noriega

This is when Panama become independent from Spain, and under the Independence Act of Panama, it joined the Confederation of Gran Colombia. Today, the Republic of Gran Colombia consists of Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, and most of Ecuador. Between 1840 and 1841, a new independent republic was established under Tomás de Herrera. Adopting the new livelihood in the confederation of Gran Colombia was not easy, because the indigenous from Panama faced a lot of rebellion from other communities. In 1846, the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty was signed between Colombia and the United States, for the US to remain neutral while handling conflicting issues between communities in different provinces within Colombia.

However, in March 1885, Colombia used its position and sent troops against the treaties to fight rebels in various provinces. This led to the rise of one of the worst crises in Panama. The situation worsened and attracted attention from the international community. The US and Chilean governments were forced to intervene, whereby they played a huge role in settling the disputes by sending their Navy. The United States directed cruiser Esmeralda to move to Panama City and asked the captain to stop any annexation of Panama immediately.

This and other reforms settled the disputes for a while until the famous war known as the “The Thousand Days' War” occurred between 1899 and 1902. The Thousand Days' War was between the Liberal and Conservative Parties. It trigged the peace that had existed between Colombia and Panama, but the two come to an agreement and signed a treaty known as the Treaty of Wisconsin. However, one of the Liberal leaders, Victoriano Lorenzo was executed for dishonoring the terms of the agreement. Another important treaty that was signed during this time between the United States and Colombia was the Hay–Herrán Treaty. This treaty was on the construction of the Panama Canal, but the Congress of Colombia rejected it. The United States stopped pushing for the implementation of this treaty and supported the separation of Colombia and Panama so that it could continue building the canal, which was to be built by the French.

Therefore, the separation of Panama from Colombia started on 3 November 1903. Separatist movements were then formed, led by known revolutionists and politicians, such as José Domingo De Obaldía and José Agustín Arango. Conniff (2012) suggests that the separatist movements were formed to liberate Panama and more so negotiate the construction of the Panama Canal directly with the United States because they could no more trust the Colombian government. Another important person was Amador Guerrero who spearheaded the negotiations between the United States and the separatist movements. His role was to seek support from the US government so that they could separate from Colombia.

The separatist movements received mass support from Panamanian liberal leaders and military commanders, such as Esteban Huertas. The separatist movements set a date of separation on November 1903, but this was bad news to the Colombian government. It was claimed that the republic of Nicaragua was to invade Calovébora, a region located in northern Panama. The Colombian government deployed troops from the Tiradores Battalion from Barranquilla and ordered José Domingo de Obaldía and General Esteban Huertas to step down. The troops sent to Panama were led by the command of Col. Eliseo Torres, while on the hand the Colombia Battalion in Panama was led by General Huerta. There were a lot of gunshots around Panama City on the night of November 3, where many lives were lost. The United States helped the rebels win the war by removing the trains from the northern terminus of Colón since it was responsible for administering the railroad in Panama. This stranded the Colombian troops since they had no other means of transport.

The United States also played a vital role in helping the Panama rebel win the war because of the reinforcement from the U.S. warship Nashville. Its arrival discouraged many Colombian forces from marching on Panama, and on November 6, 1903, the United States recognized Panama after it was declared independent from Colombia (The United States Department of State). Later on November 18, the United States Secretary of State John Hay and Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, Panama Canal Company owner signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty. The treaty granted the United States exclusive and permanent possession of the Panama Canal Zone.

Panama Canal and the involvement of the united states.

Panama Canal is an artificial 82 km waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Panama Canal has made Panama to be one of the fastest-growing destinations in Central America, attracting mass tourists from all over the world. Other than being a scenic tourism attraction, Panama Canal plays a vital role in international trade as it is a global shipping transit. It is a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, since before ships used to sail around the tip of South America. This means that traders save a lot of time because takes only take around 8 hours to cross the Canal.

