-breaking-news-on -twitter-isnt-news-anymore/.

68. Everette E. Dennis, Justin D. Martin, and Robb Wood, “Media Use in the Middle East, 2015,” Northwestern University in Qatar, March 9, 2016, http:// www.mideastmedia.org/survey/2016/.

69. Ibid.

70. Hussein Y. Amin, “The Middle East and North Africa,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

71. “World Press Freedom Index 2016”; “Saudi Blogger Raif Badawi Completes Fourth Year in Prison,” Reporters Without Borders, June 17, 2016, https://rsf.o rg/en/news/saudi-blogger-raif-badawi-completes-fourth-year-prison.

72. Peter Feuilherade, “Analysis: Politics Affect Funding of Arab Satellite TV Stations,” BBC Monitoring International Reports (2007).

73. Christophe Ayad, “Middle East Media Pluralism via Satellite,” UNESCO

http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/islamic-state-claims-it-beheaded-american-photojournalist-james-foley/2014/08/19/42e83970-27e6-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html

http://worldblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2009/06/16/4376296-iran-to-media-no-cameras-allowed

https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/msfs-556-spring2009/the-digital-news-lifecycle-why-breaking-news-on-twitter-isnt-news-anymore/

http://www.mideastmedia.org/survey/2016/

https://rsf.org/en/news/saudi-blogger-raif-badawi-completes-fourth-year-prison

Courier, January 2000.

74. Isabel Hilton, “‘Al-Jazeera’: And Now, the Other News,” The New York Times, March 6, 2005.

75. Brooke Gladstone, “Al-Nielsens,” On the Media, December 16, 2005, http://w ww.onthemedia.org/story/128910-al-nielsens/transcript/.

76. Mark Memmott, “Former Marine in Media Glare as He Joins Al-Jazeera,” USA Today, September 28, 2005.

77. Hilton, “‘Al-Jazeera’: And Now, the Other News.”

78. “Al Jazeera Journalists Freed From Egypt Prison,” Al Jazeera, September 23, 2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/al-jazeera-journalists-pardon ed-egypt-150923112113189.html.

79. Tawana Kupe, “New Forms of Cultural Identity in an African Society,” Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science 8, no. 4 (1995).

80. Ibid.

81. Mohamed Keita, “In Africa, Development Still Comes at Freedom’s Expense,” Committee to Protect Journalists, February 2012, www.cpj.org/2012/02/atta cks-on-the-press-in-2011-in-africa-a-return-of.php.

82. Abu-Bakarr Jalloh, “Reporters Without Borders: ‘Press Freedom in Africa Remains Grim,’” Deutsche Welle, http://www.dw.com/en/reporters-without-bo rders-press-freedom-in-africa-remains-grim/a-18423623.

83. Keita, “In Africa, Development Still Comes at Freedom’s Expense.”

84. Osabuohien P. Amienyi and Gerard Igyor, “Sub-Saharan Africa,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

85. Jean Huteau, “Media Self-Control, the South’s New Option,” UNESCO Courier, April 2000.

86. Amienyi and Igyor, “Sub-Saharan Africa.”

87. Richard Harrington, “‘World Beat’ Rattles Pop Music Scene,” Toronto Star, June 18, 1988.

88. Jim Miller, “Simon’s Spirit of Soweto,” Newsweek, November 17, 1986.

89. Bob Young, “Bongo Maffin Sets Message to Dance Beat,” Boston Herald, August 16, 2002.

90. Miller, “Simon’s Spirit of Soweto.”

91. Harrington, “‘World Beat’ Rattles Pop Music Scene.”

92. Janis E. Overlock, “The Former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

93. Ibid.

94. Eline Gordts, “Putin’s Press: How Russia’s President Controls the News,” The Huffington Post, October 24, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/vla

http://www.onthemedia.org/story/128910-al-nielsens/transcript/

http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/al-jazeera-journalists-pardoned-egypt-150923112113189.html

http://www.cpj.org/2012/02/attacks-on-the-press-in-2011-in-africa-a-return-of.php

http://www.dw.com/en/reporters-without-borders-press-freedom-in-africa-remains-grim/a-18423623

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/vladimir-putin-russia-news-media_us_56215944e4b0bce34700b1df

dimir-putin-russia-news-media_us_56215944e4b0bce34700b1df.

95. Elena Milashina, “Ahead of Elections, Russian Media Are Duly Warned,” Committee to Protect Journalists, March 2, 2012, www.cpj.org/blog/2012/03 /ahead-of-elections-russian-media-has-been-duly-war.php.

96. Beth Knobel, “Boris Yeltsin,” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 3, no. 4 (1998).

97. Hsiang-Wen Hsiao, “Asia,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

p.442

98. BS Reporters, “DTH, Digital Cable Penetration to Drive TV Growth: Report,” Business Standard, September 20, 2014, http://www.business-standard.com/ article/companies/dth-digital-cable-penetration-to-drive-tv-growth-report-11 4092000020_1.html.

99. Uday Sahay, ed., Making News: Handbook of Media in Contemporary India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006).

100. “World Press Freedom Index 2016.”

101. Gaurav Mishra, “Social Media and Citizen Journalism in the 11/26 Mumbai Terror Attacks: A Case Study,” Gauravonomiccs, November 28, 2008, www.gau ravonomics.com/.

102. Brooke Gladstone, “Detailed Coverage,” On the Media, December 5, 2008, htt p://www.wnyc.org/story/131229-detailed-coverage/.

103. Ibid.

104. Kenneth C. Petress, “China,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

105. “China,” CASBAA, http://www.casbaa.com/advertising/countries/china.

106. “China Profile—Media,” BBC News, April 26, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news /world-asia-pacific-13017881.

107. “The Chinese Media: More Autonomous and Diverse—Within Limits,” Central Intelligence Agency, June 19, 2013, https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-th e-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/the-chinese- media-more-autonomous-and-diverse-within-limits/copy_of_1.htm.

108. “China’s Media Landscape,” AHK, http://china.ahk.de/market-info/media-mark eting/chinas-media-landscape/.

109. Sarah Lacy, “Tudou: A Push Towards Mobile Video and Profits,” The Washington Post, November 7, 2009, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/cont ent/article/2009/11/08/AR2009110801808.html.

110. “World Press Freedom Index 2016.”

111. “Beijing Pursues Relentless Crackdown on Free Speech,” Reporters Without Borders, March 29, 2016, https://rsf.org/en/news/beijing-pursues-relentless-

http://www.cpj.org/blog/2012/03/ahead-of-elections-russian-media-has-been-duly-war.php

http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/dth-digital-cable-penetration-to-drive-tv-growth-report-114092000020_1.html

http://www.gauravonomics.com/

http://www.wnyc.org/story/131229-detailed-coverage/

http://www.casbaa.com/advertising/countries/china

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017881

https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/the-chinese-media-more-autonomous-and-diverse-within-limits/copy_of_1.htm

http://china.ahk.de/market-info/media-marketing/chinas-media-landscape/

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/08/AR2009110801808.html

https://rsf.org/en/news/beijing-pursues-relentless-crackdown-free-speech

crackdown-free-speech.

112. Hiroshi Tokinoya, “Japan,” in World Broadcasting: A Comparative View, ed. Alan Wells (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing, 1996).

113. Douglas Wolk, “Manga, Anime Invade the U.S.,” Publishers Weekly, March 12, 2001.

114. “World Press Freedom Index 2016.”

115. Nicole Gaouette, “Get Your Manga Here,” The Christian Science Monitor, January 8, 1999.

116. Milton Mayfield et al., “Manga and the Pirates: Unlikely Allies for Strategic Growth,” Advanced Management Journal 65, no. 3 (2000).

117. Ibid.

118. Calvin Reid, “Asian Comics Delight U.S. Readers,” Publishers Weekly, December 23, 2002.

119. Ken Auletta, The Highwaymen (San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace, 1998).

120. Ibid.

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GLOSSARY

above the fold: A term used to refer to a prominent story; it comes from placement of a news story in a broadsheet newspaper above the fold in the middle of the front page.

actual malice: A reckless disregard for the truth or falsity of a published account; this became the standard for libel plaintiffs who were public figures or public officials after the Supreme Court’s decision in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan.

advertising: Defined by the American Marketing Association as “any paid form of nonpersonal communication about an organization, product, service, or idea by an identified sponsor.”

advertorial: Advertising materials in magazines designed to look like editorial content rather than paid advertising.

advocacy ads: Advertising designed to promote a particular point of view rather than a product or service. Can be sponsored by a government, corporation, trade association, or nonprofit organization.

agenda-setting theory: A theory of media effects that says that the media tell the public not what to think but rather what to think about—thus the terms of public discourse are set by what is covered in the media.

Al Jazeera: The largest and most viewed Arabic-language satellite news channel. It is run out of the country of Qatar and has a regular audience of forty million viewers.

Alien and Sedition Acts: Laws passed in 1798 that made it a crime to criticize the government of the United States.

alphabets: A form of writing in which letters represent individual sounds. Sound-based alphabet writing allows any word to be written using only a few dozen unique symbols.

alternative papers: Weekly newspapers that serve specialized audiences such as racial minorities, gays and lesbians, and young people.

American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP): The original organization that collected royalties on musical recordings, performances, publications, and airplay.

analog recording: An electromechanical method of recording in which a sound is translated into analogous electrical signals that are then applied to a recording medium. Analog recording media included acetate or vinyl discs and magnetic tape.

ancillary, or secondary, markets: Movie revenue sources other than the domestic box office. These include foreign box office, video rights, and television rights, as well as tie-ins and product placements.

anonymous audience: An audience the sender does not personally know. These are not anonymous, isolated people who have no connection to anyone else; they simply are anonymous in their audience status.

ARPAnet: The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network; the first nationwide computer network, which became the first major component of the Internet.

authoritarian theory: A theory of appropriate press behavior that says the role of the press is to be a servant of the government, not a servant of the citizenry.

Bay Psalm Book: The first book published in North America by the Puritans in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The book went through more than fifty editions and stayed in print for 125 years.

Big Three networks: The original television broadcast networks: NBC, CBS, and ABC.

blacklist: A group of people banned from working in the movie industry in the late 1940s and 1950s because they were suspected of being communists or communist sympathizers. Some of them, such as a few screenwriters, were able to work under assumed names, but others never worked again in the

industry.

Big Four networks: The broadcast landscape we know today: the Big Three networks plus the Fox network.

block bookings: Requiring a theater owner to take a whole series of movies in order to get a few desirable, headliner films. This system was eventually found to violate antitrust laws.

blockbuster era: A period from the late 1970s to the present day in which movie studios make relatively expensive movies that have a large, predefined audience. These movies, usually chock-full of special effects, are packaged with cable deals and marketing tie-ins, and they can be extremely lucrative if they are able to attract large repeat audiences.

bloggers: People who post their thoughts, typically with the most recent posts at the top of the page, on a regularly updated Web site.

brand image: The image attached to a brand and the associated product that gives the product a personality or identity that makes it stand out from similar products and stick in the mind of the consumer.

brand name: A word or phrase attached to prepackaged consumer goods so that they can be better promoted to the general public through advertising and so that consumers can distinguish a given product from the competition.

brick-and-mortar stores: Stores that have a physical presence at which you can shop.

British invasion: The British take on classic American rock ’n’ roll, blues, and R&B transformed rock ’n’ roll and became internationally popular in the 1960s with groups such as the Beatles and, later, the Rolling Stones and the Who.

broadband networks: High-speed channels for transmitting multimedia content into the home via cable or wireless connections.

broadband service: A high-speed continuous connection to the Internet using a cable modem from a cable television provider or

a digital subscriber line from a phone company.

broadsheet newspapers: Standard-sized newspapers, which are generally 17 by 22 inches.

business-to-business (trade) ads: Advertising that promotes products and services directly to other businesses rather than to the general consumer market.

categorical imperative: Kant’s idea of a moral obligation that we should act in a way in which we would be willing to have everyone else act; also known as the principle of universality.

chains: Corporations that control a significant number of newspapers and other media outlets.

channel: The medium used to transmit the encoded message.

citizen journalism: Journalism created by people other than professional journalists, often distributed over the Internet.

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clutter: The large number of commercials, advertising, and other nonprogramming messages and interruptions that compete for consumer attention on radio, television, and now the Internet.

communication: How we socially interact at a number of levels through messages.

communist theory: A theory of appropriate press behavior that says the press is to be run by the government to serve the government’s own needs.

community antenna television (CATV): An early form of cable television used to distribute broadcast channels in communities with poor television reception.

community press: Weekly and daily newspapers serving individual communities or suburbs instead of an entire metropolitan area.

compact disc (CD): A digital recording medium that came into common use in the early 1980s. CDs can hold approximately

seventy minutes of digitally recorded music.

computer-generated imagery (CGI): Movie special effects created digitally using computers. Sometimes known as computer animation.

concept album: An album by a solo artist or group that contains related songs on a common theme or even a story, rather than a collection of unrelated hits or covers.

consumer magazines: Publications targeting an audience of like- minded consumers.

cookies: Tiny files that Web sites create to identify visitors and potentially track their actions on the site and the Web.

correlation: The process of selecting, evaluating, and interpreting events to give structure to the news. The media assist the process of correlation by persuasive communication through editorials, commentary, advertising, and propaganda and by providing cues that indicate the importance of each news item.

country music: Originally referred to as hillbilly or “old-timey” music, this genre evolved out of Irish and Scottish folk music, Mississippi blues, and Christian gospel music and grew in the 1950s and 1960s with the so-called Nashville sound.

cover lines: Teaser headlines on magazine covers used to shock, intrigue, or titillate potential buyers.

covers: Songs recorded (or covered) by someone other than the original artist. In the 1950s, it was common for white musicians to cover songs originally played by black artists, but now artists commonly cover all genres of music.

