SUMMARIZE (6) SCIENTIFI RESEARCH DOCUMENTS

Adherence to Masculine Norms and Depressive Symptoms in Young Black Men Janelle R. Goodwill, Natasha C. Johnson, and Daphne C. Watkins

Recent reports have highlighted disparities in representation of Black men within research, calling for more work to be done with this group. The authors take up this call by exploring whether adherence to masculine norms influences mental health outcomes among young Black men. The sample included survey responses from 18- to 30-year-old Black men (N¼273) enrolled at five colleges and universities in the midwestern United States. Two theoretically relevant subscales from the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (that is, self-reliance and emotional control) were used to measure adherence to masculine norms, and depressive symptoms were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis results indicate that the model fit the data well. Furthermore, self-reliance was associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms (b ¼ .358, p < .001), but emotional control was not (b ¼ .137, p ¼ .099). Study findings suggest that depression treatment interventions should be tailored to incorporate aspects of masculinity that are most salient to young Black men. In addition, social work researchers, clinicians, and service providers are uniquely positioned to contribute to the promotion of mental wellness among this underserved population and should be prepared to attend to young Black men’s mental health needs.

KEY WORDS: Black/African American men; depression; masculinity

E xisting research reports that endorsement

of some traditional masculine norms is

associated with poorer mental health out-

comes among men (Addis & Cohane, 2005; Brad-

street & Parent, 2017; Easton, Renner, & O’Leary,

2013; Hammond, 2012; Liu & Iwamoto, 2007;

Wong, Ho, Wang, & Miller, 2017). In addition,

familial responsibilities, financial instability, and

physical health challenges have also been found to

contribute to men’s experiences with distress and

depression (Iwamoto et al., 2012; Syzdek & Addis,

2010). These pressures may be pronounced among

college-enrolled men who are learning to respond

to the rigorous demands of college life while also

navigating academic or social challenges. More-

over, young or ‘‘emerging” adulthood (Arnett,

2000) is a unique developmental time frame in

which men are working to explore, define, and de-

scribe their own ideas and beliefs about manhood

and masculinities (Goodwill et al., 2019). Empiri-

cal studies have assessed the relationship between

adherence to masculine norms and depression

among samples comprised predominantly of White

American college men (Mahalik & Rochlen, 2006),

Asian American college men (Iwamoto, Liao, &

Liu, 2010), and Canadian college men (Oliffe, Gal-

das, Han, & Kelly, 2013), whereas matters related to

masculinity and depression among Black American

college men remain understudied. Recent reports

suggest that the link between masculinities and men-

tal health is both intricate and complex (Gerdes &

Levant, 2018), as more race- and gender-specific

queries are needed to further explicate these ties

(American Psychological Association, Boys and

Men Guidelines Group, 2018). Therefore, the cur-

rent study aims to redress this gap by examining the

relationship between adherence to masculine norms

and depressive symptoms specifically among young

Black men in an effort to adequately address the

unique psychological needs of this traditionally un-

derserved population.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND We used two frameworks to guide development of

study hypotheses and interpretation of study find-

ings. The first is the Health, Illness, Men, and

Masculinities (HIMM) framework, which pro-

poses that masculinities are overlooked areas of

study that have direct implications for men’s health

outcomes across the life course (Evans, Frank, Oliffe,

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& Gregory, 2011). Originally developed to under-

stand the experiences of Canadian men’s health,

‘‘the HIMM framework depicts masculinities as

a social determinant of health that intersects with

other determinants such as socio-economic status,

race, ethnicity, sexuality, ability, geography, com-

munity, education, and employment” (Evans

et al., 2011, p. 10). This intentional focus on ex-

amining masculinities specifically within the con-

text of other social positionalities (for example,

race) aligns with the purpose of the current study,

which centers the lived experiences of young

Black men. The second framework we draw from

is Courtenay’s (2000) work on men’s health,

which uses a social constructionist approach to de-

scribe and understand the role of gender at the

intersections of masculinity and psychological re-

search. Through this lens, Courtenay asserts that

for men to engage in health prevention efforts,

they must give up some aspects of hegemonic

masculine norms. Seeking help for matters related

to their health is a violation of traditional mascu-

line norms, and this violation helps explain dispa-

rate health outcomes among men (Courtenay,

2000). Therefore, men may avoid seeking treat-

ment for their health conditions at the expense of

their psychological well-being. Taken together,

men’s health behaviors are limited by the restric-

tive masculine norms they both adhere to and per-

petuate by not seeking or admitting when they

need help—all in efforts to keep their ideas of

manhood intact.