Otfinoski (2005) claims that the idea of constructing the Panama Canal emerged from Vasco Núñez de Balboa when he first crossed the isthmus of Panama in 1517. While exploring, Vasco Núñez de Balboa discovered that this narrow strip of land separated the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On the other hand, King Charles I of Spain also realized the impact of this separation and reached out to his regional governor. King Charles, I instructed the governor to find a connecting route along the Chagres River. This was to be a shortcut from Europe to eastern Asia, but due to huge mountains and tropical terrain, it was impossible (History.com editors, 2022). This left King Charles I with only one option, that is to develop a route from South America through the unpredictable Strait of Magellan. Otfinoski (2005) also suggests that the earliest European colonists had discovered this area and suggested that it could be good for water passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The European colonists went ahead and proposed a canal to be constructed.

After all these suggestions, discoveries, and proposals were made, France become the first country to attempt to build a route connecting those countries and continents. The groundbreaking of the Panama Canal occurred around 1880, spearheaded by engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, famously known for constructing the Suez Canal in Egypt. French faced a lot of challenges, including inadequate equipment, landslides, floods, searing heat, and the ravages of malaria and yellow fever. The team experienced more challenges to the extent that De Lesseps realized that it was too difficult to construct a sea-level canal (Hoffman, 2009). He proposed they build a lock canal, but the plan did not work due to lack of funds and the project stopped in 1888.

The study discovered that this is when the United States was actively or openly involved since an opportunity was created, following the failure of the French construction team. The US Isthmian Canal Commission supported by then President Theodore Roosevelt played a vital role in making sure they took over the project. In 1902, the US purchased French assets in the canal zone for over $40 million. It was not easy for the US especially because of the unfriendly attitude of the Colombian government which owned the land at the time. It got messy when the Colombian government rejected the US proposal to build the Panama Canal. The study discovered how Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, a French engineer and financier played a key role in the new construction of the Panama Canal. Bunau-Varilla had invested so much money with the French construction team and so the only way he could have received a return on investment was if the Canal was complete. He urged the American lawmakers, the U.S. Secretary of State John Hay, and the Colombian government to sign an agreement and allow the construction to go on.

The Colombian government rejected such negotiations, and this led to a revolution in Panama. Colombia's government responded to the Panamanian independence movement, but it was too difficult to defeat them because they had help from an interested party. According to the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (2020), the U.S. stood with the Panamanian independence movement and directed its military to fight the Columbians. This strategy helped the US form a friendship with Panama and negotiate a new deal by signing the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty. This treaty allowed Panama to become independent and gave the U.S. the right to go ahead and construct the Panama Canal. On November 6, 1903, the United States recognized the Republic of Panama under the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty signed. The leaders ruling the new government had no choice, but to accept the U.S. terms. Conniff (2012) claims that the new leadership had to accept the U.S. terms because if the American military was withdrawn, the Columbian army would have returned to Panama and hung all of them. However,

the Panama government was fairly compensated since it received $10 million and an annuity of $250,000 beginning nine years later.

Therefore, the United States took control of the construction of the Panama Canal from the French on May 4, 1904, and Lieutenant Jatara Oneel of the United States Army was given the keys in a small ceremony. The Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC) was then assigned an oversite role of the new Panama Canal Zone Control and the chief engineer was John Wallace. Carse (2014) claims that the US government's first step after taking over was to change the entire administration. The US government had a tough time trying to put the project alive again after it was neglected for more than 15 years. Most of the equipment used by the French team was serviceable, but the accommodation facility for the new workforce needed to be fixed.

The involvement of the US was at first termed as good due to the benefits experienced by leaders who ruled the new government. The US managed to commence the construction of the Panama Canal successfully because, first, they reframed the initial French sea-level plan to a more realistic lock-controlled canal. Second, the US was able to control most of the diseases, such as malaria and yellow fever, which used to kill many workers during the French time. Later, the involvement of the US was condemned by many Panamanians, claiming that it was undermining their sovereignty.

Chief engineer John Wallace continued experiencing more problems since he realized that most of the equipment used by the French needed repair while workers continued suffering from Malaria and Yellow fever. The chief engineer also received a lot of pressure from the Panama government since progress was the only option. However, the US government did not want him to purchase heavy equipment, instead, they wanted him to use the old ones. This caused problems between him and the ICC. Unfortunately, he was frustrated by such delays and resigned a year later. John Frank Stevens, a railroad specialist who took over from him, come in and raised issues concerning the importance of investment in infrastructure. The new chief engineer recruited workers from West India and addressed the issue of canal construction delay due to sickness.

