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Human Kinetics

Gil Fried University of New Haven

ManaGinG sport

Facilities

second edition

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fried, Gil, 1965- Managing sport facilities / Gil Fried. -- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-8290-7 (hard cover) ISBN-10: 0-7360-8290-5 (hard cover) 1. Sports facilities--Management--Textbooks. I. Title.

GV401.F75 2010 725.8043--dc22 2009034955

ISBN-10: 0-7360-8290-5 (print) ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-8290-7 (print)

Copyright © 2010, 2005 by Gil Fried

All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.

The Web addresses cited in this text were current as of August 2009, unless otherwise noted.

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Human Kinetics Web site: www.HumanKinetics.com

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New Zealand: Human Kinetics P.O. Box 80 Torrens Park, South Australia 5062 0800 222 062 e-mail: [email protected]

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To all the men and women who keep our public assembly facilities running

beckyh
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■  v

contents

Preface  vii  ■  Acknowledgments  xi

Part I Introduction to Sport Facility Management . . . . . . . . . . 1

1  History and Future of Sport and Public Assembly Facilities 3 Facilities in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Facilities From the Middle Ages to the 1800s . . . . . . . . . . 9 Facility Management From Ancient to Modern Times . . . 10 Evolution of Professional and Collegiate Facilities . . . . . 11 Facility Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The Future of Sport Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Trends That Will Affect Future Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2  Facility Management 25 What Is Facility Management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 The Facility Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Managerial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3  Management Theory and Human Resources 43 Management Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Computer-Aided Facility Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Simple Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Sport Facility Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Employment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Hiring Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Employee Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Legal Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Part II Facility Development . . . . . . . . . 75

4  Facility Planning 77 Fundamentals of Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Planning for Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Planning for Future Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

5  Facility Site and Design 99 Site Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Site Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Facility Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6  Facility Construction 123 Construction Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Preconstruction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Construction Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Project Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Completion and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Part III Facility Systems and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

7  Facility Systems 151 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Interior Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Exterior Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Combined Interior and Exterior Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

vi  ■  Contents

8  Facility Operations 175 Space Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Specialized Components in Sport Facilities . . . . . . . . . 178 Establishing Grass Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Maintaining Grass Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Additional Outdoor Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

9  Facility Maintenance 197 Maintenance and Repair Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Maintenance Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Maintenance Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Facility Repair Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Basic Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Part IV Facility administration . . . . . . . 213

10  Marketing and Sales 215 Marketing Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 The Marketing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Facility Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

11  Finance and Budgeting 239 Financial Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Revenue and Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Financial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 New Facility Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Selling a Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

12  Legal Responsibilities 261 Basic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Tort Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Risk Management and Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Property Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Constitutional Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Government Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Part V Event and activity Management 279

13  Implementing a Security Plan 281 What Is Security? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Crowd Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Other Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Crisis Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

14  Facility Preparation and Event Management 301 Revisiting Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Attracting Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Event Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Postevent Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Postevent Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Marketing for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Marketing Efforts and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Facility Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Glossary  333  ■  References  339  ■  Index  347  ■  About the Author  355

■  vii

preface

Almost all of us have fond memories of a sport-related experience. The experience might entail our first game as a spectator, our first request for a ballplayer’s autograph, or even eating our first hot dog. We may look back at having won- derful seats to watch a game, catching a foul ball in the stands, or attending a game with a special promotional giveaway. Whatever the experience, more than likely a sport facility was involved.

When people think about large sport facili- ties, they often focus on how to navigate through crowds and traffic in the shortest possible amount of time. Others might think about the sights, sounds, and smells that made an event memo- rable. Still others might have negative thoughts based on a professional team’s threats to move if not given a new facility. For smaller facilities such as health clubs, people might think about convenience and the breadth of services available.

For those managing sport facilities, the facil- ity experience is vastly different. Indeed, very few people realize what an enormous undertak- ing it is to develop and operate these facilities. For example, how much toilet paper needs to be ordered for 1,000 bathroom stalls? How many hot dogs need to be ordered if 70,000 fans will be attending a game? What happens when the facil- ity’s water pressure is interrupted? What if a major generator breaks during a sporting event? What if a storm or an environmental disaster damages (or destroys) the playing field? How do you promote a rock concert one day and a monster truck pull the next? How do you change over a facility from an ice hockey surface to a basketball surface in just three hours without ruining the ice? How do you handle disorderly or rowdy fans and customers? How do you hire and manage a part-time staff of possibly 600 ushers, concessionaires, ticket takers, and security personnel? What happens when a facility runs into financial hardships? These are just some of the questions that a facility manager has to face on a daily basis. This book was written to help highlight the broad array of responsibili- ties faced by facility managers.

the Purpose of this Book The question this book addresses is how to effec- tively manage a sport facility. Although the book focuses on sport facilities, much of the subject matter is also applicable to any number of public assembly facilities, including music theaters, auditoriums, convention centers, and high school and college arenas and stadiums. Public facilities can also include bowling alleys, health clubs, sportsplexes, park and recreation facilities, and numerous other natural and man-made environ- ments.

Written for students in sport and facility man- agement, as well as professionals already working in the field, the text provides a comprehensive knowledge base. An introductory-level discussion is provided for those who have never before stud- ied sport facility management (FM). Thus, after reading this book, beginning students will have a solid grasp of the fundamental skills in FM and will have the knowledge base to apply those skills in the real world. In-depth explanation, real-world examples, and detailed assessment of various FM issues are also provided to expand understand- ing and spur knowledge application for industry professionals. Some of the FM concerns discussed in this text are preventive maintenance, facil- ity planning, event administration, box office management, house and grounds management, systems management, marketing, finance, and personnel administration.

It should be noted that every facility and its management structure is different. Some facili- ties rely on an owner to make all decisions, from designing the building and obtaining funds to removing the trash every day. Other facilities, pri- marily larger ones, have multiple people serving in different capacities and may have a financial consultant developing the funding strategy, a construction manager working during construc- tion, a facility manager handling bookings, and an outside contracting company providing security and concession services.

viii  ■  Preface

The comprehensive overview this book offers is currently not available from other texts. Most FM books focus on safety, marketing, construction, or event management. They fail to combine these important disciplines into one comprehensive text and rarely cover important topics such as the his- tory of sport facilities, the types of systems within a building, and the ways in which buildings are actually built and managed. This text covers FM for a sport facility in a comprehensive manner that includes both educational references and professional industry insight.

The need for a comprehensive sport FM text has been highlighted over the past several years with the push to build large high-technology sport facilities that are more complex to operate and manage than in the past. Similarly, fitness, recre- ation, and sport facilities have fueled significant career opportunities that present unique issues such as how to develop a facility business plan including feasibility studies; what finance vehicle is most effective for raising necessary capital; how to control costs through preventive maintenance; how to schedule and book event dates; and how to market luxury and premium seating to maximize revenue. Through reading and understanding this text, a current or future sport facility manager will be in a better position to respond effectively to new challenges.

How this text Is Organized After presenting an overview of sport facilities through the ages, the text focuses on what is involved in FM and on the manager’s primary responsibility: getting employees at the facility to accomplish their jobs. The text walks the reader through the basics, from developing a facility through running a facility. It then turns to issues involved in running programs and personnel. Lastly, the text examines what is required to pro- duce a high-quality event at a sport facility. The book is organized into five parts.

Part I of the book is an introduction to the sport facility industry. A brief historical perspective helps highlight how sport facilities have evolved over the years. Chapter 2 addresses the role of facility managers and the various concerns they face. Since facility managers must accomplish goals primarily through employees, chapter 3 deals with the art of effective managerial com- munication and leadership. Chapter 3 also covers

how managers utilize and manage employees as well as other human resources issues.

Part II analyzes the complex process of decid- ing to build and finance a facility. Various topics such as the validity of feasibility studies, how to select a site, and how to handle environmental impact issues are discussed. This part of the text continues with an in-depth analysis of the initial facility business planning process, a discussion of how to obtain financial and political support, and an examination of the various types of facilities and fields that can be built. This part highlights the facility building process, including analysis of how to develop a site plan to maximize the available resources. Part II ends with a thorough analysis of the construction process to build a facility.

After a facility is built, it has to be operated. Part III covers the operations side of facilities (both internal and external) and such topics as mainte- nance and housekeeping. Systems management is covered, with emphasis on major systems such as facility infrastructure, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), energy management, waste management, and all exterior systems.

Part IV analyzes the FM process by looking at some of the critical administrative areas that a facility manager supervises. This part covers some of the nuts and bolts associated with FM, such as marketing, finance, legal issues, risk management, and the entire administrative process.

Part V examines the actual running of a sport facility during large events. The primary concern for any facility is safety and this section starts with analyzing the risk management issues associated with managing crowds and disasters. The section ends with a step-by-step process of how to first attract events and then put on those events.

How to Use this text Besides the educational material contained within the discussions of the various topics, the text is organized to clearly convey concepts through several strategies. Each chapter lists specific objectives and includes a chapter overview as well as a chapter summary and several discus- sion questions and activities. Among the most important elements in each chapter are sections titled “Facility Focus” and “Behind the Scenes.” The facility focus sections provide information about particular facilities, including important

Preface  ■  ix

facts and strategies used by the facility to succeed. The behind-the-scenes material presents unique concerns and strategies that can make a facility manager more successful. All these elements combine to help weave the material into a full and coherent picture of the subject.

Updates to this Edition I was very touched by the support I received after writing the first edition of this text. Possibly the best response was from facility managers them- selves who highlighted that the text was the first book they had read that was able to capture the essence of what it meant to be a facility manager. When I was asked how I could improve on a text used at more than 100 universities, I had to think outside the proverbial box. When I teach sport facility management, I normally teach half the class from the textbook and the remainder of class time is spent working on projects, listening to guest speakers, and visiting facilities. Since it is impossible to visit a facility in a textbook, I tried to incorporate the next best thing— expanding the facility focus sections and adding a new section with industry experts introducing each chapter.

Each chapter contains at least one facility focus, which has been expanded to give the reader not

just statistics but also a sense of what issues the facility faces. Several major new facilities were built since the last edition. Thus, I have incorpo- rated some of them into the text, such as the new Yankee Stadium and Cowboys Stadium. Each chapter has an introduction written by an indus- try executive highlighting what he or she does on a daily basis and how material in that specific chapter fits into his career. Whether a sport archi- tect is discussing how he plans to build a facility or a major facility executive is highlighting how she motivates her employees, these introductions highlight the text’s value for those working in the industry. They also encourage the reader to think about how theory can be applied in the workplace.

One of the key benefits of this second edition is the instructor orientation adopted by both the author and publisher. While some material was made available to past textbook adopters, the new version will be enhanced by PowerPoint slides for each chapter; a 20-minute video highlighting the building of a sport facility; an instructor’s guide that provides innovative teaching options; and a large test bank of true or false, multiple choice, and essay exam questions available to all textbook adopters. These ancillary materials are available at www.HumanKinetics.com/ManagingSportFa- cilities.

Note to Students When I started my academic career at the University of New Haven in 2004, it never occurred to me how much planning, intelligence, and perfecting it took to keep each spectator safe and run a facility. On a facility tour of Shea Stadium in New York, Professor Fried and the stadium staff explained several aspects of the park that would seem trivial to any fan. A strategically placed railing allowed a more efficient crowd flow into the gates, which subsequently allowed all bags and persons to be inspected quickly and thoroughly. The stadium’s rules and regulations were announced over the PA system and reinforced with mounted signs and placards. All of these minutiae were in effect before a single spectator even went through the turnstile.

In the fall of 2005, Gil brought together several different employers for a career fair at UNH. The Arena at Harbor Yard was one of these employers. The arena is a state-of-the-art multisport facility located in Bridgeport, Connecticut, and is home to the Bridgeport Sound Tigers and some college teams. I was fortunate to gain employment at the 8,400-seat facility, which was built in 2001, based on my previous work experiences at my local ice hockey rink.

Being a naive 19-year-old full-time student had its benefits when facing my first real-world job. When I started my job I had a basic understanding and foundation of how to maintain ice, use a Zamboni ice resurfacer, and listen to directions, as well as a giant thirst for new knowledge in facility management. Both my colleagues at Bridgeport and UNH gave me the tools to launch a great experiential education that only working could provide.

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My first year at Bridgeport was demanding at times, but ultimately it gave me an invaluable sense of what went into a production. I worked nights and weekends at the arena breaking down staging, securing dasher boards, installing glass partitions, removing the graphite flooring off the ice surface, preparing the ice, stowing equipment, and making normal repairs to the building no matter where it needed it. The second year brought even more responsibility as I began to work during the Bridgeport Sound Tiger games for emergency repairs and general operations.

While working at the arena I took “Sport Facility Management,” taught by Professor Fried. As is true in any subject or industry, you can achieve a full understanding of a topic only by first learning the philosophy of the subject; applying it in the real world; and then going back to critique, modify, and reimplement that knowledge. Enter Managing Sport Facilities by Gil Fried, first edition. This was the first textbook I not only read from cover to cover but also showed constantly to other people (my room- mates hated sport facilities by the end of the semester!). The facility focus sparked frequent lunchtime conversations among classmates and friends. The simplicity of breaking down a facility by description, interesting facts, and its importance allows students to grasp the concept much easier than spending a full hour lecturing about it. Referencing these facilities became even easier with this book’s format.

Managing Sport Facilities is one of the greatest walkthrough guides for any course out there. Gil separates this book into a very unique and easy-to-use layout. Starting with a history of facilities and how to manage them allows a person to become acquainted with the material and what running a building really is like. The first part was very near and dear to me as it enabled me to gain a better understanding of what roles my coworkers and I were playing at the Arena at Harbor Yard.

The chapters on planning, designing, building, and maintaining the actual structure became a one-of- a-kind experience for me. I had a trifecta of learning at my fingertips as we spent several weeks discuss- ing these topics. First, I had my actual lived experiences at the arena doing this hands-on; second, Gil’s expertise at teaching and his book served as the philosophy and intellectual fuel; third, our in-class trips to different facilities mixed with the end-of-semester project (building our own facility from scratch) allowed us to literally put on our facility manager’s hats and find problems and solutions.

The rest of the book allowed us to come full circle with our course work and built-from-scratch facility projects to become better facility managers, able to run an effective facility of our own one day. In the end, the course instilled two pillars of knowledge inside me. One consisted of hands-on knowledge created via class trips, media, and lectures; and the other was made up of all of the teachings and knowledge found in Managing Sport Facilities.

I hope you will enjoy and learn from this second edition as much as I enjoyed and learned from the first. I would also like to personally welcome you to Gil Fried’s beautiful world of sport facility manage- ment. This man not only made my college and early work career bearable (with the exception of a few of his projects and exams!) but also filled it with an enormous amount of knowledge that is truly, truly invaluable. From the many hours spent in his office deciphering the best path through the sport industry and life, I can confidently say that Gil takes tremendous pride in his work, his texts, and the molding of each student’s mind and attitudes. Thank you, Gil, and congratulations on all of your successes!

—Rob Holub, BS 2008, MBA 2009, University of New Haven

■  xi

acknowledgments

I would like to thank my wife and kids for their time and patience they have shown over the past couple of years as this second edition was being completed. Writing a book takes a lot of effort, and those around me had to understand and appreciate the long hours and the time away from the family. My parents were always there to listen to my thoughts and ideas, and I love them and appreciate everything they have done for me over the years.

I would like to extend a special thank-you to the entire College of Business at the University of New Haven for their assistance throughout the project. Special accolades go to my close col- league, mentor, and friend, Dr. Allen Sack, who is an inspiration in terms of his dedication and love of teaching sport management.

I would also like to extend a special thank-you to all the wonderful folks with the International Association of Assembly Managers (IAAM) and Stadium Managers Association (SMA) for all their educational help and support over the years. In

addition, a special thank-you has to be extended to some of my dearest friends in the industry who have been teaching me for years. I can safely say that I would not have the knowledge I was able to share in this text without them: Bill Squires, Frank Russo, Terry Butler, Nancy Freedman, Don Aeslin, Tom Beebe, Tom Saunders, Don Westfall, Michael Schneider, Duke Diaz, Kenneth Wajda, John Burnap, Carla Varialle, and Rob Holub.

The entire Human Kinetics staff has been phe- nomenal through both the good and the bad times. Myles Schrag and Amanda Ewing came in and provided valuable advice and assistance to help get the book finished. Kathleen Bernard and numerous additional professionals at Human Kinetics made the book the ideal text I was hoping to produce. The entire production staff at HK was instrumental in this process, and I really appreciated their help.

Lastly, I would like to thank the folks at Caro- lina Academic Press for allowing me to use the sexual harassment policy from my employment law book published by Carolina Academic Press.

beckyh
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■  1

IntroductIon to Sport FacIlIty

ManageMent

part I

What is sport facility management? Many people might say it is putting on a great event. Others might claim it is producing a safe event or maybe even running a facility under budget. Still others might say it is building a new facility or maintaining an old facility. Although there is no one correct definition for sport facility manage- ment, many people know it when they see it. That is, people can sense they are in a well-run facility.

Every facility can be well run, regardless of the team’s win–loss record or how much money the city council gives the facility manager to operate. The first step in this process is covered in chapter 1. To more effectively run a modern facility, all facility personnel need an appreciation of how facilities have evolved and what other people have done in the past. By examining how the Greeks and Romans managed their facilities, a facility manager can learn skills such as crowd manage- ment or facility changeovers. If facilities have run well in the past, a facility manager should learn from those successes and also learn from past failures to hopefully avoid such failures.

Chapter 2 moves from a historical perspec- tive to how a facility is actually managed. This chapter focuses on the hands-on skills needed to

effectively manage a facility. The chapter starts by analyzing the myriad responsibilities of facil- ity managers and the significant responsibilities faced on a daily basis. The chapter then exam- ines the people a manager needs to work with to accomplish the job. Finally, the chapter examines the managerial functions of planning, organizing, implementing, and controlling.

Part I ends with chapter 3, which focuses on the work undertaken by a manager in working with others. The chapter starts by examining theories that have guided managers for hundreds of years. These theories are put to the test when a facility manager has to become a leader. A leader needs vision but also needs to run the facility in an ethical manner. Leaders and managers need to understand how technology can affect their jobs and how they can leverage technology to help them run a facility more effectively. Managers also need to understand outsourcing—hiring experts to help accomplish critical jobs for the facility.

The last part of chapter 3 focuses on the vari- ous employees working in a facility. A manager needs to know who is working at the facility, how to hire the right people, and how to both promote and terminate these employees.

beckyh
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1 HIStory and Future

oF Sport and publIc aSSeMbly FacIlItIeS

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾how◾the◾Greeks◾and◾Romans◾used◾sport◾facilities◾for◾ political◾and◾cultural◾ends.

◾◾ Have◾a◾historical◾understanding◾of◾how◾sport◾facilities◾have◾changed◾ to◾accommodate◾changes◾in◾sport◾and◾spectating◾demands.

◾◾ Identify◾how◾sport◾facilities◾have◾evolved◾from◾multiuse◾to◾single-use◾ facilities.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾history◾behind◾several◾major◾sport◾facilities.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾facility◾trends◾that◾developed◾in◾the◾United◾States◾ were◾adopted◾in◾the◾late◾20th◾century◾in◾international◾construction◾ projects.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾and◾why◾politics◾will◾continue◾to◾influence◾sport◾ facilities◾in◾the◾future.

My name is Frank Russo, and I am the senior vice president for business development and client services for Global Spec- trum, a company that man- ages more than 75 facilities (including 40 sport arenas) throughout the world. Our clients consist primarily of city, county, and state government entities that are

looking to book more events and to improve their bottom line and therefore have decided to privatize their facilities. Our clients rely on Global Spectrum to make their facilities more competitive by intro- ducing sound business practices, because—make no mistake—sport facilities are businesses.

I began my career as an assistant city manager in Hartford, Connecticut. This led to an opportunity to manage the Hartford Civic Center, home to the WHA and ultimately the NHL Hartford Whalers, University of Connecticut basketball, a Boston Celtics six-game home-away-from-home series (1975-1982), and countless other sports and entertainment events. My career in providing private management of public assembly facilities began in 1988 when I joined Ogden Entertainment of New York City. During my tenure with Ogden I served for one year as the general manager of the Target Center in Minneapolis, home of the NBA Timberwolves.

During my experience at the Hartford Civic Center and the Target Center, as well as my involvement in the development of several major and minor league sport facilities, I witnessed a number of changes that have become the reality of sport facility management. These include the following:

◾ Sports have become big business.

◾ Teams and facilities rely heavily on corporate advertisers, sponsors, and ticket buyers for financial viability.

◾ Modern sport facilities cannot survive economi- cally without building (at significant expense) premium seating and corporate dining and entertainment amenities such as suites, club seats, loge boxes, lounges, and fine dining and catering capabilities.

◾ Because of the increasing number of competi- tive facilities in several U.S. markets, customer service has become critical to success at all levels—because when there is more than one choice, people go to where they are treated best!

◾ Sport facilities and sports in general are no longer necessarily recession proof. It has become increasingly difficult to book viable events, sell tickets, and maximize event rev- enue from sources such as food and beverages, merchandise, and parking.

◾ One developing trend is the implementation of “entertainment zones” into the physical build- ing and immediately around sport facilities. This is meant to capture a larger portion of the market for longer periods of time by offering an exciting destination with interesting and fun things to do both before and after an event. A few examples are L.A. Live at the Staples Center and Philly Live at the Wachovia Center.

In summary, my job is to help clients design, develop, manage, market, and operate their facili- ties in the most competitive and successful manner possible. Their success—and ours—depends on it!

Ph o

to ◾c

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History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  5

How many sport facilities exist in the world? This is a difficult question. The answer depends on your definition of a sport facility. Arenas, stadiums, YMCAs, school gyms, fitness facilities, and bowling alleys can all be classified as sport facilities. Typically excluded from the definition of a sport facility are natural areas such as lakefront property where people might engage in water-related sports. Also excluded from the traditional definition are open recreation areas such as golf courses. While a golf course is a self- contained sport facility, some might categorize it as a recreation facility that can be torn down quickly to be replaced by a business park. Thus, permanency could be a factor in defining a sport facility. However, any facility can be torn down and replaced by a business park. Over the past 20 years, numerous stadiums and arenas have been torn down and turned into parking lots. There- fore, permanency might not be as important as other factors, such as being enclosed, being able to control conduct in the facility, or having room for participants and spectators. For purposes of this text, a sport facility is defined as any enclosed facility built, installed, or established as a loca- tion where sports are played. The enclosure can be either natural or man-made. However, the enclosure has to be complete so that the facility is self-contained. The two most frequently analyzed sport facilities are stadiums and arenas. Stadiums are often defined as venues that contain a playing surface surrounded by spectator seating and are used primarily for outdoor sport events. Arenas are enclosed indoor structures with a large open space surrounded by tier seating areas. Since the seating area is tiered, the lowest point is where the playing surface is located to provide for the best sight line to see the action.

Another equally important term is public assembly facility (PAF). Public assembly facilities include sport facilities as well as other entertain- ment or nonentertainment facilities where large groups of people can gather. Typical examples of PAFs are arenas, stadiums, theaters, and conven- tion centers. All these types of facilities can host sport-related events. This text utilizes the term PAF as well as the term sport facility. No matter which term is used, sport facilities can be very fluid and change quickly. For example, over the past several years we have seen football stadiums transformed into outdoor hockey rinks to host record crowds, and a women’s professional basketball game was

held at a major tennis stadium. Such conversions show that facilities can be craftily manipulated to meet the needs of the facility users.

From ancient times to the present, sport facili- ties have been the hallmark or focal point of many cultures. Sport facilities have changed, but the changes are not as dramatic as they might seem. Before examining the historic context of sport facilities, table 1.1 highlights the historic timeline of facilities over several centuries.

The ancient Greeks and Romans utilized their sport facilities to placate people, help train athletes, entertain fans, and achieve political agendas. Present-day Olympic stadiums serve the same purpose. This chapter presents information on ancient through modern facilities, focusing on how facilities have evolved, what might have led to this evolution, and what the future holds for such facilities. Facilities were initially publicly funded to provide entertainment and promote reli- gious and political goals. In brief, facilities have gone through a transformation process such that they still often focus on entertainment but also promote financial objectives as much as political goals. The Greeks and Romans mastered the art of the multiuse facility—facilities used for numerous types of events from chariot races to mock naval battles. Similar facilities were built in the 1960s and 1970s to host baseball and football games, but these facilities became extinct with the single-use outdoor facility boom of the 1990s. Indoor arenas, however, still host multiple events and can switch from a setup for one event to a completely differ- ent setup in just a couple of hours.

After outlining how facilities have changed over time, this chapter examines several profes- sional and collegiate facilities to show the variety of facilities that exist today. Discussion then turns to future trends such as international facility issues, the growth of Olympic facilities, and the ways in which politics will continue to affect sport facilities in the future.

Facilities in Ancient Times To appreciate current and future issues involved in sport facility management, it is critical to understand how far the industry has progressed since ancient times. However, a review of some facts associated with Greek and Roman sport facilities suggests that we are still using some of the ancient strategies.

6  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Greece In ancient Greece, sports were a form of worship. Olympia was one of the oldest religious centers in the Greek world. Because of its religious history, Olympia was a natural site for the origin of the Olympic Games. The Games were part spectacle and part religious ceremony. The Greeks under- took a major religious festival honoring Zeus, and the festival held at Olympia was the biggest event in the world at that time (“Real Story,” 2002).

Olympic Facilities People came from near and far to participate in and watch the games at Olympia. The throngs of people needed a place to gather—in other words, they needed a PAF. The original Olympic stadium, built in Olympia in 776 BC, was an extension of an already existing religious sanctuary dedicated to Zeus. Combining the sanctuary and other buildings added over time, the facility formed the

first known sport complex, complete with altars, a hostel for visitors built in the fourth century BC, training facilities for wrestlers and boxers, a gymnasium with a covered running track, and of course the facility called the Stadia where the actual events took place (“Real Story,” 2002).

The Stadia was shaped like a U built into the hillside, with massive sloping embankments on each side of the U that served as seating. On the fourth side, the natural slope of the hill was also used for seating. Athletes and umpires came into the Stadia through their own entrance. There were multiple vaulted entrances for spectators. The chief judges and a priestess sat in special stone seats. According to some, all women except for the priestess were banned as spectators. Others believe that only unmarried women were wel- come to enter the stadium (“Real Story,” 2002).

Inside the Stadia the track was about 230 yards (210 m) long and 35 yards (32 m) wide. It was

Table 1.1 Facility timeline

period years Key facilities Special feature

Beginning◾of◾ recorded◾history

Between◾8500◾and◾ 7000◾BC

No◾enclosed◾facilities Self-sufficiency◾primary◾focus◾rather◾than◾building◾ complex◾structures

Neolithic◾period 8000◾BC Houses◾and◾villages Utilizes◾mud-brick◾construction

Classical◾antiquity 776◾BC Stadiums The◾first◾known◾sport◾complex

Ancient◾Greece 331◾BC Olympic◾stadium Represents◾the◾grandfather◾of◾modern◾facilities

Ancient◾Rome 6◾BC Circus◾Maximus Used◾for◾chariot◾races◾and◾other◾major◾events

Ancient◾period Before◾Middle◾Ages Actual◾decline◾in◾ complexity◾compared◾ with◾Roman◾and◾ Greek◾facilities◾except◾ for◾churches

Shows◾tension◾between◾the◾divine◾and◾mortal◾ world

Late◾Middle◾Ages 1300s-1800s Some◾unique◾styles◾ but◾little◾significant◾ progress

Larger◾facilities◾used◾primarily◾for◾religious◾festivals

Early◾modern◾era 1862 Union◾Grounds The◾first◾ballpark◾built◾in◾the◾United◾States

Mid◾modern◾era 1896 Panathinaiko◾Stadium The◾host◾facility◾of◾the◾Games◾of◾the◾I◾Olympiad

Late◾modern◾era 1912-1930 Yale◾Stadium Fenway◾Park Yankee◾Stadium

Development◾of◾collegiate◾sport◾facilities,◾includ- ing◾the◾first◾football-only◾college◾stadium Major◾baseball◾stadiums◾being◾built

Contemporary◾era Through◾ 1960s-1970s

Multiuse◾facilities A◾trend◾to◾save◾money◾after◾WWII◾by◾having◾multi- use◾stadiums

Late◾contemporary◾ era

1980s-2000 Single-use◾and◾◾ intimate◾stadiums

More◾focus◾on◾luxury◾seating,◾PSLs,◾naming◾rights,◾ and◾high-end◾concessions

Current◾era 2002-2008 Gillette◾Stadium/ Patriot◾Place Xanadu◾◾ Meadowlands

Green◾trend◾integrated◾with◾cutting-edge◾technol- ogy◾for◾spectators Development◾of◾destination◾locations

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  7

separated from the sloping embankments by a low stone parapet beside which ran an open stone water channel with basins at intervals. There was enough space for 20 people to run at one time. There was also enough space for cart races and chariot races (“Real Story,” 2002). Sources show some discrepancy as to what games were held in the Olympic stadium and when they were held. Some evidence suggests that Olympic Games date back to a time before the actual stadium was built. In fact, various open fields and areas were used for religious sanctuaries. It would seem logical that games were held in these places as part of the religious ceremonies.