Conversations surrounding masculinities be-

come more convoluted when exploring this con-

cept among marginalized men, and especially

Black men in the United States, whose histories are

laden with chronic and pervasive experiences of

discrimination. Researchers have previously stud-

ied links between masculinities and mental health

among men broadly (Addis & Cohane, 2005;

Oliffe, Kelly, Bottorff, Johnson, & Wong, 2011),

though these matters have not been thoroughly

assessed within the context of young Black men’s

mental health. For these reasons a more critical in-

quiry of Black men’s mental health is warranted.

MASCULINITIES AND MENTAL HEALTH AMONG BLACK MEN A number of existing studies have identified racial

discrimination, economic hardship, physical illness,

and disengaged psychosocial coping behaviors as

risk factors for depression among Black men (Barry,

Jackson, Watkins, Goodwill, & Hunte, 2016; Britt-

Spells, Slebodnik, Sands, & Rollock, 2018; Ham-

mond, Fleming, & Villa-Torres, 2016; Matthews,

Hammond, Nuru-Jeter, Cole-Lewis, & Melvin,

2013; Powell, Banks, & Mattis, 2017; Watkins,

2012; Watkins, Hudson, Caldwell, Siefert, & Jack-

son, 2011; Wheaton, Thomas, Roman, & Abdou,

2018). However, investigations that interrogate the

role of masculine norms within the context of Black

men’s mental health are scant (see Hammond, 2012;

Matthews et al., 2013, for exceptions). For example,

one study examined total scores on the Conformity

to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) (Mahalik

et al., 2003) and found that greater endorsement of

traditional masculine norms was associated with

higher rates of psychological distress among college

men in Kenya—although findings specific to U.S.-

born Black college men were not discussed (Maha-

lik, Lagan, & Morrison, 2006).

Conversely, researchers have tested links be-

tween masculinity and depression using specific

subscales and reported that masculine norms such

as ‘‘restrictive emotionality” were associated with

higher rates of depressive symptoms, whereas ‘‘self-

reliance” predicted lower rates of depressive symp-

toms—though differences emerged among men in

varying age groups (Hammond, 2012; Matthews

et al., 2013). Furthermore, greater adherence to

‘‘heterosexual self-presentation” and less adherence

to ‘‘emotional control” were positively associated

with depressive symptoms among a sample of pre-

dominantly Black incarcerated men (Iwamoto

et al., 2012). These studies highlight the nuances of

masculine norms, such that different dimensions of

masculinity (for example, CMNI subscales) may

differentially influence mental health outcomes.

The current study continues in a similar vein by ex-

amining whether adherence to emotional control

and self-reliance is associated with depressive symp-

toms among young Black men.

When considering that men’s ideas and beliefs

about masculinity inform the ways in which they

manage stressful life encounters (Addis & Cohane,

2005; Syzdek & Addis, 2010), it seems beneficial to

examine young Black men’s conceptualizations of

masculinity and the subsequent impact this has on

their mental health. Moreover, the strategies young

Black men use to cope with adversity have direct

implications for their interpersonal relationships, ac-

ademic performance, and overall well-being that

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extends far beyond their time in college (Goodwill,

Watkins, Johnson, & Allen, 2018). Thus, a critical

inquiry that examines the intersections of gendered

expectations and mental health is required.

CURRENT STUDY The current study aimed to examine whether ad-

herence to specific masculine norms of emotional

control and self-reliance is associated with depres-

sive symptoms among young Black men. Adher-

ence to masculine norms and depressive symptoms

are important aspects to consider in the lives of

young Black men, as prevailing cultural norms do

not encourage men to attend to their mental health

needs, yet previous research suggests that the conse-

quences of ignoring mental health concerns can be

dire (Courtenay, 2000; Evans et al., 2011; Wong

et al., 2017). Using the HIMM framework and

Courtenay’s relational theory of men’s health to

guide study development, we anticipated that

greater adherence to emotional control and self-

reliance would be associated with an increase in de-

pressive symptoms. Emotional control is described as

one’s efforts to ‘‘control the expression of their

emotions” (Parent & Moradi, 2011, p. 342), while

self-reliance represents men’s tendency to handle

problems, issues, or concerns on their own (Mahalik

et al., 2003; Parent & Moradi, 2011). Both subscales

have been used in studies among men generally, al-

though few researchers have used these measures in

studies of Black men specifically. Therefore, we be-

gan our analysis by using confirmatory factor analy-

sis (CFA) to assess dimensionality of the masculine

norms and depression measures. This is an impor-

tant step to consider, as a paucity of research exists

that uses both the CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003)

and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)