Carse (2012) claim that even if the new chief engineer, Stevens had already repaired most of the equipment and recruited, it was not yet determined whether to build a lock or a sea-level canal. This made the US president, Franklin D. Roosevelt send a team of engineers to Panama to evaluate the time and cost-effectiveness of each canal. Eight out of the five engineers voted in favor of a sea-level canal, but the chief engineer and the ICC opposed it. After evaluating all the reports, Congress agreed that a lock canal was a better option and President Roosevelt gave ago ahead. A few months later, Stevens was frustrated by the US government, whereby he resigned, making the project suffer a lot since everything was going well. In November 1906, President Roosevelt made history by visiting Panama for the first time to inspect the canal's progress. The president also appointed George Washington Goethals as the new chief engineer, who focused on Culebra Cut.

Noriega Background information

Manuel Noriega Moreno was born in 1938, in Panama City, Panama to Ricaurte Noriega and died in 2017 at the age of 83.[footnoteRef:0] According to his early life story, his mother gave him up for adoption, when he was five years old and she died immediately after. Manuel grew up in Terraplen slums in Panama City but despite the environment he was raised in, he received a privileged education level by attending prestigious schools. For instance, studied at the Instituto Nacional General in high school and after graduating he attended Chorrillo Military Academy. Manuel is major known for being a Panama dictator. He was also a Panamanian military leader as well as Panamanian Defense Forces commander, who ruled the Central America Nation for several years[footnoteRef:1]. Manuel was initially supported by United America just like other Latin American politicians and leaders but U.S turned its back on him when he got involved in money laundering, racketeering, and drug smuggling activities [0: HISTORY (2023). “Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega surrenders to U.S.” https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/noriega-surrenders-to-u-s] [1: CNN Library (2017). “Manuel Noriega Fast Facts.” https://edition.cnn.com/2013/08/19/world/americas/manuel-noriega-fast-facts/ ]

The raise of Noriega to power

Before discussing the first confrontation between Manuela and United states it is important to look into what led into this and how he got into power. Noriega underwent an intensive military training and intelligence services. While still a studying at Lima CIA recruited him as their informant, a collaboration that went on for several years. In 1962, when went back to Panama, Noriega was appointed as a lieutenant in the National Guard. He rose into power as one of the most intelligent officers in panama in the service of Panamanian dictator, Brigadier General Omar Torrijos, who later died in 1981 in a plane crash. Well, Noriega was one of the loyal solders to general Omar and under him he was protected from protection, was supported politically and he was helped to strengthen his power and territories. According to sources, General Omar referred to Noriega as “my gangster”.[footnoteRef:2] In return to these protection n and power, Noriega helped General Omar attack rivals and do other ‘dirty work.’ After General Omar died, Manuel took over the Panama Defense force, also known the PDF. This organization included the police, armed force, intelligence service and panama investigation services. Despite him leading the PDF, he continued working and cultivating relationships with the United States intelligence community. His influence in the military and correlation with United States allowed his to quickly raise in the military rank. However, after Noriega assumed leadership and republic dictatorship, his drug smuggling activities, building relationships with terrorists and brutality increased, which brought him a huge conflict with United States. [2: Bodenheimer, R. (2020). "Biography of Manuel Noriega, Panamanian Dictator." ThoughtCo, thoughtco.com/manuel-noriega-4766576/ ]

Noriega ruling was bit different from General Omar’s way of ruling. He never used a specific economic or social ideology but rather espoused nationalism. He mainly relayed on the military nationalism to maintain his power and support. To maintain his authority, he held democratic elections, which were manipulated and overseen by the military. For example, in 1984, after 16 years, he opened the first presidential election, which his candidate, Nicolas Barletta won. However, it is said that the results were manipulated and changed. In addition, the abuse of human rights and oppression of people increased when he took over the power. To make the matter worse, he brutally assassinate one of his most antis and most outspoken opponent, Hugo Spadafora in 1985. According to sources, when Noriega was accused of drug smuggling and money laundry, Hugo and he officially become rivals. Hugo openly accused Noriega of being involved in Torrijo’s death, publicly question and condemned his corruption and illegal drug activities. In fact, he even placed Hugo under a house arrest and threatened him several times. Hugo was later found dead after being brutally tortured, which made U.S for Barletta to thoroughly investigate his case. To cover his action and avoid more confrontation, Barletta was removed from his position by force on the grounds that he was incompetent and replaced by the First Vice President.