Some historians argue that a foot race of one stadium length was initially the only competition held in the new stadium at Olympia. Others say that even in the beginning, the Olympic compe- titions consisted of a wide variety of sports that are still represented in modern-day Olympic competitions. There is widespread agreement that by classical times, 18 different contests were held, including boxing, wrestling, horse races, the pentathlon, and other running events.

In addition to athletic events there were religious ceremonies that included sacrifices, speeches by well-known philosophers, poetry recitals, singers, parades, banquets, and victory celebrations. Merchants, craftsmen, and food vendors sold their wares. And, of course, no large gathering would be complete without gamblers, con men, prostitutes, and pimps (“Real Story,” 2002). Though considered large even by today’s standards, the original Olympic stadium could not have begun to accommodate current numbers of athletes and spectators. The Atlanta Olympic Games in 1996 attracted 10,700 athletes from 197 countries. There were more than 2 million live spectators and as many as 3.5 billion television viewers (“Context,” 2002). These numbers will probably continue to increase in future Olympics. All-time records were set when 202 countries and 11,099 athletes participated in 28 sports and 296 events in the 2004 Olympics in Greece (“Athens 2004,” 2004). The 2008 Olympics hosted 204 countries, 10,500 athletes, and 302 events. It is estimated that the Chinese government spent more than $42 billion on new facilities; facility renovations; and infrastructure development such as roads, subways, airports, and other needed public projects. The 2012 Olympics scheduled for London, England, will probably not come close

to the $42 billion price tag, but the high costs of hosting the Games might discourage future bid- ders who would need to build larger and better facilities to accommodate fans, athletes, sponsors, and the media.

Information on basic comfort and hygiene in ancient facilities is difficult to come by, which may indicate that there were no restrooms. However, 50,000 to 60,000 visitors slept outside the stadium, under the stars, so there must have been some accommodations. Wealthy people and members of official delegations erected elaborate tents and pavilions. Water was carted from springs a half-mile (1 km) away. Water was critical and probably fostered the first concession sales since the stadium was uncomfortable, dusty, and hot.

Similar to the situation with Madison Square Garden (see page 18), the stadium at Olympia did not remain in its original location. At about the middle of the fourth century BC, the stadium was moved 90 yards (82 m) east and a little to the north of its original location. Although it moved, it retained its connection to the sanctuary via the Krypte. The Krypte was a covered entrance that ran through the embankment. This was the entrance through which athletes and umpires entered the stadium. Just as it is today, location was important in the choice of a stadium site. Olympia was convenient to reach by ship. Ath- letes and spectators traveled from Greek colonies as far away as modern-day Spain, the Black Sea, and Egypt.

The stadium at Olympia was not the only sta- dium in Greece. The Olympic Stadium in Athens was built in 331 BC and held 50,000 spectators. Like many older modern facilities, it has gone through major renovations, beginning with a reconstruction in AD 160. However, it lay dormant for centuries, since AD 393. Emperor Theodosius abolished the Games for being “too pagan” (“His- tory,” 2004a). This facility was used to host the 1896 Olympic Games.

Hippodromes and Theaters

Other PAFs developed by the Greeks included theaters and hippodromes. Greek theaters had three main parts. The scene, or skene, was a painted backdrop. The orchestra was a circular area in front of the scene. The actors performed on a narrow raised platform in front of the scene, called the logeion. Lastly, there was the koilon for seating. The koilon was originally built from

8  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

wood and later from stone. It was semicircular and was built around the orchestra. The koilon was divided into two sections, called diazoma, which included upper and lower seating tiers. Special seats were reserved for officials and priests. Examples of Greek stadiums can be seen in Epidauros (where the stadium was built about 330 BC), Argos, and Delphi. These theaters seated 14,000, 20,000, and 5,000, respectively (“Epid- auro,” 2002).

Many hippodromes were built around Greece. These facilities were for horse races as well as chariot races. They were originally open fields lined with raised banks of earth. There was no seating—spectators stood for the races. Eventually these rudimentary facilities evolved into huge stone facilities seating tens or even hundreds of thousands of spectators. The hippodrome in Olympia lay south of the stadium in the open valley of the Alpheus. No trace of it has been found.

Rome The Roman Empire followed the Greek Empire as the dominant culture of its time. Young people during the ancient Roman era participated in several sports such as wrestling, boxing, racing, and jumping. The Romans loved their sports, and the leaders leveraged this interest into a means to

control their subjects for days on end. Some events lasted for several days, with spectators eating and drinking themselves beyond traditional limits. It was hoped that the excited and tired subjects who had spent all their money would eventually return to their homes and not complain about the leader- ship since they had experienced such a wonderful event. To help effectuate these plans and meet the demands of those sports, the leaders needed large facilities such as the Roman Coliseum and Circus Maximus.

Roman Coliseum As Roman civilization rose, the need for PAFs rose with it. Most notable was the Roman Coliseum with its spectacles and gladiators (Blickstein, 1995). The Romans built their stadiums based on past Greek structures. In some cases, as with the amphitheaters, Rome simply renovated or rebuilt old Greek structures.

The Roman Coliseum was originally named the Flavian Amphitheater after the emperors who built it: Vespasian and Titus, both of the Flavian family. Construction began around AD 70 and took about 10 years to complete. When it was done, the coliseum stood 160 feet (48 m) high with four stories of windows, arches, and columns. Each of the three exterior floors consisted of 80 arches. The facility could hold up to 50,000 spectators

The◾Roman◾Empire◾stretched◾far◾and◾wide◾and◾contributed◾to◾the◾building◾of◾hippodromes◾as◾far◾away◾as◾◾ Caesarea◾along◾the◾Mediterranean◾coast◾of◾modern-day◾Israel. Photo◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  9

(“History,” 2002). Visitors climbed sloping ramps to their seats. Seating was according to gender and social class. Women and the poor stood or sat on wooden benches in the fourth tier of seat- ing. The reserved luxury seats were marble, and their bases were inscribed with the names of the senators and knights who occupied them. Vestal virgins, religious officials, soldiers, civilians, and boys with their tutors all had special seating sec- tions. The emperor had a special box for himself and his family.

It is estimated that 50,000 people could enter the arena and be seated in about 15 minutes, owing to the ticketing system developed by the Romans. Before an event a spectator would pick up a ticket, often made from pottery shards. Each ticket had a number that corresponded to one of the 78 entrance archways, which all had num- bers above them. Tickets also had levels and seat numbers. Similar ticketing systems are used to this day (“History,” 2002).

The Roman Coliseum embodied much of the technology of its time. Enormous colored awnings made of canvas could be stretched overhead to prevent the hot sun from making spectators uncomfortable. These awnings, called velarium, were attached to rigs operated by sailors who were hired solely for this purpose. The wooden floor contained lifts, pulleys, and at least 24 giant trap doors. The coliseum also had subterranean cham- bers where the gladiators, as well as the animals, were kept before performances. A hand-operated elevator was used to raise animals from the base- ment up to the arena floor. The underground chambers could be flooded with water and the stadium then used to stage mock naval battles. Over time this activity damaged the flooring and was thus discontinued (“History,” 2002).

Circus Maximus In addition to the Roman Coliseum and other Roman amphitheaters, the Romans had the circus. The circus was the Roman version of a racetrack. It was the setting for chariot races and other events, both equestrian and nonequestrian. The most famous Roman circus was the Circus Maximus, built to emulate the Greek hippodrome and con- sidered one of the architectural wonders of the ancient world. Constructed of wood in the sixth century BC, it was destroyed by fire twice and also was subject to flooding. On at least two occasions the stands collapsed, killing many people. Eventu-

ally the Circus Maximus was rebuilt of stone and masonry (“Amphitheater,” 2002).

Historians have estimated the seating capacity of the Circus as ranging from 150,000 to more than 300,000. It is assumed that the number of specta- tors surpassed seating capacity and that many observers stood for the duration of the events. Unlike what happened in other Roman PAFs, men and women could sit together at the Circus. The Circus also had skyboxes and reserved seat- ing for the emperor, senators, knights, judges, a prize-awarding jury, and the financial backers for the various races (“Circus Maximus,” 2002). The track was a third of a mile (0.5 km) long and 150 yards (137 m) wide. It was covered with earth and then a layer of sand. The sand allowed chariots to hold the track. It also protected the horses from injury and allowed water to drain off. Like today’s racetracks, the track was a large oval.

Admission to the Circus Maximus was free; however, it was still a revenue center. Concession stands sold fast food and snacks. Spectators could rent a seat cushion if they did not bring their own from home. In his book Roman People, Robert B. Kebric describes the Circus as a four-story facility with a maze of shops, rooms, stairways, and arcades. Thousands of people moved about the large corridors throughout the facility. In the facility, vendors sold their wares, which included refreshments and souvenirs. There were also a plethora of prostitutes, gamblers, pickpockets, girl watchers, and drunks (Kebric, 2000).

Facilities From the Middle Ages to the 1800s

Most sports and games of medieval times were less organized than today’s sports. The sports also involved more “folksy” types of activities that highlighted the skills of the local citizenry. One of the popular sports during this time was folk football, which was a wild and rough attempt at organized attacking of other people. The more common events included such activities as hunting, falconry, and tracking with hunting dogs. These events did not require a set facility and often were conducted in hunting grounds or forests.

Medieval events that were most suited to such settings included jousting and archery matches. Jousting was probably the best-known sport of the

10  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

times, especially for the upper class. The common folk were more accustomed to archery matches, which often pitted one town against another. The lower class was allowed to participate in other simultaneous events such as running, jumping, cudgeling, and wrestling. These matches often involved large feasts, which included a large amount of alcohol. The abundance of alcohol and lewd conduct was one reason the Church stepped in to try to stop these events. In fact, religion played a major role in sport for many years.

In addition to the Greeks and Romans, the Chinese, Japanese, North American Indians, and other groups developed various sports around religion. For example, cuju is an ancient code of soccer that originated in China around 206 BC to AD 220 and was also played in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Every culture had informal or organized sport in some manner, even if the facilities were rudimentary. While organized sport was not as frequently documented, there is a greater amount of information concerning military training and how sports have been used to strengthen and dis- cipline soldiers. For example, military training in ancient China included all kinds of sports, such as wrestling, pugilism, fencing, tripod lifting, horse racing, stone throwing, hunting, and swimming.

The Christian emperor Theodosius stopped the Olympic Games because he thought they were pagan rites. However, in the Middle Ages the Church supported horse races and tournaments as long as the events honored the Virgin Mary (Aurandt, 2002). The Church and the government sometimes encouraged and at other times banned sport. In fact, in England during the 14th century, working people who were caught playing football or tennis (played with a pig’s bladder or leather stuffed with rags) were imprisoned for up to six years. The upper class and clergy were not subject to such punishment (Aurandt, 2002).

Because of the lack of support by the clergy and government, the Middle Ages were not the high point for PAFs. In fact, PAFs went into decline at the end of the Roman Empire when the Church outlawed theaters. Ironically, though, it was the Church that kept theater alive through seasonal festivals, which took on a dramatic form to help better illustrate the religious connotations to illit- erate congregants. Because the authorities were concerned about touring companies carrying the plague or about civil unrest caused by drunken spectators, theaters did not prosper (“Greek The-

ater,” 2002). While theaters eventually grew out of and thrived after the Roman and Greek periods, sport facilities were hard to find. In fact, research has shown very few sport facilities except for informal areas established for such events as horse races, hunts, and other outdoor, open-air events that did not necessarily require any fixed seating areas. Thus, although cricket and tennis were to become popular in the United States, there is no record of any public facilities for these sports until the end of the 19th century (Manchester, 1931).

In the 19th century, most restrictions against sport were lifted, and one of the first facilities built in the United States was Union Course, constructed in New York in 1825. The horse racing facility included stands, a clubhouse, and a balcony. It was very popular—more than 60,000 spectators attended one race (Manchester, 1931). Baseball started gaining popularity in the 1850s, and facility management rules were initially developed in the 1870s. The first three major rules for the National League had to do with ban- ning alcohol from the parks, removing the betting booths from the field entrances, and removing gamblers from the stands (Manchester, 1931).

Facility Management From Ancient to Modern Times

Although facilities have changed significantly over the years, it is interesting that their manage- ment and operations have remained somewhat stable. Just as there were different classes of seat- ing in the Roman Coliseum, amphitheaters, and Circus Maximus, we have different classes of seat- ing today. Just as important people had reserved seats in advantageous positions in earlier eras, we have club seats and luxury suites today.

The behind-the-scenes workings of an event are often beyond the knowledge of average facil- ity patrons. Security, stagehands, and medical services are just a few examples of behind-the- scenes support services. In ancient times there were also staff members whose job it was to keep things running smoothly. At the coliseum, sailors were employed to work the enormous colored awnings used to shelter spectators from the hot sun. Archers took stations on catwalks above the crowd. They were there to shoot rowdy fans, resistant participants, or animals that presented a threat to the audience.

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  11

Regardless of the type of entertainment offered by large public venues, many of the managerial concerns have stayed the same. Some of the con- siderations that have remained consistent over the centuries include the following:

◾ Controlling and moving large numbers of people

◾ Managing rowdy or violent crowds ◾ Maintaining flexibility in multiuse venues (e.g., gladiators and mock naval battles; bas- ketball and ice shows)

◾ Providing security and protection for VIPs ◾ Controlling the types of petty crime that are inherent with large gatherings of people

◾ Keeping facilities clean and operational ◾ Navigating the politics associated with get- ting appropriate funding for publicly owned facilities

Of course there have been changes in the PAF industry over the years. A few modern-day con- cerns that did not trouble managers in ancient times are these:

◾ Providing amenities for the press such as interview rooms and press boxes with Inter- net access

◾ Setting up TV camera platforms and TV cable hookups

◾ Selling advertising space and naming rights ◾ Providing batting cages and other practice areas

◾ Providing athletic training rooms ◾ Utilizing heating, ventilation, and air condi- tioning (HVAC) systems

◾ Anticipating parking concerns for thousands of cars and buses

◾ Providing food and beverages to feed more than 100,000 fans at some venues

◾ Complying with environmental, zoning, accessibility, and other legal issues

These differences have evolved over many years. The evolution has been led by the change in sport facility owners and providers. Initially the government and churches were behind PAFs. However, with the increased money found in sport in the 19th and 20th centuries, private provid- ers built or ran PAFs as profit ventures, even if public funds had been used to build the facility.

Numerous changes have been spearheaded by managers trying to generate the greatest revenue stream possible from the facilities. One example is the shift of concession sales from peanuts and Cracker Jack to sushi and five-star cuisine.

Evolution of Professional and Collegiate Facilities

The modern era for sport facilities started in the late 1860s, with several additional booms occur- ring in the 1960s to 1970s and the 1990s. The first ballpark, Union Grounds in Brooklyn, New York, was built in 1862. Union Grounds and other ball- parks of that time were generally made of wood and often did not have outfield fences; instead there was a barrier at the end of the property to prevent freeloaders (Schlossberg, 1983). Horse- drawn carriages and, later, cars were allowed to pull into the outfield so that people could watch the game from their vehicles. Other spectators were allowed to sit on backless planks of wood. The last game to be played in such a stadium before concrete and steel stadiums became the norm was a game at Robison Field in St. Louis on June 6, 1920. The Philadelphia Nationals built their Baker Bowl in 1887 and opened the season to an attendance of 14,500 fans. The Bowl cost $80,000 to build, which 90 years later was the average yearly salary for a Major League Baseball player (Schlossberg, 1983). The first fireproof sta- diums built of concrete and steel opened in 1909, with Philadelphia’s Shibe Park and Pittsburgh’s Forbes Field (Blickstein, 1995).

The sport facility revival was also fueled by the Olympic Games. For the first modern Olym- pic Games in 1896, Greece built a stadium that sat 66,000 fans. Large stadiums were built for subsequent Olympics such as London’s White City Stadium, built in 1908, and the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which was originally built in 1923 and subsequently enlarged for the 1932 and 1984 Olympic Games (Blickstein, 1995).

Intercollegiate sport also helped further the development of sport facilities in the United States. In 1912, Yale was the first university to build a large football-only stadium. This facility had wood planks that sat 18,000; in 1916 it was expanded to seat 33,000 fans. Yale’s perennial nemesis, Harvard, jumped on the bandwagon earlier in 1904 when it built the first steel- and concrete-reinforced stadium in America, which

12  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

seated 23,000 fans. In response, Yale spent $235,000 building a steel and concrete stadium that could seat 50,000 fans (Blickstein, 1995). Yale also built one of the oldest active baseball stadi- ums, which is used by the university’s baseball team and has been used by several minor league professional baseball teams. Most professional baseball teams now play in more modern facili- ties, but some older ballparks are still being used. Table 1.2 lists the oldest baseball facilities that are still being utilized at the start of the 21st century.

Although some baseball teams have played for numerous years at the same facility, only two recent expansion teams, the Tampa Bay Rays and the Arizona Diamondbacks, have been in the same stadium since their inception. Sometimes the facility journey undertaken by a team is as significant as the way the team has evolved, as in the case of the Cincinnati Reds. Table 1.3 high- lights the various names the team has used and the facilities they have played in over the years. It should be noted that Crosley Field in Cincinnati hosted the first lighted night baseball game in the majors in 1935.

Although professional baseball teams have moved over the years, moving is usually not an option for college and university teams and facilities. Most colleges do not move, especially well-established colleges that are housed on large campuses. These schools often have had facilities for numerous years on campus and have continu- ally expanded the facilities to meet attendance demands. Table 1.4 lists the opening dates and seating capacities of football stadiums in the Big Ten Conference.

As shown in table 1.4, teams that have tradi- tionally been national powerhouses (i.e., Penn State, Michigan, Ohio State University) have the highest seating capacities to maximize their revenue potential. These facilities have often undertaken significant renovations to expand their seating bowls over the years. In contrast, teams that have traditionally not been as strong (e.g., Northwestern) have not expanded their facilities since the market demand for tickets has not dictated such an expansion (even if tickets are scarce in the years when the school does very well). Such a decision can impact opposing teams; gate receipts are usually shared, and if the venue is too small, this will eventually hurt other teams playing there.

Although collegiate facilities have remained relatively constant with some updating, profes- sional sport facilities have changed significantly. The 1960s saw a trend to build multiuse facilities to save money. However, in the 1990s there was a push for single-use and more intimate stadiums as well as larger arenas with more luxury seating options. During the building boom between 1987 and 2002, 84 new stadiums and arenas were built (with another 7 under construction), often under the threat of current teams moving to a new city if

Table 1.2 oldest active baseball Stadiums

Facility opened capacity cost to build

Fenway◾Park 1912 37,400a $650,000

Wrigley◾Field 1914 41,118 $250,000

Yankee◾Stadium 1924b 57,545 $2,500,000c

a◾The◾seating◾capacity◾has◾been◾increased◾with◾new◾seating◾on◾the◾ Green◾Monster.◾Daytime◾games◾have◾a◾seating◾capacity◾of◾36,984.

b◾The◾original◾Yankee◾stadium◾was◾replaced◾in◾2009◾by◾a◾new◾$1.6◾ billion◾park◾seating◾52,325.

c◾ While◾ the◾ original◾ construction◾ price◾ was◾ $2.5◾ million,◾ a◾ 1976◾ renovation◾cost◾$167◾million.

Adapted◾from◾Ballparks.com◾2008.

Table 1.3 cincinnati reds’ Stadium odyssey

year Stadium team name

1876-1879 Avenue◾Grounds Cincinnati◾Red◾ Stockings

1880 Bank◾Street◾ Grounds

Same

1881 Did◾not◾play

1882-1883 Bank◾Street◾ Grounds

Same

1884-1889 League◾Park Same

1890-1901 League◾Park Cincinnati◾Reds

1902-1911 Palace◾of◾the◾Fans Same

1912-1933 Redlands◾Field Same

1934-1952 Crosley◾Field Same

1953-1958 Crosley◾Field Cincinnati◾Redlegs

1959-1970 Crosley◾Field Cincinnati◾Reds

1970-1996 Riverfront◾Stadium Same

1997-2002 Cynergy◾Field◾ (name◾changed)

Same

2003 Great◾American◾ Ball◾Park

Same

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  13

a facility was not built. Between 2002 and 2008, 12 major new stadiums or arenas opened in the United States, and 4 major new stadiums such as the new Yankee Stadium, Citi Field, and the new Giants and Jets stadium are scheduled to open in 2009 and 2010. Building new facilities is often fueled by teams moving from one city to another. Six NFL teams switched cities between 1980 and 2002; three NBA teams switched between 2000 and 2008; and three NHL teams moved in the 1990s (Ellis, 2002). Table 1.5 shows the various major professional leagues in the United States, the number of teams in the leagues, the number of new facilities built, and the number of facilities planned as of 2004.

As of 2009, only Minnesota, Miami, and Oak- land still had football and baseball tenants in the same stadium. The Florida Marlins are scheduled to change their name to Miami Marlins and move into their own $525 million stadium in 2011 on the former site of the Orange Bowl (Bloom, 2007). This will leave the Miami Dolphins as the sole tenant in Dolphin Stadium. In 2010 the Minnesota Twins are supposed to move into their own stadium named Target Field (“Target Field,” 2009). The Minnesota Vikings in 2009 were look- ing to build a new stadium but were having a hard time finding the additional $700 million required over and beyond the owner’s offer to contribute $250 million to the project. Both the Oakland A’s and the Oakland Raiders play at the Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum, even though

the teams have looked at numerous options to move to greener pastures.

While the threat of a team leaving a given city can help fuel a push to build a new facility, other factors include strong economic trends (as witnessed in the 1990s), new marketing trends (such as the luxury suite and naming right trends of the 1990s), special event needs such as the Olympics or the World Cup, and technological innovations such as retractable roofs or domed stadiums. For example, the first domed stadium ever built was the Astrodome in Houston, Texas, completed in 1965. Nine additional domes were built in the 1970s, including the Silverdome, Kingdome, and Superdome. In the 1980s only 7 domes were built. In the 1990s, 12 domes were built (“Domed Stadiums,” 2002). Between 2000 and 2002, 7 domed stadiums were constructed, and 4 new dome stadiums were built after 2002. These numbers indicate that domes are still being designed to help eliminate one of the biggest marketing disasters that can befall a facility— inclement weather.

One of the biggest advances over the past 40 years has been the transition to more privately financed and built facilities. Government enti- ties are the most common owners and operators of sport facilities. In socialized countries such as Great Britain and Canada, numerous sport facili- ties are owned and managed by government enti- ties. There are more than 50,000 athletic and sport facilities registered in Sport England’s Active Places system as of 2008. In the United States there are also a significant number of government facili- ties. There are 98,905 public schools in the United

Table 1.4 big ten Football Stadium opening

dates and Seating capacities

Facility, university opened capacity

Camp◾Randall◾Stadium,◾◾ Wisconsin

1917 76,129

Ohio◾Stadium,◾Ohio 1922 101,568

Memorial◾Stadium,◾Illinois 1923 70,904

Ross-Ade◾Stadium,◾Purdue 1924 67,861

Ryan◾Field,◾Northwestern 1926 49,256

Michigan◾Stadium,◾Michigan 1927 107,501

Kinnick◾Stadium,◾Iowa 1929 70,397

Spartan◾Stadium,◾Michigan◾ State

1957 72,027

Memorial◾Stadium,◾Indiana 1960 52,354

Beaver◾Stadium,◾Penn◾State 1960 106,537

TCF◾Bank◾Stadium,◾Minnesota 2009 50,805

Table 1.5 new Stadium and arena

construction Since the 1980s

league

number of teams

number of new facilities

number of proposed facilities

Major◾League◾ Baseball

30 18 7

National◾Basket- ball◾Association

30 26 2

National◾Foot◾ball◾ League

32 21 7

National◾Hockey◾ League

30 23 1

Adapted◾from◾Ballparks.com◾2004.

14  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

States, and almost every one has a multipurpose room, gymnasium, or playing field (or more than one of these). In addition, there are thousands of park and recreation departments, most having several facilities and fields.

During the 1990s, as is typical in strong eco- nomic periods, government-owned sport facilities were being built across the United States. This does not usually represent a problem. However, just building a facility does not end the financial and managerial responsibility of operating the facility. When the economic environment soured in the early 2000s, state and local government units began to get strapped for cash. To reduce budget problems, government facilities started to reduce staff, cut maintenance budgets, or reduce hours—or they closed outright.

Many elections are held each year throughout the United States to determine whether or not a sport, recreation, or educational institution should be built and whether public funds should be used to build a facility. Numerous stadium and arena projects have ended up in court for a determina- tion as to whether political expediency excluded voters from the funding process. A judge in Mem- phis ruled that public money could not be used to build the Vancouver Grizzlies a new $250 million arena without a public vote (“Judge Rules,” 2001). In contrast, residents in Arizona hosted a mock Boston Tea Party protest after their elected super- visors approved a countywide quarter-cent sales tax hike to help finance the Bank One Ballpark. The citizens were not necessarily opposed to the stadium or to allocating more taxes to the project; they just wanted a say in the process (Pitzl, 1996).

The political fight is not just over government subsidies; it is also over whether a facility should be built. For example, more than 90 civic organiza- tions ganged up against the Washington Redskins’ planned new stadium in Landover, Maryland. The group sued to overturn a zoning change that would have allowed the team to build the stadium at the preferred site (“Stadium Suit,” 1996). The stadium was eventually built at another location.

Government officials have a fiduciary obliga- tion (obligation to act truthfully and honestly) to protect their constituents, the people who voted them into power. A conflict arises when a politician promotes building a facility that might benefit some individuals but can cause harm to others. This concern has reared its ugly head on numerous occasions. For example, a San Diego

council member was forced to resign her seat and pled guilty to two misdemeanors for allegedly taking gifts from the San Diego Padres ownership. Although the gifts were legal, the council member did not report the gifts as required and did not excuse herself from council votes regarding the Padres’ ballpark (“Padres’ Park,” 2001).

Before the 1990s, there were very few large pri- vately owned facilities. The most well-known pri- vate facilities are Lambeau Field for the Green Bay Packers and Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles. The next wave of privately owned facilities was ushered in by Joe Robbie, who built Dolphin Stadium in Miami for the Dolphins. The stadium’s name has been changed six times since its construction and in 2009 was renamed Land Shark Stadium. Since the 1990s a number of privately financed facilities have been built, and an even larger number of facili- ties have been built, or are scheduled to be built, with a blend of public and private funds. Some of the premiere privately built stadiums include San Francisco’s PacBell Stadium, FedEx Field, and the New England Patriots’ Gillette Stadium and the surrounding Patriot Place.