CPM: Cost per thousand exposures to the target audience—a figure used in media planning evaluation.

crisis: Any situation that is perceived by the public as being damaging to the reputation or image of an organization. Not all problems develop into crises, but once a situation develops into a crisis, it can be damaging to an organization’s reputation.

critical theory: A school of thought that grew out of the time period between World War I and World War II that addressed the connection between ideas and values, the context of the development of ideas, and the commodification of culture.

cultivation analysis: An approach to analyzing the effects of television viewing that argues that watching significant amounts of television alters the way an individual views the nature of the surrounding world.

cutting the cord: Replacing traditional paid video services, such as cable or satellite television, with Internet-based streaming video services.

decoding: The process of translating a signal from a mass medium into a form that the receiver can understand and then interpreting the meaning of the message itself.

demographics: The study of audience members’ gender, race, ethnic background, income, education, age, educational attainment, and the like; a method typically used to analyze potential markets for products and programs.

development theory: A theory of appropriate press behavior that states that developing nations may need to implement press controls in order to promote industry, national identity, and partnerships with neighboring nations.

digital-first strategy: An approach to magazine publishing where online and electronic editions are more important than preserving circulation and revenue from print editions.

digital natives: Online media that do not have a traditional legacy media component; online-only media.

digital recording: A method of recording sound—for example, that used to create CDs—that involves storing music in a computer-readable format known as binary information.

dime novels: Inexpensive paperback books that sold for as little as five cents (despite their name). They were especially popular during the Civil War era.

direct-action message: An advertising message designed to get

consumers to go to a particular place to do something specific, such as purchasing a product, obtaining a service, or engaging in a behavior.

direct-broadcast satellite (DBS): A low-earth-orbit satellite that provides television programming via a small, pizza-sized satellite antenna; DBS is a competitor to cable TV.

disco: The name of the heavily produced techno club dance music of the 1970s, which grew out of the urban gay male subculture, with significant black and Latino influences. In many ways, disco defined the look and feel of 1970s pop culture, fashion, and film.

domestic novels: Novels written in the nineteenth century by and for women that told the story of women who overcame tremendous problems to end up in prosperous middle-class homes.

drive time: The morning and afternoon commutes in urban areas; the captive audience makes this a popular time to advertise on radio.

e-book reader: A portable device for viewing, and sometimes selling, electronic books and other texts. Among the most popular are the line of Amazon Kindles.

economy of abundance: An economy in which there are as many or more goods available as there are people who want to or have the means to buy them.

electronic mail (e-mail): A message sent from one computer user to another across a network.

embarrassment: Invasion of privacy where a journalist publishes something that is true but embarrassing and not newsworthy about a person.

emojis: A word borrowed from Japanese that refers to small icons that are used to express ideas and emotions in SMS and social media messages.

encoding: The process of turning the sender’s ideas into a message and preparing the message for transmission.

engineering consent: The application of the principles of psychology and motivation to influencing public opinion and creating public support for a particular position.

entertainment: Media communication intended primarily to amuse the audience.

equal time provision: An FCC policy that requires broadcast stations to make equivalent amounts of broadcast time available to all candidates running for public office.

eSports: Organized video game team competition for an audience on streaming, cable, or broadcast television. Can also be played in front of a live audience.

ethics: A rational way of deciding what is good for individuals or society. Ethics provide a way to choose between competing moral principles and help people decide in cases where there is not a clear-cut right or wrong answer.

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fairness doctrine: A former FCC policy that required television stations to “afford reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance.”

false light: Invasion of privacy in which a journalist publishes untrue statements that alter a person’s public image in a way that he or she cannot control.

feature-length film: A theatrical movie that runs more than one hour.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC): The federal agency charged with regulating telecommunications, including radio and television broadcasting.

font: All the characters of a typeface in a particular size and style. The term font is typically used interchangeably today with the word typeface.

format radio: A style of radio programming designed to appeal to a narrow, specific audience. Popular formats include country, contemporary hits, all talk, all sports, and oldies.

45-rpm disc: This record format was developed in the late 1940s by RCA. It had high-quality sound but held only about four minutes of music per side. It was the ideal format for marketing popular hit songs to teenagers, though.

#gamergate: A series of attacks on women in the video game industry that is framed as a critique of video gaming journalism ethics.

geographics: The study of where people live; a method typically used to analyze potential markets for products and programs.

girl group: A musical group composed of several women singers who harmonize together. Groups such as the Shirelles, the Ronettes, and the Shangri-Las, featuring female harmonies and high production values, were especially popular in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

golden age of radio: A period from the late 1920s until the 1940s, during which radio was the dominant medium for home entertainment.

golden mean: Aristotle’s notion that ethical behavior comes from hitting a balance, a “just-right point between excess and defect.”

gramophone: A machine invented by Emile Berliner that could play prerecorded sound on flat discs rather than cylinders.

group communication: Communication in which one person is communicating with an audience of two or more people. The roles of communicator and audience can be changing constantly.

hacker ethic: A set of values from the early days of interactive computing that holds that users should have absolute control over their computer systems and free access to all information contained on those computers. The hacker ethic shaped much of the development of the Internet.

halftone: An image produced by a process in which photographs are broken down into a series of dots that appear in shades of gray on the printed page.

HD radio: Sometimes also referred to as high-definition radio,

this technology provides listeners with CD-quality sound and the choice of multiple channels of programming, but it has not achieved a high level of popularity.

heterogeneous audience: An audience made up of a mix of people who differ in age, sex, income, education, ethnicity, race, religion, and other characteristics.

high-definition television (HDTV): A standard for high-quality digital broadcasting that features a high-resolution picture, wide-screen format, and enhanced sound.

high fidelity (hi-fi): A combination of technologies that allowed recordings to reproduce music more accurately, with higher high notes and deeper bass, than was possible with previous recording technologies.

hip-hop: A cultural movement that originated in the 1970s and 1980s that features four main elements: MCing, or rapping over music; DJing, or playing recorded music from multiple sources; B-boying, a style of dancing; and graffiti art.

Hollywood Ten: A group of ten writers and directors who refused to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee about their political activities. They were among the first people in Hollywood to be blacklisted.

House Un-American Activities Committee: A congressional committee chaired by Parnell Thomas that held hearings on the influence of communism on Hollywood in 1947. These activities mirrored a wider effort to root out suspected communists in all walks of American life.

hypertext: Material in a format containing links that allow the reader to move easily from one section to another and from document to document. The most commonly used hypertext documents are Web pages.

hypertext markup language (HTML): One of the three major components of the Web; the programming language used to create and format Web pages.

hypertext transfer protocol (http): One of the three major components of the Web; a method of sending text, graphics, or

anything else over the Internet from a server to a Web browser.

ideograph: An abstract symbol that stands for a word or phrase. The written forms of the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese languages make use of ideographs.

indirect-action message: An advertising message designed to build the image of and demand for a product, without specifically urging that a particular action be taken at a particular time and place.

industrialization: The movement from work done by hand using muscle or water power in small shops to mass production of goods in factories that used energy sources such as steam power or electricity.

instant messaging (IM): E-mail systems that allow two or more users to chat with one another in real time, hold virtual meetings that span multiple cities or even countries, and keep track of which of their “buddies” are currently logged on to the system.

integrated marketing communication (IMC): An overall communication strategy for reaching key audiences using advertising, public relations, sales promotion, and interactive media.

Internet: “A diverse set of independent networks, interlinked to provide its users with the appearance of a single, uniform network”; a mass medium like no other, incorporating elements of interpersonal, group, and mass communications.

interpersonal communication: Communication, either intentional or accidental, between two people. It can be verbal or nonverbal.

intranets: Computer networks designed to communicate with people within an organization. They are used to improve two- way internal communication and contain tools that allow for direct feedback. They are a tool for communicating with internal publics.

intrapersonal communication: Communication you have with yourself. How you assign meaning to the world around you.

intrusion: Invasion of privacy by physical trespass into a space surrounding a person’s body or onto property under his or her control.

jazz journalism: A lively, illustrated style of newspapering popularized by the tabloid papers in the 1920s.

kinetoscope: An early peep show–like movie projection system developed by Thomas Edison that could be used only by an individual viewer.

legacy media: The traditional media, often owned by large corporations. These may include newspapers, magazines, book publishers, and television networks.

libel: A published statement that unjustifiably exposes someone to ridicule or contempt; for a statement to be libel, it must satisfy the three elements of defamation, identification, and publication.

libertarian theory: A theory of appropriate press behavior that says the press does not belong to the government but is instead a separate institution that belongs to the people and serves as an independent observer of the government.

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Linotype: A typesetting machine that let an operator type at a keyboard rather than pick each letter out by hand. The Linotype was the standard for typesetting until phototypesetting became common in the 1970s.

listservs: Internet discussion groups made up of subscribers that use e-mail to exchange messages between as few as a dozen people or as many as several thousand.

literary magazines: Publications that focus on serious essays and short fiction.

local advertising: Advertising designed to get people to patronize local stores, businesses, or service providers.

local cable television systems: The companies that provide cable television service directly to consumers’ homes.

long-playing record (LP): A record format introduced by Columbia Records in 1948. The more durable LP could reproduce twenty-three minutes of high-quality music on each of two sides and was a technological improvement over the 78- rpm.

long tail: The portion of a distribution curve where a limited number of people are interested in buying a lot of different products.

magazine: A periodical that contains articles of lasting interest. Typically, magazines are targeted at a specific audience and derive income from advertising, subscriptions, and newsstand sales.

mainstreaming: The effort by newspapers such as the Los Angeles Times to include quotations by minorities and women in stories that aren’t about minority issues.

mass communication: When an individual or institution uses technology to send a message to a large, mixed audience, most of whose members are not known to the sender.

mass media: The technological tools, or channels, used to transmit the messages of mass communication.

mean world syndrome: The perception of many heavy television watchers of violent programs that the world is a more dangerous and violent place than facts and statistics bear out.

media literacy: Audience members’ understanding of the media industry’s operation, the messages delivered by the media, the roles media play in society, and how audience members respond to these media and their messages.

media logic: An approach to studying the mass media that says the forms the media use to present the world become the forms we use to perceive the world and to create media messages.

media planning: The process central to a successful ad campaign of figuring out which media to use, buying the media at the best rates, and then evaluating how effective the purchase was.

media relations: Two-way interactions between PR

professionals and members of the press. These can involve press conferences, press releases, video news releases, or interviews. Typically, media relations involve the placement of unpaid messages within the standard programming or news content of the medium.

message: The content being transmitted by the sender to the receiver.

misappropriation: Invasion of privacy by using a person’s name or image for commercial purposes without his or her permission.

modernization: The process of change from a society in which people’s identities and roles are fixed at birth to a society where people can decide who they want to be, where they want to live, what they want to do, and how they want to present themselves to the world.

morals: An individual’s code of behavior based on religious or philosophical principles. Morals define right and wrong in ways that may or may not be rational.

Mosaic: The first easy-to-use graphical Web browser, developed by a group of student programmers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

MP3: Short for Moving Picture Experts Group audio layer 3; a standard for compressing music from CDs or other digital recordings into computer files that can be easily exchanged on the Internet.

muckrakers: Progressive investigative journalists typically publishing in magazines in the early years of the twentieth century.

multiplex: A group of movie theaters with anywhere from three to twenty screens that share a common box office and concession stand. Largely a suburban phenomenon at first, the multiplex replaced the old urban Art Deco movie palaces.

national advertising: Advertising designed to build demand for a nationally available product or service and that is not directing the consumer to local retail or service outlets.

native advertising: Advertising materials mixed in with articles and written by staff writers designed to look like editorial content rather than paid advertising.

Net neutrality: Rules that would require Internet service providers to give equal access to all online content providers.

network: A company that provides common programming to a large group of broadcast stations.

noise: Interference with the transmission of a message. This can take the form of semantic, mechanical, or environmental noise.

non-notated music: Music such as a folk song or jazz solo that does not exist in written form.

obscenity: Sexually explicit material that is legally prohibited from being published.

ombudsman: A representative of a publication’s readers who takes the point of view of those who purchase or consume the news; also known as a reader’s representative or audience advocate.

open contract: An arrangement that allows advertising agencies to sell space in any publication (and eventually on broadcast outlets as well) rather than just a limited few.

opinion leaders: Influential community members who invest substantial amounts of time learning about their own area of expertise, such as politics. Less well-informed friends and family members frequently turn to them for advice about the topic.

opinion leadership: A two-step process of persuasion that uses respected and influential individuals to deliver messages with the hope of influencing members of a community, rather than just relying on the mass media to deliver the message.

packet switching: A method for breaking up long messages into small pieces, or packets, and transmitting them independently across a computer network. Once the packets arrive at their destination, the receiving computer reassembles the message into its original form.

paper: A writing material made from cotton rags or wood pulp; invented by the Chinese between 240 BC and 105 BC.

papyrus: An early form of paper made from the papyrus reed, developed by the Egyptians around 3100 BC.

parchment: An early form of paper made from the skin of goats or sheep, which was more durable than papyrus.

penny press: Inexpensive, widely circulated papers that became popular in the nineteenth century. They were the first American media to be supported primarily through advertising revenue.

people meter: An electronic box used by the ratings company Nielsen Media Research to record which television shows people watch.

p.447

phonograph: An early sound-recording machine invented by Thomas Edison; the recorded material was played back on a cylinder.

phonography: A system of writing in which symbols stand for spoken sounds rather than objects or ideas. Among the most widely used phonographic alphabets are the Latin/Roman alphabet used in English and the Cyrillic alphabet used for writing Russian.

photojournalism: The use of photographs to portray the news in print.

pictograph: A prehistoric form of writing made up of paintings on rock or cave walls.

plus-sized model: A female fashion model who wears an average or larger clothing size.

podcast: An audio program produced as an MP3 compressed music file that can be listened to online at the listener’s convenience or downloaded to a computer or an MP3 player. Podcasts sometimes contain video content as well.