Noriega’s involvement with U.S

Just as General Omar trained and supported Noriega, United States did too. They not only trained him and worked with him in the CIA, but also tolerated his authoritarian way of ruling until they raised concerned over his involvement in drug trade and monopoly of power. In his military and intelligence service career, he created a good relation with the U.S and was considered their ally for he provided significant assistance to the nation as a CIA informant. He work with CIA from 1950s, to late 1980s.[footnoteRef:3] Other than working as an informant, he also supported US campaigns. For instance, he was a supporter for the US campaign, which was against the Leftist Sandinista Regime, in Nicaragua. He not only allowed Panama City to be used as a channel for funding and military equipment to fight against Sandinista regime but also helped the government led by Ronald Reagan in support of U.S. [3: Bodenheimer, R. (2020). "Biography of Manuel Noriega, Panamanian Dictator." ThoughtCo, thoughtco.com/manuel-noriega-4766576/ ]

However, he later become an enemy of U.S through his illegal drug trafficking and other crimes. Moreover, after getting much power, he become Panama dictator and turned to a corrupt and brutal leader, who worked against and opposition or rivals. In 1987, Panamanian’s people organized a protest against Noriega. Noriega shut down all the local newspaper and radio station, declared a national emergency and exiled all his political opponents and enemies. News indicating his criminal and violent activities also appeared in the New York Times, claiming the U.S government as aware of his action but still support him. In June 1987, U.S made their first public confrontation to Noriega by passing a resolution that called him to step down or resign. They also cut off panama aid after being attacked by pro-Noriega mob. In 1988, United States begun using Military action to fight drug trade and charged Noriega and his henchmen the numerous involvement to drug trafficking, claiming thus he was a threat to the safety of the people and nation.

To demonstrate his defiance, Noriega supported several campaigns of harassing United States citizens living in Panama, his troop killed unarmed U.S marine and prevented full implementation of U.S rights under the “1977 Panama Canal Treaties.” From 1988 to 1989 after U.S withdrew their support, Noriega turned to Libya, Cuba and Nicaragua for military assistance and economic support.[footnoteRef:4] This helped him establish a civilian defense committed known as the Dignity Battalions. This committee was used to control population and collect intelligence. In addition, it helped him strengthen PDF, which was expected to defend its headquarters, in Panama City, and all its bases. PDF forces were also given some authorities such as sabotaging and stand-off attacks against the military installations of United States and Canal. For these reasons and others, General Colin Powell advised President George H.W. Bush that Noriega should be removed in power by force because he was becoming a great threat to U.S citizens and nation in general. President George afterwards turned from intimidating Noriega by building up a massive military in Panama to authorizing “Operation Just Cause,” which centered on invasion of Panama to remove Noriega by force. [4: Bodenheimer, R. (2020). "Biography of Manuel Noriega, Panamanian Dictator." ThoughtCo, thoughtco.com/manuel-noriega-4766576/ ]

The Operation Just Cause (The invasion of Panama)

Operation just cause was U.S military action, which lasted for one month (December 1989 to January 1990). The operation aimed at removing General Manuel Noriega from power and taking him to the U.S to face various charges such as many laundry, drug smuggling, threating the safety of people and more. This was one of the largest U.S operation after the Vietnam War, where according to sources, 13,000 troops were sent to Panama City and together with around 12,000 troops that were there [footnoteRef:5](adding up to around 26000 US troops), they were supposed to seize Noriega. The troops were ordered on December 20th, 1989. President George Justified the “operation Just Cause” by providing four reasons, which include defending Panama democracy, to ensure Panama Canal Treaty integrity, to apprehend General Manuel Noriega and to safeguarded all United States Citizens living in Panama.[footnoteRef:6] [5: HISTORY (2023). “Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega surrenders to U.S.” https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/noriega-surrenders-to-u-s] [6: Cole, R. H. (1995). Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988-January 1990. Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.]