People who privately finance and manage sport facilities often do so as a profit-generating busi- ness enterprise. Thus, while a government-owned facility might not be as bottom-line oriented (may focus more on service than revenue), a private facility does not have that luxury. Any money saved at a private facility results in greater profits. Thus, the managerial perspective required to run a private facility is significantly different from that for a public facility.

The major difference between private and public facilities is that a private facility can oper- ate at a loss without a significant outcry from the owners and taxpayers. However, a privately financed facility can operate only for a limited time with negative returns. The push for profits with private facilities is hard to fulfill with a baseball or football stadium because of the limited number of events (around 90 games a year for baseball; around 10 play dates a year for football). Even with several concerts a year, there is not enough traffic and spending to generate a strong return. In contrast, a facility manager can gener- ate a much better return for a private owner of an arena utilized for basketball and hockey. In these arenas there may be 220-plus event days a year, which represents a greater chance to generate a positive return on the owner’s investment.

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  15

Facility Focus This section highlights some of the premiere public and private facilities in the United States and Canada, along with a recently constructed arena and one of the largest multiuse sport facili- ties in the world. These sample facilities were chosen because of their name recognition or because they were recently constructed, reno- vated, or closed and represent an opportunity to explore current trends. In each of the remaining chapters of this book, other noteworthy facili-

ties are featured in “Facility Focus.” This is an opportunity to get a glimpse of the wide variety of facilities that exist, their unique features, and the multitude of functions and issues that their managers must handle.

The first example highlights a newer arena that has been around for almost 10 years and discusses some of the challenges faced by a facility in a smaller market; the second example explores a newer facility that was built with student input; the last two highlight facilities with rich histories that have moved or been replaced.

Facility Focus: arena at Harbor yard Arena at Harbor Yard, completed in the fall of 2001, is home to the American Hockey League’s Bridgeport Sound Tigers—an affiliate of the NHL’s New York Islanders—and the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference’s Fairfield University men’s and women’s basketball teams. The arena took 721 days to construct and is equipped to accommodate 8,500 people for hockey games and 9,000 people for basketball games. The facility has five locker rooms, seven permanent concession stands, 13 loge suites, 20 portable kiosks, 14 women’s and 13 men’s rooms, 33 executive suites, 1,300 club seats, 40,000 light bulbs, 10,600 gallons of water (needed to create the ice rink), 6,000 pieces of structural steel, and 4,754 cubic yards (3,635 cu m) of concrete (Elsberry, 2001). The construc- tion cost breakdown for the project is shown in table 1.6. Based on the 196,300 square feet (18,200 sq m) in the facility, the cost per square foot was $262.29, and the

final construction price was $56,278,684. The original schematic budget was just under $37 million, and the estimated construction price was only slightly more than $39 million (Kasper Group, 2001).

Players have their own entrance to the building, giving them privacy and the ability to enter and exit without disrupting or being disrupted by other events. The arena also has an exclusive fitness center for players and five locker rooms that allow scheduling of men’s and women’s doubleheaders. Members of the media are also treated to state-of-the-art facilities including a fully equipped media area, interview room, and green room.

The arena features an open ceiling plan, which allows events such as the circus to raise numerous pieces of equipment to the rafters with a very strong rigging system. The rigging capacity can hold up to 118,000 pounds (53,524 kg) to suspend items such as nets, curtains,

Photo◾courtesy◾of◾the◾Arena◾at◾Harbor◾Yard.

Facility Focus

continued ▶

16  ■

Table 1.6 arena at Harbor yard construction costs

category cost ($) cost/foot2 ($) % of total

General◾insurance◾and◾bond◾issuance◾costs 3,379,423 15.75 6.77

Additional◾general◾requirements 408,057 1.90 0.82

Site◾work 4,322,600 20.15 8.66

Concrete 4,855,785 22.63 9.72

Masonry 3,238,681 15.09 6.49

Metals 6,949,401 32.39 13.92

Wood◾and◾plastics 586,766 2.73 1.18

Thermal◾and◾moisture◾protection 2,260,087 10.53 4.53

Doors◾and◾windows 1,194,967 5.57 2.39

Finishes◾(paint,◾carpeting,◾etc.) 3,721,601 17.34 7.45

Equipment 15,175 0.07 0.03

Furnishings◾including◾retractable◾seating 1,640,662 7.65 3.29

Conveying◾systems◾(elevators,◾escalators) 350,445 1.63 0.70

Fire◾protection 815,850 3.80 1.63

Plumbing 2,623,075 12.22 5.25

Heating,◾ventilation,◾and◾air◾conditioning◾ 6,911,690 32.21 13.84

Refrigeration 771,925 3.60 1.55

Electrical 5,885,993 27.43 11.79

Construction◾management◾fee 2,410,383 11.23 4.83

Construction◾contingency (1,777,304) (8.28) –3.56

Owner’s◾contingency 408,422 1.90 0.82

Furniture,◾fixtures,◾and◾equipment◾allowance 5,305,000 24.72 10.62

Total cost 56,278,684 262.29

Adapted◾from◾Kasper◾Group◾2001.

trapezes, and other equipment from the rafters. Rigging capacity is critical for attracting large circus events and concerts where big stages need to be erected. Some large concerts require numerous trailers of gear that must be hoisted for the stage, video boards, and sound wall. The arena’s rigging capacity is not affected by a center-hung scoreboard. When the arena was being designed, the facility management was trying to attract an Arena Football League (AFL) team and decided to hang scoreboards on the wall so the middle of the field would be unobstructed. No AFL team ended up playing at the arena. This shows that a facility might plan for certain options, but those options might not materialize. When the arena was being proposed there was significant talk about attracting major concerts to the facility. Although there have been some major performers such as Barbra Streisand, Elton John, Nickelback, the Jonas Brothers, and Fleetwood Mac, most major touring groups (which

produce the large paydays) such as the Rolling Stones, Bruce Springsteen, and U2 play at other venues in neighboring states.

Connecticut is a small state with a population of around three million citizens. The state lies between New York and Boston, which both have significant public assembly venues that can be reached in less than two hours from most places in Connecticut. Thus, there are a significant number of facilities vying for patrons’ entertainment dol- lars. Instead of performing at one of the smaller venues in Connecticut, many acts pass the state by to play at facilities in Boston, New York, and New Jersey. Even within the state, Arena at Harbor Yard has to compete with several large outdoor concert facilities (Chevrolet Theater and New England Dodge Music Center), larger university facilities (Yale and UConn), public arenas (XL Center), and concert venues at two large casinos (Foxwoods and Mohegan Sun).

Facility Focus: arena at Harbor yard (continued)

■  17

I distinctly remember the request from our president at the University of New Haven to serve as the chair of the Programming, Space Planning, and Site Selection Com- mittee to build a student recreation center on campus. On average, facility managers might help build one facility during their careers, and I did not know if I would ever get another opportunity, so I jumped at the offer. Although there was a small weight room and a gym on North Campus, these facilities were primarily used by athletics, and there was nothing near the dorms to engage a large number of students. Thus, the committee was charged with trying to design the most appropriate facility to meet the needs of all potential constituents.

The committee was assisted by Sasaki Associates Incorporated (which later helped design the Olympic Vil- lage for the 2008 Beijing Olympics) and Petra Construction Company. Architects from Sasaki designed the facility, and Petra built the facility. The committee involved a number of on-campus constituents, from faculty members and students to administrators and staff members.

The first step in the process was to determine how much money was available for the project (initially $12.5 million) and where the facility should be built. If the money would not allow building certain types of facilities or if the campus could not find space, then numerous options would not be viable. The committee conducted a student survey completed by more than 250 students. A majority of survey respondents lived on campus. Only 13% of the survey respondents were involved in athletics or sport clubs, and 31% had used some type of campus recreation facility. Almost 72% of the respondents indicated that if there were a student recreation center, they would use it at least twice a week. The survey asked what activities the students wanted in the gym, and the most frequently cited activities were basketball, cardio, and weightlifting. Swimming, which is often an available option in a recre- ation center—although a pool is one of the most expensive elements to add to a facility—was the least-cited activity in the survey.

The survey results helped develop a baseline for what to include in the facility. However, Sasaki went one step fur- ther by developing an interactive communication process with the students. Large poster boards were placed in the student center, with pictures of various recreation center elements. Students were encouraged over several days to post their thoughts and to talk directly with the architects. This hands-on process helped excite the students about the project and allowed the architects to hear firsthand what the students wanted. The architects also looked at all locations on campus and contacted relevant par- ties to access potential locations. For example, the local

mayor had to be consulted to see what he would support or which location might raise concerns for the city. With all this information, the committee tried to create a vision statement, of which the first paragraph is as follows:

Building Vision Statement

The Fitness/Recreation Center (the Center) for the Univer- sity of New Haven (UNH) shall be located within the heart of the campus to strengthen the collegiate experience for both residential and commuter students. The facility shall be a new “signature” building for the campus, projecting an enhanced image of the school and thereby serving as a significant recruitment and retention asset. The Center should be the starting point for campus tours. Aesthetically, the building should be forward-looking but fit in with the character of existing campus structures and materials. At night as well as during the day, this new Center should announce its presence as well as contribute to one’s first impression upon arrival at the campus. The Center should be a magnet, attracting maximum use by students as well as by all other members of the UNH community (faculty, staff, administration).

The committee finalized a location on a major roadway next to campus. The architects built an elevated track with glass walls so those driving on the major road would be able to see activity and students to help highlight activities on campus. The final price tag for the 56,500-square-foot (5,249 sq m) building was $15.5 million. The final building, which opened in 2008, has two full-size basketball courts, a multiactivity court, a 6,000-square-foot (558 sq m) fit- ness facility, a juice bar, locker rooms, a fitness room, a spinning room, and two racquetball courts.

Facility Focus

Photo◾courtesy◾of◾University◾of◾New◾Haven.

Facility Focus: university of new Haven’s david a. beckerman recreation center

18  ■

Facility Focus: Madison Square garden

Facility Focus

Madison Square Garden in New York, known as “the World’s Most Famous Arena,” includes a 5,600-seat theater, a 20,000-seat arena, a 40,000-square-foot (3,716 sq m) expo center, two restaurants, and 89 club suites. The facility is often called MSG or the Garden. This enormous facility had its humble beginnings as an abandoned railroad shed. P.T. Barnum purchased the shed in 1874 and replaced it with a roofless structure that he named Barnum’s Monster Classi- cal and Geological Hippodrome. Some of the early events featured were chariot races, waltzing elephants, and fire eaters (“New York Landmarks,” 2002). The earliest incarna- tion of the Garden was a 10,000-seat velodrome for races. The name Madison Square Garden was derived from the fact that the first two versions of the Garden were built at Madison Avenue and 26th Street. Between 1890 and 1925, the Garden was an indoor arena that could seat 8,000 fans; it cost $2 million to construct. Between 1925 and 1968, the Garden was located at 50th Street and 8th Avenue and could sit 18,000 fans. The current Madison Square Garden is located directly above Pennsylvania Station on 34th Street. Construction of the new facility began in 1963; its concrete foundation was poured in 1964. The building cost $116 million to construct (“New York Landmarks,” 2002).

The current version was built on top of the railroad terminal used by the Pennsylvania Railroad. The joint venture was very beneficial because the railroad still had its major hub in New York and was able to strike a deal with a developer willing to develop a large-scale commer- cial and entertainment center. The relationship was very beneficial for the Garden as fans could take the subway or train from near and far and just walk up several flights of stairs to get to their entertainment venue. This proximity eliminated the need for significant parking, which is not available in most of New York City. The Garden became a destination location before the term came into vogue. The Garden allowed people to take in a show, go to a fancy

dinner, shop at upscale stores, and spend a nice day and a lot of money in one of the busiest cities in the world.

Here are a few interesting facts about Madison Square Garden:

◾ The facility has more than 1,000,000 square feet (92,900 sq m) of space.

◾ It hosts more than 600 events each year. ◾ It hosts more than 4 million visitors each year. ◾ The roof is 404 feet (123 m) wide and 64 feet (19.5 m)

high (Schoenberg, 2001).

Over the years the arena has hosted dogs and cats, elephants and athletes, award shows, musical artists, superstars, and even Big Bird. Currently it is the home of the New York Knicks, the Rangers, and the Liberty. The West- minster Kennel Club Dog Show, the National Horse Show, and Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus are regular events. One of the famous fights between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier took place at the Garden in 1971. Paul Simon, the Grateful Dead, and Elton John are just a few of the musical acts that have passed through the Garden’s doors over the years. Madison Square Garden is a prime example of a successful multipurpose PAF (Schoenberg, 2001). Thus, the Garden is not just a building but also a piece of New York, United States, sport, and entertain- ment history.

MSG was considering a move two blocks away, but in 2008 a decision was made to renovate the Garden once again in time for the New York Rangers’ 2011-2012 season. The $500 million full-scale renovation will focus on the interior of the building and utilize the Garden’s cur- rent footprint. Some of the planned renovations include the following:

◾ Dramatically redesigned 7th Avenue entrance ◾ New, more comfortable seats with better sight lines ◾ Wider and more spacious public concourses with

significant views of the city skyline ◾ State-of-the-art lighting, sound, and LED HDTV

video systems ◾ New food and beverage options ◾ New bar areas that directly open to the arena bowl ◾ 68 new midlevel suites that are 50% larger than

current suites and closer to the playing surface ◾ 20 new floor-level suites on the same level as the

playing surface ◾ Improved dressing rooms, locker rooms, green

rooms, and production offices ◾ A new upper level with a fan and group-sales party

deck to replace the existing upper suites ◾ Additional new restrooms (Madison Square Garden,

2008) JTB◾Photo/age◾fotostock

■  19

Facility Focus

In 1931 Conn Smythe, then manager of the Toronto Maple Leafs, built Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto. This 16,000- seat multipurpose facility was to host the Maple Leafs for the next 68 years. During that time it also hosted a wide variety of concerts by such performers as Duke Ellington, Elvis Presley, the Beatles, Pearl Jam, and Rush.

The following are interesting facts about Maple Leaf Gardens:

◾ It took 1,200 construction workers five months and 12 days to build the yellow brick-faced structure.

◾ The Gardens was built for $1.5 million. ◾ It had 16,000 seats and 85 box seats. ◾ Construction costs were minimized as a result of

agreements made with labor unions to provide the workers with Maple Leaf Gardens stock in place of a portion of their earnings.

◾ The building materials included 750,000 bricks, 77,500 bags of cement, and 70 tons of sand.

◾ The 350- by 282-foot (106 by 86 m) building extended 13 stories (44 yd or 40 m) above street level.

◾ Opening-night seat prices ranged from $0.95 to $2.75 (“Maple Leaf Gardens,” 2002).

The Gardens was financed in a unique manner. The land was purchased for $350,000 from a major backer. To help reduce construction costs, Smythe entered into an agreement with the unions stipulating that those working on the project would receive Gardens stock in exchange for a wage reduction of 20% (“Maple Leaf Gardens,” 2002). Since the facility was built during the Depression, material costs were between 20% and 30% lower than pre-Depression costs because of low demand.

As part of an attempt to provide a sport complex, the Gardens originally included a six-lane bowling alley, a billiards room, and a gymnasium. These areas were transformed over the years into carpenter and electrician workshops and storage areas. The ice surface was 85 by 200 feet (26 by 61 m), and it remained in place from late August to the end of the hockey season. During nonhockey events, sheets of plywood covered the ice, and the staging and chairs were placed on top.

In 1999 the Maple Leafs hockey team left the Maple Leaf Gardens to move five blocks away to the state-of-

Facility Focus: Maple leaf gardens the-art $265 million Air Canada Centre. Concert promot- ers cleared out of the Gardens shortly thereafter. Faced with a future of minor concert and sport bookings such as lacrosse and junior hockey games, Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment Ltd. put the facility up for sale. In 2004, Maple Leaf Gardens was sold to Canada’s largest food retailer, Loblaw Companies. The company was interested in turning the historic venue into a supermarket. Because of civic and financial pressure, the site has yet to be con- verted into a supermarket, and the Gardens still held a charity event in 2008.

The Gardens was a venerable facility with a rich tra- dition. The trick for the new facility was to embrace the past but launch a new future for the city and teams that play there. The Air Canada Centre was built on the site of the original Canada Post Delivery Building. Thus, the architects combined the historic east and south walls of the building into the new arena’s design. The roof was built with a flat design to help with acoustics and to minimize the building’s impact on the surrounding skyline. The architects developed the new arena with a 140,000-square-foot (13,000 sq m), 12-story office tower. The tower is called the Air Canada Tower, and Air Canada airlines purchased the naming rights to the arena (for $2 million a year for 20 years) and also occupies the top six floors of the tower.

Similar to Madison Square Garden, the Air Canada Centre was built just south of the GO train tracks, with the Galleria connecting the two. The Galleria is a covered, climate-controlled throughway where people can walk by ticket offices, food courts, and retail establishments. Thus, while MSG has numerous amenities under one roof, the replacement for the Canadian version of the Garden is more spread out. Even with a new replacement for the old Gardens, the Toronto Maple Leafs owners are in the middle of a $500 million expansion that includes building towers with more than 800 condos, a mini hotel, and retail and office space next to the Air Canada Centre (Munsey and Suppes, 2009). The new arena highlights how a city can transition from a beloved older facility to a new facility and not miss a beat. In fact, attendance at the Air Canada Centre is hovering near 100% of capacity, and the arena is an economic engine that in its first 10 years is supposed to generate $2.4 billion in economic benefit (Munsey and Suppes, 2009).

20  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

The Future of Sport Facilities As noted earlier in the chapter, Greek and Roman facilities were the precursors of modern PAFs. However, other civilizations, from the Far East to South America, also contributed to the spread of sport facilities. For example, the Mayans (AD 300-AD 1200) and the Aztecs (AD 1200-AD 1500) played ball games in stone courts; nobles could sit inside to observe the competition, and all other spectators had to listen to the event from the out- side (Leonard, 1974).

From ancient times to the present, the basic structure of such facilities remained essentially unchanged until the last 50 years. Tremendous changes over the past 50 years include such innovations as domed stadiums, stadiums with retractable roofs, and structures that can rotate on tracks to change from a large arena to an intimate performing arts stage. Although the United States has been the leader in terms of the breadth and diversity of new stadiums and arenas in the past 40 years, the facility construction boom that hit North America in the 1990s spread internation- ally, and that is where many building innovations are now occurring. The greatest growth at the start of the 21st century occurred in Japan and Greece. Japan went on a massive soccer stadium building binge to host the 2002 World Cup with cohost Korea. The largest of the stadiums is Inter- national Stadium in Yokohama, which can seat 71,416 and cost $526.32 million to build. A total of 20 facilities were built at a cost of $4.64 billion (“Kick-off for 2002,” 2001). It is estimated that Korea spent an additional $1.7 billion on facili- ties, while France spent $1.5 billion on facilities for the 1998 World Cup. These numbers not only highlight the magnitude of international facility growth but also show how expensive stadiums are to build and how prices have escalated because of the desire for domed or adjustable facilities and other expensive innovations.

This cost aspect is also seen in Olympic Games facilities. Athens mounted a tremendous construc- tion effort to prepare for the 2004 Olympic Games. The Olympic Stadium had to be refurbished and renovated. As of May 2001, a large percentage of the 23 facilities required to host the Games had yet to be built (“Athens’ Challenge,” 2001). The International Olympic Committee was concerned about the completion of the facilities and voiced a

strong warning to Greece to hasten their construc- tion efforts. In fact, construction was not com- pleted until hours before the Games began. The Games budget was estimated to be $1.7 billion, with a large percentage of these funds dedicated to sport facilities, but grew to more than $11.6 billion (Varouhakis, 2004). In contrast, construct- ing all the facilities necessary for the Australian Olympics in 2000 cost more than $3 billion. The required buildings included the 110,000-seat Stadium Australia; the 20,000-seat Sydney Super- Dome; the Sydney International Athletic Centre; and several other aquatic, sailing, and shooting facilities (Jackson and Menser, 2000).

Beijing, China, hosted the 2008 Olympic Games. It was estimated that 37 stadiums and arenas would be either built or renovated for the Games. The expected cost of completing all the required facilities was $3.4 billion. In addition, another $1.94 billion was supposed to be spent on ancillary facilities such as the Olympic Village, press center, and broadcasting center (“Beijing to Spend,” 2002). The costs kept growing throughout the construction process and ended at around $42 billion.

One of the issues for these Games (and all past and future Olympics) is how to utilize the facili- ties after the Olympics have ended. Nobody wants the facilities to become “white elephants,” but obviously there are significant financial issues associated with running facilities. For example, the Calgary Olympics in 1988 generated a $150 million profit, but the lasting legacy has been the facilities, which are still actively utilized. The Olympic Oval is one of the fastest speedskating tracks in the world and is used as a training center (Sibold, 2002). The Calgary facilities have fared well because they were close to downtown and there was a need for the facilities. Other past Olym- pic sites have not been as lucky. In fact, most of the facilities utilized for the Athens Olympic Games have fallen into disuse, and some have become encampments for traveling gypsies (Rogers, 2008).

These Olympic examples highlight a major initiative for sport facilities in the future, as these facilities need to be built assuming the likeli- hood that they will not be utilized effectively or will lose money. Although there will always be a demand for health clubs and school and commu- nity sport facilities, most countries or communi- ties cannot afford to spend hundreds of millions of dollars for new state-of-the-art facilities. Thus,

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  21

older facilities that might be condemned in richer countries need to be kept open in poorer coun- tries. Even wealthier countries will have a mix of old and newer facilities. A typical sport facility is designed to last 50 years. It is possible for 50-year- old facilities to be in great shape and for those that are only 10 years old to be in poor shape. Political, financial, equipment, personnel, and other fac- tors can help explain why some facilities are in good shape and others are not. There can also be a blend of facilities, such as on a college campus (e.g., Yale University) that has some very old and some modern facilities.

Sometimes an emergency facilitates building a new facility. For example, Brazil is preparing for the 2014 World Cup. The facilities were surveyed, and one facility that was highly criticized in the report was Fonte Nova Stadium in Salvador (voted the worst of the 29 major stadiums in the country). In 2007 during victory celebrations after a soccer game, a portion of the stands collapsed, injuring at least 50 people and killing 8 (Astor, 2007). This and other stadiums will need to be repaired or replaced to host the World Cup games.

Although poorer countries may not be able to afford to build new PAFs, richer countries must carefully evaluate any efforts to modify or build facilities. Any new construction effort may neces- sitate compliance with requirements that can significantly affect building budgets and even the ability to build or renovate. One of the key concerns with building Olympic dream facili- ties is accessibility. In Greek and Roman times, disabled persons who could not enter a facility would be out of luck; now a disabled person can sue to get into a facility. Immediately after the Olympic Games, the Paralympics are held. These Games for the disabled use the same facilities as the Olympics, which must accommodate the needs of the disabled. Thus, handicapped access and other services need to be considered in con- struction. This concern was evidenced in the Atlanta Olympic Games in 1996, six years after the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed. The ADA requires facilities and programs to accommodate the needs of the disabled when- ever practicable. All new construction projects in the United States are required to comply with this law, which is one reason the Atlanta Olympics were viewed as the most accessible Games held to date (Beasley, 1997).

Trends That Will Affect Future Facilities

As noted earlier, political and religious concerns helped foster construction of the Roman Coli- seum and Circus Maximus. The idea was that if citizens were busy enjoying sport and other events, they might be more content and not try to overthrow the government. Modern facilities are often built with the same political goals in mind. Most voters would be hard-pressed to find an elected official who wants to be known as the politician that lost a professional team. Elected officials often go out of their way to provide any assistance possible to attract or retain a profes- sional team. Debacles involving poor political planning are numerous. Examples from the 1990s include the following:

◾ Cincinnati officials did not reveal the true cost of their new stadiums until after the elec- tion ended; they then raised the estimated price for the football and baseball stadiums approximately $100 million each, just one day after the voters approved the construc- tion (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

◾ Tampa officials bought the argument raised by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers’ owner that he needed a new stadium because he was losing money in his old facility, but they never checked to confirm the veracity of his state- ment (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

◾ Texas officials negotiated a contract with the Texas Motor Speedway that exempted the Speedway from property tax requirements, which cost the local school district more than $21 million a year and prompted the schools to sue (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

◾ Houston voters agreed to build a downtown baseball stadium even though an advisory group recommended a different site. Elected officials along with a wealthy businessman and his company, which hoped to cash in on a downtown site, spearheaded the site change. The businessman was Kenneth Lay, and the company was the now-bankrupt Enron.

Since these scandals, numerous voter-associ- ated groups have aggressively advocated for better voter knowledge about the financial benefits, or

22  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

possible lack thereof, for various proposed facility referendums. The recent economic turmoil has voters rallying against spending their tax dollars on sport facilities, so any new referendums for the next several years will face significant voter scrutiny and a demand for more accountability.

These examples highlight why there have been significant battles after almost every vote to build a stadium or arena for the primary benefit of a private business owner. Although some facilities are financed entirely with private funds, most are built with a majority of public funds. Public funds are utilized because of the perceived ben- efit that a stadium (and its major tenant team) will provide the city or region. The true benefit is hard to quantify, but arguments on both sides are possible regarding whether or not a stadium or arena provides a benefit, or whether people are willing to invest several dollars a month in extra taxes in order to be able to talk about the local team around the water cooler at work. However, although public funding was a popular trend in the 1990s, a poor economy at the start of the 21st century has curtailed some projects. Other proj- ects have faced the voters’ wrath, and there are also projects such as the new stadium for the New York Jets and Giants that will contain a significant private contribution to the total proposed con- struction cost. The teams had indicated that they would contribute $800 million to the estimated $1.5 billion price tag for a new facility (Heyman, 2003). However, as construction progressed, each team was contributing $650 million each to the new stadium (Kaplan, 2007).

Chapter 4 provides a more detailed analysis of political issues. However, it is necessary to

acknowledge the political issue here because PAFs have for centuries been closely tied with politics. Any effort to analyze PAFs without examining the political influences associated with how facilities are built, funded, and maintained fails to recognize the historical social significance these facilities have had. Political entities do not just build facilities to placate the masses. Every issue, from bond issuance and tax abatements through safety inspection and zoning or nuisance debates, intertwines the facility and various government entities. These and other overlaps are discussed throughout this book. But it is important to under- stand from the beginning that without government support (or we could say the support of “the public”), sport facilities as we have them today would not exist.

Other trends besides political shifts include technological and sport-related changes. Tech- nological innovations range from new rigging systems (to support large weights such as score- boards) to stadium fields on rollers (to allow the use of natural grass in a domed stadium; in favorable weather conditions the grass can be rolled outside).

Sport-related changes can be seen with new sports. Extreme sports are changing numerous sport and recreation facilities. Skateboard parks are being built in record numbers to help keep kids off city buildings and out of dangerous locations. Other facilities that are not traditionally consid- ered sport facilities, such as bridges, can become havens for base jumpers and other extreme sport enthusiasts; such usage can generate significant liability and safety trends that facility managers need to carefully consider and act on.

Summary Sport◾ facilities◾ have◾ undergone◾ significant◾ changes◾ over◾ time,◾ especially◾ over◾ the◾past◾two◾centuries.◾The◾Greeks◾and◾Romans◾intertwined◾politics◾and◾religion◾ to◾build◾large◾PAFs◾to◾placate◾the◾masses.◾These◾types◾of◾facilities◾have◾evolved◾ over◾the◾years◾into◾architectural◾and◾mechanical◾marvels.◾Today’s◾PAFs◾serve◾as◾ economic◾ catalysts◾ for◾ growth◾ to◾ promote◾ economic,◾ geopolitical,◾ and◾ local◾ political◾ ends.◾ Although◾ this◾ chapter◾ gave◾ more◾ attention◾ to◾ larger◾ facilities,◾ smaller◾ facilities◾ have◾ also◾ undergone◾ changes◾ that◾ have◾ made◾ them◾ more◾ marketable◾ and◾ economically◾ viable.◾This◾ growth◾ will◾ undoubtedly◾ continue◾ in◾ the◾future,◾and◾the◾same◾trends◾seen◾in◾the◾growth◾of◾facilities◾in◾the◾United◾States◾ will◾feature◾more◾prominently◾around◾the◾world.