Postal Act of 1879: Legislation that allowed magazines to be

mailed nationally at a low cost. It was a key factor in the growth of magazine circulation in the late nineteenth century.

practical effects: Movie special effects done with sets, miniatures, and stunt performers.

press agentry: An early form of public relations that involved sending material from the press agent to the media with little opportunity for interaction and feedback. It often involved conduct that would be considered deceptive and unethical today.

principle of utility: John Stuart Mill’s principle that ethical behavior arises from that which will provide the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

print on demand: A form of publishing in which the physical book is not printed until it’s ordered, or until the distributor of the book prints additional copies in small batches.

prior restraint: A judicial order that stops a media organization from publishing or broadcasting a story or image.

privilege: A legal defense against libel that holds that statements made in government meetings, in court, or in government documents cannot be used as the basis for a libel suit.

producer: The person who puts together the right mix of songs, songwriters, technicians, and performers to create an album; some observers argue that the producer is the key catalyst for a hit album.

product integration: The paid integration of a product or service into the central theme of media content. This is most common in television programming or movies, but it can be found in books, magazine articles, Web pages, or even songs.

Production Code: The industry-imposed rules that controlled the content of movies from the 1930s until the current movie ratings system came into use in 1968.

proofs: The ready-to-print typeset pages sent to book authors for final corrections.

psychographics: A combination of demographics, lifestyle characteristics, and product usage; a method typically used to analyze potential markets for products and programs.

public: Any group of people who share a common set of interests and goals. These include internal publics, which are made up of people within the organization, and external publics, which consist of people outside the organization.

public access channels: Local cable television channels that air public affairs programming and other locally produced shows.

Public Broadcasting Service (PBS): A nonprofit broadcast network that provides a wide range of public service and educational programs. It is funded by government appropriations, private industry underwriting, and viewer support.

public relations (PR): “The management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends.”

public service ads: Advertising designed to promote the messages of nonprofit institutions and government agencies. The messages are typically produced and run without charge by advertising professionals and the media. Many of these ads are produced by the Ad Council.

publicity model: A model of the mass communication process that looks at how media attention can make a person, concept, or thing become important, regardless of what is said about it.

publishers: The companies that buy manuscripts from authors, turn them into books, and market them to the public.

race records: A term used by the recording industry prior to 1949 to refer to recordings by popular black artists. It was later replaced by more racially neutral terms such as R&B, soul, and urban contemporary.

Radio Music Box memo: David Sarnoff’s 1915 plan that outlined how radio could be used as a popular mass medium.

rap music: This genre arose out of the hip-hop culture in New York City in the 1970s and 1980s. It emerged from clubs where DJs played and remixed different records and sounds and then spoke (or rapped) over the top.

rating point: The percentage of the total potential television audience actually watching a particular show. One rating point indicates an audience of approximately 1.14 million viewers.

receiver: The audience for the mass communication message.

reception model: A critical theory model of the mass communication process that looks at how audience members derive and create meaning out of media content as they decode the messages.

ritual model: A model of the mass communication process that treats media use as an interactive ritual engaged in by audience members. It looks at how and why audience members (receivers) consume media messages.

rock ’n’ roll: A style of music popularized on radio that combined elements of white hillbilly music and black rhythm and blues.

rotary press: A steam-powered press invented in 1814 that could print many times faster than the older, hand-powered flat- bed presses.

satellite radio: The radio service provided by digital signal broadcast from a communications satellite. Supported by subscribers, this service covers a wider area than terrestrial radio and offers programming that is different from corporate- owned terrestrial stations. However, it is costly and doesn’t provide local coverage, such as traffic and weather reports.

scriptoria: Copying rooms in monasteries where monks prepared early hand-copied books.

Sender Message Channel Receiver (SMCR) or transmission model: A dated model that is still useful in identifying the players in the mass communication process.

sensationalism: News coverage that panders to audiences with lurid and highly emotional accounts of crime, sex, violence, or

celebrity missteps.

serial novels: Novels published and sold in single-chapter installments.

service magazines: Magazines that primarily contain articles about how to do things in a better way. These articles cover such topics as health advice, cooking tips, employment help, and fashion guides.

share: The percentage of television sets in use that are tuned to a particular show.

shield laws: Laws that give journalists special protection from having to testify in court about their stories and sources.

shock jock: A radio personality, such as Howard Stern, who attracts listeners by making outrageous and offensive comments on the air.

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short head: The portion of a distribution curve where a large number of people are interested in buying a limited number of products.

small media: Alternative media, such as fax machines, photocopiers, video cameras, and personal Web sites, which are used to distribute news and information that might be suppressed by the government if published through traditional mass media channels.

soap operas: Serialized daytime dramas targeted primarily at women.

social justice warriors (#SJW): A negative term used within the #gamergate community and elsewhere to describe people who advocate for socially progressive causes, especially women’s equality.

social learning theory: The process by which individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors.

social media: Web sites that allow users to generate content, comment, tag, and network with friends or other like-minded people.

social music: Music that people play and sing for one another in the home or other social settings. In the absence of radio, recordings, and, later, television, this was the means of hearing music most readily available to the largest number of people.

social responsibility theory: A theory of appropriate press behavior based on the concern that, although the press may be free from interference from the government, it can still be controlled by corporate interests; an outgrowth of libertarian theory.

socialization: The process of educating young people and new members about the values, social norms, and knowledge of a group or society.

spiral of silence: A theory that suggests that people want to see themselves as holding a majority opinion and will therefore remain silent if they perceive that they hold a minority opinion. This tends to make the minority opinion appear to be less prevalent than it is.

standard digital television: A standard for digital broadcasting that allows six channels to fit in the broadcast frequency space occupied by a single analog signal.

status conferral: The process by which media coverage makes an individual gain prominence in the eyes of the public.

streaming audio: Audio programming transmitted over the Internet.

studio system: A factory-like way of producing films that involved having all of the talent, including the actors and directors, working directly for the movie studios. The studios also had almost total control of the distribution system.

subliminal advertising: Messages that are allegedly embedded so deeply in an ad that they cannot be perceived consciously. There is no evidence that subliminal advertising is effective.

surveillance: How the media help us extend our senses to perceive more of the world surrounding us.

sweeps: The four times during the year that Nielsen Media Research measures the size of individual television station audiences.

symbolic interactionism: The process by which individuals produce meaning through interaction based on socially agreed- upon symbols.

synchronized soundtrack: Sound effects, music, and voices synchronized with the moving images in a movie.

synergy: Where the combined strength of two items is greater than the sum of their individual strengths. In the media business, synergy means that a large company can use the strengths of its various divisions to successfully market its content.

tabloid laundering or tabloidization: When respectable media report on what the tabloids are reporting as a way of covering sensationalistic stories on which they might not otherwise report.

tabloid newspapers: Newspapers with a half-page (11- by 14- inch) format that usually have a cover rather than a traditional front page like the larger broadsheet papers.

talkie: A movie with synchronized sound; these quickly replaced silent films.

targeting: The process of trying to make a particular product or service appeal to a narrowly defined group. Groups are often targeted using demographics, geographics, and psychographics.

TCP/IP: TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, which controls how data are sent out on the Internet; IP stands for Internet Protocol, which provides the address for each computer on the Internet. These protocols provided common rules and translations so that incompatible computers could communicate with each other.

telegraph: The first system for using wires to send messages at a distance; invented by Samuel Morse in 1844.

telenovelas: Spanish-language soap operas popular in both Latin America and the United States.

television network: A company that provides programs to local stations around the country; the local affiliate stations choose which programs to carry.

terrestrial radio: AM and FM broadcast radio stations.

the big idea: The goal of every advertising campaign—an advertising concept that will grab people’s attention and make them take notice, remember, and take action.

trade books: General-interest fiction and nonfiction books that are sold in hardback or large-format paperback editions.

trade magazines: Magazines published for people who work in a particular industry or business.

typemold: A mold in which a printer would pour molten lead to produce multiple, identical copies of a single letter without hand-carving each.

uniform resource locator (URL): One of the three major components of the Web; the address of content placed on the Web.

university and small presses: Small-scale publishers that issue a limited number of books covering specialized topics. They are often subsidized by a university or an organization.

uses and gratifications theory: An approach to studying mass communication that looks at the reasons why audience members choose to spend time with the media in terms of the wants and needs of the audience members that are being fulfilled.

veil of ignorance: John Rawls’s principle of ethics that says that justice comes from making decisions that maximize liberty for all people and without considering which outcome will give us personally the biggest benefit.

vertical integration: Controlling all aspects of a media project, including production, delivery to consumers in multiple formats,

and promotion of the product through other media.

video on demand: Television channels that allow consumers to order movies, news, or other programs at any time over fiber- optic lines.

videocassette recorder (VCR): A home videotape machine that allows viewers to make permanent copies of television shows and, thus, choose when they want to watch programs.

Watergate scandal: A burglary of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate office and apartment building that was authorized by rogue White House staffers. Its subsequent cover-up led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, two reporters from the Washington Post, covered the Watergate scandal.

Weblog (blog): A collection of links and commentary in hypertext form on the World Wide Web that can be created and posted on the Internet with relatively little effort. Blogs can be public diaries, collections of photos, or commentaries on the news.

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whitewashing: Casting white actors to play nonwhite characters or rewriting characters who were originally people of color to be white.

wireless telegraph: Guglielmo Marconi’s name for his point-to- point communication tool that used radio waves to transmit messages.

World Wide Web: A system developed by Tim Berners-Lee that allows users to view and link documents located anywhere in the world using standard software.

yellow journalism: A style of sensationalistic journalism that grew out of the newspaper circulation battle between Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst.

zoned coverage: When a newspaper targets news coverage or advertisements to a specific region of a city or market.

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INDEX

Abbott, Christopher, 206 Abbott, Robert, 146 Abernathy, Ralph, 321 Above the fold, 130 Abrams, J. J., 199, 201 Abramson, Jill, 139 Active audience effects, 35–36 Actual malice, 330 Adams, John, 34, 327 Addario, Lynsey, 145 Adele, 117 Adelson, Sheldon, 344 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 248 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Twain), 94 Advertising, 272–299 advertorials, 294–295 advocacy, 277–278 agency, 280–282 brand names, growth of, 275–276 business of, 278–289 children and, 291–293 clutter, 289–290 consumer culture, birth of, 274–275 contemporary culture and, 289–293 development of, 274–278 editorial control and, 118–119, 141 ethics and, 370–374 future of, 293–298 integrated marketing communication (ICM), 293–295, 316–317

long tail and, 297 media control and, 71–72, 373–374 media supported by, 276–278 misconceptions about, 289 native, 119, 294–295 persuasive communication, 370–374 product placement, 296–297

radio, 161–162 social marketing, 297–298 subliminal, 290–291 television, 284, 291–292, 295–296

Advertising Council, 370 Advertorials, 294–295 Advocacy ads, 277–278 Aesthetic dimension, of media literacy, 17 Affordable Care Act, 8 Africa, media in, 396–398 African Americans, giving a voice to, 108–109 Agenda-setting theory, 38 Aggregator sites, 268 Agha-Soltan, Neda, 255 Alcott, Louisa May, 94 Alexander the Great, 354 Alien and Sedition Acts, 327 Al Jazeera, 395, 395–396 Allen, Woody, 34 (photo) All-sports radio, 175 Alphabet, 62–66 Alphabets (writing), 79 Alternative papers/press, 146–149 Alternative weeklies, 147 Altheide, David, 41, 318 Altruistic democracy, 142–143 American free speech, roots of, 327 American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), 183

Amienyi, Osabuohien P., 397 Amos ‘n’ Andy, 163 Amusing Ourselves to Death (Postman), 14 Analog recording, 179 Ancillary, or secondary, markets, 212 Anderson, Carl, 174 Anderson, Chris, 67, 96, 213, 252 Anderson, Terry, 145 Andreessen, Marc, 251 Andrews, Barbara, 86 Andrews, Erin, 376 Angelotti, Ellyn, 331 Angelou, Maya, 93 Animal Farm (Orwell), 99 Animal Locomotion (Muybridge), 190, 191 (photo)

Aniston, Jennifer, 115, 333 Anonymous audience, 11 Anthony, Casey, 32, 37 AOL, 57–58 Apologizing, and ethics, 364–365 Apple, 66–67 Arab Spring, 393–394 Arab world, press in, 393 Arafat, Yasir, 219 Arbuckle, Fatty, 207 Aristotle, 354–355, 375 Armstrong, Neil, 248 Arnaz, Desi, 222, 222 (photo) Arnette, Alan, 11 Arnold, Eddy, 171 ARPAnet, 247–248 ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers), 183

Asia, media in, 398–401 Assange, Julian, 27 Attitudinal effects, 33 Atwood, Margaret, 389 Audiences, and media control, 73 Audio, 156–186 future of, 181–184 music, youth culture, and society, 166–178 online and mobile, 165–166 recording industry, 178–181 recording and transmission, history of, 158–166 See also Music; Radio

Auletta, Ken, 51, 59, 66, 229–230, 242, 373, 402 Authoritarian theory, of the press, 383–384 Avnet, Jon, 200 Ayatollah Khomeini, 95, 219 Ayer, Francis W., 280

Bachchan, Amitabh, 204 Badawi, Raif, 395 Bagdikian, Ben, 35, 65, 135–136 Bailey, Michael, 346 Bale, Christian, 207 Ball, Lucille, 222 Bandura, Albert, 39 Banks, Tyra, 120