(Kroenke, Spitzer, & Williams, 2001) among sam-

ples of Black men. When considering that Black

men remain grossly understudied within empirical

research, existing measures may not adequately cap-

ture their lived experiences. Thus, before making

inferences about relationships between masculinities

and depression, we needed to ascertain whether the

original factor structures hold when implementing

these measures among a sample of Black men.

METHOD Participants and Procedure Data were collected from young Black men

(N¼273) enrolled at five colleges and universities

in the Midwest who participated in a larger inter-

vention—the Young Black Men, Masculinities,

and Mental Health Project (Watkins, Allen, Good-

will, & Noel, 2017), which was designed to address

the mental health and social support needs of

young Black men. Participants were required to

meet the following criteria to be considered eligi-

ble for the study: (a) identify as a Black or African

American man, (b) be 18 to 30 years old, (c) be en-

rolled at one of the participating academic institu-

tions, and (d) not previously diagnosed with a

mental illness. The last criterion is particularly

important, as the intervention was not designed to

administer treatment, and instead focuses on pro-

viding age-appropriate, gender-specific, and cultur-

ally relevant psychosocial education to men without

a clinical diagnosis (Watkins, 2012, 2019; Watkins

et al., 2017; Watkins, Walker, & Griffith, 2010).

Data were collected during the fall 2015 and 2017

terms. A nonprobability sample procedure was used,

as members of the research team recruited partici-

pants by posting flyers around campus and dissemi-

nating study information via e-mail through student

Listservs and university registrar offices. All partici-

pants provided informed consent before completing

the online survey and were given a list of campus

and community mental health resources. The study

was approved by the institutional review board at

the principal investigator’s home institution. Com-

pensation was offered in the form of a raffle, in

which participants were eligible to win a $50 Ama-

zon.com gift card.

Participant Demographics Most participants (77 percent) were undergraduate

students; the remaining 13 percent were enrolled

in graduate programs. Sixty-four percent of the

young Black men in this study were employed at

least part-time. Twenty-eight percent were mar-

ried or had a significant other. The mean age was

20.58 years; age was included as a covariate in the

analyses.

Measures Adherence to Masculine Norms. Adherence to mas-

culine norms was measured using the emotional

control and self-reliance subscales of the CMNI

(Mahalik et al., 2003). Sample items for the emo-

tional control and self-reliance subscales are ‘‘I never

share my feelings” and ‘‘I hate asking for help,” re-

spectively. Responses were captured using a four-

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point Likert scale ranging from 0¼ strongly dis- agree to 3¼ strongly agree. Higher scores indicate greater adherence to masculine norms. In its en-

tirety, the CMNI comprises nine subscales, al-

though only two theoretically relevant subscales

were used in the current analysis. Cronbach’s alpha

reliability coefficient for the self-reliance subscale

was a ¼ .82, and the reliability coefficient for the emotional control subscale was a¼ .89.

Depressive Symptoms. Depressive symptoms

were measured using the PHQ-9 (Kroenke et al.,

2001). Participants were asked to indicate how of-

ten they experienced various symptoms within the

past two weeks. Responses were captured using a

four-point Likert scale with options ranging from

0¼not at all to 3¼nearly every day. A composite score was calculated, with higher numbers repre-

senting greater severity of depressive symptoms.

Sample items include ‘‘Trouble falling or staying

asleep, or sleeping too much” and ‘‘Feeling down,

depressed, or hopeless.” Cronbach’s alpha reliability

coefficient for depressive symptoms among young

Black men in this sample was .79.

Data Analysis Descriptive statistics (intercorrelations, means, and

standard deviations) were first calculated using Stata

15 (StataCorp, 2017). The primary research ques-

tion was analyzed using CFA and path analysis

within a structural equation modeling framework

using Mplus version 8.1 (Muthén & Muthén,

1998–2017). A single latent factor reflecting depres-

sive symptoms and two latent factors (emotional

control and self-reliance) reflecting adherence to

masculine norms were included in the analyses.