During this inversion several U.S and Panama troops were killed while other were injured. From the estimations, around several thousands of civilians were also killed and injured. Sources state that U.S military used “psyop” technique to attack Vatican Embassy, which Noriega fled in to hide making him surrender. “Psyop” strategy involved bombing around the city and blasting the embassy, in which Noriega hid with heavy metal massive as well as loud raps. It involved call of Duty, where during the operation, U.S troop were supposed to bomb the City while Frank Woods, Navy SEALs and Alex Mason goes in and arrest General Noriega.[footnoteRef:7] He was then taken to U.S to face the charges he was accused. [7: Cole, R. H. (1995). Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988-January 1990. Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.]

Noriega criminal charges, trials and sentence

After been fled to U.S, Noriega’s first trial was help from 1991 to 1992 in Miami, Florida. He was charged with eight accounts of drug smuggling or trading, conspiracy and racketeering. Throughout the trial period, his relationship with CIA was not to be mentioned and he also received special treatment. The court sentenced him to 40 years in prison, which was later reduced to 30 years. It was further reduced to 17 years but with parole for good behavior, but other countries were waiting for release in order to convict him for other crimes. In 2010, the U.S flew him to France to face charges for money laundry, which was related to him collaborating with the Colombian drug Cartels and sentenced to 7 years imprisonment. In 2011, he was also convicted in absentia by France for the murder of three political rival and Hugo Spadafora[footnoteRef:8]. During his time in prison, Noriega is said to have suffered from several health issues and underwent several surgeries such as a brain surgery, which put him in an induced coma. [8: Bodenheimer, R. (2020). "Biography of Manuel Noriega, Panamanian Dictator." ThoughtCo, thoughtco.com/manuel-noriega-4766576/ ]

Death of Noriega

In March 2017, news come across on Noriega’s major brain surgery, which caused him a sever hemorrhaging that made him placed in an induced coma. On My 29th, 2017, the president of Panama, Juan Carlos Varela announced his death[footnoteRef:9]. Well, before his death, Noriega issued a public apology in 2015 to the Panamanians for his people that he offended, hurt affected or even humiliated by his action or those of his subordinates[footnoteRef:10]. Even though he did not accepted an specific crimes, he apologized to the victims. But many victim’s families found his apology unconvincing and accused him for playing victim in order to be placed I house arrest on the grounds that he was chronically ill and old. [9: CNN Library (2017). “Manuel Noriega Fast Facts.” https://edition.cnn.com/2013/08/19/world/americas/manuel-noriega-fast-facts/ ] [10: CNN Library (2017). “Manuel Noriega Fast Facts.” https://edition.cnn.com/2013/08/19/world/americas/manuel-noriega-fast-facts/ ]

Executive Summary

Manuel Noriega Moreno wore multiple labels such as an army commander, CIA informant, dictator, drug smuggler and a convicted prisoner. During his era, he went from working with the CIA and U.S government in general to the enemy of U.S. He exercised his power and control over Panama for a long time in brutal and ineffective way, resulting to the invasion of Panama. Therefore, his era and relations with U.S remain part of history for many people lost their life, while others got injured.

References

Conniff, M. L. (2012).  Panama and the United States: The End of the Alliance. University of Georgia Press.

The United States Department of State. (n.d.). A Guide to the United States History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Panamahttps://history.state.gov/countries/panama#:~:text=United%20States%20Recognition%20of%20Panama,declared%20its%20independence%20from%20Colombia.

Turner, B. (2014).  Panama (pp. 969-973). Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Carse, A. (2012). Nature as infrastructure: Making and managing the Panama Canal watershed.  Social Studies of Science,  42(4), 539-563.

Carse, A. (2014).  Beyond the big ditch: Politics, ecology, and Infrastructure at the Panama Canal. mit Press.

Conniff, M. L. (2012).  Panama and the United States: the End of the Alliance. University of Georgia Press.