Baran, Paul, 247 Barnes, Brooks, 53 Barnett, Susan, 338 Barnouw, Erik, 235 Barnum, P. T., 303, 304 (image) Baron, Martin, 381 Barratt, Thomas J., 276 Barron, Manie, 108 Barrymore, John, 213 Bartling, Kelly, 245 Baskerville, John, 81 Baum, L. Frank, 196 Bay, Kiva, 261 Bay, Michael, 212 Bay Psalm Book, 50, 82 BBC, 164 Beach Boys, the, 169 (photo) Beatles, the, 169 (photo) Bechdel, Alison, 205 Bechdel Test, 205 Beharie, Nicole, 231 Behavioral effects, 33–34 Belafonte, Harry, 330 Bell, Alexander Graham, 158 Benchley, Peter., 196 Bennett, Amanda, 392 Bergdahl, Bowe, 33, 157 Berger, Arthur Asa, 39 Berkowitz, David, 285 Berle, Milton, 221 Berliner, Emile, 13, 158–159, 178 Bernays, Edward L., 304–307, 310 Berners-Lee, Tim, 66, 246, 249–253, 265, 387 Bernstein, Carl, 138 Bernstein, Danielle, 297–298 Bernstein, Jonathan, 315 Berry, Chuck, 167–168 Bertelsmann, 59–60 Best seller lists, and young-adult series, 92–93 Between the World and Me (Coates), 77–78 Beyoncé, 67, 120, 279 (photo) Bezos, Jeff, 88, 99, 138, 148, 381 Biddle, RiShawn, 178 Biden, Joe, 381

Bieber, Justin, 67, 389 Big Four networks, 228 Big idea, the, 280 Big media, 51–60 Alphabet/Google, 62–66 Apple, 66–67 Bertelsmann, 59–60 Comcast/NBCUniversal, 61–62 News Corporation and 21st Century Fox, 54–56 Time Warner, 57–58 Viacom/CBS, 58–59 Walt Disney Company, 52–54 See also Media business

Big Three networks, 223 Bill of Rights, 327 (image) Bing, 62 bin Khalifa al-Thani, Hamad, 396 bin Laden, Osama, 12, 22, 395 Birth of a Nation, The, 191 Black Entertainment Television, 234 Blacklist, 194–195 Blacklist, The, 230 (photo) Black Panther (Coates, Stelfreeze, and Martin), 77 Blair, Jayson, 369–370 Blair Witch Project, The, 255 Blanchard, Keith, 121 Bliss, Edward, 134 Blitzer, Wolf, 23 Block bookings, 192 Blockbuster books, importance of, 90–93 Blockbuster era, for the movies, 196–197 Bloggers, 8, 343 Blogs, 252–254 Bloxham, Mike, 242 Blumer, Herbert, 203 Bly, Nellie, 131 Bodney, David, 342 Bodoni, Giambattista, 81 Bogart, John B., 141 Bok, Sissela, 358 Bongo Maffin, 397 Book of the Dead, 79 (image) Books, 76–101 arrival of, 13

authors of, 86–88 blockbuster, 90–93 buying and selling, 84–90 censorship and, 93–96 culture and, 90–96 development of, 78–84 early, 78–79 electronic (e-books), 90, 97–98, 98–99 future of, 96–99 in the New World, 82–83 large-scale and mass-produced, 83–84 long tail and, 88–89 mass culture and, 81–82 printing press and, 80–81 print on demand, 98–99

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publishers of, 84–86 textbook business, 89–90

Booksellers, 88 Bopp, James, 344 Boulle, Pierre, 195 Bourdain, Anthony, 382 Bourke-White, Margaret, 109–110 Boyle, James, 173 BP oil spill, 313–314 Bracco, Lorraine, 290 Bradbury, Ray, 93 Bradford, Andrew, 104 Bradlee, Ben, 339 Brady, Mathew, 91 (photo), 106–107 Brady, Tom, 356 Braff, Zach, 202 Brakhage, Stan, 214 Brand, Stewart, 261 Brand image, 281 Brand names, 275–276 Brando, Marlon, 330 Breaking Dawn (Meyer), 93 Breashears, David, 10 Brice, Russell, 11 Brick-and-mortar stores, 96 Brill, Steven, 335

Brin, Sergey, 63 Brisbane, Arthur, 139, 369 British invasion (music), 169–170 British media, 389–390 Broadband networks, 71 Broadband service, 253 Broadcasting alternatives to, 182 beginning of, 221 to narrowcasting, 227–235

Broadcast news, 133–134. See also News Broadcast regulation, 346, 348 Broadcast television, 220–222. See also Television Broadsheet newspapers, 132 Bromet, Jane, 10 Bronner, Stephen, 32 Bronstein, Phil, 360 Brooks, Garth, 172 Brown, Helen Gurley, 112 Brown, Michael, 301, 361 Brown, Tina, 104 Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, 259 Bruce, Bill, 287 Bryan, William Jennings, 31 Buchanan, Edna, 362 Buckley, William F., 108 Buffett, Jimmy, 89 Buffington, Brooks, 245 Bunker, Matthew D., 334 Burke, James, 313 Burnett, Leo, 280 Burns, Ken, 228 Burton, Tim, 196 Bush, George H. W., 375 Bush, George W., 41, 231, 254 Bush, Jeb, 38 Business-to-business (trade) ads, 278 Buzzell, Colby, 254 Byrne, David, 397

Cable News Network (CNN), 223 Cable television, 61–62, 222–225, 229 (figure) Caldwell, Erskine, 110 Calvin, John, 128

Cameras, in the courtroom, 335–337 Cameron, James, 195, 199, 389 Campbell, Naomi, 334 Canada, media in, 388–389 Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 79 Cantrell, Margaret, 332 Capriolo, Ettore, 96 Carlson, Margaret, 363 Carmody, Steve, 127 Carnegie, Andrew, 83 Carr, David, 58, 119, 157, 359 Carradine, David, 231 Carroll, Jill, 145 Cash, Johnny, 170, 172 Caslon, William, 81 Castro, Fidel, 219 Catcher in the Rye, The (Salinger), 93 Cate, Fred, 326 Categorical imperative, 355 CATV (community antenna television), 222 Cave, Edward, 104 Caxton, William, 81 CBS, 58–59 CDs, 179 Censorship books and, 93–96 movies and, 207–208

Centanni, Steve, 145 Central and Latin America, media in, 392 Cerf, Vint, 248 Cesternino, Rob, 166 Chains (newspaper), 135 Chan, Janet, 119 Chang Ping, 400 Channel, 9 Chaplin, Charlie, 192 Chapman, Caron, 92 Charlie Hebdo, 143, 390–392 Chase, Edna Woolman, 112 Chávez, Hugo, 387 Chen, Steven, 70 (photo) Chethan, M., 256 Chibbaro, Lou, 147 Children

advertising to, 291–293 television and, 236

China, media in, 399–400 Chipple, Leon, 105 Cho, Seung-hui, 356 Chozick, Amy, 61 Christian Science Monitor, 135 Christie, Gwendoline, 44 Chronicles of Narnia (Lewis), 91 Cimino, Michael, 193 Cinématographe, 191 Citizen journalism, 254–255 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 344 Civil rights movement, and public relations, 321 Clancy, Tom, 85, 87 Clansman, The (Dixon), 191 Clark, Brian, 294 Clark, William, 81 Clarkson, Kelly, 117 Clear Channel, 179 Clegg, Johnny, 397 Clem, Todd, 175 Cline, Patsy, 171 Clinton, Bill, 73, 311, 312 (image), 320 Clinton, Hillary, 73, 344 Clutter, 289–290 Coates, Ta-Nehisi, 77 Coca-Cola, and marketing, 289 (photo) Cochran, Elizabeth Jane (Nellie Bly), 131 Cockerill, John, 131 Codes of ethics, 370 Cognitive dimension, of media literacy, 16–17 Cognitive effects, 33 Cohen, Dan, 337 Cohen, Sacha Baron, 208, 210 Cohen v. Cowles Media, 337–338 Colbert, Claudette, 203 Colbert, Stephen, 3 Cole, Nat King, 330 Collins, Suzanne, 86, 92 Colón, Ernie, 94 Colonial publishing, 128 Color television and movies, 195–196 Coltrane, John, 168

Comic books, 94 Comcast, 61–62 Commentary magazines, 107–109 Commercial networks, 248 Committee on Public Information, 306 Common Sense (Paine), 303 Common Sense Media, 209 Communication crisis, 310–314, 318 definition, 5 group, 5–6 integrated marketing communication (ICM), 293–295, 316–317

interactive, 15–16 interpersonal, 5 intrapersonal, 5 levels, 4–7 mass, 6 one-way, 303 persuasive, 370–374 See also Mass communication

Communications Decency Act, 349 Communist theory, of the press, 384–385 Community antenna television (CATV), 222 Community newspapers, 140–141 Community press, 140 Compaan, Klaas, 179 Compact disc (CD), 158 Computer-generated imagery (CGI), 189 Concept albums, 169 Conflict of interest, corporate, 362 Connor, Eugene (Bull), 321 Connor, Richard, 365 Conrad, Frank, 161 Conrad, Joseph, 107 Conran, Kerry, 200 Consumer advertising, 277 Consumer culture, birth of, 274–275 Consumer magazines, 107 Contemporary culture, advertising in, 289–293 Cook, Tim, 66, 325 Cooke, Janet, 358 Cookies, 265, 372–373 Cooney, Joan Ganz, 227

Coonts, Stephen, 86 Cooper, James Fenimore, 105 Cooper, Matt, 342 Copernicus, 83 Copyright, and fair use, 345–346 Copyright Term Extension Act, 345 Cornish, Audie, 77 Corporate conflict of interest, 362 Corrections, The (Franzen), 97 Correlation, 37 Correll, Charles, 163 Corsetto, Danielle, 15 Cosby, William, 327 Cosmopolitan (magazine), 112–113 Country music, 171–172 Coupland, Douglas, 389 Courtney, Susanne, 310 Courtroom, cameras in the, 335–337 Covered (songs), 167, 173 Cover lines (magazines), 120 Cox, Laverne, 20, 233 CPM, 282 Crazy Horse, 288 Creative Commons, 346 Creel, George, 306 Crisis, 310–311 Crisis communication, 310–314, 318 Critical/cultural model, 31–33 Critical theory, 31–32 Cronkite, Walter, 23, 134, 219–220 Crosby, Bing, 162 Cruise, Tom, 204 Crystallizing Public Opinion (Bernays), 304 Cuarón, Alfonso, 195 Cuban, Mark, 254 Cultivation analysis, 43 Cultivation theory, 42–43 Culture, and books, 90–96 Cumia, Anthony, 175 Curry, Adam, 165, 183 Curry, Tim, 20 Curtis, Cyrus H. K., 111, 277 Cut the cord, 240 Cybernetics, 263

Cyberspace, 263 Cyrus, Miley, 103

Daily Times Democrat v. Graham, 332 Daines, Steve, 256 (image) Dale, Lynn, 338 Damon, Matt, 201 Dana, Charles, 141 Danish cartoons, and terrorism, 390–392 Dargis, Manohla, 206 Dark Side of the Moon, 170 Darling, Julia, 254 Darrat, Abdulla, 171 Data privacy, 372–373 Davies, Carl, 93 Davies, Donald, 247 Davis, Danny, 286 (image) Davis, Hannah, 117 Davis, Lanny, 320 Davis, Miles, 168 Davis, Richard Harding, 132 Davis, Viola, 231 Day, Benjamin, 129 deadmau5, 389 Dean, Rick, 287 Decision making, and ethical principles, 354–358

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Decoding, 9–10 Defoe, Daniel, 104 DeGusta, Michael, 180 Demby, Emanuel, 285 Demographics, 36 Depp, Johnny, 71, 202, 209 Derrickson, Scott, 213 Desilu Studios, 222 deSouza, Lar, 52 (figure) Development theory, of the press, 383, 386–387 Dewey, Caitlin, 3, 245, 376 Diana, Princess, 333, 363 Dicken-Garcia, Hazel, 130 Dickens, Charles, 83 Dick Van Dyke Show, The, 237

Dictionaries, 82 Digital advertising, 284–285 Digital Cinema Initiatives, 201 Digital divide, 263–264 Digital-first strategy, 123 Digital media, conflicts over, 264–265. See also Online media Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 345 Digital movie production and projection, 200–201 Digital native, 252 Digital recording, 179. See also Audio Digital television, 225–226 Digital trespassers, 262 Diller, Barry, 210 Dime novels, 84 Direct-action message, 277 Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS), 225 Direct effects model, 29, 142 Disco, 170 Disney, Walt, 52–53, 194 Disneyland, 53 Diversity movies and, 204–207 Oscars and, 204–206 television and, 231–235 video games and, 260–261

Dixon, Thomas, 191 Doctor, Ken, 283 Dodd, Christopher, 209 Dole, Bob, 290 Domestic novels, 91 Domino’s Pizza, and social media, 317–318 Don’t Stop the Carnival (Wouk), 89 Dorsey, Jack, 257 Douglas, Michael, 334 Douglas, William O., 340 Downloads, economics of, 179 Doyle, Patrick, 318 Drain, Steve, 336 Drake, 389 Dreams from My Father (Obama), 320 DreamWorks Animation, 62 Drew, Richard, 353 Drive time, 284 Drudge, Matt, 220

Du Bois, W. E. B., 108, 123 Duhigg, Charles, 273 Dumbing of Age, 204 (image) Dumenco, Simon, 370 Dungey, Channing, 232 Dunham, Lena, 117 Dunst, Kirsten, 213 Duplass, Mark, 213 Dweck, Michael, 373

Early, Gerald, 168 Earnest, Josh, 319 (photo) Ebert, Roger, 204, 214 E-book readers, 90, 99 (photo). See also Books Economy of abundance, 275 Edison, Thomas, 158, 159 (photo), 178, 190 Editorial content, blurring with advertising, 119 Edmonds, Kenneth “Babyface,” 170 Ed Sullivan Show, 221 Educational broadcasting (television), 227–228 Edwards, Douglas, 63 Einstein, Albert, 32 Eisner, Michael, 53, 71 Elba, Idris, 204 El Deeb, Mohamed, 171 (photo) Electronic mail (e-mail), 249 Electronic media. See Audio; Movies; Online media Electronic networks, 13–15 Electronic publishing, 98–99 Elliott, Stuart, 297 Ellsberg, Daniel, 28, 339–340 E-mail, 249 Embarrassment, and invasion of privacy, 332 Emojis, 80 Emotional dimension, of media literacy, 17 Encoding, 8 Engelbart, Doug, 249 Engineering consent, 304 Enquire Within Upon Everything, 250 Entertainment, 38 Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN), 22 4