Items for each of the three latent factors were treated

as categorical, as they were all captured using

four-point Likert response scales. Therefore, the

weighted least square mean and variance estima-

tor was applied instead of the default maximum

likelihood estimator, and in turn, missing data

were handled using the default full information

maximum-likelihood approach in Mplus. Hu and

Bentler (1999) recommended that nonsignificant

chi-square values, root mean square error of ap-

proximation (RMSEA) values � .05, compara- tive fit index (CFI) and Tucker–Lewis Index

(TLI) values � .95, and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) values < .06 represent ideal model fit; these cutoffs were used to guide the

analysis.

RESULTS Descriptive Results Correlations, means, and standard deviations of

key study variables are reported in Table 1. Emo-

tional control and self-reliance masculine norms

were positively correlated with depressive symp-

toms. Notably, a positive correlation emerged be-

tween the two main independent variables of

interest—emotional control and self-reliance (r ¼ .471, p < .001). As such, tests for multicollinearity were performed in Stata 15 (StataCorp, 2017). All

variance inflation scores were below 3, which is

considered to be within an acceptable range (My-

ers, 1990). Therefore, both variables are consid-

ered to be distinguishable from one another and

were ultimately kept in the model.

Measurement Model CFA was used to assess dimensionality of the

PHQ-9 (Kroenke et al., 2001) and two abridged

subscales from the CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003).

Results from the CFA indicate that the model fit

the data well [v2(166, N¼273) ¼ 297.515, p < .001; RMSEA ¼ .054; CFI ¼ .970; TLI ¼ .966; SRMR ¼ .065] (see Table 2). Item loadings were freely estimated as factors’ variances were fixed to

one. All item loadings ranged between .587 and

.921, exceeding the recommended cutoff pro-

posed by Worthington and Whittaker (2006). The

three latent factors representing emotional control,

self-reliance, and depressive symptoms were posi-

tively and significantly correlated with one an-

other. Modification indices provided by Mplus

were used to identify shared error between two

items on the emotional control factor. These find-

ings suggest that items for each of the three latent

factors appear to appropriately measure underlying

constructs related to masculinities and depression

among young Black men, which ultimately pro-

vides support for the original factor structures of

both the PHQ-9 (Kroenke et al., 2001) and the

CMNI subscales (Mahalik et al., 2003).

Structural Model Once dimensionality was confirmed, we moved

forward in testing relationships between adherence

to masculine norms and depressive symptoms.

Results from the path analysis (see Figure 1) re-

vealed that, again, the proposed model was an ac-

ceptable fit to the data [v2(185, N¼273) ¼ 329.014, p < .001; RMSEA ¼ .053; CFI ¼ .968;

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TLI ¼ .964; SRMR¼ .104]. Adherence to the self- reliance masculine norm was associated with higher

rates of depressive symptoms (b ¼ .358, p < .001), although the relationship between emotional con-

trol and depressive symptoms was not statistically sig-

nificant (b¼ .137, p¼ .099).

DISCUSSION The present study sought to assess associations be-

tween adherence to masculine norms and depres-

sive symptoms among young Black men. In doing

so we first examined the psychometric properties

of existing measures (the PHQ-9 and CMNI) to

Table 1: Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations

M SD Range 1 2 3 4

Age 20.58 2.64 18–30 —

CMNI: Emotional control 9.56 4.08 0–18 –.10 —

CMNI: Self-reliance 6.48 3.12 0–14 –.01 .47*** —

Depressive symptoms 6.52 5.08 0–27 –.02 .27*** .33*** —

Note: CMNI ¼ Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. ***p < .001.

Table 2: Results from the Measurement Model: Factor Loadings for Latent Variables

Latent Variable and Item Loading Standardized Estimate SE

Emotional control

I hate it when people ask me to talk about my feelings .64* .04

I bring up my feelings when talking to others (RS) .82* .03

I never share my feelings .83* .03

I like to talk about my feelings (RS) .73* .04

I tend to keep my feelings to myself .92* .02

I tend to share my feelings (RS) .85* .03

Self-reliance

I hate asking for help .83* .03

I ask for help when I need it (RS) .62* .05

I never ask for help .68* .04

I am not ashamed to ask for help (RS) .77* .03

It bothers me when I have to ask for help .84* .03

Depressive symptoms

Little interest or pleasure in doing things .76* .04

Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless .80* .04

Trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping too much .62* .05

Poor appetite or overeating .69* .04

Feeling tired or having little energy .55* .05

Thinking that you would be better off dead or that you want to hurt yourself in

some way

.81* .03

Feeling bad about yourself, feeling that you are a failure, or feeling that you have let

yourself or your family down

.59* .06

Trouble concentrating on things such as reading the newspaper or watching

television

.68* .05

Moving or speaking so slowly that other people could have noticed, or being so

fidgety or restless that you have been moving around a lot

.74* .07

Note: RS ¼ reverse scored. *Represents statistically significant loadings at p � .001.