History◾and◾Future◾of◾Sport◾and◾Public◾Assembly◾Facilities◾ ■  23

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾do◾you◾think◾current◾facility◾managers◾have◾learned◾from◾their◾

predecessors?

  2.  What◾similarities◾and◾differences◾can◾you◾see◾between◾Madison◾Square◾ Garden◾and◾Maple◾Leaf◾Gardens?

  3.  Take◾a◾tour◾of◾your◾university◾athletic◾fields◾and◾athletic◾facilities.◾What◾ similarities◾and◾differences◾can◾you◾see◾between◾your◾facilities◾and◾the◾ facilities◾at◾the◾University◾of◾New◾Haven?

  4.  Why◾did◾the◾Romans◾build◾stadiums?   5.  Why◾did◾modern◾universities◾build◾major◾sport◾and◾recreation◾complexes◾on◾

campuses?

  6.  Why◾do◾cities◾build◾stadiums◾and◾arenas◾for◾professional◾sport◾teams◾with◾ public◾money?

  7.  Is◾building◾new◾Olympic◾stadiums◾and◾facilities◾a◾good◾investment?◾Why◾or◾ why◾not?

beckyh
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2

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾what◾facility◾management◾is◾and◾what◾the◾facility◾ manager’s◾role◾is.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾complex◾blend◾of◾duties◾required◾to◾manage◾a◾ facility.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾consumer◾orientation◾required◾to◾effectively◾run◾a◾ facility.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾impact◾that◾external◾entities◾have◾on◾a◾facility.

Facility ManageMent

26  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Terry Butler, and I am the general manager of the Ryan Center and Boss Ice Arena located at the University of Rhode Island. Both facilities are managed by Global Spec- trum, the private manage- ment company located in Philadelphia. I have been involved in facility manage- ment for more than 20 years.

I received my bachelor’s degree in sports man- agement from St. Thomas University in Miami, Florida. My first position in the industry was as the recreation coordinator at Raritan Valley Col- lege, New Jersey. It was a great entry-level position as I gained experience in operating sport camps, which included marketing the programs, preparing budgets, and hiring the staff. I managed a large staff of work-study and part-time employees in the opera- tion of gyms, a swimming pool, a weight room, and outdoor recreation fields. After five years I joined the Mennen Sports Arena (New Jersey), where I was the assistant manager of a double-rink venue used for ice hockey, figure skating, and public events. I also worked several years at UMass Boston as assistant athletic director and at East Stroudsburg University, where I was the interim associate athletic director and received my master’s degree in sports administration.

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B u

tle r.

My first experience as the top executive was as the manager of McKenzie Arena at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. In that position I learned a great deal about budgets, specifically the ancillary income derived from concerts, family shows, and other revenue-producing events. Unlike at other facilities I managed, where I was given athletic or recreational schedules to oversee, there I was also responsible for working with promoters and agents to book events into the venue. Being new to this side of the industry, I learned quickly about soliciting events and trying to position my venue versus others as a place artists and touring productions should play. Networking, understanding industry trends, and presenting the venue in a successful (and profitable!) manner are critical. After five years in Chattanooga, I was given the opportunity to open a new facility—the Mitchell Center at the University of South Alabama. In 2001, I joined Global Spectrum and was hired to oversee the openings of both the Ryan Center and Boss Ice Arena, which took place in September 2002.

As noted in this chapter, facilities service three main constituents (customer, internal, and external). After having the opportunity to open three new facilities, I believe that the internal constituents, especially your employees, are an often overlooked key to a venue’s long-term success. Employees who enjoy their work and are given meaningful profes- sional opportunities assist the other stakeholders in a manner that breeds happy (and returning!) patrons and positive external support.

Facility◾Management◾ ■  27

Facility management involves significant dedi-cation on the part of the facility manager to present events that have value and to present these events in the most attractive, most convenient, and safest environment possible. Facilities have so many components requiring management that the failure of any one can spell disaster. Imagine a fire sprinkler system turning on in an arena and flooding the floor. Imagine 20,000 people in an arena without any air conditioning. Patrons would be irate and the facility would suffer significant negative publicity and economic damages. Thus, much responsibility rests on a facility manager’s shoulders to make sure that a facility is operating correctly.

This chapter starts with a critical analysis of facility management and the role that the facility manager plays in achieving the facility’s goals and objectives. The facility manager has numer- ous duties that are significantly affected by the facility size and ownership structure. The chapter also introduces facility and personnel manage- ment issues.

Facility managers do not operate in a vacuum. They are influenced by numerous parties, from the lead tenants to government entities or private companies. A facility manager’s most important constituents are the customers and employees. In addition, facility managers must report to numer- ous other stakeholders. Stakeholders range from the politicians who authorized funds to help build the facility to the independent parties who provide facility management outsourcing services. The last part of this chapter highlights manage- rial functions, specifically planning, organizing, implementing, and controlling the facility and those working in the facility.

What Is Facility Management? Managing sport and public assembly facilities (PAFs) is often referred to as facility manage- ment, and the people who perform the duties are called facility managers. Facility management can also refer to managing any other type of facility, from an office building to a hospital or an entire university with hundreds of buildings. Facility management entails a broad array of disciplines including, but not limited to, planning; design- ing; leasing; space planning; project management; capital management; construction management; property management; facility marketing; build-

ing and operation management; and real estate acquisition, planning, and disposal (Teicholz and Noferi, 2002). Facility managers for larger facilities often have to spend more time market- ing, developing ancillary income streams (conces- sions, catering, merchandising), and booking and scheduling events, especially if there is no anchor tenant. Differences between sport facilities may be due to size or ownership structure. That is, a high school or college sport facility may not have to make money every day the facility is open, but a stadium or arena will normally not open on a given day unless there is an event that will gener- ate enough revenue to cover all costs.

A significant focus for facility management is to make sure an existing facility runs smoothly and is safe for its intended purpose. Facility management often focuses on the hardware required for smooth operation of the facility. Are parking lots ready for 10,000 cars? Are the bleachers, walkways, eleva- tors, escalators, and other facility components operating safely? Managers have to coordinate maintenance and renovation schedules to make sure that existing facilities do not deteriorate from abuse or from failure to properly maintain them. However, facility management can also apply to building a new facility. A facility manager may be called on by a university to help design and manage the construction process of a new gym with the help of architects, designers, contractors, and numerous other parties.

Managers may have to design and launch a new facility, but this process may occur only once in a manager’s professional career. Thus, a facility manager needs to focus more on actual building operations to meet the facility’s service- oriented goals. The facility’s goals often focus on filling the facility’s time and space oppor- tunities and conducting events in a safe and client-oriented fashion. Facility management also entails the art of coordinating the physical workplace with the people and entities that will use the workplace. In essence, facility manage- ment blends a wide variety of disciplines, from architecture and engineering to business and behavioral science, to optimize how a facility and its users interact and optimize the use of the facility. In summary, facility management entails every aspect of making sure a building is operating efficiently in terms of safety, revenue production, tenant satisfaction, and preventive maintenance.

28  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Facility management is not an easy job. With diverse responsibilities and obligations, a facility manager must have many highly specific skills. Facility managers also need a significant amount of time to complete their tasks. The facility man- ager is often the first person to arrive on the job each day and the last to leave. In many facilities, the facility manager has to be present on game nights and may be present on weekends. But although the job may at times seem thankless and unusually time consuming, putting on well- received events in the facility can be a tremendous reward.

The Facility Manager A facility manager is the person responsible for coordinating all the employees and entities involved in the facility to ensure that they work on behalf of the facility and help meet its short- and long-term goals and objectives. Many people are in fact facility managers in their daily lives and do not realize it. The person who is the head of a household is really a facility manager. That person needs to purchase the house, pay the mortgage, paint the rooms, install new equipment such as air conditioners, maintain existing systems such as the roof, manage facility “subletting” (as in determining who is going to get which room), interact with government entities to pay taxes, and employ tradespeople such as plumbers and electricians.

The term facility manager is often used in the context of general facilities such as office build- ings, but most of the same duties and responsibili- ties also apply to sport facility managers. Facility managers for big and small buildings face the same types of concerns daily. A facility manager’s role is affected by the facility size and the workforce available to the manager. In a small facility, the facility owner may be the manager and can be responsible for opening and closing the facility as well as painting the walls and cleaning the rest- rooms. A facility manager for a large facility may have several dozen full-time and possibly hun- dreds to thousands of part-time employees han- dling everything, from cleanup crews to ushers and ticket takers. Because of the diverse duties each facility manager faces, facility management can be considered both an art and a science.

Specific duties need to be undertaken to ensure that a building can be opened for a planned event.

From making sure there are enough hot dogs to monitoring indoor air quality, facility manage- ment has many facets. Managing all these tasks can appear to be onerous. Smaller facilities often rely on one individual to undertake all facility management activities. In many instances, a smaller facility has only one person who serves as the owner, manager, custodian, and secretary. The manager of a small health club has to find an appropriate location to build or must lease an existing structure (chapter 4). Part of the loca- tion identification process focuses on choosing the proper area (chapter 5), sales and marketing opportunities in the area (chapter 10), and financ- ing options (chapter 11). Managers must work with outside vendors and government entities to secure necessary permits and complete any needed construction or renovations. The facility manager may have to design the facility, choose appropriate color and material schemes, and purchase and install all necessary fitness and office equipment (chapters 5-8). Once the facility is completed the manager will need to maintain it (chapter 9), make sure the facility is operating within the law and in accordance with contracts (chapter 12), and then focus on planning for future needs and marketing to increase income streams. Smaller facilities that start to grow will often need to add employees, and then the facility manager must apply basic human resource skills (chapter 3) to appropriately manage the employees. All these tasks often fall in the lap of one person, which makes the facility manager’s job difficult and time consuming. The job is even more dif- ficult when the facility needs constant attention, forcing the manager to spend time on keeping the facility clean and running rather than on generat- ing revenue.

Larger facilities may have several different crews responsible for different functions such as ticketing, marketing, game operations, mechani- cals, and janitorial responsibilities. Thus, facility management for larger facilities involves orches- trating the work of employees and volunteers to help accomplish the facility’s goals. Since a PAF is dedicated to attracting events that will gener- ate either income or indirect economic activity (ripple effect; see chapter 4), PAF managers must always examine the facility’s best use and deter- mine what events will produce the most positive outcome to the bottom line consistent with the facility’s mission. A manager for a larger facility

Facility◾Management◾ ■  29

has some duties similar to those of a small-facility manager, such as marketing and financial man- agement. However, a manager for a small facility normally has to blend other responsibilities with facility management. Thus, the general manager of a minor league baseball team may have to sell tickets, groom the field, move furniture, and undertake tasks involving both team and facility management, since typically the budget does not allow the hiring of others. In contrast, a manager for a large facility typically has a staff that can undertake marketing, maintenance, renovations, and numerous other functions. This gives the manager the opportunity to work on broader issues such as long-term planning, developing strong constituent relations, and making sure the right employees are doing the various jobs.

Even though the duties undertaken in facil- ity management may be fluid and can change according to the facility size, a facility manager has some well-defined expectations. According to the International Facility Management Asso- ciation (IFMA), facility managers are critical for implementing any facility management plan and need to understand and appreciate several dis- tinct functions. The latest study conducted by the IFMA (“Exploring the Current Trends,” 2007) highlights that the future competency of facility managers should entail the following elements:

◾ Operations and management

◾ Facility function

◾ Real estate

◾ Finance

◾ Human and environmental factors

◾ Quality assessment and innovation

◾ Planning and project management

◾ Communication

◾ Technology

Furthermore, to prepare properly for the future, facility managers should develop their skill sets in regard to some of the following major current concerns:

◾ Linking facility management to strategy

◾ Emergency preparedness

◾ Change management

◾ Sustainability

◾ Emerging technology

◾ Globalization ◾ Broadening diversity in the workforce ◾ Aging buildings

Numerous activities occupy a facility manager’s time:

◾ The facility manager needs to plan all facility activities, control schedules, manage con- tracts, develop work standards, and evaluate both employees and external contractors.

◾ Managers need to hire and organize all per- sonnel, develop work schedules, and imple- ment appropriate policies and procedures.

◾ Facility managers need to develop short-, intermediate-, and long-term plans, with a strong focus on financial ramifications for each option.

◾ The facility manager needs to develop an inventory of available space and manage that space by allocating it as needed and obtaining additional space for future growth.

◾ A facility manager needs to have a strong appreciation and understanding of building design and planning, architectural design, engineering design, code and zoning com- pliance, construction costs, and building systems and their maintenance needs.

◾ Workplace planning and design entail pro- curing and managing furniture and equip- ment for such areas as concessions, locker rooms, and press box.

◾ Facility managers need to focus significant effort on budgeting, accounting, and eco- nomic forecasting.

◾ Managers need to be involved in managing construction projects or moving from one area or facility to another.

◾ A facility manager will need to spend signifi- cant time on operations, maintenance, and repairs. These activities can include exterior maintenance of the building and aspects such as trash and pest control.

◾ Since 9/11, facility managers have been forced to deal with security and life safety concerns to a much greater extent than ever before.

◾ Lastly, managers have to supervise general administrative departments such as food service or a mail room (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

30  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Although these functions are numerous, the primary function and the overriding concern for any facility manager should be employee and patron safety. After safety, legality is the next most important concern for facility managers (Cotts and Lee, 1992). When surveyed in 1988 about the most frequent managerial activities, facility managers indicated that maintenance absorbed the greatest amount of their time (17%), followed by space management (14%), interior design (11%), and budgeting and forecasting (9%) (Cotts and Lee, 1992). It could be assumed that managing people and human resources and administrative respon- sibilities consumed a large portion of the remain- ing 49%. A more recent survey would probably show that facility managers are now spending more time on security, air quality, compliance with laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, and workplace violence issues.

In a study conducted by the International Association of Assembly Managers (“IAAM Mem- bership,” 2002), 576 respondents indicated the areas that they believed needed to be researched to assist practitioners in the facility management field. These areas, listed from the highest to lowest need for research, are as follows:

◾ Legal ◾ Human resources

◾ Technology ◾ Marketing ◾ Financial ◾ Operations ◾ Management

Not every manager is an expert in each area. However, working with competent employees, receiving training from good mentors, working with management teams, and getting direction from an educated board can help managers effec- tively balance their various roles.

The various highlighted roles show that man- agers first and foremost must manage the various stakeholders associated with the facility. This means that before a manager can open a facility’s doors, or even plan to build a new facility, he must understand who will use the facility. Con- stituent analysis helps define who the manager must interact with to positively affect the facility’s long-term success.

Constituents Many people put their trust in a manager. Employ- ees come to work assuming that the facility will not be dangerous and they will be paid a reason- able wage. Customers attend an event assuming

Top Skills

What◾are◾some◾of◾the◾top◾skills◾a◾facility◾manager◾needs◾to◾master?◾The◾list◾below◾highlights◾some◾ of◾the◾top◾skills◾that◾will◾help◾a◾facility◾manager◾meet◾the◾most◾important◾objective—ensuring◾ the◾highest◾degree◾of◾customer◾service.

◾◾ Infuse pride within everyone in your organization.◾If◾all◾the◾employees◾have◾pride◾in◾what◾ they◾are◾doing,◾they◾will◾work◾and◾provide◾services◾at◾a◾much◾higher◾level.

◾◾ Delegate to others.◾It◾is◾sometimes◾very◾difficult◾for◾a◾manager◾to◾delegate◾to◾others,◾but◾ to◾be◾successful,◾a◾manager◾needs◾to◾empower◾those◾around◾him◾and◾then◾give◾them◾ meaningful◾assignments.

◾◾ Understand what the fans want.◾A◾manager◾needs◾to◾know◾what◾the◾customers◾want◾and◾ how◾to◾deliver◾the◾best◾fan◾experience.

◾◾ Communicate with a sense of purpose.◾A◾manager◾needs◾to◾develop◾a◾vision◾and◾then◾ communicate◾that◾vision◾to◾everyone◾around◾her.

◾◾ Track and measure success.◾A◾manager◾needs◾to◾judge◾those◾around◾him,◾and◾if◾a◾known◾ and◾identifiable◾measurement◾standard◾is◾developed◾and◾utilized,◾employees◾will◾know◾ what◾they◾need◾to◾accomplish◾and◾how◾the◾manager◾will◾evaluate◾them.

Facility◾Management◾ ■  31

that the event will go on as scheduled, will be safe, and will provide an enjoyable entertain- ment experience. Companies may be willing to put their names on a building for millions of dol- lars, assuming that the facility management team will not undertake any action that will diminish the sponsorship value. Government entities may allow the facility’s doors to open for an event since they trust that the facility managers will follow all applicable laws.

Because of the large number of people who rely on each other to ensure a successful facility, a facility manager needs to constantly balance his interests with the interests of all other constitu- ents. This balancing act can be difficult. Further- more, it is impossible to develop a facility’s goals, objectives, and mission without understanding the constituents who affect the facility.

A facility leader serves three constituents:

◾ Customers—promoters, tenants, ticket buyers, and those attending the events

◾ Internal constituents—boards, owners, employees, and coworkers

◾ External constituents—bankers, politicians, the media, executives, and others who can influence the facility

Customers The primary responsibility of a facility manager is to make sure that people can attend events within the facility in a safe and secure manner. Customers, fans, and ticket buyers can be demand- ing. Customers want the food they want, the way they like it, at the best location, and at the lowest price. It is impossible to deliver exactly what each customer wants when there are thousands of customers. A VIP may receive personal atten- tion in a luxury box because that is one of the amenities the facility manager can ensure for a box. It is more difficult to provide such a high level of service to a section seating several hun- dred people. However, this is one of the critical skills for a manager—providing the highest level of service possible given the strengths and weak- nesses inherent in the facility and its personnel. If there is not enough money to hire additional employees but the manager makes every effort to provide quality service, the customers will hopefully see the effort and will be happier even though they are not getting everything they want.

It should be noted that 90% of customer service problems are linked to managerial issues. This means that customers are upset or disappointed not because the facility is bad but because employ- ees might not be well trained or do not execute their assignments. Thus, if a patron is upset that a facility is not clean, it is not the facility’s fault; it represents a breakdown between management and employees as to why the facility is not being cleaned according to schedule.

Promoters want the facility to be clean and ready for setting up a show. If a facility regularly opens late, is in poor condition, provides unsat- isfactory employees, and lacks amenities such as loading docks and storage areas, promoters will shy away from working with the facility, which will then affect its reputation. The facility man- agement industry is small enough that a poor reputation will make it impossible for a facility to meet its goals, objectives, and mission.

Tenants can range from professional teams to personal trainers leasing space at a gym. Each tenant has a different bargaining position with the facility manager. An anchor or primary tenant has precedence over lesser tenants. Thus, a facility manager has to respond differently to a National Basketball Association (NBA) team, which typically would be the primary tenant, than to second-tier tenants such as a National Hockey League (NHL), Arena Football League (AFL), or Women’s National Basketball Association team or any smaller shows that may use the arena.

Internal Constituents Internal constituents can include employees, independent contractors working for the facility, investors in the facility, the board of directors overseeing the facility, and even government offi- cials if the facility is a government facility. Each group has a vested interest in the facility, so all groups may push the facility manager to better the facility since this would benefit everyone. The facility manager will be called upon by superiors to make sure that the facility follows its mission and meets its goals. The facility manager must also focus on motivating internal constituents to work as hard as possible to make sure the facility is successful. Through various managerial tech- niques such as motivation strategies or strong leadership skills, a facility manager can motivate even the staunchest internal opponents to work

32  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

toward the facility’s success. For example, a board member overseeing the facility may have a nega- tive disposition toward the facility and may have voted against every single budget. The facility manager can take the board member to an event and show her the types of people who come to events. Through such exposure the board member may have a more positive feeling about the facility.

Certain decisions, such as the decision to accept a sponsorship agreement, can lead to internal strife, which a facility manager needs to prevent. For example, the University of North Dakota completed construction in 2001 of the Ralph Engelstad Arena, which featured 11,400 leather seats, a brass ceiling, Italian chandeliers in the lobby, and other fancy amenities. The facility was not the center of controversy; rather, the con- troversy centered on the person who donated $50 million to build it. In a Sports Illustrated article, the university appeared to receive a black eye for accepting money from someone who threw parties on Hitler’s birthday and who had persuaded the university to reinstate its old Indian-head logo and Fighting Sioux nickname. The gift sparked pro- tests on campus about the demise of the univer- sity’s integrity (Dohrmann, 2001). A manager can have a hard time managing a facility if employees do not want to be associated with the facility and if patrons start boycotting the facility.

External Constituents Facility managers must interact with a wide vari- ety of entities. Aside from customers and employ- ees, the two most important categories of parties that interact with facilities and their managers are government entities and private entities. The facility manager must reach beyond the facility to those who can exert influence on the facility. This marketing effort may be focused on gaining clout for future funds, legal or crisis management, financial security, or promoting long-term growth. For example, a facility manager may wine and dine a businessperson to help attract a future event. At another time the facility manager may need to meet with government officials concerned about the temperature at which food in the facil- ity is cooked.

Numerous government entities interact with sport facilities. Everything from zoning to taxes and health code compliance requires government involvement. Besides regulating facilities, the government often owns sport-related facilities.

One of the most frequent challenges faced by facility managers when dealing with the govern- ment is the almost constant change in laws that affect a sport facility. For example, the Houston Astrodome is owned by Harris County. As such, any regulations passed affecting county facilities affect the Astrodome. The county administrators decided to assist handicapped citizens and passed a rule allowing persons with a handicap placard to park without charge at county facilities. Although the intent behind the regulations was noble, the application was not smooth. When people discov- ered that the handicap placard holders could park for free, many persons who were not handicapped borrowed and used the placards. Besides losing parking revenue, the Astrodome faced another problem, as those who were truly disabled had fewer parking spaces. A manager must abide by the requirements of external constituents, with the potential impact affecting other constituents. A disgruntled disabled fan deprived of a parking space will not find solace in a manager’s explana- tion that nothing can be done since others passed the law and the facility must live with the regu- lation. Numerous government regulations affect sport facilities, and chapter 12 covers these influ- ences in greater detail.

Besides government-based constituents, numerous external vendors can affect a facility. A facility manager needs to establish cordial relationships with a number of external people or companies that may be able to provide a benefit in the future. A private company can become a ticket purchaser in the future. A private company can also provide items such as office supplies, toilet paper, and concession items. A facility manager needs to develop harmonious relationships with these providers to ensure the consistent flow of needed supplies, especially when thousands of hot dogs, hamburgers, and bottles of beer, for example, are sold at every event, and new deliv- eries will be needed for another event several hours later.

Thus, to deal effectively with a wide variety of constituents, a facility manager needs to focus on marketing efforts to keep attracting customers, utilize appropriate leadership and managerial skills to galvanize internal constituents, and pro- mote strong relationships with government and private entities that can affect the facility’s overall performance. These skills will help a manager, but they do not represent true management.

■  33

Facility Focus

The Ralph Engelstad Arena and its funding were con- troversial from the beginning, but no one can attack the elegance and detail of this $100 million facility. The 400,000-square-foot (37,160 sq m) facility has a marble entryway and granite concourse floors (rather than con- crete floors as at most facilities); all seats are made of cherry wood and leather; and there is a 10,000-square- foot (930 sq m) weight room with an underwater treadmill. The facility features 48 luxury suites and two large club rooms with the longest freestanding bar in the state of North Dakota. The suites include 10-person mini-suites, 18-person midsize suites, and 28-person full-size suites (“Ralph Engelstad Arena,” 2004).

The arena has not tried to distance itself from its namesake, even with the controversy publicized in Sports Illustrated. In 2003 the arena issued a four-coin com- memorative set highlighting the facility’s first years. The Fighting Sioux Indian-head logo appeared on the front, and the back showed various images, including that of Mr. Engelstad on the 2002 coin (the year of his death). The four coins sold for $79, and 1,000 sets were minted. A different version of the coins was also minted to be used as currency within the facility (Dodds, 2003).

The controversy has continued years after Mr. Engels- tad’s death in 2002. Mr. Engelstad went beyond any normal donor’s involvement to keep the Fighting Sioux logo and name in the facility. Steps taken include the following:

◾ The shrubber y around the facility has been designed to look normal from street level, but when photographed from above the shrubs spell out F-I- G-H-T-I-N-G S-I-O-U-X.

◾ More than 2,000 Fighting Sioux logos have been incorporated throughout the arena.

◾ The frosted-glass double-wide doors feature the logo as well as the railing on the balcony and even every directional sign and room plaque.

◾ The floor in the lobby to the floor in the weight room feature the logo, and every locker in the locker room has the logo (Ruibal, 2005).

The facility cannot host NCAA championship games because it would be impossible to cover all the logos as required by the NCAA. However, another twist to the story makes the chance of changing the logo and name to meet various constituent needs that much harder. The arena is not owned by the university. The Engelstad trust actu- ally owns the arena and will have control over it through 2031, when the arena reverts to the University (Ruibal, 2005). The trust will not allow a change of the name at the writing of this text, even though North Dakota’s Board of Higher Education agreed to squash the University of North Dakota’s Fighting Sioux nickname in 2009. The state voted to eliminate the mascot and name in 2010 if the University did not obtain approval from two tribes in 2009. The two tribes have been opposed to the name and logo for more than a decade (BET.com, 2009).

The situation at Ralph Engelstad Arena highlights how a controversy surrounding various constituents associated with a university and its facilities can last for years after a facility is built. Such a controversy can generate signifi- cant legal and marketing expense as well as destroy any goodwill a facility might have.

Facility Focus: Ralph engelstad arena

Rich◾Frishman/Sports◾Illustrated/Getty◾Images

34  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Managerial Functions What is management? Management is not neces- sarily an art, and neither is it a science. Manage- ment is a process of utilizing appropriate per- sonnel to help achieve predetermined goals and objectives. Management entails several specific tasks or functions that help the company or orga- nization reach its goals and objectives. According to one model, there are four primary functions of management: (1) planning, (2) organizing, (3) implementing, and (4) controlling (Bridges and Roquemore, 1996). Others categorize the primary functions of management as planning, organiz- ing, leading, and evaluating (Chelladurai, 1985). Within each of these functions are numerous sub- categories. For example, under planning, a typical manager may engage in activities such as schedul- ing, evaluating, hiring, problem solving, auditing, interpreting, budgeting, and communicating.

Before addressing the four primary functions, it is important to consider the facility’s mission (see the sample mission statement to the right). It is impossible to plan without knowing what the facility is trying to accomplish. The mission statement states the end result envisioned by the facility’s owner and encompasses the overall goals and objectives critical for the facility’s success. The mission statement provides the roadmap for the facility. If the mission statement indicates that the facility should be open for free use by the public, then the goals will center on attract- ing users, and the manager will plan strategies to accomplish that goal. Every facility will have a different mission statement to guide its path, and that mission statement can change every couple of years based on internal or external variables. Traditionally, the people at the highest level of a facility—whether owners, elected officials, or board members—help determine the facility’s mission with some input from stakeholders such as the public, management, and employees.