Environmental noise, 11 Equal Protection Provision, 346

Equal time provision, 346 Erland, Cynthia, 281 eSports, 260 Esposito, Richard, 328 Esquire, 113 Estes, Billie Sol, 337 Eszterhas, Joe, 332 Ethical principles, and decision making, 354–358 Aristotle, 354–355 Bok, 358 Hutchins, 357–358 Kant, 355 Mill, 355–357 Rawls, 357

Ethics, 354. See also Media ethics Ethnocentrism, 142 Europe, privacy law in, 333–334 European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), 250 European Right to be Forgotten Laws, 349 Evaluation, and public relations, 308–309 Evanovich, Janet, 91 External publics, 302, 310 Exxon Valdez oil spill, 313–314

Fabrications, catching, 359–360 Facebook, 256–257 Facheris, Patrick, 260 Fahmy, Mohamed, 396 Fahrenheit 451 (Bradbury), 93 Fahrlander, Rebecca S., 266 Fairbanks, Douglas, 192, 193 (photo), 207 Fairness Doctrine, 346–348 Fairness on the air, mandating, 346–348 Fair trial/free press, 334–337 Fair use, and copyright, 345–346 Fallaci, Oriana, 219 False light, and invasion of privacy, 332–333 Falwell v. Flynt, 336 Farghadani, Atena, 382 Farnsworth, Philo T., 220, 221 (photo), 239 Farquhar, Ralph, 231 Fashion/beauty/lifestyle magazines, 112–113 Fearn-Banks, Kathleen, 314 Feature-length film, 191

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 165, 333 Federal Radio Commission, 346 Fenby, Jonathan, 363 Ferguson (Missouri) protests, 385 (photo) Ferrell, Will, 201 Fessenden, Reginald, 160 Fey, Tina, 206 Figueroa-Jones, Madeline, 115 Finger Lickind’ Fifteen (Evanovich), 91 First amendment, and development of a free press, 326–327 Fischer, Scott, 10 Fisher, Carrie, 44 Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 113 Flanders, Scott, 113 Fleck, Béla, 182 Flight of the Intruder (Coonts), 86 Flynt, Larry, 346 Focus on Africa, 164 Foley, Hank, 302, 309 Foley, James, 144, 393 Folk, Michael, 251 Font, 81 Food Lion v. ABC, 338 Ford, Gerald R., 332 Ford, Harrison, 204 Ford, John, 18 Foreman, Carl, 195 Format radio, 172 45-rpm disc, 178 Four-node network, 248 (figure) Four Theories of the Press (Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm), 383

Fowler, Geoffrey A., 372 Fox Network, 228 Framke, Caroline, 44 Frank, Anne, 94 Frankfurt School, 31 Franklin, Benjamin, 50, 83, 104, 128 Franklin, James, 128 Franzen, Jonathan, 97 Fraser, Brendan, 195 Frederick, Joseph, 342 Freed, Alan, 168 Freedom (Franzen), 97

Free press, 326–329 fair trial and, 334–337 First amendment, 326–327

Free speech American, 327 limits on, in the post-9/11 era, 328–329 students and, 341–342

French, Martin, 255 French filmmakers, early, 191 Freud, Sigmund, 304 Frey, James, 359 Frozen, 197 Fuchs, Michael, 177 Fuller, Bonnie, 112, 120 Functional analysis, 36–38 Funk, Judith, 367

Gaarder, Nancy, 22 Gable, Clark, 203 Gabriel, Peter, 397 Gadhafi, Moammar, 145, 171, 219, 393 Galella, Ron, 331 (photo) #Gamergate, 375 Gans, Herbert, 142–143 Garamond, Claude, 81 Garcia, Mario, 137 Garden, Brian, 242 Garfield, Bob, 365 Garrett, Dave, 255 Gay, Roxane, 233 Gaye, Marvin, 169 Gay market, advertising to the, 287 Gay press, 147 Gelfond, Richard, 199 General Electric (GE), 61 Gentleman’s Magazine, 104 Geographics, 36 George, Paul, 356 Gerbner, George, 5, 42–43 Gertz, Elmer, 331 Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 331 Giardinelli, Bryan, 298 Gibson, William, 263 Gilead (Robinson), 91

Gillett, Charlie, 170 Gillis, Gregg, 173 Gilmore, John, 264 Gingrich, Newt, 344 Ginsberg, Allen, 103 Girl groups, 168 Gladstone, Brooke, 219 Glaser, Mark, 184 Glasnost, 385 Glass, Ira, 175 (photo) Glass, Stephen, 359 Glickman, Dan, 209 Global media, 380–404 Africa, 396–398 Asia, 398–401 authoritarian theory, 383–384 Canada, Western Europe, and Great Britain, 388–392 Central and Latin America, 392 Communist theory, 384–385 Internet, in the 21st century, 387–388 Islamic countries and the Middle East, 393–396 Libertarian theory, 385 press norms, in the 21st century, 386–387 Russia and the former Soviet Republics, 398 social responsibility theory, 386 standards, 388–401

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Global village, 402 Glover, Henry, 167 Goddard, Drew, 201 Godey, Louis, 110 God’s Little Acre (Caldwell), 110 Godwin’s Law of Nazi Analogies, 30 Goff, Trish, 115 Golden age of radio, 162–164 Golden mean, 354–355 Goldenson, Leonard, 224 Gone with the Wind, 197 Google, 62–66 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 385 Gordy, Berry, 168 Gordy, Molly, 353

Gosden, Freeman, 163 Gosling, Ryan, 389 Goswami, Arnab, 399 Government media control by, 72 public relations and, 319–320

Government Publishing Office, 86 Graber, Doris, 33, 142 Grace, Nancy, 32, 37, 239 Graham, Ashley, 117 Gramophone, 13–15, 158 Great books, versus popular books, 91–92 Great Britain, media in, 388–392 Great Firewall, 400 Great Train Robbery, The, 191 Grech, Dan, 147 Green Mile, The (King), 84 Greenwald, Glenn, 27 Greste, Peter, 396 Griffin, Robert, 356 Griffith, D. W., 191–192 Griffith, Linda, 192 Grimes, Colin, 189 Griswold, Erwin, 340 Group communication, 5–6 Guccione, Bob, 73 Guerrero, Pablo Torres, 390 Gutenberg, Johannes, 81, 128 Gutenberg Galaxy, The (McLuhan), 402 Guyette, Curt, 127 Gygax, Gary, 92

Hacker ethic, 262–263 Hackers (Levy), 262 Hadden, Briton, 57, 109 Hafez, Kai, 393 Halberstam, David, 321 Hale, Sarah Josepha, 91, 110, 124, 158 Halftone, 106 Hall, Rob, 10 Halpern, Daniel, 84 Hamilton, Andrew, 327 Hamm, Charles, 159 Hannity, Sean, 19, 33, 174

Hansen, Charles, 341 Hansen, Marka, 279 Hanson, Pam, 86 Hardy, Thomas, 107 Hardy, Tom, 189 Harris, Benjamin, 50 Harris, Wynonie, 166 Harrison, Jim, 113 Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (Rowling), 92 Hart, James D., 83 Harte, Bret, 84 Hastings, Reed, 230 Hauptmann, Bruno Richard, 337 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 91, 93, 105 Hayden, Steve, 291 Hayes, Susan, 335 Hays, Will, 307 Hayworth, Rita, 305 Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier, 341 HBO, 223 HD radio, 164 HDTV, 226 Headphones (1920s), 161 (photo) Hearst, William Randolph, 130–131, 146, 363, 364 Heaven’s Gate, 193 Hefner, Hugh, 113 Hellman, Jerome, 211 Helton, Lon, 172 Hemingway, Ernest, 113 Henson, Taraji P., 231 Hepburn, Katharine, 103 Herbold, Bob, 71 Hersh, Seymour, 121 Hertz, Heinrich, 159 Hess, Mickey, 170 Heterogeneous audience, 11 Hetherington, Tim, 144–145 Hewitt, Don, 237 High-definition television (HDTV), 226 High fidelity (hi-fi), 159 Hill, Chris, 235 Hilton, Paris, 362 Hip-hop, 170–171 Hitchcock, Alfred, 195

Hitler, Adolf, 133 Hobbit, The (Tolkien), 92 Hocking, Amanda, 97 Hodgdon, Kirk, 308 Hoffman, Harry, 91 Hollywood, and morality, 207 Hollywood Antitrust Case, 194 Hollywood Ten, 194 Home Box Office (HBO), 223 Homer, 79 Home video, 199 Hondros, Chris, 145 Honesty, and the press, 337–338 Hope, Bob, 113, 162 House Un-American Activities Committee, 194 Hudson, Bill, 321 (photo) Huffine, Candice, 115 Hughes, Gregg, 175 Hughes, Lisa, 122 Human Rights Act, 334 Humans of New York, 258 Hunt for Red October (Clancy), 85 Hurley, Chad, 69, 70 (photo) Husni, Samir A., 118 Hussein, Saddam, 374 Hutchins, Robert M., 357–358 Hypertext, 250 Hypertext markup language (HTML), 250 Hypertext transfer protocol (http), 250

Ibbott, Brian, 183 Ideas, dissemination of, 81–82 Ideograph, 78 Igarashi, Hitoshi, 96 Iger, Robert, 66, 230 Igyor, Gerard, 397 iHeartMedia, 179 I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (Angelou), 93 Iliad (Homer), 79 I Love Lucy, 221–222 IM (instant messaging), 249 Image management, 303 I’m Feeling Lucky (Edwards), 63 India

media in, 399 movie industry in, 203–204

Indiana Jones, 210 Indirect-action message, 277 Individualism, 143 Individuals, protection of, 329–337 Industrialization, and the growth of advertising, 275 Ingram, Mathew, 151 Ingram Book Company, 88 Innis, Harold, 28 Instant messaging (IM), 249 Integrated marketing communication (IMC), 293–295, 316–3 17

Intellectual property, on the World Wide Web, 264–265 Internal publics, 302, 309–310 Internet, 246 cyberspace, notion of, 263 development of, 246–248, 253 hacker ethic, 262, 262–263 movie promotion on, 212–213 next-generation, 248 protocols, creating, 248 regulation of, 348–349 society and, 261–268 21st century, 387–388 See also Social media

Interpersonal communication, 5 Intolerance, 191–192 Into Thin Air (Krakauer), 9, 17 Intranets, 310 Intrapersonal communication, 5 Intrusion, 332 Invasion of privacy, 331–334 iOTA, 189 Isaacs, Cheryl Boone, 206 Islamic countries, media in, 393–396

Jackson, Andrew, 189, 363 Jackson, Janet, 12, 59, 238–239 Jackson, Jill, 22 Jackson, Michael, 14, 37, 169, 363 Jackson, Nicholas, 22 Jackson, Samuel L., 77 Jacobson, Sid, 94

Jaffe, Daniel L., 293 Jaffer, Jameel, 328 James, E. L., 67 James, LeBron, 297 Jamieson, Patrick E., 42 Japan, media in, 400–401 Jaws, 196–197 Jay Z, 173 Jazz journalism, 132 Jazz Singer, The, 193 Jefferson, Thomas, 327 Jenner, Bruce, 103 Jenner, Caitlyn, 103 Jewel of Medina, The (Jones), 96 Jing, Zhao, 252 Jinping, Xi, 400 (photo) Jobs, Steve, 66, 70, 240, 262 John, Elton, 334 Johnson, Paul, 390 Johnson, Robert, 57 Johnston, Alan, 145 Jolson, Al, 193 Jones, Alex S., 370 Jones, Sherry, 96 Jordan, Michael, 333 Jordan, Michael B., 204 Jordan, Vernon, 360 Joshi, Priya, 204 Journalism/journalists bloggers, 343 jail and, 342–343 politics and, 144 public relations and, 318–319 social media and, 151 See also News; Newspapers

Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trials (Nye), 335

Jowett, Garth, 198 Joyce, James, 21 Juanes, 227 (photo)

Kaczynski, Ted, 371 Kahn, Bob, 248 Kahn-Sriber, Cléa, 397

Kalb, Marvin, 174 Kane, Susan, 120 Kant, Immanuel, 355 Kapas, Steve, 356 Kardashian, Kim, 363 (photo) Karp, David, 258 Kaye, Gorden, 334 Keillor, Garrison, 176 Keisker, Marion, 167 Kelly, Kevin, 49 Kennedy, Robert, 354 Kennedy, Ted, 359 Kennedy-Nixon debate, 134 (photo) Kennicott, Philip, 391 Kenny, Glenn, 202 Kercheval, Hoppy, 368 Kerman, Piper, 233 Kerry, John, 381 Key, Wilson Bryan, 291 Khan, Shah Rukh, 204 Kharrazi, Kamal, 95 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 95, 219 Kidder, Tracy, 108 Kinetoscope, 190 King, Martin Luther, 321, 330, 368 King, Stephen, 84, 86 Kit Carson on the Warpath (Munro’s Ten Cent Novels), 83 (image)

Kjellberg, Felix, 3, 19 Klein, Calvin, 115 Klein, Ezra, 35, 98, 391 Koegel, Kathryn, 296 Koenig, Sarah, 157 Koo, Cannon, 317 Kool Herc, 171 Koppel, Ted, 134 Krakauer, Jon, 9–10, 16–17 Kravetz, Charles, 158 Kriz, Lucy, 118 Kruesi, John, 158 Kundun, 53 Kupe, Tawana, 396