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determine whether the original factor structures

could be applied to a sample of young Black men.

Results from the CFA indicate that PHQ-9 and

CMNI subscales self-reliance and emotional control

appear to be appropriate measures to use when ex-

amining Black men’s experiences with depression

and masculinities. These findings build on work by

Gordon and colleagues (2013), who used the CMNI

(Mahalik et al., 2003) in their work with Black men.

To quell concerns regarding validity and reliability,

future studies should continue to critically interro-

gate the dimensionality of scales—particularly for

measures that were initially constructed and vali-

dated using mostly White male samples.

Gerdes and Levant (2018) conducted a content

analysis of 17 studies that used subscales of the

CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003) and reported that self-

reliance was significantly associated with 29 varia-

bles, 25 of which were negative outcomes including

depression (see Gerdes & Levant, 2018, for full re-

view). Our hypotheses were partially supported and

align with this work, such that self-reliance, but not

emotional control, was associated with higher rates

of depressive symptoms among our sample of young

Black men. This finding supports previous research

that uncovered a positive association between self-

reliance and depressive symptoms in community-

residing Black men (Matthews et al., 2013), but also

diverges from other studies that reported a negative

association between self-reliance and depressive

symptoms among 18- to 29-year-old Black men

(Hammond, 2012). Evidence from an earlier investi-

gation suggests that it may be particularly important

to examine the relationship between self-reliance

and depressive symptoms among Black college men,

as rates of self-reliance were significantly higher

among members of this group when compared with

White college men, White college women, and

Black college women (Levant, Majors, & Kelley,

1998). It is, however, important to note that each of

the aforementioned studies (see Hammond, 2012;

Matthews et al., 2013; Levant et al., 1998) measured

self-reliance using the Male Role Norms Inventory

(MRNI) (Levant et al., 1992), while we assessed self-

reliance using the CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003).

Thus, careful consideration should be given to ex-

ploring conceptual similarities and variations of the

CMNI and MRNI subscales when comparing find-

ings across studies.

Nonetheless, further exploring the link between

self-reliance and depressive symptoms may also

deepen our understanding of help-seeking behav-

iors, as Courtenay (2000) suggested that help seek-

ing is a violation to traditional masculine norms and

a barrier to health prevention and intervention.

Young Black men who rigidly adhere to masculine

ideologies like self-reliance may be discouraged

from participating in health promotion efforts,

which may exacerbate the stressors they are already

experiencing—oftentimes in isolation. Thus, a logi-

cal next step in this research would be to consider

the influence of self-reliance and help seeking on

mental health outcomes among young Black men.

Study findings also reveal that among the young

Black men in our sample, emotional control was

not significantly related to depressive symptoms.

This finding is inconsistent with previous work,

which suggests that emotional control is negatively

associated with depressive symptoms (Iwamoto

et al., 2012)—though the sample characteristics

(that is, college men versus incarcerated men) may

account for these differences. Yet, although find-

ings related to emotional control are mixed, the

HIMM framework offers a useful lens through

which these findings can be interpreted. For in-

stance, it is important to understand that in the case

of men and boys, masculinities are differentially in-

fluential across the life span (Courtenay, 2000; Ev-

ans et al., 2011). Furthermore, masculinities

function differently across varying intersections of

social status (for example, class or education) and

identities (for example, sexual orientation) (Evans

et al., 2011). As such, context matters for how we

understand and interpret the role of emotional

control and its function in the lives of Black men

across the life course. For example, within the con-

text of racial discrimination, emotional control

may be momentarily protective, though the long-

term mental health effects may be costly. Related

work by Hammond (2012) tested an overlapping

concept of restrictive emotionality from the

MRNI (Levant et al., 1992) and found that greater

endorsement of this specific masculine norm mod-

erated the strength of the association between ra-

cial discrimination and depressive symptoms for

men age 30 and older. Similarly, men who en-

dorsed more traditional ideas of restrictive emo-

tionality were less likely to forgive perpetrators of

racial discrimination (Hammond, Banks, & Mattis,

2006). These findings reiterate the need and affirm

the value of measuring specific masculine domains.