Innumerable mission statements have been written for sport teams, organizations, leagues, and so on; but very few such statements focus on or even mention the facility and how the facility needs to be managed. The reason is that a facility is often not the main focus of any sport business. At the same time, though, without the facility there could not be a sport business. A health club, for example, may have as its mission statement the need to provide quality service to members

to help them live a happy and healthy life. This mission statement will hopefully help the health club become successful, but there is no mention of the facility. However, without a clean and attrac- tive facility, it will be impossible to attract and retain members. To highlight the facility and its importance, managers need to specifically men- tion the facility in the mission statement. Thus, the mission statement serves as a planning tool to help a facility manager accomplish the other managerial functions. The rest of the chapter high- lights the four primary functions of management used in this text.

Planning Planning focuses on setting goals and objectives and then developing the plan to reach those goals and objectives. Planning involves developing both short- and long-term goals and is a constant chal- lenge produced by changing circumstances. In essence, planning can be summarized as deciding in advance what to do, when to do it, and how to do it. Another way to phrase this is that planning

Sample Mission  Statement for a University 

Intramural Facility

The◾Intramural◾and◾Sports◾Club◾Program◾ (ISCP)◾joins◾in◾a◾partnership◾with◾the◾uni- versity◾ to◾ improve◾ the◾ quality◾ of◾ student◾ life◾on◾campus◾and◾to◾provide◾valuable◾ recreational◾ opportunities◾ for◾ students,◾ faculty,◾staff,◾their◾families,◾and◾the◾greater◾ community.◾The◾ISCP◾will◾utilize◾the◾follow- ing◾principles◾to◾help◾fulfill◾its◾mission:

◾◾ Provide◾diversity◾in◾programs◾to◾meet◾ the◾constantly◾changing◾needs◾and◾ interests◾of◾users

◾◾ Maintain◾safe◾and◾clean◾facilities◾to◾ enhance◾the◾user◾experience

◾◾ Adhere◾ to◾ green◾ building◾ technol- ogy◾and◾principles◾to◾help◾conserve◾ energy◾and◾avoid◾waste

◾◾ Provide◾adequate◾facility◾access◾to◾ ensure◾an◾opportunity◾for◾everyone◾ to◾participate◾in◾desired◾activities

Facility◾Management◾ ■  35

is a blueprint for the future. Planning forces those who control a facility to examine the internal and external environment as a means to hold events that will maximize the goals set for the facility.

Planning is difficult because it is associated with change. Most people do not like a lot of change in their lives. Through planning, a man- ager may determine that little change is needed if the goals and objectives stay the same. Nev- ertheless, planning needs to be conducted on a regular basis since internal and external condi- tions change and goals and objectives can quickly become obsolete. Planning is also beneficial in that it can reduce organizational conflict since all those involved will know what they are working to achieve. Planning can also help eliminate over- lapping or wasteful activities. If a manager plans effectively, she may be able to identify areas where employees are overlapping work and be able to assign employees to more productive activities (Davis, 1994). It should be noted that poor plan- ning is often the primary cause for failure, whether in the classroom or the board room.

Although the facility leaders develop the mis- sion statement, managers often have the flexibility to develop plans that help the facility accomplish its mission. Planning can be broken down into cat- egories such as strategic, operational, single-use operational, standing operational, and functional. Strategic plans are designed to help achieve the highest-level goals and objectives for the facility; that is why they are often called master plans. Operational plans are more detailed and are used to help carry out the strategic plans. Operational plans can include single-use operational plans that may apply to a one-time event such as hosting the Olympics. In contrast, standing operational plans are set plans for doing everything from ordering paper to issuing a refund to a patron. Functional plans focus on what operational plans are designed to accomplish; marketing plans and safety plans are examples (Bridges and Roque- more, 1996). Another type of plan is a contingency plan that can be used if one of the other plans fails and the facility has to pursue another strategy.

Plans are often synthesized into organizational guidelines. Guidelines are often referred to as “red tape,” but they represent how any activity needs to be accomplished so the plan can work. For example, a facility may have a standing opera- tional plan for ordering chairs. If a chair breaks, an employee is required to report the break to a

maintenance employee. That employee decides whether or not the chair can be fixed; if not, he may need to complete a damage report and then a requisition form to purchase another chair. Some think of this type of process as a headache, but the guidelines are in place to prevent overspend- ing on new equipment and to allow for repairing equipment if at all possible. The guidelines help save money and provide specific steps to help accomplish the facility’s goals.

Goals and Objectives What is a goal? We have often heard that a coach wants to have a winning season. Is a winning season a goal? The answer for some people is yes. For others, the goal may be to have a good time. While the mission statement focuses on the overall direction a facility wants to pursue, the goals are more refined. A facility’s goal could be to have 20 sellouts or to host 10 major conferences a year. It is impossible to list all potential goals, since all facilities and all constituents associated with the facility will have their own goals. This does not mean that the goals are inconsistent. An employee may have a goal to sell 100 beers a game. A customer may have a goal to enjoy the event, and part of that process includes drinking beer. If the customer buys a beer, then both the customer and the employee are working to reach their respective goals.

Sample goals for a health club could include the following:

◾ Maintain a 95% retention rate for current members.

◾ Attract 100 new members every year. ◾ Minimize the number of customer complaints to five per week.

Sample goals for a campus intramural facility might include the following:

◾ Offer five new classes each year. ◾ Have 40% of on-campus students partici- pating in at least one intramural event each semester.

◾ Offer one tournament for each sport each year.

◾ Hire only students to officiate games and work in the equipment room.

The main difference between the two sets of potential goals is that a health club will focus its

36  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

goals primarily on high-quality service and revenue while an intramural program will focus its goals primarily on reaching out to students. This does not mean that an intramural program should not meet its budget, but an intramural program is not designed to generate a profit, while a private health club will close if it does not generate a profit.

Each of the goals is measurable, which is criti- cal for analysis. If a club has a goal to have happy customers, then there must be a means to measure that happiness or the club will never know if it reached the goal. Thus, many facilities conduct yearly surveys to see what the patrons think. If a patron’s feelings can be expressed as a number, then patron reaction can be evaluated and used to develop future goals.

Some commentators believe there is very little difference between goals and objectives (Bridges and Roquemore, 1996). I disagree, noting that the emphasis should be on the level of detail. Strate- gic goals are set by the highest-level managers and are introduced to affect and empower the overall facility for the long run. Strategic goals often focus on broader aspects such as market share, profitability, industry leader position, or changes in the facility. Tactical goals are often introduced by midlevel managers and focus on what needs to be accomplished to reach the strategic goal. Operational goals are set by low-level managers and are more short term, referring, for example, to what can be done to reach the tactical goals (Bridges and Roquemore, 1996). To incorporate these concepts into an example, a health club may have a strategic goal to become the largest health club in the market. The tactical goals could be to increase membership by 10% each year and to minimize nonrenewals by 50%. The operational goals could be to attract new members by intro- ducing new programs such as discount packages or new workout opportunities.

The operational goals are often more accurately referred to by some as objectives. Whereas the goal is a specific directive, an objective focuses on how to reach a goal. In our example of the employee and the customer regarding the beer transaction, the employee’s objectives could be to carry the best- tasting beer, have the coldest beer possible, and sell at the lowest possible price to reach the goal of sell- ing 100 beers. Goals will never be reached if there are no concrete means to reach them. I believe that objectives are more closely aligned with what are often called tactical goals. Then, operational goals

would be closer to tactics required to help reach the objectives. There is no one correct nomenclature, but the key is to have a process where strategic planning can identify the specific steps needed to meet goals and further a facility’s mission, as highlighted by the following example.

Although managers can develop objectives, the most effective technique is to get employees involved in the process. Noted management guru Peter Drucker coined the term management by objective (MBO) in 1954; the MBO theory focuses on developing realistic, achievable, and motivat- ing objectives through management’s developing the objectives with employee input (Davis, 1994). This process turns facility goals and objectives into group and individual goals and objectives. Thus, objectives should not be developed in a vacuum and are more effective when there is institutional buy-in.

It is worthwhile noting that although goals and objectives are well known, some businesses do not use them and instead use policies and proce- dures. Policies are the most general guidelines; they should be flexible and give basic direction to managers and employees. Procedures are a series of job tasks or steps that employees need to take in a preestablished manner to achieve the end results. For example, a policy might be that each new customer has to pay at least $40 a month for gym membership. The procedures might indicate what an employee can say to a prospective cus- tomer to avoid making fraudulent statements or getting the customer upset.

Short-Term Planning A facility manager plans every day. Who will be using the facility? Does the facility have insur- ance? What type of crowd will be there? Are all the systems operating? Are there enough employees to work the event? Will the weather affect either the facility or the event? These are all questions that may not be answered until the event day. However, through proper planning the manager will know what options exist depending on the circumstances that develop.

Short-term plans typically cover less than one year and focus on activities that may have a sense of emergency. A facility may have a short-term plan that a given event be sold out to help accom- plish the facility’s mission. Besides short-term plans, intermediate-term plans can be used that may extend for several years. These plans need to

Facility◾Management◾ ■  37

be flexible enough to respond to environmental changes and at the same time concrete enough to provide directions to employees who are charged with implementing the plan.

Goals Versus Objectives

Assume◾ that◾ a◾ professional◾ baseball◾ team◾ wants◾ to◾ have◾ a◾ successful◾ year.◾ They◾ examine◾ their◾ direction◾ and◾ come◾ up◾with◾the◾following◾plan.◾It◾entails◾trying◾ to◾generate◾several◾sellout◾games◾so◾that◾ they◾can◾help◾reach◾their◾team’s◾mission.

◾◾ Mission◾ statement:◾The◾ New◾ Haven◾ Flounders◾are◾dedicated◾to◾provid- ing◾wholesome◾family◾entertainment◾ at◾a◾reasonable◾price.

◾◾ Strategic◾ goals:◾The◾ team◾ will◾ sell◾ out◾at◾least◾10◾home◾games.◾(This◾is◾ measurable◾and◾concrete.)

◾◾ Objectives:◾Develop◾20◾theme◾nights◾ designed◾to◾attract◾key◾constituents◾ to◾the◾games.◾(It◾is◾hoped◾that◾10◾of◾ these◾games◾will◾result◾in◾the◾sellouts◾ being◾sought◾in◾the◾strategic◾goals.◾ The◾ objectives◾ are◾ also◾ concrete◾ and◾measurable,◾but◾they◾also◾pro- vide◾ some◾ flexibility◾ so◾ managers◾ can◾be◾more◾creative.)

◾◾ Tactics:◾Contact◾local◾church◾groups,◾ develop◾several◾ethnic◾themes◾(e.g.,◾ Hispanic◾ Day,◾ Kosher◾ Night),◾ hire◾ a◾ fireworks◾ company,◾ schedule◾ giveaway◾nights,◾develop◾attractive◾ ticket-pricing◾packages◾for◾5◾of◾the◾ 20◾ key◾ games,◾ and◾ so◾ on.◾ (Tactics◾ are◾ the◾ simplest◾ steps◾ needed◾ to◾ be◾ accomplished◾ in◾ order◾ to◾ help◾ accomplish◾the◾objectives.)

As◾this◾example◾highlights,◾managers◾ need◾to◾make◾sure◾employees◾know◾why◾ they◾are◾undertaking◾tactics,◾that◾tactics◾ help◾ reach◾ objectives,◾ that◾ objectives◾ help◾reach◾goals,◾and◾that◾the◾goals◾help◾ fulfill◾the◾team’s◾mission.◾Once◾everyone◾ knows◾why◾what◾they◾are◾doing◾is◾impor- tant,◾ and◾ their◾ work◾ leads◾ to◾ the◾ overall◾ success◾of◾the◾team,◾they◾are◾often◾more◾ motivated◾and◾empowered.

Long-Term Planning The facility manager, or a designated employee, needs to focus on the future and determine what events or services will maximize revenue gen- eration and the facility’s long-term goals. Often a facility books events several years in the future. For example, if a facility manager knows that a competing facility is being built 40 miles away, he may enter into long-term contracts with several traveling shows and circuses to prevent them from going to the new arena for a number of years.

Long-term plans need to focus on long-term projections, which can be influenced by political, geographical, and economic trends. Most people have plans that they regard as fairly realistic; they probably realize there is little likelihood they will win an Olympic gold medal or marry a wealthy celebrity. However, such “pie in the sky” plans are essential to determine where a facility should try to reach. There is no reason a facility cannot shoot for being the best facility in the area. This is the beauty of long-term planning: It allows managers to think creatively about the future and develop innovative strategies.

Business Plans Besides short- and long-term plans, business plans need to be developed. The business plan examines the product, marketing, legal, financial, and general business outlook for a facility. Every facility needs to develop a business plan that may cover individual events through yearly business cycles. Each event can face financial hardship if patrons do not show or if too much is spent on marketing. That is why a budget (such as a pro forma budget) is a critical part of any business plan. Business plans for building facilities are covered in chapter 4, and those for hosting events at a facility are discussed in chapter 14.

Business plans rely on forecasting what can happen when business decisions are made. Fore- casting, a critical component in planning, can be accomplished only with good information. This is why it is imperative for a manager to acquire reliable information from whatever sources are available. Colleagues, employees, friends, newspapers, television stations, magazines, and other sources are essential elements in effective planning as they all provide input that can help influence the decision-making process. Informa- tion can be critical when planning an event for a facility. Necessary information may include

38  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

data on facility availability, competing events and facilities, weather conditions, building load capacity, current economic conditions, demo- graphic breakdown of expected fans, and numer- ous other variables specific to a facility or event.

Organizing Organizing, the second function of facility manag- ers, refers to a blend of human resource manage- ment and leadership. One of the most difficult tasks for a manager is to assign the right person with the right skills and interests to a given job. The fact that someone’s job description specifies certain tasks does not make that individual the best person to do a particular job. A manager must recognize this and understand the skills that each employee brings to the facility. If this process is not undertaken, either other employees or the manager will be forced to carry the extra load cre- ated because an employee performs inadequate or incorrect work. If it is necessary to rotate jobs or

change job descriptions, then the manager must be able to do so even if this means that employees might not support their new roles. Although some employees might learn to like or appreciate their new positions, others might forever complain about the changes.

In addition to assigning the right person to a task, managers need to ensure that proper resources are provided to employees. Talented employees have little value if they are not given the proper tools and resources. Someone who is a great ticket seller cannot sell tickets if she cannot check a computer system to see what tickets are available.

Besides creating specific job descriptions, defining job qualifications, providing resources, and identifying appropriate responsibilities, a manager must specify and adhere to organiza- tional relationships. Every business has a set of organizational relationships, often depicted in an organizational flowchart (see figure 2.1).

E4804/Fried/Fig 2.1/344225/KE/R1/r2-kim

Facility owner

General manager

Concession manager

Facility operations manager

Professional staff: Accounting and legal

Grounds crew

Security manager

Custodial and maintenance

director

Coordinator group tickets

Coordinator season and

gameday tickets

Beverage director

Head chef

Store manager

Hawkers Food

preparers Sales staff

Ticket sellers

Ushers and ticket

takers

Marketing director

Sponsorship sales

coordinator

Figure 2.1 Sport◾facility◾organizational◾flowchart.

■  39

Behind the Scenes: a Day in the life of a Facility Manager

Behind the Scenes

The job description of every facility manager is different. Facility managers of indoor facilities have some unique concerns such as lighting, air conditioning and heating systems, locker rooms, and flooring systems. Facility managers for outdoor facilities have unique concerns such as the impact of weather, water, and animals as well as access-control concerns. Even with the various differences between all the facilities, most facility managers have the same basic concerns on a day-to-day basis.

Some managers might have 30 years of experience while others might be thrust into the role of a facility manager their first day on the job. Although every manager is different, they all have the same basic responsibilities. They have to manage all the equipment and personnel that are in or need to be in the facility. Most facility managers will have two typical workdays—one a nonevent date and one an event date. The following might be considered a typical manager’s schedule:

nonevent Date

Time Activity

8:00 a.m. Walk to office using different routes each day to check for any problems such as graffiti or broken windows

8:30 a.m. Review phone messages and return calls; check with night supervisor to determine status of evening changeover and cleaning; review write-up about the facility and coming acts online; follow up with budget projections

10:00 a.m. Weekly staff meeting to discuss pre- and postevent information with representatives from all departments

11:00 a.m. Advance the show (discuss the specific event times and dates, ticket prices, seating manifest, staffing needs, security needs, and so on) with future game or team promoters with a focus on maintaining the integrity of the event and the facility. (These discussions are then written down into production notes that are discussed with staff members and become the event’s “bible,” which is often referred to as a script.)

1:00 p.m. Lunch

2:00 p.m. Weekly meeting with facility tenants to analyze complaints or problems; issues covered in such meetings focus on financial consolidation, capital projects, business outlook, tenant concerns, cleanliness, and so on

3:00 p.m. Call promoters and facilities in other states to analyze potential events that could generate addi- tional revenue for the facility and negotiate potential contracts; look for ways to reduce expenses such as talking with new vendors

6:00 p.m. If lucky, get to go home

event Date (night event)

Time Activity

5:00 a.m. Arrive with the trucks to set up the facility and help the back-of-the-house crew to examine rig- ging, stage, sound system, and so on; often need to meet with a representative of the event to make sure everyone knows their roles and complies with the contract

8 a.m.- 12:00 p.m. After the facility is set, shower and get dressed in a suit to work with the front-of-the-house staff on customer relations, ticket sales, the media, and so on

6:00 p.m. Security meeting to discuss specific procedures with all ushers, managers, and emergency personnel (police, fire responders, EMTs)

6:30 p.m. Open doors to allow for security searches; work with those in the back of the house such as stagehands, facility workers, caterers, and custodians to make sure the work is being done cor- rectly and safely; walk the facility to spot any concerns and talk with patrons to make sure they know what is going on and that the facility has a visible face

8:00-9:00 p.m. During the event, head to the administrative offices to sit in on the settlement process (paying the bills and totaling the revenue) to help resolve any issues with the stagehand bill or staffing costs

10:00-11:00 p.m. Work with the night crew to get the load out (set removal) started, which can take several hours, and then prepare the facility for the next day

2:00 a.m. Hopefully go home, though many promoters want the facility manager there from the beginning to the end of an event

40  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

The flowchart shows who reports to whom and what the lines of managerial and supervisory responsibility are. But although the organizational chart may place one employee above another, thus giving the upper-level employee the right to manage the lower-level employee, there still may not be a leadership relationship. In other words, the organizational chart does not guarantee a fol- lowing or dedication; it merely represents a hier- archical order of responsibility and obligations.

Organizational charts have taken a significant beating over the past decade. Companies are elimi- nating numerous positions that were previously classified as middle manager. This has created flatter organizational charts where a manager might supervise more workers than in the past. Technology has helped in this renaissance through being able to tract employees more effectively and to utilize telecommuting and teleconferencing to reduce personnel needs and expenses. Organiza- tional charts are also influenced by team-related organizations where individuals are pulled from various units within a company to work together in a multidisciplinary approach. Thus, in the past those from finance and marketing departments would rarely interact (except for their supervi- sors possibly interacting at the highest managerial level), but now individuals from these depart- ments might work together on specific projects to leverage their respective skills and knowledge.

Implementing Implementing, the third managerial function, refers to executing goals and objectives with the appropriate personnel. Plans have no value in the absence of a structured system for executing them. In implementing, the manager is in some ways like the conductor of an orchestra. Available to the conductor are people, money, constitu- ents, legal opportunities, and other resources for meeting the facility’s mission. However, all these

elements cannot just be thrown into a blender to create “success soup.” Each element needs to be carefully measured and added with the proper motivation to direct the facility.

One of the keys for implementing managerial plans is ensuring that all employees know the vari- ous goals, objectives, and tactics and that the right people are in place. Thus, if a manager is interested in accomplishing a goal of selling out 10 games, the implementation process could entail authoriz- ing employees to contract with bands or firework providers, or reassigning employees to focus more time on selling tickets for specific games.

Controlling The last managerial function is controlling. Con- trolling involves evaluating the work of people who report to the manager and providing appro- priate feedback, whether positive or negative. Controlling is a monitoring process to ensure that the facility is accomplishing its mission and goals. At the same time, the manager needs to monitor whether employees are following their job descriptions and reaching their individual employee goals. The process is designed to either strengthen good conduct or correct inappropriate conduct. Correction is easier to accomplish when the evaluation criteria are objective. Problems often occur in the employee evaluation process when subjectivity enters into the analysis. Will an employee be reprimanded because he failed to meet one of 10 goals or because of some inter- personal factor?

Going back to the ticket sales example, the controlling function would examine whether 10 games were sold out, what games were sold out, why the games were sold out, which employees did their jobs correctly, and what tactics and objectives worked. Once management knows what works and what does not work, it becomes easier to plan for the future based on solid information.

Summary Facility◾ management◾ is◾ hard◾ to◾ define.◾ Many◾ aspects◾ of◾ managing◾ focus◾ on◾ the◾ facility◾ and◾ on◾ making◾ sure◾ that◾ the◾ facility◾ is◾ safe◾ and◾ is◾ well◾ designed,◾ constructed,◾ and◾ maintained.◾ Among◾ other◾ issues◾ that◾ face◾ a◾ facility◾ are◾ legal,◾ finance,◾ marketing,◾ and◾ human◾ resource◾ concerns.◾ Lastly,◾ facility◾ management◾ entails◾working◾with◾various◾people◾and◾groups◾to◾ensure◾that◾all◾the◾elements◾fit◾ together.◾A◾facility◾in◾optimal◾condition◾will◾not◾be◾a◾good◾facility◾if◾employees◾do◾

Facility◾Management◾ ■  41

not◾take◾pride◾in◾working◾there◾and◾making◾sure◾the◾facility◾is◾running◾correctly.◾In◾ contrast,◾a◾facility◾in◾poor◾condition◾can◾still◾attract◾people◾if◾management◾makes◾ a◾strong◾enough◾effort.

Through◾working◾with◾both◾internal◾and◾external◾constituents,◾facility◾managers◾ can◾ develop◾ a◾ platform◾ from◾ which◾ they◾ can◾ run◾ a◾ facility.◾ Constituents◾ help◾ management◾ determine◾ the◾ appropriate◾ goals,◾ objectives,◾ and◾ mission◾ so◾ that◾ the◾ facility◾ can◾ plan◾ for◾ the◾ future.◾The◾ plan◾ becomes◾ a◾ blueprint◾ for◾ organizing◾ and◾implementing◾successful◾strategies◾that◾lead◾to◾positive◾results.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾is◾planning,◾and◾how◾would◾you◾go◾about◾planning◾for◾a◾new◾or◾

existing◾facility?

  2.  If◾you◾were◾hired◾as◾the◾new◾manager◾of◾a◾public◾fitness◾facility◾in◾a◾small◾ community,◾what◾are◾some◾of◾the◾goals◾and◾objectives◾you◾would◾try◾to◾ develop?◾What◾would◾the◾goals◾and◾objectives◾be◾if◾you◾were◾the◾facility◾ manager◾of◾a◾large◾stadium◾used◾by◾a◾professional◾baseball◾team?

  3.  Analyze◾the◾voting◾results◾from◾several◾stadium◾elections◾to◾see◾what◾issues◾ affected◾the◾vote.◾Identify◾how◾those◾issues◾can◾affect◾planning.

  4.  Read◾a◾management◾book◾or◾article,◾and◾critique◾its◾application◾to◾the◾ facility◾management◾area.◾What◾can◾you◾take◾from◾the◾book◾or◾article◾to◾ apply◾in◾the◾facility◾management◾context?

beckyh
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Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾how◾facility◾management◾differs◾from◾personnel◾ management.

◾◾ Identify◾and◾apply◾appropriate◾managerial◾and◾leadership◾strategies.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾need◾for◾ethical◾facility◾management.

◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾outsourcing◾can◾help◾a◾facility◾run◾more◾efficiently.

◾◾ Characterize◾various◾types◾of◾employees◾a◾facility◾manager◾may◾ have◾to◾supervise.

◾◾ Understand◾the◾basics◾of◾hiring,◾promoting,◾and◾terminating◾ employees.

◾◾ Know◾the◾basics◾of◾how◾to◾properly◾classify◾independent◾contractors◾ to◾avoid◾litigation.

◾◾ Understand◾some◾of◾the◾essentials◾of◾evaluating◾and◾training◾ employees◾to◾maximize◾their◾contribution◾to◾the◾facility.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾legal◾challenges◾that◾arise◾from◾managing◾ employees.

ManageMent theory and

huMan resources

44  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Bill Squires, and I have worked in the sport facility manage- ment industry for 22 years. During that time, I have managed the following facilities:

Ph o

to ◾c

o u

rt e

sy ◾o

f◾ B ill

◾S q

u ire

s.

officers and enlisted personnel in the squadrons I served in. We are one team with one mission, and if everyone understands their roles and responsibilities and performs to the best of their abilities, then the mission will be accomplished.

In any business, ethics, integrity, and character are extremely important. If you are an honest, hardwork- ing, and motivated person, good things will come your way. I have been extremely fortunate during my career to have had several terrific people work for me who are now leaders in various facilities, and I fully expect them to continue to grow within the industry. I think it is very important to groom your staff and provide direction since these people are the future of the sport facility management industry. When I retire from the sport management facility business, if I ever do, I want to be judged on the success and the accomplishments of those who worked with me in this business, not on my personal accomplishments.

An effective leader will seek out good perfor- mance and make sure that those who are exceeding expectations are recognized and complimented. A leader who focuses on and addresses only poor performance is, in my opinion, not doing all that she can to build a strong team. I also believe that an effective leader will have an excellent working knowledge of the organization’s mission and vision statements. These statements are the core beliefs of the organization, and every member of the team should fully understand them.

Finally, the following are some helpful tips that I think an effective leader should follow and encourage:

◾ Don’t tolerate tardiness. Encourage staff to be on time, all the time.

◾ Work the different job functions (e.g., usher, concession stand worker) during an event to fully understand the job function and the issues that event staff encounter. This will not only provide a good education but will earn the respect of the event staff as well.

◾ Follow the six Ps: Proper Prior Planning Pre- vents Poor Performance.

◾ The safety and security of the facility, staff, and ticket holders is your most important job function.

◾ Yankee Stadium, director of stadium operations (1987-1990)

◾ Giants Stadium, assistant general manager of stadium operations (1990- 1996)

◾ Disney’s Wide World of Sports, general manager (1996-1999)

◾ Cleveland Browns Stadium, stadium manager (1999-2000)

◾ Giants Stadium, vice president and general manager (2000-2002)

Currently, I have my own sport facility consulting company, The Right Stuff Consulting. In addition, I was a member of the board of directors of the Sta- dium Managers Association from 1999 to 2008 and the president of the association from 2007 to 2008.

Before entering the world of sport facility man- agement, I was a pilot in the United States Navy. My leadership and management philosophies were developed during the 4 years I attended the United States Naval Academy and the 12 years of active duty that I proudly served this great country.

I have always believed that leaders are only as successful as their staff or teams will allow them to be. As a result, every leader needs to develop trust within the team and motivate them to do their best. Although I am a hands-on leader, I will allow my staff to manage their areas of responsibility once they have earned my trust and confidence. I understand that people will make mistakes, but I don’t expect them to make the same mistake twice. It is very important to be a good communicator; a good leader will meet with his staff and provide constructive feedback on their performance. I view the team of employees who work at a sport facility, both full-time and part-time staff, just as I did the

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  45

Chapter 2 deals with the diverse duties a facil-ity manager faces. From finance and market- ing concerns one day to maintenance and legal concerns the next, a manager has to work around numerous obstacles. A manager for a small facil- ity needs to wear many hats and often has little help in the process unless he hires new employ- ees or brings in external contractors. However, a manager for a larger facility such as a stadium or arena needs to work with and through numerous employees.