Labott, Elise, 151

Lady Chatterley’s Lover (Lawrence), 344

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Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 397 LaMont, Sanders, 369 Lane, Charles, 360 Lane, Jeremy, 355–356, 358 Language, standardized, 81 Larger-than-life movies, 195 Lasswell, Harold, 36 Last Rights (Nerone et al.), 383 Law. See Media law Lawley, Robyn, 115 Lawrence, D. H., 344 Lawrence, Florence, 192 Lawrence, Jennifer, 201 Lazarsfeld, Paul, 22, 31 Leadership, 143 Lean, David, 195 Leaves of Grass (Whitman), 91 Lee, Hae Min, 157 Lee, Harper, 91 Lee, Ivy, 303–304, 310 Lee, Spike, 50, 202, 206, 211 Lefsetz, Bob, 165 Legacy media, 4 Legends of the Fall (Harrison), 113 LeGrand, Eric, 73 Lehrer, Brian, 174 Leibovitz, Annie, 103–104, 106, 115, 117, 119 Leive, Cindi, 116 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 384 (photo) Lennon, John, 103, 169 Lessig, Lawrence, 345 (photo), 346 Lester, Julius, 164 Levick, Richard, 318 Levy, Steven, 262 Lewinsky, Monica, 311, 320 Lewis, Clive Staples (C. S.), 91 Lewis, Meriwether, 81 LGBT newspapers, 147 Li, Charlene, 257 Libby, I. Lewis (Scooter), 342

Libel, 329–331 Libertarian theory, of the press, 385 Limbaugh, Rush, 19, 33, 174, 348 Limited effects model, 29–31 Lindbergh, Charles, 337 Linder, Laura, 235 Linotype, 84 Lippmann, Walter, 141 Lipschultz, Jeremy, 22 Listservs, 249 Literary magazines, 107–109 Little Mosque on the Prairie, 389 Little Women (Alcott), 94 Local advertising, 277 Local cable television systems, 57, 222 (photo) Lohan, Lindsay, 362 Lois, George, 104 London Jilt, The, 83 Long-playing record (LP), 158 Long tail, 67–70 Advertising and, 297 big players in, 69–70 books and, 88–89 characteristics of, 68–69 consequences of, 69 movies and, 213–214 music and, 182 short head versus, 67–68

Long Tail, The (Anderson), 67, 96, 213 Lord of the Rings, The (Tolkien), 91–92 Los Angeles Times, 138–140 Love, Courtney, 331 Lovett, Lyle, 180 Lowen, Cynthia, 209 Lowery, Wesley, 361 LPs, versus 45s, 178 Lucas, George, 66, 191–192, 194, 200–201 Luce, Henry, 57, 109, 124, 357 Luhrmann, Baz, 204 Lumière, Auguste-Marie, 191 Lumière, Louis-Jean, 191 Luther, Martin, 82, 128 Lying (Bok), 358 Lynn, Tara, 115

MacArthur, John R., 375 Maclean, Norman, 85 MacNeil, Robert, 363 Maddow, Rachel, 360 Magazines, 102–125 advertising and, 118–119, 283 body image and, 114–118 business of, 106–114 covers, importance of, 119–120 current trends in, 121 digital age and, 121–123 early, 104 economics of, 107 editorial control of, 118–119 future of, 120–123 literary and commentary, 107–109 men’s, 113–114 modern society and, 114–120 national culture development and, 104–106 newsmagazines, 109–110 photojournalism, birth of, 105–106 Saturday Evening Post, 105 trade, 107 twenty-first-century, 121 women’s, 110–113

Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens, 397 Mainstreaming, 138 Mainstream Media (MSM), 19 Makeba, Miriam, 397 Manchin, Joe, 366 Maney, Kevin, 182 Manga (comic books), 400–401 Mangum, Kathy, 197 Manjoo, Farhad, 230 Manning, Joe, 341 Manutius, Aldus, 81 Marconi, Guglielmo, 159 Marey, Étienne-Jules, 190 Marsden, Michael, 178 Martin, Chris, 317 Martin, Laura, 77 Martin, Richard, 293 Martinson, David, 355, 359, 375 Martling, Jackie, 165

Marx, Karl, 31 Mashima, Rieko, 345 Mash-ups, 173 Masnick, Mike, 184 Mass communication, 6 contemporary models of, 12–13 elements of, 7–13 process, players in, 7–11 radio as, 160 video games as, 257–261 See also Mass communication effects; Media

Mass communication effects, 26–46 active audience effects, 35–36 medium effects, 34–35 message effects, 33–34 ownership effects, 35 research, history of, 28–33 theories of, 36–43 See also Media

Mass culture, invention of, 81–82 Mass media, 7. See also Media Mass society, rise of, 28–29 Mast, Gerald, 203, 207 Match, Richard, 335 Matthews, Chris, 362 Maxim, 114 Mayweather, Floyd, 240 McAdams, Rachel, 389 McBride, Kelly, 369 McCarthy, Joseph, 134, 359 McCartney, Paul, 169 McClure, Samuel S., 109 McCombs, Maxwell, 38 McGuinn, Roger, 182, 184 McLuhan, Marshall, 28, 34, 42, 223, 402 McQuail, Denis, 5, 12, 386 McQueen, Steve, 296 McVeigh, Timothy, 335 Mead, George Herbert, 40 Meaning, importance of, 31–33 Mean world syndrome, 43 Mechanical noise, 11 Media control of, 70–73

effects of, 33–36 logic, 41–43 old and new, convergence of, 265–267 political bias and, 142–143 public concern about, 22 rating, dimensions for, 388 secrets about, 17–24 social functions of, 37 socialization and, 38, 256 See also Advertising; Audio; Books; Global media; Magazines; Mass communication; Mass communication effects; Media business; Media ethics; Media law; Media literacy; Media transformations; Media world; Movies; Newspapers; Online media; Public relations; Television

Media business, 48–74 big media, legacy, 51–60 big media, new players, 60–67 control of, 70–73 development of, in the United States, 50–51 economics, and the long tail, 67–70

Media ethics, 352–378 decision making and, 354–358 news and, 358–370 persuasive communication, 370–375 photo manipulation, 368–369 Public Relations Society of America’s Statement of Professional Values, 375 (box)

women, attacks on, 375–376 Media law, 324–351 free press, development of, 326–329 individuals, protection of, 329–337 offensive speech and, 336 press, controlling the, 337–345 regulation, 345–349 social media and, 347

Media literacy, 16–17. See also Test Your Media Literacy; Test Your Visual Media Literacy

Media Monopoly, The (Bagdikian), 135 Media planning, 282 Media relations, 310 Media Transformations Are We Really Living in a Media World?, 402 As You Like It: Movie Viewership in the Digital Era, 198–19 9

Can Paper Books and E-Books Coexist?, 97–98 Cookie Monsters: Online Privacy and Data Gathering, 372–373

Creating a Radio Show without a Radio Station, 183–184 Cultivation Theory, 42–43 Defining Television in the Twenty-First Century, 240–241 From Advertorials to Native Advertising, 294–295 Going from Paper to Digital, 122 Going Mobile, 253 News in the Age of Mobile Media, 148–149 Old and New Tools for Integrated Marketing Communication, 316–317

What Does Consolidation Look Like Today?, 64–65 When Media Connect Us to the Most Remote Places on Earth, 10–11

Who Owns Your Social Media Content?, 347 Media world, 1–25, 254, 402 communication, levels of, 4–7 evolution of the, 13–16 mass communication, elements of, 7–16 understanding, 16–24

Meisel, Steven, 115 Méliès, Georges, 191 Melville, Herman, 91 Memmott, Mark, 367, 391 Men’s magazines, 113–114 Mergenthaler linotype typesetting machine, 84 Mermigas, Diane, 70 Merton, Robert, 22 Message, 8–9 Message effects, 33–34 Metropolitan press, 137–140 Los Angeles Times, 138–140 Washington Post, 137–138 See also Newspapers

Meyer, Eric K., 140 Meyer, Michael, 148 Meyer, Stephenie, 92 Meyrowitz, Joshua, 34–35, 237, 286 M.I.A., 239 (photo) Middelhoff, Thomas, 60 Middle East, media in, 393–396 Mill, John Stuart, 355–357

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Miller, George, 189 Miller, Henry, 210 Miller, James, 177 Miller, Judith, 342 Miller, Lizzie, 116 Miller v. California, 343–345 Million Little Pieces, A (Frey), 359 Millman, Zosha, 151 Mills, C. Wright, 8, 32 Miloševic, Slobodan, 384 Minority/ethnic newspapers, 146–147 Misappropriation, and invasion of privacy, 333 Mishra, Gaurav, 394 Mobile advertising, 296 Mobile apps, 150, 252 Mobile audio, 165–166 Mobile media, 15–16, 148–149, 150, 248–255. See also Online media

Moby-Dick (Melville), 91 Moderatism, 143 Modernization, 275 Modern press, inventing the, 128–134. See also Newspapers Moffitt, Scott, 286 Mogos, Meron, 231 Mohamed, Baher, 396 Mohn, Reinhard, 59 Molina, Alfred, 206 Monk, Ian, 310 Monroe, Marilyn, 113, 115 Moon of Desire (Hanson), 86 Moonves, Les, 240 Moore, Allan, 169 Moore, Demi, 103–104 Moore, Mary Tyler, 236, 238 (photo) Moore, Michael, 206 Moore, Sara Jane, 332 Moral dimension, of media literacy, 17 Morality, and Hollywood, 207 Morals, 354 Morel, Daniel, 347 Moresco, Catherine, 260 Morita, Akio, 178

Morland, Howard, 340 Morris, Edmund, 359 Morris, Wesley, 206 Morse, Deborah, 342 Morse, Samuel, 159, 220 Morse v. Frederick, 342 Mosaic, 251 Moss, Kate, 115 Motown Records, 168–169 Mountain Stage, 176 Mourning, Alonzo, 290 Movies, 13–15, 188–216 as a brand, 212 blacklist in, 194–195 blockbuster era of, 196–197 business of, 196–202 censorship and, 207–208 development of, 189–196 digital production/projection, 200–201 diversity in, 204–207 future of, 211–214 home video and, 199 influence of, 203–204 larger-than-life, 195 long tail and, 213–214 makers of, first, 190–192 multiplex theaters, 196 profitable, 201–202 promotion, on the Internet, 212–213 ratings system, 208–211 society and, 202–211 stars in, 192 studio system, 192–194 television and, 195–196 viewership today, 198–199 women in, 205

MP3, 165 Muckrakers, 109 Multiplex theaters, 196 Munro, Alice, 86 Munro’s Ten Cent Novels, 83 (image) Murdoch, Rupert, 54–56, 83, 135–136, 228, 364 Murphy, Eddie, 242 Murray, Conrad, 37

Murrow, Edward R., 133–134, 221 Music country, 171–172 experience, changing, 177–178 industry, 180–184 long tail and, 182 mass-produced, 158–159 performances, storing, 158–159 personal soundtrack, 178 popular, 168–171 popular radio formats, 172–174 public radio, 175–176 publishing, new way of, 159 rock ‘n’ roll, 166–168 social, 177 talk radio, 174–175 transmitting, 159–162 young people and, 176–177 See also Audio; Radio

Muybridge, Eadweard, 190, 191 (photo) Myrick, Daniel, 212 My War (Buzzell), 254

Nader, Ralph, 306–307 Narrowcasting, 227–235 Nasrin, Taslima, 96 National advertising, 277 National Board of Censorship, 207 National brands, 275 (image), 277 (image) National Broadcasting Company (NBC), 61. See also NBCUniversal (NBCU)

National news, growth of, 51 National newspapers, 135–137 National Public Radio (NPR), 175–176 Native advertising, 119, 294–295 Naval Institute Press (NIP), 85 Navasky, Victor, 108 NBCUniversal (NBCU), 61–62 Near, Jay, 339 Near v. Minnesota, 339 Neff, Jack, 317 Nelson, Jim, 73 Nelson, Robert, 14 Nelson, Ted, 250

Nelson, Willie, 172 Nepal, and cell tower coverage, 10 Nerds 2.0.1 (Segaller), 251 Nerone, John C., 383, 387 Net neutrality, 349 Network, 161 Networks, online, 248 Neuman, W. Russell, 402 Neuromancer (Gibson), 263 Newman, Garry, 261 News business of, 134–141 characteristics of, 141 ethics and, 358–370 politics/society and, 141–149 sources, and media control, 72–73 See also Newspapers

News Corporation, 54–56 Newsmagazines, 109–110. See also Magazines News of the World, 54–56, 364 Newspapers, 126–153 advertising and, 283 future of, 149–150 modern press, inventing the, 128–134 news business, the, 134–141

News talk/radio, 174 New York Sun, 129 New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 329–331 New York Times Co. v. United States, 340 Next-generation internet, 248 Nichols, Terry, 335 Nielsen Media Research, 229 Night of the Gun (Carr), 359 Niles, Robert, 277 Nin, Anaïs, 210 Nineteen Eighty-Four (Orwell), 99 Nixon, Richard, 138, 311, 339 Noelle-Neumann, Elisabeth, 41 Noise, 11 Nolan, Christopher, 199, 201 Nolte, John, 361 Non-notated music, 159 No Sense of Place (Meyrowitz), 35, 237 Novak, Matt, 99 (image)

NPR (National Public Radio), 175–176 Nye, Chad F., 335 Nygaard, William, 96 Nyong’o, Lupita, 120

Oakley, Annie, 191 Oates, Stephen, 321 Obama, Barack, 108, 120, 195 (photo), 219, 259, 320 Obama, Michelle, 120 Obamacare (Affordable Care Act), 8 Objectives, and public relations, 308 O’Brien, Conan, 3 Obscenity, and the press, 343–345 Miller v. California, 343–345 Roth v. United States, 343