Even still, researchers should build on these initial

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efforts by using longitudinal and experimental

methodologies to examine the differential impacts

of emotional control (or restrictive emotionality)

across time, interpersonal experiences, and social

contexts.

Seeing that our findings emphasize the complex

relationship between masculinities and depressive

symptoms, there are some practical steps social

workers and other mental health professionals

should consider when working to improve mental

wellness among members of this group. One prac-

tical first step would be for researchers and practi-

tioners to use outreach strategies that account for

matters related to masculinities and mental health,

as this could aid in recruiting and retaining young

Black men in both research and clinical settings.

Moreover, social workers are employed across

various settings like schools, community health

centers, and hospitals and are well positioned to

serve as advocates on behalf of young Black men. It

is important for practitioners to receive culturally

relevant trainings, which could be incorporated

into existing social work education. Programmatic

efforts should also focus on reducing stigma and

eradicating barriers to mental health care. In doing

so, practitioners must also be willing to explore and

assess masculinities specifically within the context

of young Black men’s unique social position. Each

of the aforementioned steps must be taken to en-

sure that social workers, psychologists, and other

practitioners are appropriately responding to the

mental health needs of young Black men (Ameri-

can Psychological Association, Boys and Men

Guidelines Group, 2018).

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Some limitations warrant consideration when inter-

preting our study findings. First, we analyzed cross-

sectional survey responses and are unable to confirm

directionality between adherence to masculine

norms and depressive symptoms. Future studies

could build on this research by using longitudinal

data to identify meaningful causal pathways. Also,

our sample included Black men who were enrolled

at predominantly White institutions in the Midwest.

Researchers may consider replicating this study

among community-residing men or those enrolled

at historically Black colleges and universities, as

these environmental factors may be influential in

further uncovering Black men’s experiences with

masculinities and depressive symptoms.

Previous research demonstrates that Black men’s

experiences with depression vary across age groups

(see Hammond, 2012; Watkins, 2012; Watkins

et al., 2011; Wheaton et al., 2018). We were un-

able to address potential age differences between

younger and older men, as our study focused ex-

clusively on the experiences of emerging adult

men (ages 18 to 30). Sexual orientation is another

important factor to consider when examining links

between Black men’s experiences with masculinity

and depression. Other researchers have found that

gay and bisexual men report higher rates of depres-

sive symptoms when compared with heterosexual

men (see Cook, Valera, Calebs, & Wilson, 2017;

Salomon et al., 2009). As such, we would antici-

pate differential outcomes among these groups.

However, we do not have sufficient information

about sexual orientation for the full sample, which

explains why we did not include this measure as a

covariate in the model. Nonetheless, it will be im-

perative for future research to examine how these

factors shape Black men’s experiences, ideas, and

beliefs about masculinities across the life course

(Watkins, 2012).

CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that self-reliance may be detri-

mental to young Black men’s mental health, as

greater endorsement of this specific norm is associ-

ated with more depressive symptoms. As such, inter-

ventionists and clinicians should integrate culturally

relevant content that promotes less-restrictive ideas

about self-reliance and help seeking among men

(Hammond, 2012). Intentional focus should also be

given to exploring masculinities among this group,

as young adulthood may be an opportune time to in-

tervene and promote more expansive ideas about

manhood and its effect on well-being (Watkins

et al., 2017). More social work interventions are

needed to effectively treat and prevent the onset of

adverse mental health occurrences and to further dis-

entangle complexities tied to young Black men’s

experiences with masculinities and mental health.

SW

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Janelle R. Goodwill, MSW, and Natasha C. Johnson,

MSW, are PhD candidates in social work and psychology, and

Daphne C. Watkins, PhD, is professor of social work, Uni-

versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Address correspondence to

Janelle R. Goodwill, University of Michigan, 1080 S. Uni-

versity Avenue, Room B660, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; e-mail:

[email protected].

Original manuscript received April 4, 2019 Final revision received July 18, 2019 Editorial decision July 29, 2019 Accepted August 1, 2019

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