Facility management focuses on managing equipment and structures to make sure they are working correctly, but it also involves a totally different type of task—managing people. Equip- ment that needs to be repaired is fixed and will hopefully run smoothly in the future or will be replaced. In contrast, employees have emotions, feelings, moods, desires, and complex personali- ties. It is fairly straightforward to manage a piece of equipment and make sure it operates effectively. Managing a staff that may number in the hundreds is much more difficult. Thus, facility managers need to focus on their most important skill, which is using management theory and practice to help a facility reach its goals and objectives. As noted in chapter 2, a manager can be compared to an orchestra conductor. A manager who focuses only on facility systems and infrastructure can be likened to a conductor who makes sure all the musical instruments are in good shape. However, the musical instruments cannot play themselves; playing requires musicians. Managers need to conduct not only the instruments but also the musicians.

Facility managers have a specific role in making sure all their employees perform their work in an appropriate manner. This chapter explores vari- ous management-related theories, strategies, and leadership concerns associated with a manager’s effectiveness and also provides specific strategies to help manage the people in a facility. Special attention is given to working with employees and contractors and the particular leadership concerns that arise in working with these groups. Facility managers cannot manage without employees. A typical professional football game at a major stadium may require 500 to 700 ushers and security personnel, 200 to 300 concessionaires, and numerous other people doing everything from restroom cleaning to field maintenance to parking management. Even small facilities need

employees and contractors to manage the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, clean the facility, market the facility, and perform countless other tasks.

There are numerous issues when working with employees. Important questions include the fol- lowing:

◾ What types of employees are needed? ◾ What is the proper training for sport facility employees?

◾ Should the facility hire part-time or full-time employees?

◾ What should happen if employees do not show up for work?

◾ How should employers deal with workplace violence and sexual harassment?

These questions represent just some of the issues associated with hiring, managing, and terminating employees. This chapter covers basic human resource issues, including employment options and legal issues. The chapter starts with an overview of management theory, the decision of hiring an employee versus outsourcing the work, the types of jobs in sport facility manage- ment, and the hiring process. The next sections cover the processes of motivating and evaluating employees as well as termination and training. The final section deals with the various legal issues that arise in the context of employment.

Management Theory Management is defined as the achievement of pre- determined objectives (based on goals or missions) while working through others such as employees and contractors (Bridges and Roquemore, 1996). The difference between facility management and personnel management is that facility manage- ment involves the use of equipment or buildings to help achieve the facility’s mission, and per- sonnel management focuses on how people can help reach the facility’s goals. Thus, the fact that someone is an expert in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems or in negotiat- ing stadium lease agreements does not mean that the person can manage people. But while facil- ity management and personnel management are significantly different, in fact they are integrated because equipment in a facility cannot operate without people. Even a computer maintenance

46  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

management system (see chapter 9) cannot run a facility’s maintenance process but requires a computer operator, programmer, technician, and people to do repair work. Management theory helps a manager determine how to efficiently synthesize equipment and people. Important fig- ures in the development of management theory are described on pages 47-49.

Management trends are constantly evolving and changing. They also are contingent on other variables such as economic conditions. A facility manager has more difficulty finding employees and providing appropriate motivational strategies during good economic times than during tougher times since employees have many other work options. In contrast, during hard economic times, people may be scouring for jobs and take whatever is available. Employee management is one of the most difficult components of a facility manager’s job. The dynamics imposed by dead-end posi- tions, inadequate budgets, hiring freezes, union disputes, the requirement to use student employ- ees (in effect at certain college facilities), and the burdens of working with full-time employees who may have wholly contradictory motivational issues and crazy work schedules makes human resource management a major headache. Concerns related to human resources are highlighted later in this chapter. Having to work with existing employ- ees who may not be motivated gives managers one of their biggest challenges and opportunities. That is why motivation and leadership are so impor- tant in implementing any management theory. Nevertheless, although a manager needs to learn how to motivate people, being able to motivate does not turn a manager into a leader. A leader is a manager who has the ability to motivate with fewer tricks or gimmicks.

Motivation is just one component in the man- agement process and involves both implementing and controlling. Motivation comprises three basic elements:

◾ Motivating the person

◾ The job as a motivator

◾ The environment as a motivating force

By understanding the interrelationships among these elements, a manager can better succeed at getting the most out of employees. For example, it is important to know what has motivated someone

to work as a janitor for a facility for 10 years when the job is not exciting or rewarding. Is the reason that the employee has no other employment option? If that is the case, fear may be a motiva- tor because the person will not want to lose the job—but this type of motivator could also result in leadership problems in the future. In contrast, if the janitor likes the people he works with, the manager could throw more staff parties or allow coworkers to take their breaks at the same time. These strategies represent just some options to possibly motivate the employee. Some employees are so enthralled with working in the sport indus- try that the job is the key motivator. A person who works for a perennial top-level team might want to keep working for low pay in order to say they work for the team. Lastly, some workplaces are so exciting that employees love going to work, even if they have to work long hours. Being around sports is so important to some employees that they are motivated just because they are working in the industry they want to be in.

Getting the most out of employees becomes more critical in a technological era. For example, computers are changing the way people perform their work. Tasks that used to take a great deal of time may take seconds with new technologies. Instead of the need to take manual temperature and humidity readings for a gym, for example, a computer associated with an energy management system can take the readings and automatically adjust all the HVAC equipment to maintain the most cost-efficient and comfortable levels. But although computers can provide significant value, they can also represent a management dilemma. Some employees may refuse to work with comput- ers, or a union can fight automation efforts that may save money but cost union jobs. Thus, one of the important motivational tasks focuses on helping employees embrace computer technol- ogy. This is an even greater task for new managers in the field who have grown up with computers and now have to manage people who have been doing their jobs for 20 years without computers. Technology is also allowing more people to be creative with their schedules. Some industries allow employees to telecommute as a workplace incentive. However, the sport facility business requires hands-on attention, which precludes telecommuting and some other strategies utilized in other industries.

■  47

Important People in the   Development of Management Theory

The◾list◾of◾great◾management◾researchers◾and◾writers◾is◾very◾lengthy.◾Some◾take◾ideas◾and◾twist◾ them◾around◾to◾fit◾current◾times,◾while◾others◾are◾cutting◾edge.◾Some◾theories◾are◾older,◾such◾ as◾Sun◾Tzu’s◾military◾strategies◾in◾the◾ancient◾text◾The Art of War.◾Others◾are◾more◾recent,◾such◾ as◾John◾Naisbitt’s◾Megatrends◾and◾Mind Set!◾or◾Thomas◾Friedman’s◾The World Is Flat.◾The◾key◾ to◾understanding◾these◾management◾experts◾and◾their◾theories◾is◾that◾they◾are◾theories.◾They◾ represent◾suggestions◾to◾help◾manage◾a◾workplace◾based◾on◾assumptions◾and◾research◾as◾ to◾what◾could◾represent◾best◾practices.◾There◾is◾no◾guarantee◾that◾following◾any◾or◾all◾of◾these◾ theories◾would◾result◾in◾any◾significant◾changes◾or◾advances.

◾ Frederick taylor When◾trying◾to◾decide◾how◾to◾properly◾manage◾people◾in◾a◾facility,◾managers◾often◾focus◾on◾ past◾theories◾and◾research◾to◾help◾determine◾the◾best◾managerial◾techniques.◾Frederick◾Taylor◾ (1856-1915)◾ is◾ considered◾ the◾ father◾ of◾ modern◾ management◾ theory◾ through◾ utilization◾ of◾ scientific◾testing◾to◾improve◾productivity.◾Taylor◾is◾known◾for◾his◾time◾and◾motion◾studies,◾which◾ examined◾how◾an◾employee◾was◾performing◾a◾task◾and◾what◾steps◾could◾be◾taken◾to◾improve◾ efficiency◾or◾reduce◾the◾potential◾for◾injuries◾(Bridges◾and◾Roquemore,◾1996).◾Taylor◾focused◾on◾ examining◾how◾to◾increase◾physical◾output,◾decrease◾unit◾costs,◾reduce◾employee◾fatigue◾and◾ injuries,◾and◾eventually◾increase◾wages◾through◾increasing◾profits.◾However,◾he◾is◾best◾known◾for◾ utilizing◾scientific◾principles◾that◾required◾employers◾to◾set◾standards◾and◾measure◾performance◾ to◾see◾if◾it◾met◾the◾standards.

◾ g. elton Mayo Taylor’s◾work◾evolved◾in◾the◾early◾part◾of◾the◾century◾with◾G.◾Elton◾Mayo’s◾research◾on◾the◾Haw- thorne◾effect.◾The◾study◾was◾undertaken◾at◾Western◾Electric’s◾Hawthorne◾Works◾near◾Chicago.◾ Workers◾were◾exposed◾to◾different◾levels◾of◾light◾in◾a◾controlled◾environment◾to◾determine◾what◾ impact◾ the◾ light◾ had◾ on◾ them.◾The◾ results◾ showed◾ that◾ every◾ change◾ of◾ light◾ had◾ a◾ positive◾ impact◾and◾that◾at◾each◾level◾the◾workers◾performed◾better◾because◾they◾knew◾they◾were◾being◾ treated◾differently◾and◾reveled◾in◾the◾added◾attention.◾The◾implications◾raised◾by◾the◾results◾are◾ that◾managers◾need◾to◾consider◾personal◾feelings,◾morale,◾self-esteem,◾and◾employee◾relation- ships.◾Thus◾the◾discipline◾of◾behavioral◾science◾in◾management◾was◾born.

◾ abraham Maslow and Max Weber Management◾ theory◾ progressed◾ through◾ the◾ 1940s◾ with◾ such◾ great◾ management◾ scholars◾ as◾Abraham◾Maslow◾and◾Max◾Weber◾(Weber◾studied◾how◾bureaucracies◾worked).◾Maslow’s  hierarchy  of  needs  was◾ created◾ (figure◾ 3.1).◾ Although◾ many◾ management◾ students◾ learn◾ to◾memorize◾the◾elements,◾they◾often◾lose◾sight◾of◾simple◾application.◾The◾hierarchy◾of◾needs◾ highlights◾what◾factors◾will◾motivate◾a◾person◾to◾achieve◾a◾higher◾goal.◾For◾a◾manager◾to◾prop- erly◾motivate◾an◾employee,◾the◾manager◾needs◾to◾know◾what◾is◾important◾for◾that◾individual◾ employee.◾People◾need◾some◾form◾of◾motivation◾to◾excel.◾Those◾who◾are◾primarily◾concerned◾ about◾their◾paycheck◾will◾want◾to◾do◾their◾job◾to◾survive.◾A◾fancy◾title◾or◾a◾nice◾office◾will◾not◾be◾ as◾strong◾a◾motivator◾as◾receiving◾better◾pay◾or◾benefits.◾Those◾who◾are◾financially◾secure◾may◾ want◾something◾more◾to◾motivate◾them◾to◾produce◾better◾work,◾such◾as◾a◾better◾parking◾spot◾ for◾being◾named◾employee◾of◾the◾month.◾The◾most◾senior◾executives◾will◾need◾something◾more◾ than◾a◾plaque◾to◾motivate◾them.◾Stock◾options◾representing◾ownership◾interest◾in◾the◾company◾

continued ▶

48  ■

E4804/Fried/Fig 3.1/344227/KE/R2-kh

Self- actualization

Self-esteem

• Food and water • Shelter • Basic needs

• Secure employment • Stability of resources • Physical and economic safety

• Belonging • Identifying with a successful team • Acceptance

• Respect of others • Prestige and status • Important projects

• Meaningfulness • Creativity • Achieving one’s full potential

Love/Social

Safety/Security

Physiological/Survival

Figure 3.1 Maslow’s◾hierarchy◾of◾needs.

could◾be◾a◾motivator◾for◾such◾executives.◾Again,◾ownership◾interest◾or◾a◾better◾parking◾space◾will◾not◾ necessarily◾motivate◾someone◾who◾is◾just◾trying◾to◾work◾enough◾to◾meet◾financial◾needs.◾Using◾Maslow’s◾ theory◾for◾current◾facility◾employees,◾a◾manager◾would◾not◾try◾to◾motivate◾a◾janitor◾with◾a◾fancy◾title◾ when◾the◾janitor◾is◾at◾the◾“safety◾level”◾and◾is◾more◾interested◾in◾cash.◾Cash◾would◾be◾the◾best◾motivator.◾ In◾contrast,◾a◾high-level◾manager◾would◾probably◾thrive◾with◾the◾prospect◾of◾a◾higher◾job◾title,◾which◾ can◾move◾the◾person◾up◾to◾the◾“self-actualization”◾level.

◾ Frederick herzberg Frederick◾Herzberg◾developed◾his◾theories◾of◾hygiene◾and◾motivator◾factors◾in◾the◾1950s.◾According◾to◾ Herzberg,◾a◾manager◾needs◾to◾eliminate◾dissatisfaction◾by◾improving◾hygiene◾factors◾(such◾as◾increasing◾ salaries)◾and◾needs◾to◾increase◾motivators◾through◾adding◾responsibilities,◾providing◾more◾meaningful◾ work,◾providing◾greater◾autonomy,◾and◾providing◾job◾feedback.

◾ Victor Vroom Victor◾Vroom◾published◾his◾expectancy theory of motivation in◾1964.◾This◾theory◾requires◾the◾manager◾ to◾choose◾the◾option◾that◾will◾result◾in◾the◾outcome◾employees◾want.◾Basically,◾an◾employee◾places◾a◾ value◾on◾a◾reward◾and◾will◾do◾what◾is◾required◾to◾get◾that◾reward.◾Thus,◾if◾the◾facility◾manager◾has◾told◾ the◾sales◾team◾that◾the◾person◾who◾sells◾the◾most◾tickets◾in◾November◾wins◾a◾cruise,◾the◾manager◾knows◾ that◾the◾cruise◾is◾a◾motivator◾to◾some◾employees◾who◾will◾seriously◾compete◾to◾win◾the◾prize.

Important People in the development of Management theory (continued)

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  49

◾ gemba Kaizen The◾joint◾interaction◾of◾employees◾and◾management◾was◾the◾hallmark◾of◾the◾Japanese◾style◾ of◾ management◾ in◾ the◾ 1970s◾ and◾ 1980s.◾ Management◾ and◾ frontline◾ employees◾ can◾ work◾ effectively◾only◾if◾there◾is◾a◾proper◾communication◾channel,◾with◾each◾party◾being◾on◾the◾same◾ communication◾level.◾The◾Japanese◾concept◾of◾Gemba Kaizen refers◾to◾knowing◾what◾goes◾ on◾in◾the◾workplace◾at◾the◾point◾of◾production.◾Gemba◾Kaizen◾analysis◾includes◾eight◾steps:

  1.  Selecting◾a◾project   2.  Understanding◾the◾facility’s◾current◾situation,◾goals,◾and◾objectives   3.  Analyzing◾all◾available◾data◾to◾determine◾how◾to◾reach◾the◾goals◾and◾objectives   4.  Establishing◾appropriate◾countermeasures◾to◾avoid◾failure   5.  Implementing◾the◾countermeasures   6.  Analyzing◾the◾impact◾of◾the◾countermeasures   7.  Developing◾standards◾for◾handling◾the◾same◾issue◾in◾the◾future◾in◾the◾same◾manner   8.  Reviewing◾the◾process◾to◾determine◾if◾there◾are◾better◾solutions◾or◾choices◾(Elbo,◾2000).

Computer-Aided Facility Management

Managing facilities has evolved significantly over the years because now almost every aspect of man- aging a facility can be undertaken with or through computers. The acronym CAFM (for computer- aided facility management) originated in the 1970s, but at that time it referred to space and asset management systems that also contained a rough computer-aided drafting (CAD) component (Tei- cholz and Noferi, 2002). Computer-aided drafting systems are utilized in the design of facilities and allow a facility to be planned and moved around on the screen without having to make a new set of blueprints each time an element is changed. Over the years, CAFM has developed to include any technology platform that assists a facility manager in running a facility. Computer-aided facility management and the systems integrated within it such as HVAC systems are covered in greater detail in chapter 7. There are six primary areas in which CAFM has been applied (Teicholz and Noferi, 2002).

◾ Space and asset management focuses on occupancy information, space planning, asset management, and move management. Asset man- agement focuses on how to use the real estate, buildings, and equipment in the most effective manner, along with the need to buy, repair, or sell

current and future assets. In space planning, the manager examines how much additional space may be required. If the current occupant utilizes 100 square feet (9.3 sq m) per employee and there are 100 employees, then the utilized facility space is 10,000 square feet (930 sq m) (100 square feet × 100 employees). If it is anticipated that the work- force will grow 10% in the next year, the occupant will need 11,000 square feet (1,022 sq m) to house the current employees and the anticipated 10 additional employees. This information can be a useful tool for ensuring that each employee has sufficient space, which will help in motivation.

◾ A CAD system is used to plan and design the floor plan for the facility to optimize flow and func- tion. For example, if inventory can be moved to a more accessible location, this might save employee time and potential wear and tear on a facility. The CAD system does not deal with numbers or strate- gies but rather with drawings such as floor plans.

◾ Capital planning and facility condition assessment track the condition of the facility and equipment to improve operation, maintenance, and management. Employees utilizing such a system are able to make sure that the workplace is safe by quickly tracking hazardous and other con- ditions that may need to be addressed. Employees may be more highly motivated if they have a say in how the workplace will evolve to meet their needs for safety and future growth.

50  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

◾ Maintenance and operation, through com- puterized maintenance management systems (CMMSs), tracks any asset or equipment that needs to be fixed or any situation in which main- tenance personnel need to be more effectively utilized.

◾ Real estate and property management helps track all the space and how it is being purchased, leased, managed, and disposed of. While asset management programs may cover these issues, some programs separate these areas if the facility is part of a very large bundle of properties and there are large numbers of acres and buildings.

◾ Catch-all application is used to streamline the entire facility management process or inte- grate some of the previously listed components. However, the larger the system, the more dif- ficulty some employees may have in operating the system.

The CAFM system is just one example of the changing dynamics of facility management and its impact on employees. Numerous old-guard employees will attempt to resist change whether it relates to computers, new ticketing procedures, new ground maintenance procedures, or any other unfamiliar strategy discussed in this text. That is why managers need to learn how to motivate and encourage employees to embrace change, even if this is difficult at first.

Simple Strategies If there is no one best way to manage a facility, and if new technologies such as CAFM are helping to make facility management easier, then obviously there are other strategies and techniques that have helped managers over the years. Such strategies represent fundamental management trends that have been utilized over time and are as appropri- ate today as they were when first identified.

It is often the little things a manager does on a day-to-day basis that represent great strategies to motivate others or may represent leadership in its truest sense. For example, some managers achieve success through being friendly. Not merely superficially nice, they show genuine compassion and understanding. These managers may know the name of every person in the facility and address each employee personally. Other similar behaviors include writing personalized thank-you notes, remembering secretaries on their birthdays and

Secretary’s Day, always being on time and prepared for meetings (see page 51), and showing compas- sion when someone is sick or injured. Although these strategies may not represent structured managerial theories, they are concrete steps a manager can take to get employees to work well.

The One-Minute Manager Of the many managerial strategies and theories that have evolved over the years, the idea of the one-minute manager is among the best known. This simple managerial strategy is explained in one of the most popular management books of all time, The One Minute Manager by Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson. The authors advocate very proactive management, but in the most efficient manner possible (Blanchard and Johnson, 1986). The book argues for one-minute goal setting and performance standards that need to be expressed in 250 words or less. Two copies of the standards are made—one for the employee and the other for the manager. The employee needs to have appropriate authority and latitude to complete the work indicated in the standard.

The manager is supposed to monitor the employee’s work through detailed reports. How- ever, the work needs to be completed by the employee alone rather than the manager. Man- agement responds appropriately, immediately, sincerely, and consistently based on whether the employee is doing well or poorly. In one-minute praising, the manager looks the employee in the eye and tells her exactly what was done correctly and how the manager feels about the work. If the praise is delayed, insincere, or random, then the employee may think the manager is being sar- castic or ungrateful or is giving false praise. With the one-minute reprimand, the manager looks the employee in the eye and explains what the employee did wrong and why the manager may feel angry, frustrated, or annoyed about it. The manager needs to be specific and not just lash out. It is not the employee that is criticized, but the negative behavior. The success of the one-minute system stems from the existence of predefined expectations for each employee, making objective analysis possible. These expectations need to be communicated effectively, and such communica- tion efforts occur daily in the form of meetings.

Although the one-minute manager is just one strategy that can be used, several key issues arise in its implementation that relate to numerous

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  51

other managerial strategies. First, communication is critical for a manager. Goals need to be writ- ten and communicated; employee performance needs to be reviewed (often through commu- nication with colleagues, customers, letters of praise, and so on); the review results need to be communicated to the employee; and the entire process needs to be recorded in the employee’s file. Thus, communication is critical for effective management of subordinates, no matter which strategy is used.

Time Management Time management is another highly important skill for a manager. Some managers seem to be always putting out fires while rushing from one concern to another. Executives are known to arrive early in the morning and leave late at night. Facil- ity managers must make sure the facility is ready for each day it is open, and a facility manager can easily work 60 hours a week if the building is heavily used. Thus, any strategy that can help save time means more time to do other activities or accomplish additional work. Computers, Palm Pilots, BlackBerries, and day planners can all be used to remember key tasks, times, and dates. One of the most important time management strategies entails streamlining meetings.

Meetings No matter what strategy or technique is used, such as the one-minute manager, facility managers spend much of their time in meetings. Meetings are held daily to discuss everything from budgets to upcoming events and security issues. Many managers would also say that meetings are often ineffective. Thus it becomes important to know how to make meetings more productive.

Meetings should be held on a consistent date each month or week, should be held at the same time (preferably early in the morning before the regular workday begins), and should be held ear- lier in the week rather than later (Conrad, 2000). The following are additional meeting pointers:

◾ Always be on time. ◾ Start and end meetings at specified times. ◾ Control the meeting; do not allow inter- ruptions (e.g., ask attendees to turn off cell phones and pagers).

◾ Create a meeting agenda, and distribute it to all the attendees before the meeting.

◾ Insist that attendees come prepared. ◾ Before a meeting, talk to those who try to control meetings to let them know how the meeting will work and that it is important for them to comply with the agenda and with time restrictions.

◾ Encourage quiet people to participate. For example, ask for each person’s opinion.

◾ Get everyone’s feedback before making a final decision (this will prevent “yes” men and women from simply agreeing with the decision).

◾ Give specific assignments with dates they are due.

◾ Keep meetings friendly by bringing food or small gifts.

◾ Once in a while, invite a guest speaker (e.g., for specific training, motivation).

Through effectively running meetings, a man- ager can develop a reputation as an efficient person. Employees are more motivated when managers give them a clear and concise charge. Whether through gestures such as calling employ- ees by their names, through established manage- rial strategies, or through meetings, managers have numerous options not just for getting the job done but also for leading employees. Each facility takes on the management style of the facility manager. Each facility also takes on the characteristics of the facility leader, who may or may not be the facility manager.

Leadership What makes a good leader? There have been cel- ebrated leaders throughout history, from Moses and Jesus to Gandhi and Martin Luther King. Every leader has had his or her own unique style and technique. The leader needs to be an activist for the facility and needs to be the voice for qual- ity, safety, ethics, consistency, and compassion. In other words, the facility manager’s leadership style is the spark that can make the facility suc- ceed or fail. A facility manager can get employees to be more effective by using motivational tools such as more money. This does not necessarily make the manager a good leader. A good leader may be able to motivate employees through means other than more money or other techniques to “buy” respect and compliance—through devotion

52  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

or a sense of respect, for example. Thus, one can view leadership as a way of properly motivating employees through a combination of traditional or nontraditional techniques.

Almost every facility has a veteran employee who has been there for more than 20 years. This person may be a manager, but even if she does not intend to become a leader, the person may possess leadership authority based on years of experience or technical expertise. However, the longtime employee can also be someone without any ambition who criticizes the facility manage- ment at every turn but does nothing to make the facility better. Leaders are traditionally good at speaking and communicating and are cost con- scious, decisive, good at multitasking, very out- going, action oriented, and able to deal with all types of people and problems with a level head (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

Leaders also have one critically important skill that sets them apart from others. Leaders hire well. This means that a leader can see potential in less experienced employees and can tell when they have the capabilities to become great. Besides hiring well, a leader can groom others well and train them to be future leaders. In fact, some leaders believe their best legacy is to train others to lead. Thus, leaders spend a lot of time search- ing for the right people to help make their team stronger. A good nonsport example is the process a newly elected president goes through while putting together his cabinet and staff positions. By properly vetting each person and looking at individual potential the president can surround himself with the best talent, and that talent helps the president look better and make the right deci- sions. A leader should also be good at working on a team and should not be afraid to delegate. This can also mean that a leader needs to know when to step back and let others succeed or fail.

There is no right way to become an effective leader. However, the tools required of a good leader include being able to identify and com- municate a shared value with others, developing and embracing a team concept, choosing the right players on the team to assume key roles that maximize their skills and potential inputs, motivating team members with appropriate incen- tives, working with team members to achieve their predetermined goals, and being willing to work with team members to share risks as well as

rewards. Other key skills include being accessible (e.g., having an open-door policy), customizing how to approach each issue or person, motivating underperformers, publicly recognizing success by others, being a great listener, being able to convey a vision to others, leading by example, and being ethical at all times.

Successfully Leading The leader and the manager can be intertwined within the same person. Some managers have gained leadership positions through years of ser- vice, and new leaders can also become great man- agers. There is a significant distinction between a leader or manager who has been established for a long time and someone who was recently hired from the outside. It is more difficult for a leader to delegate duties when the leader does not know the employees well. A new leader must prove his abilities, even if he was an internation- ally acclaimed facility leader in a prior position. Steps that a new leader should take include the following:

◾ Immediately assess the facility through an internal and external SWOT (strengths, weak- nesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis. The SWOT analysis is covered in greater detail in chapter 4.

◾ Implement change by starting small and then expanding as time progresses.

◾ Explain all changes to the staff. ◾ Take a pay cut to show that financial issues are important and that everyone needs to make a sacrifice to help the facility in the long run.

◾ Take charge and make a change if something does not work.

◾ Make a major decision with definite cost reductions and then publicize the results. This will show an intention to make the facil- ity better. Another way to follow this strategy is to allow employees to recommend changes and share in the cost reductions.

◾ Undertake very visible projects such as repainting restrooms and concession areas, which shows a desire to make the work envi- ronment better.

◾ Take a lead in developing appropriate short- and long-term budgets and plans.

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  53

◾ Review and manage all existing service and supply contracts to see if services are at a high standard. If they are not acceptable, facilitate change, as this will show employ- ees a willingness to make changes (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

If these strategies are successful, employees may embrace the changes and the leader who imple- mented them. Even a poor decision can make a manager a great leader if the manager takes personal responsibility for the decision while identifying and correcting the problem.

Being a successful businessperson or manager does not make a person a good leader. Almost everyone has worked for a boss who was a great manager but a poor leader. A manager may be able to motivate employees to reach sales goals, but it may be that not every employee in that depart- ment will respect or consider the manager his leader. The employees reach their goals because they want to keep their jobs, but they may not strive to reach a higher level because they do not believe they are being led to greater success. Conversely, many people have worked with great leaders who were poor bosses. Employees may love a manager who leads them, but if the man- ager cannot properly plan or organize resources so that employees can reach their goals, she is not an effective manager. In the sales example, a good leader can inspire employees to make numerous cold calls to sell tickets, but if the leader does not provide employees with proper ticketing equip- ment and supplies, they will not be able to finalize the sales and achieve their goals.

Leadership by Example Leaders can be effective managers, and vice versa, by doing employees’ jobs just as well as the employees do. If a facility manager has worked up from the janitorial ranks to the position of crew chief and finally to the position of an assistant manager, most employees will respect the person because of his work “in the trenches.” If someone fresh out of college obtains the same managerial position, lower-level workers may perceive the person differently. Until the manager has proven himself and shown the requisite knowledge for performing the job, he will be eyed with suspicion.

If the manager has had prior experience and can gain the trust of lower-level employees by

pitching in to clean toilets, working a change- over shift, or selling hot dogs, then she can lead by example. Leading by example also focuses on ethical behavior.