Ochs, Adolph, 137 Odyssey (Homer), 79 Of Mice and Men (Steinbeck), 93 Ogilvy, David, 280, 294 Ohlmeyer, Don, 369 Oklahoma City bombing case, 335 Olasky, Marvin, 302, 308 Oliver, John, 9 Olson, Bethany, 298 Ombudsman, 369–370 Onassis, Jacqueline Kennedy, 331 (photo) One-way communication, 303 Online audio, 165–166 Online media, 15–16, 244–269 blogs, 252–254 e-mail, 249 instant messaging (IM), 249 Internet, 246–248, 253, 261–268 mobile apps, 252 podcasts, 254–255 search, 252 short message service (SMS), 249 social media, 255–257, 266 streaming media, 254–255 video games, 257–261 women, attacks on, 375–376 World Wide Web, 249–251

Open contract, 280 Opie and Anthony, 175

Opinion leaders, 31 Opinion leadership, 306 Opinions, defense of, 329–330 Oppedahl, John, 141 Orange Is the New Black, 233 Ordway, Glenn, 175 O’Reilly, Bill, 142 Orlando, Tony, 18 Orwell, George, 99 Oscars, and diversity, 204–206 O’Sullivan, Timothy H., 106 (photo) O’Toole, John, 291 Outdoor advertising, 284 Overlock, Janis E., 398 Overstreet, Chord, 20 Ownership effects, 35 Oxford English Dictionary, 82

Packet switching, 247 Pacquiao, Manny, 240 Page, Larry, 62–63, 66 Paine, Thomas, 303 Paley, William S., 58, 161–162, 224, 277 Pamela (Richardson), 83 Paper, development of, 79 Papyrus, 79 Parchment, 79 Parker, Alison, 144 Parris, Teyonah, 288 Parsons, Alan, 170 Parsons, L. E. (Mrs.), 222 Parton, Dolly, 172 PATRIOT Act, 328 Patriotism, and the press, 143–145 Patterson, Philip, 354 Pavlik, John, 242 Payne, Alexander, 196 Payne Fund, 203 PBS (Public Broadcasting Service), 227 Pearce, Anna, 15 Pearl, Daniel, 145 Penny press, 51, 129–130. See also Newspapers Pentagon Papers, 339–340 People meter, 229

People’s Choice Study, 31 Personal soundtrack, 178 Persuasive communication, and ethics, 370–375 Peterman, Larry W., 345 Peters, Jeremy, 123 Peterson, Theodore, 383 Petty, George, 113 PG-13 rating, for movies, 210 Phair, Liz, 177 Phelps, Fred, 336 Phelps, Margie J., 336 Phillips, Dewey, 168 Phillips, Sam, 167

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Phonograph, 158 Phonography, 79 Photography, and ethics, 368–369 Photojournalism, birth of, 105–106 Photo manipulation, 368–369 Pickford, Mary, 192, 193 (photo), 207 Pickwick Papers, The (Dickens), 83 Pictograph, 78 Pierson, Frank, 206 Ping, Chang, 400 Pink, 178 Pink Floyd, 170 Pipher, Mary, 116 Pirate Looks at Fifty, A (Buffett), 89 Piretra, Dennis, 298 Pittman, Sandy Hill, 10 Playboy, 113–114 Plumer, Brad, 264 Plummer, Deborah, 232 Plus-sized model, 115 Podcast(s), 165, 254–255 Podcasting, 165–166 Poe, Edgar Allan, 33, 105, 107 Poitras, Laura, 27 Pole, Andrew, 273 Policinski, Gene, 239 Political activism, and public relations, 320 Political bias, and the media, 142–143

Political talk radio, 174 Politics, news, and society, 141–149 Poor Richard’s Almanack (Franklin), 83 Popular books, versus great books, 91–92 Popular music, 168–171, 177 Popular radio formats, 172–174 Porter, Edwin S, 191 Portman, Natalie, 202 Postal Act of 1879, 106 Postman, Neil, 14, 220, 363 Potter, James, 9, 16, 36 Powell, Colin, 395 Power, Tyrone, 213 Power of Habit, The (Duhigg), 273 Practical effects, 189 Prairie Home Companion, 176 Presley, Elvis, 167–168, 171, 221 Press agentry, 303 controlling, 337–345 honesty, 337–338 norms for, in the 21st century, 386–387 patriotism and, 143–145 theories of, 383–386 See also Media; Media ethics; Media law; Public relations

Print media. See Books; Magazines; Newspapers Print on demand, 98–99 Prior restraint, 339–341 Privacy data, 372–373 invasion of, 331–334 law, in Europe, 333–334 online, 372–373 social media and, 266, 333 World Wide Web and, 265

Private ownership tradition, 50–51 Privilege, defense of, 329 Producers, growing importance of, 170 Product, targeting for advertising, 286–287 Product integration, 296 Production Code, for movies, 207–208 Product placement, 296–297 Programming, and public relations, 309 Progressive case, the, 340–341

Project Gutenberg, 98 Proofs, 87 Propaganda, and the direct effects model, 29 Propaganda (Bernays), 304 Protect IP (intellectual property) Act (PIPA), 264 Protestant Reformation, 81 Proud, Danya, 288 Psychographics, 36, 285–286 Psychological effects, 34 Public, 302 Public access cable, 234–235 Public access channels, 234 Public broadcasting (television), 227–228 Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, 227 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 227 Public figures, and libel, 331 Publicity model, of mass communication, 12. See also Public relations

Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick (Harris), 5 0, 128

Public radio, 175–176 Public relations (PR), 300–322 as a profession, 306–307 business of, 307–318 civil rights movement and, 321 conducting war through, 374–375 crisis communication, 310–314, 318 development of, 302–307 Domino’s Pizza and, 317–318 ethics in, 374–375 false reports and, 305 functions of, 307 government and, 306, 319–320 image management, 303 journalism and, 318–319 online, 314–318 origins of, 303–306 political activism and, 320 process, 308–309 ROPES model, 308–309 social media and, 315–318 society and, 318–321 spin control, 320

Public Relations Society of America, Statement of

Professional Values, 375 (box) Publics, external and internal, 309–310 Public service ads, 278 Publishing colonial, 128 electronic, 98–99 See also Books; Magazines; Newspapers

Pulitzer, Joseph, 130–131, 363–364 Putin, Vladimir, 398

Quaker Oats, 276 Quinn, John, 136 Quinn, Zoe, 375 Quinton, Brian, 295

Race magazine covers and, 119–120 radio and, 163 records, 166 See also Diversity

Radio, 13–15 advertising and, 161–162, 284 as mass communication, 160 birth of, 159–162 consolidation, and high technology, 179–181 formats, popular, 172–174 golden age of, 162–164 HD, 164 networks, 161 satellite, 165 show, creating a, 183–184 See also Audio; Music

Radio Act of 1927, 346 Radio Music Box memo, 160 Ramanathan, Mohan, 256 Ramos, Jorge, 219 Random House Bertlesmann, 60 (image) Rap music, 171 Rather, Dan, 254 Rating point, 229 Ratings movies, 208–211 television, 228–229

Rawl, Lawrence, 313

Rawls, John, 357 Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 61, 160–161 Reagan, Nancy, 38 Reagan, Ronald, 38, 359 Receiver (audience), 9–11 Receiver (radio), 160 Reception model, of mass communication, 12–13 Recording industry development of, 158–159 making money in, 178–181 See also Audio; Music

Redstone, Shari, 59 Redstone, Sumner, 58–59 Reed, Charley, 4 Reeves, Jim, 171 Reformation, and the dissemination of ideas, 81–82 Reign, April, 205 Reilly, Ryan, 361 Reitman, Jason, 389 Remington, Frederic, 132 Remote-Free TV, 290 Representation, in video games, 260–261 Research, and public relations, 308 Responsible capitalism, 143 Responsible press, 357 Reverse synergy, 267 Reviving Ophelia (Pipher), 116 Rey (Star Wars), 44 Reynolds, Burt, 112 Reynolds, Ryan, 389 Reynolds, Taylor, 261 Rezaian, Jason, 381 Reznor, Trent, 184 Rhimes, Shonda, 231 Rhodes, Leara D., 121 Richardson, Samuel, 83 Ridenour, Andy, 176 Ridley, Daisy, 44 Rieder, Rem, 139 Rihanna, 305 (photo) Riley, Amber, 20 Ringer, Barbara, 345 Ritual model, of mass communication, 12 River Runs Through It, A (Maclean), 85

Rivers, Joan, 228 Roberts, Brian, 62, 230 Roberts, John, 8, 336 Roberts, Julia, 204, 208 Robertson, Pat, 38 Robinson, Jackie, 330 Robinson, Marilynne, 91 Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 104 Roche, Thomas C., 106 Rockefeller, John D., 304 Rock ’n’ roll, 166–168 Rock radio, 168 Rockwell, Norman, 105 Rogers, Henry, 305 Romenesko, Jim, 240, 370 Romer, Dan, 42 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 330 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 31 Roosevelt, Theodore, 109 ROPES model, 308–309 Rosen, Jay, 139–140 Rosenberg, Alyssa, 43 Rosenblum, Bruce, 4 Ross, Brian, 328 Rostova, Nataliya, 398 Rotary press, 84 Roth, Samuel, 343 Roth, Veronica, 92 Roth v. United States, 343 Rousey, Ronda, 117 Rowell, George, 280 Rowling, J. K., 92 Rubin, Rick, 170, 172 Rumsfeld, Donald, 22 Rushdie, Salman, 95 Russia, media in, 398 Russo, Richard, 86 Rynja, Martin, 96

Safire, William, 320 Sago Mine disaster, 365–367 Saldana, Zoe, 44 Salehi, Yeganeh, 381 Salinas, María Elena, 219

Salinger, J. D., 93 Samper, Ernesto, 219 Sánchez, Eduardo, 212 Sanders, Bernie, 33 Sargent, Greg, 139 Sarkeesian, Anita, 205, 376 Sarnoff, David, 160, 221, 224 Saro-Wiwa, Ken, 96 Sassa, Scott, 231 Satanic Verses, The (Rushdie), 95 Satellite radio, 165 Satellite television, 222–225, 229 (figure) Saturday Evening Post, 105 Scalia, Antonin, 259, 336 Scanlon, John, 320 Scarlet Letter, The (Hawthorne), 91, 93 Scherer, Eric, 242 Scherer, Michael, 121 Schierbecker, Mark, 302 Schiller, Vivian, 176 Schneider, Alfred, 238

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Schramm, Wilbur, 383 Schreiber, Liev, 381 Schudson, Michael, 70, 130, 275 Schulz, Charles, 362 Schumacher-Matos, Edward, 369 Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 333 Scott, Ridley, 195, 201, 207, 257, 291 Scriptoria, 79 Search, as a news medium, 252 Seduction of the Innocent (Wertham), 21 Segaller, Stephen, 251 Seglin, Jeffrey L., 370 Segura, Jonathan, 97 Seiden, Hank, 281 Seiple, Pamela, 315 Semantic noise, 11 Sender, 7–8 Sender Message Channel Receiver (SMCR), 7 Sengstacke, John, 146 Sensationalism, and ethics, 362–363

Serial novels, 83 Service magazines, 111 Sesame Street, 227 Sesame Workshop, 227–228 Seung-hui Cho, 356 Sevareid, Eric, 134 “Seven Sisters” magazines, 111–112 Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, 169–170 Shah Rukh Khan, 204 Shakespeare, William, 93 Shame of the Cities, The (Steffens), 109 Share, 229 Sharma, Anupam, 204 Shatner, William, 184 Shaw, Donald, 38 Shearer, Norma, 213 Sheehan, Neil, 339 Sheidlower, Jesse, 21 Sheppard, Sam, 334–335 Sheppard v. Maxwell, 335 Shield laws, 342 Shirky, Clay, 257 Shock jocks, 165, 175 Shockley, Jhessye, 32 Shojaei, Arash Honarvar, 382 Short head, versus the long tail, 67–68 Short message service (SMS), 249 Shrivastava, Paul, 312 Shyamalan, M. Night, 283 (image), 289, 291 (photo) Siebert, Fred S., 383 Silver, Nate, 35 Simon, Paul, 397 Simpson, O. J., 334, 337 Sipple, Oliver (Bill), 332 Skidmore, Linda, 366 Slater, Lydia, 116 Slaughterhouse-Five (Vonnegut), 93 Slumdog Millionaire, 203 Small, William, 313 Small media, 393–394 Small presses, 85–86 Small-town pastoralism, 143 SMCR (Sender Message Channel Receiver), 7 Smiley, Jane, 95

Smith, Jada Pinkett, 206 Smith, Judy, 231 Smith, Justin, 123 Smith, Will, 206 Smith Act, 327 Smokey Bear, and advertising, 278 (image) SMS (short message service), 249 Snow, Robert, 41, 318 Snowden, Edward, 27, 35, 41, 328, 401 Snyder, Albert, 336 Snyder, Matthew, 336 Snyder, Ruth, 132 Snyder v. Phelps, 336 Soap operas, 162–163 Socialization, 38 Social justice warriors (#SJW), 376 Social learning theory, 39–40 Social marketing, 297–298 Social media, 255–257 content, ownership of, 347 Domino’s Pizza and, 317–318 journalists and, 151 libel and, 331 newspapers and, 150 privacy and, 266, 333 public relations, and, 315–317

Social music, 177 Social networking, 256 Social order, 143 Social responsibility ethics, 357–358 Social responsibility theory, of the press, 386 Society Internet and, 261–268 media and. See Mass communication effects, theories of movies and, 202–211 music and youth culture, 166–178 politics/news and, 141–149