Ethics Every facility manager has to have the ethical underpinnings to be honest in all his dealings. Some booking agents are sleazy and unscrupu- lous. This does not mean that a facility manager needs to stoop to that level. A reputation is one of the most valuable assets a person will ever have. If another party is not acting ethically, the manager can rise above the mediocrity and act in an impeccable manner.

Ethical behavior means identifying what con- duct is right and wrong and then choosing to take the right path. The question becomes, What is right? The fact that the law allows a manager to act in a certain way does not mean that the action is ethically correct. For example, a facility manager has to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requiring facilities to pro- vide reasonable accommodations to the disabled (see chapter 12). It is possible for a facility man- ager to comply with the law but for a disabled patron to still be unable to enjoy the event. Is it ethical to take the position that the manager has acted within the law, or should the manager go beyond the letter of the law to make sure that the patron can in fact equally enjoy all benefits other patrons receive? This example suggests that ethical conduct requires a blending of legal and moral obligations. The same issue also relates to employees covered under the ADA.

As another example, suppose that a boxing match is scheduled at a facility. The match is secured by a contract. If one of the parties does not show, he is breaching the contract and the facility can recover damages. But should the facility be allowed to sue if the fight is canceled and the facility loses money? Would the answer change if the boxer had lost a very close family member and wanted to attend the funeral, or if the event was canceled because of a snowstorm? Under each option, the manager knows that others will be looking at the decision that is made and at its future impact. Numerous issues will come before a manager, and the actions taken will help determine what type of leader the person may be.

54  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Because of the large number of people who rely on each other to ensure a successful facility, facility managers need to constantly balance their interests and ethical underpinnings against the interests of all other constituents. This balancing act can be very difficult but also represents an opportunity to utilize integrity to advance while still protecting constituents. At times, managers may determine that the best answer to a problem is to bring in an expert who can more effectively complete the desired work.

Outsourcing Good leaders and managers know what they can and cannot accomplish. Managers cannot do everything, and if there is an area they are not strong in or if they want to focus on their key competencies, they can outsource their work. Thus, some facility owners do not want to manage the facility at all but do want to run the events in the facility. They may outsource all facility man- agement operations to a company specialized in facility management.

Many management companies provide services to both private and public facilities. These for-

profit companies attempt to provide optimal ser- vices at a reasonable price to maximize revenue. The owner of a facility, whether private or public, may hire a third company to run the facility as a means to reduce costs or a means of allowing the facility management to focus on their key responsibility—producing successful events in the facility—rather than worry about the HVAC system, for example. Managers can also hire out- side companies to complete very specific tasks such as janitorial services, brewing fresh coffee, or photocopying. The facility management services offered by an outsourcing company can include

◾ facility analysis and assessment to make sure the facility is running smoothly and tenants are satisfied,

◾ energy usage analysis to determine where energy conservation measures can be taken to reduce costs,

◾ HVAC and energy management to more effectively maintain and operate HVAC equipment,

◾ construction and renovation management so the owner does not have to hire contractors and tradespeople,

Behind the Scenes

Behind the scenes: Problem solving There is no right way to manage any part of a business. The same holds true for facility management. Assume that you are the manager of a large stadium that has a unionized workforce. One of your janitors cannot read. Although this may not appear to be a problem, the employee works with some hazardous materials and needs to be able to read the Material Safety Data Sheets mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The employee admits he cannot read but says he has been doing fine for more than 20 years and will not change now. He also brings the union into the dispute. The union raises concerns under the collective bargaining agreement, which prevents you from punishing a person without just cause, and also raises the potential of an ADA violation. How would you resolve such a dispute? What steps do you need to take to protect patrons, other employees, this particular employee, the facility, the union, and all other affected parties?

As it turned out when a situation similar to this actu- ally occurred, the facility manager worked with the union

to provide a remedial reading program for the employee. The employee was able to take the classes during normal work hours while he was still on the clock and getting paid. Everyone agreed that if he were able to correct his reading problem and thus provide for his own safety and the safety of others, he could return to his position without any difficulty. However, management and the union also agreed that if he did not improve his reading he could be terminated because then he would represent a threat of harm to himself and others, including other union mem- bers. This example shows how facility managers need to resolve conflicts and generate unique solutions for various problems. It also suggests that legal and ethical issues come into play every day. The manager could have terminated the worker and then fought with the union over various grievances before possibly proceeding to a court battle. The ethical decision helped save all parties headaches and costs.

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  55

◾ preventive maintenance through developing corrective maintenance plans or installing a CMMS,

◾ budget and pro forma analysis to make sure the facility is operating within a budget and not spending too much money, and

◾ housekeeping and environmental services to ensure that the facility is clean and to prevent illegal waste dumping or the use of environmentally unfriendly cleaning agents.

Private management companies are generally more focused on the bottom line compared with facility managers. Some contracts require a man- agement company to reduce costs. Outsourcing is often obtained through a competitive bidding process, which means that various companies are competing against one another to win a contract. This in turn means that the competitors are trying to win the contract by offering their services at the lowest price while still trying to maintain the highest level of safety and cleanliness. Management companies typically offer the following advantages:

◾ Increased operating efficiency through buying in bulk or having one expert who can focus on reducing costs

◾ Increased continuity, since a management company often keeps tenants happier, which reduces the loss of tenants who may leave if dissatisfied

◾ Fast reaction time in response to problems and opportunities, as outsourcing firms often utilize CAFM systems to make a facility more efficient, which can help solve problems or reduce costs

◾ Professional marketing and group sales sup- port

◾ Performance-based compensation for key management employees, which is negoti- ated in the contract so that the facility will know the long-term goals of the management company

◾ A more efficient procurement process for goods and services, since a management company can not only negotiate the best price but can also establish distribution systems to quickly deliver goods and services

◾ Ability to take risks using past experience at other facilities as a guide to help change facilities

◾ Ability to invest in a facility, as outsourc- ing contracts often require the management company to install new equipment and help upgrade the facility

Pros of Outsourcing Cities, counties, universities, and other facility owners hire privatized facility management for numerous reasons such as the following:

◾ Network of managed facilities—creates event booking leverage (i.e., more events, better deals). If a management company runs 10 facilities in a given state, it can significantly increase its bargaining power to attract events because it can package the tour at multiple facilities. If each facility negotiated its own contract, some events might not be scheduled because there are not enough facilities inter- ested in meeting the demand or schedule.

◾ Increased corporate support (professional staff)—results in more comprehensive man- agement, oversight, and on-site assistance. Professional facility managers who often manage outsourced facilities have greater access to facility experts within their com- panies and do not need to chase after trades- people such as plumbers, technicians, and electricians.

◾ Reduced stress, time, and budget implica- tions for other governmental or university departments since they can focus on their key strengths rather than on running a facility. For example, a physical education department may have to teach classes and manage a facil- ity. With someone else managing the facility, the instructors can focus on their teaching.

◾ A private management company is often the most effective means for a city, county, or university to balance competing departmen- tal interests, since all facilities are treated the same and athletics will hopefully not receive preferential treatment over the science or math building.

◾ More effective negotiation and renegotiation of labor agreements through the ability to focus workers on their specialty and to give them specific responsibilities that can be negotiated into their labor contracts.

◾ Facility staff will have greater opportunities for professional growth since staff can focus

56  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

on their expertise instead of trying to wear multiple hats, which often occurs when budgets are tight.

◾ Increased contacts and knowledge, resulting in more ideas and better problem solving.

◾ Shared database and industry research.

Cons of Outsourcing Although there are numerous advantages to outsourcing facility management, some facility owners and managers are not so receptive to private management. Some facility owners want to be hands-on and want their own employees to manage the facility. In fact, this is typically the case for smaller facilities. It is primarily the largest facilities or larger groups of buildings that are outsourced. Outsourcing has disadvantages, including the following:

◾ Expense: Expenses include an obligation to pay a fixed monthly management fee plus incentives.

◾ Control: In some cases, facility owners are better off relying on their own management expertise.

◾ Loyalty: Some facility owners fear a turnover of loyalty to the private management com- pany if employees are ever fired or reassigned or if tenants are forced to leave.

◾ Responsibility: Private management com- panies are sometimes put in the position of aggressively pursuing the bottom line at the expense of the owner’s goals, objectives, desires, and external responsibilities.

◾ Incentive fee–driven cost cutting that would lead to long-term cost increases: If a manage- ment company is forced to lower costs, it

Behind the Scenes

Behind the scenes: deciding Whether to outsource Many schools are now outsourcing various services to either save money or provide expertise that is not avail- able in-house. Some of the most common outsourced services are transportation, vending, security services, HVAC maintenance, computer services, and facility man- agement. The primary benefits envisioned by the schools that utilize outsourcing are efficiency and cost reduction. One study showed that a typical CMMS could reduce operational cost for a school by 20 to 30%.

This analysis was put to the test at two different school districts in Connecticut averaging more than 1 million square feet (92,900 sq m) in multiple buildings. One district managed its system in-house while the other out- sourced its facility management operations to a company called OR&L Facility Management. According to data from several years, the total facility management cost for managerial staff per square foot, including salaries, was $0.62 for the in-house program and $0.81 per square foot at the OR&L-managed facility. Thus, the salaries appeared higher, but additional numbers quickly turned the tables in favor of outsourcing. For example, the mechanical/HVAC costs were reduced from $0.98 to $0.48 per square foot. Another major drop in cost involved housekeeping, envi- ronmental, and custodial, which decreased from $1.66 to $1.05 per square foot. The total analyzed cost for the

in-house program was $3.52 per square foot. In contrast, the outsourcing costs were just $2.71 per square foot, a savings of $0.81 per square foot. Thus, outsourcing saved more than $800,000 annually (OR&L, 2003).

No matter which outsourcing company is used, the key is to look at the financial numbers to determine if out- sourcing is worthwhile. The facility’s own numbers must be compared against industry averages and benchmarks and then against the numbers offered by the outsourcing company. In the 38th annual Maintenance & Operations Cost Study for schools, conducted in 2008 by American School & University magazine, industry benchmarks were highlighted on a per pupil and per square foot basis. The results showed that the per square foot cost for payroll in 2008 was $2.07 (including $1.35 for custodial and $0.57 for maintenance), total energy cost was $1.43 (including $1.19 for gas and $0.18 for electricity), trash collection was $0.06, and the total equipment and supplies cost was $0.33. The total maintenance and operations (M&O) budget averaged $4.42 per square foot, which represents around 10% of a school district’s typical total budget (Agron, 2009). The $4.42 cost per square foot is a sharp increase over the Connecticut study. A careful analysis of how much an outsourcing provider might charge will help determine if facility management should be shifted to another provider.

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  57

may spend less on service, which in the long run will damage equipment and create more expensive problems in the future.

◾ Excessive turnover of the general manager due to opportunities at other network facilities: If a management company installs a general man- ager for the property, that person can develop a great reputation and save money but may be switched by the management company to a different property that needs managerial help.

As the pros and cons of outsourcing suggest, a manager can use external assistance to help solve problems, and as some problems are solved, other problems can arise. In general, though, the out- sourcing of services has been a very positive step in facility management since it allows owners and managers to focus on their key competencies and lets professional facility managers take charge of the facility and reach certain service and quality levels.

Private Management Companies A number of larger facility management compa- nies serve the sport facility market. Aramark is one of the largest facility service companies in the world. As of 2008, Aramark managed numerous professional sport facilities, convention centers, and amphitheaters serving more than 75 million people annually in more than 1.6 billion square feet (148.6 million sq m) throughout the world. Sport facilities managed by Aramark include Pepsi Center, Shea Stadium, Fenway Park, and Giants Stadium (“Aramark Facilities Services,” 2008). Services offered by Aramark include custodial services, operations and maintenance, grounds- keeping and landscaping, facility setup services and conversion, LEED-EB and LEED-NC certifica- tion, environmental stewardship programs, new building commissioning, and energy management (“Aramark Facilities Services,” 2008).

Global Spectrum began operations in January 2000 and quickly acquired more than 45 facility management contracts. These facilities have a seating capacity of 416,987 seats and more than 1 million square feet (92,900 sq m) of space. Global Spectrum differs from other facility management companies in that its parent company, Comcast, owns Wachovia Center and also the Philadelphia Flyers and the Philadelphia 76ers.

Although there are a number of larger facility management companies serving the sport facility

market, smaller companies are also starting to get involved. One such company is OR&L, which has several divisions including commercial real estate sales, construction management, and facility management. The facility management services offered by OR&L Facility Management include

◾ HVAC and energy management, ◾ construction and renovation management, ◾ corrective and preventive maintenance plans, ◾ computerized maintenance management systems,

◾ emergency management systems (EMS), ◾ security and crisis management, ◾ budget and pro forma analysis, ◾ housekeeping and environmental services, and

◾ various consulting projects from feasibility analysis to economic impact studies (OR&L, 2008).

Ancillary Service Providers The number of companies that provide services to facilities is almost endless. It would be impossible to list all the companies that provide services apart from facility management. These companies deal with food products, fire suppression, crowd man- agement, concession management, architectural design, engineering design, insurance, uniforms, cleaning, janitorial, and countless others. A man- ager needs to select these companies, monitor them, and terminate relationships with them when necessary. A security company can provide several hundred people to work a stadium event. Facility managers do not necessarily need to manage these employees, as the security company is responsible for hiring, training, managing, and firing the security personnel. However, the facility manager needs to monitor and track the security service provider to make sure the personnel are doing their jobs, the contract is not being violated, and patrons are happy with the service.

Besides for-profit businesses, many other types of organizations have an impact on the field and assist facility managers. Whether membership organizations or organizations that develop stan- dards, these entities can help shape an entire industry. A membership organization such as the ones mentioned next provides numerous educa- tional resources, includes a network of fellow

58  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Facility Focus

The Staples Center is one of the crown jewels in Phil Anschutz’s sports empire. Mr. Anschutz has quickly become one of the most powerful sport moguls by owning several Major League Soccer teams, a stake in the Staples Center, interests in the Los Angeles Lakers and Kings, and interests in several European hockey teams and facilities. He also built the Home Depot Field. These entities are structured under Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG), which has significant development plans for the Los Ange- les market. AEG is proposing a large-scale entertainment center near Staples Center with a 1,500-room hotel, a smaller luxury hotel, and a 7,000-seat arena that could serve as home for the Emmy Awards. The development is a continuation of the $7 billion growth in investment in Los Angeles spurred on by the Staples Center (Orlov, 2004).

The following facts give a picture of the Staples Center in Los Angeles, which is home to two NBA teams and one NHL team (“Staples Center,” 2000):

◾ Built: 1997-1999 (total construction time was 18 months, and a penalty in the contract provided for a $50,000 per day fine for every day the project went past the 18-month timeline)

◾ Cost: $375 million ◾ Basketball seating: 20,000 ◾ Hockey seating: 18,118

Facility Focus: staples center

©Talking◾Sport/Photoshot

◾ Luxury suites: 160 ◾ Party suites: 32 ◾ Club seats: 2,500 ◾ Concession stands: 23 ◾ Total square footage: 900,000 (83,610 sq m) ◾ Elevators: 10 ◾ Escalators: 11 ◾ Restrooms: 55 ◾ Locker rooms: 12 ◾ Watts of audio amplification: 125,500 ◾ Feet of fiber-optic cable: 148,000 (45,110 m) ◾ Tons of structural steel: 2,500 ◾ Cubic yards of concrete: 73,000 (55,810 cu m) ◾ Miles of data/telephone cables: 14 (22.5 km) ◾ Square yards of carpeting: 32,500 (27,175 sq m) ◾ Square feet of terrazzo tile: 81,000 (7,525 sq m) ◾ Square feet of drywall: 2,865,000 (266,170 sq m) ◾ Feet of broadcast production cable: 3,800,000

(1,158,240 m)

The success encountered by the Staples Center led to significant growth in downtown Los Angeles. Staples is located next to the L.A. Convention Center and L.A. Live, a $2.5 billion complex on 27 acres containing apartments, ballrooms, bars, concert theaters, restaurants, movie the- aters, and a 54-story hotel and condominium tower. The entire project is slated to be completed in 2010 (“Nokia Theater,” 2009).

AEG’s success has also led the company into the facil- ity management market. AEG has managed or worked with more than 60 facilities since it was formed. Some of the facilities managed by AEG Facilities in 2009 include Prudential Center (Newark, New Jersey), Sprint Center (Kansas City, Missouri), the Rose Garden (Portland, Oregon), WaMu Theater (Seattle, Washington), XL Center (Hartford, Connecticut), Target Center (Minneapolis, Min- nesota), and Rentschler Field (Hartford, Connecticut). Thus, through growing specific projects such as Staples Center, AEG has grown into a very strong contender in the facility management industry.

managers that can offer advice, and is able to help establish industry benchmark standards that can be used to study whether a facility is operating effectively. One specialized association is the Sportsplex Operators and Developers Association (SODA), an education association of more than

300 members that focuses on outdoor and indoor sport facilities offering such sports as softball, soccer, and flag football. SODA sells numerous specialized books and case studies, holds yearly educational conferences, and has developed a purchasing pool to allow smaller facility manag-

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  59

ers the opportunity to buy products such as grass seed or softballs at discount prices.

Larger associations include the Stadium Man- agers Association (SMA), the International Asso- ciation of Assembly Managers (IAAM), and the International Facility Management Association (IFMA). The SMA has approximately 500 mem- bers, primarily consisting of stadium general managers and decision makers. The IAAM is the largest association focused on arenas, stadiums, concert halls, convention centers, and related PAFs. It offers several specialized conferences each year on topics such as stadium management and crowd management. The IAAM has both student and faculty memberships and has several university chapters.

If a manager cannot outsource or hire an out- side service provider, he needs to hire employees. The rest of this chapter highlights some of the key issues associated with hiring and managing employees.

Sport Facility Jobs To appropriately manage employees at a sport facility, a manager needs to know the types of jobs available there. There are numerous jobs associ- ated with a sport facility, but every sport facility is different. A small health club in a strip mall may have very few facility management concerns and may not need any employees to work in facility management. A larger facility may have hundreds of employees. The need for specialized employ- ees is magnified even more when the facility is unionized and employees are limited in what jobs they pursue. In some facilities, a unionized trades- person may make more money than the facility manager. For example, if the collective bargain- ing agreement (CBA) requires a union member to replace any glass over dasher boards at a hockey rink, a union member must be at hockey games from start to finish. Typically the union member earns overtime wages for those hours. Some of the functions facility employees undertake include the following:

◾ Facility manager

◾ Box office managers and ticket takers

◾ Security

◾ Parking

◾ Architecture and engineering

◾ Maintenance ◾ Scoreboard operator ◾ Audiovisual coordination ◾ Press box administrators ◾ Locker room attendants ◾ Grounds grew ◾ Garbage removal ◾ Customer relations ◾ Finance and human resources ◾ Concessions ◾ Sponsorship sales

This is by no means an exhaustive list. At a large arena, for example, just in the concession area alone there are different people responsible for inventorying and ordering the food, deliver- ing the food, preparing and cleaning the cooking areas, preparing the food, packaging the food, selling the food, and cleaning debris. In smaller facilities, the person in charge of the locker room may also be responsible for the equipment room and laundry facilities. Indeed, most employees at small facilities are trained to assume multiple responsibilities and duties as might be required by the event or circumstances.

A small health club manager may have to assume numerous duties. Larger facilities have staffs of 15 to 25 full-time employees and possibly several hundred part-time employees working in concessions, crowd management, and janitorial services.

There are so many types of jobs in facility man- agement that it would be impossible to cover them all. This section covers several facility-related positions and their typical duties.

Concessions Manager Food and souvenirs are among the highest profit centers for a facility. A soda may cost 15 cents to serve but can generate $3.00 in revenue. Even after all the costs are paid, there is the potential for a nice return on investment. For this reason a conces- sion manager needs to constantly monitor conces- sion operations so that they generate the greatest revenue possible while costs are kept down. The concession manager spends a significant amount of time on human resource issues (hiring, training, scheduling, and terminating employees) and inven- tory management (ordering, pricing, tracking, and disposing of supplies and products).

60  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Box Office Manager The box office manager is the critical link to sell- ing tickets, from coordinating season tickets to managing the will-call window and game-day ticket sales. Box office managers work all year long, even if they are working for a football sta- dium where there may be only 10 home games a year. When a season ends, box office managers start working on the next year. They must develop marketing campaigns, ticket packages, customer mailers, and training for new salespeople and must coordinate external sales policies and pro- cedures with companies such as Ticketmaster.

Facilities Engineer The heart and soul of a building are housed in the inner workings such as plumbing, electrical, and sound and lighting systems. Without these back- house systems, the facility would not be able to operate. Within a large arena there are miles of electrical wires and plumbing. These systems can be very complex, with electrical, phone, visual, and data systems intertwined. Because of this complexity, most facilities have several trades- people who work exclusively in particular areas, such as an electrician, a plumber, or a computer network engineer. These people are all managed by the facilities engineer, who coordinates their work schedules, filters work orders, assigns repair and maintenance jobs, follows budgetary guide- lines, and makes sure the facility is operating correctly before, during, and after an event.

Turf Operations Manager Although a number of positions are critical for both indoor and outdoor facilities, the posi- tion of turf manager is very specialized—one that might be appreciated by those who love to work outdoors. The key to the position is learn- ing how to use pesticides to ensure the quality of grass fields. People may be accustomed to applying various weed killers at home, but the chemicals used on commercial fields are very strong and involve significant environmental concerns. Therefore, the government (both local and national) regulates pesticide applications. People wishing to apply these chemicals need to obtain a license, which requires both significant learning and training. Because of what it takes to obtain a license, those with a license are in great demand among employers, from golf courses to

park and recreation departments to colleges with a large number of fields.

A turf manager, besides having to know how to properly spray the grounds, must know about soil composition, operation of heavy land-moving machinery, growing seasons, types of grass that work best on given fields, the effects of weather conditions, and ways to repair fields after a rain- storm. It is also necessary to have a strong under- pinning in human resources to work with and manage assistants, as well as the ability to work with external contractors who may be utilized to apply chemicals or install a new drainage system. A typical turf manager job description is presented later in the chapter.

Employment Options One of the first questions for any facility is whether or not the facility will need to hire employees at all. The facility owner, a third-party contractor, interns, volunteers, family members, or independent contractors can help run a facility. However, each category raises unique issues and concerns. Interns, for example, may need to be paid even if they are receiving university credit. If an intern is replacing an employee and is not receiving valuable skills as part of the career education process, the Fair Labor Standards Act requires that the intern be paid at least the minimum wage and possibly overtime (Fried and Miller, 1998).

The basic employment options include employees, volunteers, interns, and indepen- dent contractors. Independent contractors (ICs) were covered earlier in this chapter in terms of outsourcing and ancillary service providers. Although some facilities contract with an entire outsourcing company, some facilities might hire a single external contractor to do a specific task such as plumbing, window washing, or a host of other specialized tasks. This section focuses on people hired or retained in the traditional employment or volunteer relationship.

An employee is someone hired directly by the facility to perform a specific set of tasks. An employee can be full time, working 40 or more hours per week. If the employee works overtime (anything over 40 hours per week) and is not an exempt managerial-level employee (either on salary or having managerial responsibilities), the facility must pay the person time and a half for

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  61

all time over 40 hours. Because sport facilities are open long hours, overtime pay is a key concern.

Employees can also be classified as part time. These employees often have other jobs but work nights or weekends for a facility. Since they are not full-time employees, the facility does not usu- ally have to worry about overtime compensation or benefits such as health care.

Employees can be either unionized or non- unionized. As discussed later in this chapter, unions were formed to protect employee rights and ensure safe working conditions. However, from a management perspective, the insertion of unions in the workplace can sometimes lead to a more difficult communication process between managers and employees.

Volunteers are often brought in to help run events such as a college football game. The alumni office may coordinate 200 alumni to help work as ushers. Although this free labor is a great money saver, the facility still needs to provide appro- priate training and support for these people. A facility manager needs to determine if the volun- teers will be covered by workers’ compensation insurance if they are injured. The facility can also be held liable for a volunteer’s negligence, so all volunteers need to be properly trained. A simple decision to save money by having volunteers work a game can backfire if the volunteers are negligent and expose the facility to liability.

Interns are often used by sport facilities, teams, and college athletic departments to help run events and facilities. Some people see these people as free help, but the situation is similar to that with volunteers: Liability could be attached to their actions, and if injured they should be covered by the facility’s workers’ compensation policy. Although having an assistant may seem attrac- tive, the time required to properly train an intern dictates that managers must commit significant time and resources to make the learning experi- ence meaningful. It should be noted that interns are not necessarily free help. If an intern replaces an employee or does menial work that does not present a real learning opportunity, then even if the intern is from a college she would need to be paid.

Hiring Process If outsourcing, interns, or ICs are not used or are not sufficient to fulfill the employment needs, the facility will need to hire one or more people. The

hiring process typically starts with a detailed job analysis of the activities involved in the proposed job. A job analysis highlights the basic activities that are necessary to perform a specific job. A facility manager first needs to determine what activities need to be accomplished to reach the specific job goals. The job analysis for a ticket salesperson might contain the following elements: phone skills, communication skills, ticketing options, accounts receivable, long job hours, and possibly other tasks. The job analysis leads to the job description.

Through carefully analyzing what is involved in a job, a manager can then develop a detailed job description highlighting all the skills, abili- ties, and training needed to effectively complete the job. The job description focuses on skills required to reach the job goals. The job descrip- tion includes the required job responsibilities along with the nature of the job, such as whether someone will need to manage or supervise. All duties and responsibilities identified in the job description should be essential for the job and listed in the advertisement to avoid any claim of discrimination. If the job does not require a col- lege education, asking for only college graduates could be construed as an intent to discriminate. A typical job description for a collegiate box office manager is shown on page 62.

Job descriptions must indicate the exact train- ing required and any degrees or certification that may be necessary. For people who will be using pesticides, for example, do they have the training and skills to work with those chemicals, as well as knowledge of any applicable statutes? Some positions in the facility management industry are certified. For example, the Ontario Recre- ation Facilities Association has developed the designation of certified ice technician for those in the industry who complete a 90-hour program including theory and hands-on training in such areas as basic refrigeration, ice making, ice paint- ing, ice maintenance, and equipment operations (“Certified Ice Technician,” 2001). Many positions require specific training such as first aid and CPR.

The hiring process varies in complexity accord- ing to what positions need to be filled. Low-level entry positions such as parking attendant or con- cession sales may be easier to fill since a larger number of people are qualified for such positions compared with a job as an HVAC specialist that may require licensure. Other variables affecting

62  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Sample Collegiate Box Office Manager Job Description

The◾XYZ◾Center,◾a◾10,000-seat◾arena,◾and◾the◾GFH◾Stadium,◾a◾25,000-seat◾stadium,◾on◾the◾campus◾ of◾PDQ◾University◾are◾seeking◾a◾box◾office◾manager.

Responsibilities:◾The◾manager◾is◾responsible◾for◾ticket◾sales◾at◾the◾arena◾and◾at◾all◾other◾ facilities◾on◾campus◾such◾as◾the◾ABC◾Theater.◾Ticketing◾responsibilities◾include◾ticketing◾for◾all◾ intercollegiate◾events◾on◾campus.◾The◾position◾supervises◾a◾full-time◾staff◾of◾three◾and◾several◾ student◾employees.◾Other◾responsibilities◾include◾daily◾deposits,◾sales◾reports,◾postevent◾settle- ments,◾and◾event◾creation◾for◾ticketing◾sales◾growth.◾The◾manager◾will◾also◾be◾responsible◾for◾ working◾with◾event◾promoters◾to◾develop◾event◾setups◾in◾all◾the◾various◾venues◾and◾to◾provide◾ daily◾ticket◾sales◾and◾cash◾accounting.