Solomon, Akiba, 116 Somaiya, Ravi, 58 Sony Walkman, 178 Sorenson, Erik, 142 Sotomayor, Sonia, 220 Sound future of, 181–184

recording and transmission, history of, 158–166 See also Audio

Soundtrack personal, 178 synchronized, 193

Soviet Republics (former), media in, 398 Soyinka, Wole, 96 Span, Paula, 112 Spanish-language broadcasting, 174 Spanish-language soap operas (telenovelas), 232 (photo) Sparks, Nicholas, 67 Sparling, Kerri Morrone, 8 Spears, Britney, 21, 362 Special interest groups, and media control, 72 Spectator sport, video games as, 260 Spielberg, Steven, 191, 196, 210–211 Spin control, 303, 320 Spin doctors, 320 Spiral of silence, 41 Sports injuries, 356 Sports radio, 175 Springfield, Dusty, 169 Stallone, Sylvester, 205 Stand, The (King), 86 Standage, Tom, 387 Standard digital television, 226 Stander, Lionel, 194 (photo) Stanton, Andrew, 201 Stanton, Brandon, 258 Starck, Kenneth, 369 Star Wars, 192 Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens, 44, 197 Status conferral, 37 Staudacher, Cory, 298 Steffens, Lincoln, 109 Steinbeck, John, 93 Stelfreeze, Brian, 77 Stelter, Brian, 61 Stern, Howard, 4, 165, 174–175 Stevens, John Paul, 349 Stewardship, and public relations, 309 Stewart, Potter, 340 Stine, R. L., 93 Stolley, Dick, 119

Stone, Biz, 257 Stone, Emma, 206 Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), 264 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 105 Strategic communication. See Advertising; Public relations Streaming, economics of, 179 Streaming audio, 165 Streaming downloads, 165–166, 179 Streaming media, 254–255 Strickert, Fred, 394 Students, and free speech, 341–342 Studio system, 192–194 Stulberg, Ariel, 157 Sturgeon, Marjorie, 22 Subliminal advertising, 290–291 Suburban newspapers, 140–141 Sullivan, L. B., 330 Sullivan, Margaret, 128, 391 Sulzberger, Arthur, 148, 369 Super Bowl blackout, 284 (photo) Supremes, The, 168 (photo) Surveillance, 37 Sweeps, 229 Swift, Taylor, 67 Swinton, Tilda, 206 Syed, Adnan, 157 Symbolic interactionism, 40 Synchronized soundtrack, 193 Synergy, 52 Synergy, and magazines, 118

Tabloidization, 363 Tabloid newspapers, 132–133. See also Newspapers Tagging, 256 Tai, Tim, 302 Takei, George, 206 Talkie, 193 Talking pictures, 193–194 Talk radio, 174–175 Tarantino, Quentin, 201 Tarbell, Ida, 109 Targeted advertising, 287–289 Targeting, 285 Tarr, Béla, 214

TCP/IP, 248 Telecommunications Act of 1996, 179, 345, 348–349 Telegraph, 13–15, 159, 386 (photo) Telenovelas, 232 Television, 13–15, 218–243 advertising, 284, 291–292, 295–296 as a social force, 235–236, 237 broadcast, 220–222 business of, 227–235 cable, 61–62, 222–225 changes in, 220–226 color, 222 decency and, 238–239 defining, in the 21st century, 240–241 digital, 225–226 diversity and, 231–235 future of, 239–242 interactive, 239–242 invention of, 220–221 movies and, 195–196 networks and affiliates, 227 news, and 24/7 coverage, 134 online and mobile, convergence of, 242 ratings, 228–229 satellite, 222–225 society and, 235–239 standards for, 236–238 viewers’ use of, 236

Television in the Lives of Our Children, 236 Terkourafi, Marina, 171 Terrestrial radio, 181 Tesler, Larry, 263 Test Your Media Literacy Advertising to Targeted Markets, 288 Can Television Take Anything Seriously?, 14 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 344 False Reports Garner Publicity, 305 Google’s Core Principles, 63 How Do Words Get into the Dictionary?, 82 How Free Are the World’s Media to Report the News?, 401 How Much Privacy Do You Have with Your Social Media Accounts?, 266

Journalists and Social Media, 151 Limits on Advertising Food to Children, 292

Living in Different Media Worlds, 144 Movie Ratings, 209 No Sense of Place, 237 Truth-Telling as a Journalistic Priority, 139–140 Unibomber Manifesto, 371 Updating the Four Theories, 387 What Did the Media’s Future Look Like in the Past?, 23 What Do You Do When Nothing Seems Right?, 371 When Is a Radio Show Racist?, 163 When Is Arresting Reporters Considered Acceptable?, 361 When Is Recycled Music Original? Mash-Ups and Covers, 1 73

Where Are the Rey Star Wars Toys?, 44 Who Is Being Hurt by Declining Sales of Recorded Music?, 180–181

p.458

Test Your Visual Media Literacy, 258 Are There Limits to What Media Images Should Display?, 3 90

Does It Look Like Women Have Major Film Roles?, 205 Comics Don’t Have to Be Funny, 94 Emojis Bring Back Picture Writing, 80 Horrific Sports Injuries, 356 Humans of New York, 258 Messages in Propaganda, 30 Presenting a Broader Range of Beauty, 116 Should Legal Protections Extend to Offensive Speech?, 336 What Does a TV Show Look Like?, 233

Textbook business, 89–90 Theron, Charlize, 189 This Book Loves You (Kjellberg), 3 Thomas, Parnell, 194 Thomas, W. I., 40 Thompson, Robert, 238 Tiananmen Square, 72 (photo) Timberlake, Justin, 178, 238 Time Warner, 57–58 Tisch, Laurence, 58, 230 Tobacco Road (Caldwell), 110 Tofel, Richard, 137 To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee), 91 Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel (J. R. R.), 91–92

Tomlinson, Ray, 249 Tony Orlando and Dawn, 18 Tortorella, Al, 310 Trade advertising, 278 Trade books, 91 Trade magazines, 107 Transmission model, 7 Transmitters (radio), 160 Travolta, John, 172 Trip to the Moon, A, 191 Trudeau, Margaret, 362 Trumbo, Dalton, 195 Trump, Donald, 38, 219 Truth, defense of, 329 Truthfulness, in journalism, 139–140, 358–362 Truth in advertising, 371–373 Tube of Plenty (Barnouw), 235 Turner, Ted, 57, 83, 134, 165, 223 Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), 57 Turow, Joseph, 274 Twain, Mark, 94, 107, 276 Twelfth Night (Shakespeare), 93 21st Century Fox, 54–56 Twitchell, James, 283 Twitter, 257 Tylenol scare, 312–313 Typeface/typesetting, 81 Typemold, 81

Ulysses (Joyce), 21 Unabomber, 371 Underground newspapers, 147–149 Underwood, Carrie, 172 Ungar, Sanford, 339 Uniform resource locator (URL), 250 Union, Gabrielle, 231 United Artists, 192–193 United States v. Paramount, 221 University presses, 85 Univision and Spanish-language broadcasting, 232–234 Urbahn, Keith, 22 USA FREEDOM, 329 USA Today, 136, 150 (image) User generated content, 347

Uses and gratifications theory, 39 Utility, principle of, 355–357

Valenti, Jack, 208, 211 VALS types, 285–286 VanDerWerff, Todd, 206 Van Dyke, Dick, 236 Van Overstraeten, Tanguy, 349 Vanrenen, D. A. (Jumbo), 398 Vargas, Alberto, 113 Vargas, Jose Antonio, 256, 360 V-chip, 348 VCR (video cassette recorder), 225 Veil of ignorance, 357 Veloso, Ruben, 234 Verbinski, Gore, 202 Verrone, Patric, 297 Vertically integrated, 56 Viacom, 58–59 Vicary, Jim, 290 Victorian Internet, The (Standage), 387 Video cassette recorder (VCR), 225 Video games, 257–261 Video on demand, 239–242 Virtue, and the golden mean, 354–355 Visual media literacy. See Test Your Visual Media Literacy Voight, Jon, 208 Vonnegut, Kurt, 93 Voter studies, and the limited effects model, 29–31

Wagoner, Becky, 366 Walden, Dave, 251 Waldman, Gunnar, 371 Waldman, Katy, 32 Wall, Chris, 373 Wall Street Journal, 54–56, 135–136 Walt Disney Company, 52–54, 71 Walter Cronkite New Voices Act, 341 Ward, Adam, 144 Ware, Kevin, 356 Warner, Harry, 193 Warner Bros., 57 War of the Worlds (Wells), 40 War photography, 106 (photo)

Washington, Booker T., 109 Washington, Kerry, 120 (photo), 231, 231 (photo) Washington Post, 137–138, 371 Watercooler principle, 362 Watergate scandal, 138 Weaver, Paul, 130 Webbe, John, 104 Weblog (blog). See Blogs Weeknd, The, 389 Weisberg, Jacob, 99 Welles, Orson, 40 Wells, Alan, 388–389 Wertham, Fredric, 21 West, Kanye, 363 (photo) Westboro Baptist Church, 336 Western Europe, media in, 389–390 Whipp, Glenn, 213 Whitaker, Mark, 363 White House Family Theater, 195 (photo) Whitehurst, Andrew, 189 Whitewashing, in movies, 206–207 Whitman, Walt, 91 Whitney, Ruth, 120 Whitney, Wheelock, 337 Whole Booke of Psalmes, The, 50, 82 Whole Earth Catalog (Brand), 261 Wiig, Olaf, 145 Wilkerson, Bob, 311 Wilkins, Lee, 354 Willes, Mark, 138 Williams, Doug, 49, 166, 178 Williams, Evan, 257 Williams, Hank, 172 Williams, John, 196 Williams, Juan, 176 Williams, Telisha, 49, 166 Willkie, Wendell, 31 Willoughby, Gordon, 136 Wilson, Mary, 169 Wilson, Michael, 195 Wilson, Woodrow, 306 Winer, Dave, 165 Winslet, Kate, 117–118 Wireless telegraph, 159

Wloszczyna, Susan, 202 Wolf, Josh, 343 Wolfe, Tim, 301 Wolk, Douglas, 401 Women movie roles for, 205 online media attacks, 375–376

Women’s magazines, 110–113 Wood, Anne, 293 Wood, James, 110 Woods, Keith, 32, 138 Woods, Tiger, 363 Woodward, Bob, 138 World War I, and public relations, 306 World Wide Web (WWW), 249–251 Wouk, Herman, 89 Wozniak, Steve, 66, 262 Wright, Charles R., 21, 37 Writing, origins of, 78–79 Wu, Brianna, 376 Wu, Tim, 349

Xi Jinping, 400 (photo) X rating, for movies, 210–211

Yellow journalism, 131–132 “Yellow Kid, The,” 132 (image) Yglesias, Matthew, 180 You Have Seen Their Faces (Caldwell and Bourke-White), 110 Young-adult book series, and best-seller lists, 92–93 Young people, effects of music on, 176–177 Youth culture, music, and society, 166–178 Yunchao, Wen, 400

Zalben, Alex, 189 Zappa, Frank, 169 (photo) Zenger, Anna Catherine, 327 Zenger, John Peter, 327 Zenger case, and American free speech, 327 Zerzan, John, 178 Zeta-Jones, Catherine, 334 Zhao Jing, 252 Zharkova, Katya, 115 Zoned coverage, 283

Zuckerberg, Mark, 256, 257 (photo), 360 Zworykin, Vladimir, 221

Visual Preface
Front Matter

Contents
Media Library
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author

Part I: Introduction to the Media

1 Living in a Media World

Media Library
Levels of Communication
Elements of Mass Communication
Evolution of the Media World
Understanding the Media World
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

2 Mass Communication Effects: How Society and Media Interact

Media Library
History of Media Effects Research
Effects of the Media in Our Lives
Theories of Media and Society
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

3 The Media Business: Consolidation, Globalization, and the Long Tail

Media Library
The Development of the Media Business in the United States
Big Media: The Legacy Conglomerates
Big Media: The New Players
Media Economics and the Long Tail
Who Controls the Media?
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

Part II: Print Media

4 Books: The Birth of the Mass Media

Media Library
The Development of the Book and Mass Communication
Buying and Selling Books
Books and Culture
The Future of Books
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

5 Magazines: The Power of Words and Images

Media Library
The Development of a National Culture
The Magazine Business
Magazines and Modern Society
The Future of Magazines
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

6 Newspapers and the News: Reflection of a Democratic Society

Media Library
Inventing the Modern Press
The News Business
News, Politics, and Society
The Future of News
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

Part III: Electronic Media

7 Audio: Music and Talk Across Media

Media Library
History of Sound Recording and Transmission
Music, Youth Culture, and Society
From Singles to Digital Downloads: Making Money in the Recording Industry
The Future of Sound
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

8 Movies: Mass Producing Entertainment

Media Library
The Development of Movies
The Movie Business
Movies and Society
The Future of Movies
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

9 Television: Broadcast and Beyond

Media Library
Television: Broadcast and Cable/Satellite
From Broadcasting to Narrowcasting: The Changing Business of Television
Television and Society
The Future of Television
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

10 Online Media: The Internet, Social Media, and Video Games

Media Library
The Development of the Internet
What Are Online/Mobile Media?
Social Media: Sharing Our Lives Online
Video Games as Mass Communication
The Internet and Society
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

Part IV: Strategic Communication

11 Advertising: Selling a Message

Media Library
The Development of the Advertising Industry
The Advertising Business
Advertising in Contemporary Culture
The Future of Advertising
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

12 Public Relations: Interactions, Relationships, and the News

Media Library
From Press Agentry to Professionalism
The Business of Public Relations
Public Relations and Society
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

Part V: Regulation and Control of the Media

13 Media Law: Free Speech and Fairness

Media Library
The Development of a Free Press
Protection of Individuals
Controlling the Press
Regulation of the Media Industry
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

14 Media Ethics: Truthfulness, Fairness, and Standards of Decency

Media Library
Ethical Principles and Decision Making
Ethics and News
Ethics and Persuasive Communication
Attacks on Women Through Online Media
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

15 Global Media: Communication Around the World

Media Library
Media Ideals Around the World
Going Global: Media Standards Around the World
Chapter Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions

Notes
Glossary
Index