Qualifications:◾Strong◾knowledge◾base◾of◾box◾office◾management◾and◾operations◾including◾ a◾high◾degree◾of◾independent◾judgment◾making◾and◾responsibility.◾Additional◾skills◾include◾a◾ high-level◾command◾of◾ticketing◾procedures◾and◾applying◾ticketing◾policies◾to◾various◾situations◾ as◾well◾as◾the◾ability◾to◾contribute◾to◾the◾university’s◾administration◾of◾its◾venues.◾Because◾of◾the◾ nature◾of◾the◾position,◾the◾candidate◾will◾need◾to◾have◾a◾flexible◾schedule,◾including◾evenings◾ and◾weekends.◾The◾position◾requires◾at◾least◾five◾years◾of◾progressively◾responsible◾experience◾ in◾a◾box◾office◾management◾capacity,◾preferably◾with◾a◾Division◾I-A◾school.◾The◾ideal◾candidate◾ will◾have◾experience◾working◾with◾multiple◾venues◾and◾a◾thorough◾knowledge◾of◾Word,◾Access,◾ Excel,◾and◾contemporary◾ticket◾software◾application.

Salary range:◾$38,818◾to◾$48,920.

processing time and resources. Applicants are normally obtained through many avenues, from newspaper and Internet advertising to college placement offices and executive recruiters. The tendency in the sport industry is to produce a large number of applicants for almost every posi- tion. This trend has been increased through the Internet. Although it is critical to advertise a posi- tion in different media outlets, the most beneficial advertising media are word of mouth and personal referrals. The sport facility industry is a very small community, and a personal recommendation of a candidate goes much further than an unsolicited resume. A classified advertisement for a facilities engineer is shown on page 63, and an advertise- ment for a turf manager is shown on page 63.

Screening Applicants Management must process all the applicants and then interview enough people to be able to make a decision. It may be necessary to hire more employ- ees than are actually needed in order to have a pool of people who are available and have been prescreened. For example, if 200 security staffers are needed for an event, it would probably be pru-

the hiring process include such issues as the region in the country, economic conditions, pre- vailing wage rate, and available benefits. High-end positions may require recruiting activities other than advertising in the local newspaper or using job placement agencies. However, because there are always many people seeking employment opportunities in the sport industry, normally a large number of people are regularly submitting resumes to work with teams or facilities.

Advertising a Position The job description can be used as a basis for writ- ing an advertisement. But while this strategy works well with a flier that can be posted on a bulletin board, most advertisements use a limited space. Publications often charge for ads by the word or line. Thus, some facilities merely ask those inter- ested in a position to visit the facility’s Web site. In other cases, ads mention only the very basics associated with the position. This strategy may save money, but in the long run it can also create the need to process many applications from people who are not qualified, so the idea of saving a few dollars can in fact cost the facility much more in

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  63

dent to have 500 prequalified individuals who can be called on to fill the needs for any given event. The extra candidates could be essential for some positions requiring background checks and formal training. Having a surplus is also more important for stadiums and arenas; since the work is often considered seasonal, a large percentage of those who would work in the facility have other jobs and need to coordinate their schedules.

Employee Management Once an adequate number of employees are hired, the next phase of the employment process begins, which is employee management. The greatest expense for any facility is not the construction expense but rather the salaries and expenses associated with employees. All employees need to be properly coordinated and managed to maxi- mize their effectiveness. That is where innovative motivational techniques need to be implemented.

Management needs to examine what tech- niques can help motivate an employee who is underperforming. For example, according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, discussed earlier in this chapter, people at the bottom of the pyramid will not be as motivated by some strategies, such as a new title or a bigger office, as they may be by more vacation time or a higher salary. Once man- agement knows what will motivate an employee, it is much easier to manage the employee’s move- ment up the pyramid based on concrete strategies rather than mere guessing. Various strategies for motivating employees are listed on page 64.

There is no one correct method to manage employees. What works at one facility will not necessarily work at another. However, it is not enough to utilize different ideas or campaigns to motivate people. Constant monitoring is also necessary. At times facility managers who may appear to be just relaxing and walking around may actually be evaluating employees. Managers sometimes conduct tests themselves or through the use of secret shoppers. Secret shoppers are hired by the facility to act like regular customers and evaluate their service experience. A manager or secret shopper might see a dirty napkin on the floor and observe whether any employee stops to pick it up. He can also observe how employees interact with customers to see whether they are friendly and courteous. These and other similar techniques help demonstrate whether managerial

Classified Advertisement  for a Facilities Engineer

The◾FGH◾Field,◾located◾in◾downtown◾New◾ Haven,◾is◾seeking◾a◾facilities◾engineer.◾The◾ facilities◾engineer◾will◾report◾directly◾to◾the◾ facility◾ general◾ manager.◾This◾ position◾ is◾ responsible◾for◾energy◾and◾power◾plant◾ management,◾HVAC,◾electrical,◾plumbing,◾ mechanical◾equipment,◾artificial◾turf,◾and◾ all◾preventive◾and◾regular◾facility◾mainte- nance.◾The◾ qualified◾ candidate◾ should◾ have◾ experience◾ in◾ hiring,◾ training,◾ and◾ supervising◾a◾maintenance◾staff;◾have◾a◾ proven◾track◾record◾in◾energy◾and◾main- tenance◾ management;◾ have◾ worked◾ with◾large◾professional◾sport◾facilities;◾and◾ have◾at◾least◾five◾years’◾experience◾and◾a◾ BS◾degree◾in◾engineering◾or◾three◾years◾ of◾hands-on◾electrical◾or◾systems◾experi- ence◾in◾addition◾to◾the◾five◾years’◾overall◾ experience.

Classified Advertisement  for a Turf Manager

The◾ town◾ of◾ Sportsville◾ is◾ searching◾ for◾ a◾ leader◾ to◾ direct◾ the◾ operations◾ of◾ the◾ Park◾ and◾ Recreation◾ Department’s◾ turf◾ and◾ grounds◾ maintenance◾ program.◾ Responsibilities◾ include◾ all◾ care◾ and◾ maintenance◾of◾athletic◾fields,◾other◾lawn◾ areas,◾and◾shrub,◾recreation,◾and◾school◾ areas.◾Requirements◾include◾a◾bachelor’s◾ degree◾in◾agronomy,◾landscape◾design,◾ or◾ turf◾ management◾ plus◾ five◾ years’◾ experience◾in◾turf◾and◾ground◾manage- ment,◾ including◾ at◾ least◾ three◾ years◾ of◾ supervisory◾experience.◾Applicants◾must◾ possess◾the◾CT◾Custom◾Grounds◾applica- tor’s◾supervisory◾license◾or◾equivalent.◾The◾ salary◾range◾for◾this◾position◾is◾$45,000◾to◾ $68,000.

64  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Employee evaluation can take various forms, from on-the-job analysis to goal attainment. A ticket sales executive could be given the goal of selling 10,000 tickets in a specific price category in a given season. Selling 10,000 tickets means the person has met the goal. Selling more means she is entitled to additional benefits. If the person sells fewer than 10,000 tickets, she could be reprimanded, terminated, retrained, or managed differently. Other employees are often harder to evaluate since there may not be clear-cut criteria for evaluation. An usher would face a significantly different evaluation process than a ticket salesper- son. Since an usher’s job is not contingent on the number of people seated but rather the quality of service, the evaluation standard is subjective rather than objective. Ushers could be evaluated based on their efficiency, the number of compli- ments and complaints received, the quality of work performed, and related standards. Because the process can be highly subjective, it is impera- tive to perform such evaluations in an unbiased manner to prevent claims of discrimination or wrongful termination.

Worker productivity is always a thorny topic. One can look at quality rather than quantity, or vice versa. For example, what would be the best way to measure productivity in the maintenance department? Would it be better to evaluate an employee based on how well the equipment is working or based on how quickly the employee performs maintenance or repairs? One technique to measure effectiveness in the maintenance department is through work orders. New buildings have a large number of work orders when they open. The numbers then trail off for a number of years, and later, when the facility is older, the numbers start increasing again. However, a strong preventive maintenance program normally decreases the number of work orders. Thus, pro- ductivity is affected by external variables such as the building’s age as well as by policies and procedures.

Management must take these types of factors into consideration when examining evaluation programs. If an employee is being evaluated based on criteria outside his control, the evaluation system will be perceived as biased and unfair. This could lead to significant distrust. One way to avoid such a problem is to determine the cri- teria for evaluation and job retention when an employee is hired. If concession workers know

Strategies for Motivating  Employees

◾◾ Hang◾a◾plaque◾in◾the◾main◾hallway◾to◾rec- ognize◾employees◾of◾the◾month.

◾◾ Give◾ meaningful◾ awards◾ to◾ employees◾ in◾ the◾front◾office,◾those◾working◾concessions,◾ ushers,◾and◾so◾on.

◾◾ Recognize◾ employees◾ by◾ featuring◾ their◾ names◾and◾pictures◾in◾game◾programs◾or◾ on◾the◾scoreboard◾or◾by◾letting◾them◾throw◾ out◾a◾game◾ball.

◾◾ Let◾employees◾exchange◾jobs◾for◾a◾day◾with◾ another◾employee◾or◾with◾a◾manager.

◾◾ Empower◾employees◾to◾make◾decisions. ◾◾ Give◾employees◾a◾specific◾amount◾of◾money◾

to◾spend◾any◾way◾they◾want◾during◾the◾year◾ to◾make◾customers◾happy.

◾◾ Provide◾ a◾ cash◾ benefit◾ for◾ recruiting◾ new◾ employees.

◾◾ Allow◾employees◾to◾engage◾in◾job◾rotation◾ or◾job◾modifications◾such◾as◾flexible◾hours.

◾◾ Provide◾ employees◾ with◾ better◾ benefit◾ options.

◾◾ Allow◾ employees◾ to◾ bring◾ their◾ families◾ to◾ games,◾and◾let◾them◾enjoy◾the◾game◾from◾ the◾best◾seats◾in◾the◾facility◾with◾free◾food.

strategies, leadership skills, and various benefits actually succeed in changing behavior.

Regardless of the managerial techniques used, evaluation of employees is necessary in that it provides valuable information to managers on whether employees are achieving the predeter- mined goals.

Employee Evaluation Evaluations are used in every facility. Marketing efforts are regularly evaluated for their effective- ness. Benchmarking standards are used to evaluate the effectiveness of everything from maintenance efforts to the HVAC system. Just as all the mechani- cal and administrative efforts of a facility are evaluated, the human capital must be evaluated. If an employee is not living up to the expectations specified in the job description, the employee needs to be motivated, retrained, or terminated.

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  65

they will need to sell 100 sodas each game over a season, the variability of external factors can be somewhat reduced. Some games may be rained out; others will occur in hot weather, which will produce increased sales. Thus, sales could be averaged. However, if the team is losing every game, the evaluation criteria should be adjusted or the facility will lose all its employees because they do not meet preseason goals. The key concern in this example involves communication. The goals for employees must be clearly communicated; all employees should know what they are expected to accomplish and how each person’s success will complement the work of other employees.

Termination Employees who are not productive either can be terminated or may leave if they are not sufficiently motivated to do the job. Employees leave their jobs for a number of reasons, including personal reasons such as moving to a new area or opportu- nities to obtain a better job. Employees stay when they feel appreciated, when they get along with coworkers and managers, when management sup- ports them, and when they believe they contribute to the facility’s overall mission (Shenker, 2002). Specific reasons for losing employees include poor supervision, frequent supervisory changes, unclear or unreasonable expectations, lack of feedback, lack of rewards for quality work, poor pay, lack of advancement opportunities, company culture clash, and a host of others. The key for a facility manager is to communicate with employ- ees to see what they are thinking so that manage- ment can create a better work environment that may entice some disgruntled employees to stay. Communication is the key, since the lack of com- munication can often lead to employee unrest and ultimately the loss of good employees.

Although some employees need to be retained, others need to be cut. Turnover can be a good means of bringing in fresh ideas and new approaches. Any change will cost money. These costs include hiring, retraining, severance pay, unemployment pay, position advertising, recruiting costs, appli- cant testing, background checks, signing bonuses, relocation fees, and possibly higher salaries. Indi- rect costs include lost business, staff time, lost productivity, delay as the new employee reaches an acceptable productivity level, and possibly a negative aura in the workplace from “bad vibes” or hurt feelings (Shenker, 2002).

One of the processes associated with evaluation is the grievance process. Most employees at sport facilities are employees at will, which means they can be terminated for any reason or no reason whatsoever. This is true except in the case of union employees covered by a CBA. Thus, if the manager does not like the clothes an employee wears one day, she can technically terminate the employee. However, most employers utilize a grievance system to help maintain morale or to comply with a union’s CBA. The typical griev- ance process involves several stages such as an initial warning, subsequent written warnings, and then potentially a termination. This process is called the progressive disciplinary approach. If a manager fails to provide an employee with a progressive process, the terminated employee can file a wrongful termination or discrimination suit. The chance that the former employee will win in such a suit is significantly decreased if the progressive disciplinary process was used and all the misdeeds documented.

The heart and soul of the management process entails appropriate motivation and employee training. Employees are hired because they pre- sumably have the appropriate and necessary skills and talent to perform the job. If they are not doing the job as well as expected, something needs to change. The employee may not live up to expec- tations because he does not care. In this case the only option is to terminate. For employees who are willing to work to improve their performance, there are two primary options that can be used singly or in combination: (1) appropriate motiva- tion so that the employee can achieve a higher level of success and (2) training to reach a higher skill level.

Training Once employees have been hired, they need to be trained so they can accomplish their specific tasks. Maintenance personnel who worked for five years at one facility may be lost at a different facility. For example, pipes may not be marked; electrical outlets may not be live; or it may not be obvious what storage areas contain hazardous materials. Thus, new employees always need to be properly trained.

Although it is preferable that training occur as soon as someone is hired, training is often done at a later date when a problem is identified. For

66  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Facility Focus

The Connecticut Sportsplex is New England’s largest sport complex. Its five-field outdoor facility hosts baseball and softball tournaments every weekend (national, state, and sectional tournaments) in addition to weekday leagues. The sportsplex includes a 75,000-square-foot (6,965 sq m) indoor dome facility that offers four multisport fields and a state-of-the-art artificial turf surface for indoor soccer, soft- ball, field hockey, flag football, and other activities. It also includes a 25,000-square-foot (2,320 sq m) field house that houses a 40-seat pub-style restaurant, an arcade, virtual golf simulators, batting cages, pool tables, air hockey tables, a basketball court, a jungle gym, a moon walk, a party area, and an area for cheerleading and gymnastics. With all these amenities, the Connecticut Sportsplex needs a large number of employees to operate effectively. It also needs a flexible workforce—during downtimes only 3 or 4 employees may be needed to run the facilities, while more than 20 employees may be required to work a tournament.

Facility Focus: connecticut sportsplex Some of the specific employment-related concerns

faced by the facility include the following:

◾ Having employees old enough to serve alcohol at the bar

◾ Finding enough employees to work nights and weekends when the facility is the busiest

◾ Finding employees who can work with mechanical equipment such as lawn mowers

◾ Preventing employee theft from the concession area ◾ Retaining independent contractors such as umpires

to work games ◾ Terminating employees who fail to meet predeter-

mined goals ◾ Interviewing and mentoring interns to work at the

facility

example, if a special license is required to operate certain machinery, that training and testing may not be made available or paid for by the facility until an emergency arises. In some cases the think- ing is that it would have been too costly to employ someone with the proper license. Training materi- als can consist of books, videos, and live lectures, among others. Numerous resources for training exist, such as industry-developed manuals pub- lished by the International Facility Management Association (IFMA), International Association of Assembly Managers (IAAM), Techniques for Effec- tive Alcohol Management (TEAM), and Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA).

The IAAM’s “train the trainer” program is designed to teach facility executives how to instruct their crowd management staff on proper techniques and strategies. Besides training manu- als, numerous conferences and seminars can provide training. For example, the IAAM runs an annual conference on crowd management issues in which the latest tools and techniques are dis- cussed. These conferences provide employees with not only a couple of days off work in a nice locale but also invaluable assistance to help them with their jobs.

Legal Concerns In addition to hiring, motivating, and terminating employees, the entire process of managing human resources requires close supervision to adhere to legal requirements. For example, reducing employee conflict seems to be a noble idea to make the workplace more harmonious. However, it is just as important for preventing future legal con- cerns as it is for enhancing the workplace. If two employees have a strong dislike for each other, this makes for more than just a hostile environment. It can lead to workplace violence, discrimination claims, and even harassment claims, all of which can generate significant legal costs.

There are a multitude of federal regulations, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), that apply if an employer has more than 15 employees. If a facility employs only five people, most civil rights and antidiscrimination laws are inapplicable. However, some laws, such as workers’ compensa- tion insurance coverage and Fair Labor Standards Act reporting requirements for minimum wage and overtime work apply even if there is only one employee.

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  67

Biased assignments for training programs can raise legal concerns such as discrimination claims. Such a claim represents just one of the many legal matters involved in the employment process. Throughout the hiring process there are countless other legal traps. The following is a list of some basic legal issues that can arise within the employment process.

◾ Inappropriate application forms or questions ◾ Poor or inappropriate interview questions ◾ Improper classification of employees as at- will employees

◾ Lack of standardized documents ◾ Failure to review and update employment policies

◾ Failure to monitor, evaluate, and secure personnel files

◾ Failure to timely, honestly, and tactfully evaluate employees

◾ Failure to have appropriate evaluation cri- teria

◾ Failure to properly document evaluations and all other employment decisions

◾ Failure to provide a proper grievance process to try to resolve disputes

◾ Failure to provide proper notice for disci- pline and the opportunity to be heard

◾ Failure to act promptly to terminate an employee who has engaged in egregious or violent conduct

◾ Failure to review each termination and to make sure appropriate records are main- tained

◾ Failure to consider all applicable local, state, and federal laws

In the United States, a potpourri of federal and state laws affect the employment law landscape. One of the most relevant laws is the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which covers everything from minimum wage and overtime to teenage workers. Young employees are a major concern for sport facilities. As reported by the Department of Labor in 1997, the retail industry employs 51% of all teens, and the service industry (e.g., YMCAs, swimming pools, parks and recreation centers, ball parks, and amusement parks) employs 34% of all teens (Fried and Miller, 1998). These numbers have remained consistent; two-thirds of all teens

currently work in the retail or service industries. Ignorance of the law is the most frequent reason for failure to comply with the FLSA. Numerous employers post the required FLSA poster, but employees fail to read or follow the informa- tion. In addition to prescribing hours that teens can work, the FLSA prohibits teenagers from 18 specified jobs. Facility managers should check with the experts before placing teen employees on lawn mowers or having them build or mend fences, work late at night, or operate mechanical amusement rides. Knowing and complying with the law also benefits an employer via increased employee morale, improved public relations, decreased insurance expenses, and a safer work environment.

In addition to FLSA, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a major legislative framework that affects sport facility managers; OSHA requires specific conduct to be undertaken to ensure a safe work environment. Safety steps are required, for example, to secure people to a building whenever they are working at elevations, such as on the rigging inside an arena. Thus, employees who may work in such positions need to be given safety harnesses and be trained in how to use them. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration also covers a host of other workplace-related safety concerns, from the noise level at concerts to wiping down countertops and benches to avoid contact with bloodborne pathogens.

Besides concerns listed earlier, there are numer- ous other legal concerns that present unique challenges to sport facilities. Among the most significant of these concerns are unionization, ADA compliance, workers’ compensation, and sexual harassment. Additional legal concerns are highlighted in chapter 12.

Unions Those studying employee motivation and man- agement often overlook unionization. Sometimes students who are prospective managers think that if they are properly motivated and are best friends with their employees, they may be able to leverage that relationship to receive the most from employ- ees. However, the realities of the workplace are very different. Many publicly owned, school, and college facilities have unionized workforces.

The primary function of a union is to negotiate and administer the CBA with the employer, which

68  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

covers the conditions of employment for the union members. Unions have a significant impact on the employment environment. They reduce a manager’s authority, reduce a manager’s control over personnel policies, and reduce a manager’s prerogative to make certain decisions without union involvement. At the same time, unions represent a significant benefit for employees through providing a unified voice, psychological satisfaction, strength in numbers, and economic benefits for its members (Fried and Miller, 1998). Although it may appear that employees have a one-sided weapon against employers through unions, specific federal legislation provides both sides with tangible benefits.

There are both national and local unions. National unions establish rules under which local unions may be chartered and permitted to retain their membership in the national union. Such rules cover dues collection, initiation fees, union funds administration, and new member admission criteria. Local unions represent the direct interest of their constituency by monitoring management activities and making sure the CBA is being fol- lowed. In addition, local unions help members rectify any unjust treatment or sponsor grievances claimed by local members.

Local unions operate through a business rep- resentative who negotiates the CBA and admin- isters the agreement. When a union member has problems, she brings the problems to the attention of the union steward, who represents the union member’s interest in her relations with immediate supervisors and other managers. Some stewards are paid by the employer solely to reconcile disputes involving union members in reference to work-related disputes. This cre- ates several bureaucratic levels that can often make the employment process more difficult. For example, a manager may not be able to ask a union employee to clean a restroom if that activity is not in the employee’s job description. Thus, the manager may have to find a busy janitor to clean the restroom while the other employee sits doing absolutely nothing except wait for work detailed in the job description. In some facilities it is dif- ficult to ask an employee to do anything, even when it is in the person’s job description, without going through a union supervisor.

Besides national and local, unions can be fur- ther classified as closed shops and open shops. Closed shops operate under a CBA wherein all

employees as a condition of employment need to be union members. In open shops, both union and nonunion employees can work for the employer even if the employer has a CBA with a union.

Both unions and employers are forbidden to require union membership. However, unions can secure from each employee a financial contribu- tion to help pay for representation costs, and this contribution is typically the same as union dues paid by union members. In approximately 20 U.S. states, though, there are “right to work” laws that forbid unions from seeking financial contributions from nonunion employees (Fried and Miller, 1998).

The laws related to unionization, union activi- ties, retaliation, antitrust violations, and associ- ated issues are very complex. It is critical for a unionized facility to hire a talented labor law specialist. A potential union will not be undertak- ing formation efforts without competent counsel. To face trained labor organizers without proper assistance is tantamount to committing business suicide. Many businesses fight to avoid unions by providing strong benefits. Happy employees often do not want unions since they do not want to lose these benefits. However, if an employer does not treat employees well, the employees may unionize to gain bargaining strength in numbers. Employees often unionize to obtain safer work- ing conditions or other specific concessions. By addressing employee concerns, management can often avoid dealing with unions and thus avoid significant cost increases and a reduced ability to work with employees.

Americans with Disabilities Act Although facility access is a major concern under the ADA, the act can affect everything from adver- tising a position to terminating an employee. For example, it is illegal to ask someone if he has a disability. A facility manager can ask if someone can carry 50 pounds (22.7 kg), if the job requires carrying 50 pounds, but cannot ask if the person has any back problems. This does not mean that every potentially disabled person needs to be hired. Rather, it means that the employer cannot dismiss disabled applicants who can do the job just because they are disabled. On the other hand, the fact that a disabled applicant can do the job does not mean the employer must hire that person. Another applicant who is more person- able or better at establishing rapport can be hired

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  69

instead. Thus, the ADA is very clearly designed to provide a level playing field for all potential employees. The ADA is covered in greater detail in chapter 12.

Workers’ Compensation Some work environments produce significant and sometimes serious injuries. Construction, work with hazardous chemicals, firefighting, security, and punch press machine operation are among the activities that produce either frequent or in some cases life-threatening injuries. Typically, 6,000 to 7,000 people in the United States die in the workplace each year, and another 11 to 15 million are hurt in work-related accidents. That translates to 18 deaths and 36,000 injuries every day (Fried and Miller, 1998). The direct costs associated with these injuries totaled $65 billion in 1992, while the indirect costs, such as lost wages, totaled $171 billion. The sport industry is not immune from injuries. In 2007 the top two industry segments in the United States with the highest percentage of injuries were the skiing facilities (33,500 employees with an injury rate of 16.5%) and sport teams and clubs (64,900 employees with an injury rate of 16.2%) (“Table: SNR01,” 2008). These losses cannot be completely avoided, but they can be reduced through safety education and equipment.

The purpose behind workers’ compensation insurance is to have a no-fault safety net for every employer and employee. The no-fault system means that coverage begins immediately after the employee is injured and that the coverage is complete. In exchange for prompt and complete claims payment, the injured employee waives her right to sue the facility unless the facility manage-

ment engaged in wrongful conduct such as failing to eliminate a known hazard.

Workers’ compensation premiums are based on past claims associated with a given career and the prospect for injuries. Some facility-related jobs are highly dangerous, and the workers’ compen- sation insurance premium may be 50% of every dollar paid in salary. That would mean that if a construction or rigging worker earned $50,000 a year, the facility would have to pay $25,000 to purchase workers’ compensation insurance just for that employee. The high price of workers’ compensation insurance reflects the high claims totals for those injured in the industry. Table 3.1 highlights total and average awards in Washington state for various types of sport facilities. It should be noted that injury claims and deaths are much more common in hazardous industries such as mining, construction, and manufacturing.

One of the biggest traps for unsuspecting employers is the failure to purchase workers’ compensation insurance. Workers’ compensation insurance needs to be purchased for employees and interns but not for independent contractors. In California, failure to purchase workers’ compensa- tion insurance can lead to a misdemeanor charge (six months in jail and a $1,000 fine), criminal prosecution, and even an order suspending the use of employees.

Besides having workers’ compensation insur- ance, facility management should organize a safety committee composed of managers and various lower-level employees who consistently work in environments with hazardous conditions such as pools, food service, maintenance, weight rooms, and related program areas. The safety com- mittee can be empowered to

Table 3.1 type of sport Workers’ compensation claims in Washington in 2004

risk group number of claims total paid average paid

Sport◾facility◾operations 6 $1,757 $293

Baseball◾teams 53 $96,637 $1,823

YMCA/YWCA 164 $350,429 $2,137

Bowling◾alleys 165 $319,240 $1,935

Exercise◾facilities 174 $422,383 $2,427

Golf◾courses 197 $539,235 $2,737

Data◾from◾Washington◾State◾Department◾of◾Labor◾and◾Industries◾2004.

70  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

◾ analyze safety concerns, ◾ provide suggestions for facility modifications or alterations,

◾ suggest potential safety precautions, ◾ help develop a safety manual and educational aids,

◾ help update the safety manual, ◾ help train other employees, and ◾ assume overall responsibility associated with safety matters.

Besides being an effective risk management tool, a safety committee may also be required by state law. In states with such laws, facility managers must do more than establish a safety committee; they are also required to act on the committee’s recommendations. Safety commit- tees should

◾ meet at least once a month to discuss current issues,

◾ prepare minutes from all meetings, ◾ make periodic site inspections, ◾ review all incident and injury reports, ◾ review any safety complaints, and ◾ process any safety suggestions and recom- mendations (Fried and Miller, 1998).

Although safety committees appear to be a win–win proposition for employees and employ- ers, the primary concerns are the potential inad- vertent forming of a union and the possibility that evidence can be generated that can torpedo an employer at a future trial.

Sexual Harassment There are two types of sexual harassment. Quid pro quo refers to the situation in which an employer (supervisor, boss, or anyone with a position of authority over the employee) requires sexual activity or conduct as a condition of employment, future employment, future job advancement, or future salary increases. Many employees, managers, and employers understand that it is inappropriate to directly utilize sex as a vehicle for job advancement, but this still occurs. Examples still exist of employees, from secretaries to senior managers, who are forced to compromise their principles for their careers. This difficult choice is the reason sexual harassment is such an important issue. Employees should not have

to choose between their dignity and their jobs (Fried and Miller, 1998).

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is vio- lated by the second type of sexual harassment— conduct that creates a hostile or offensive working environment. The same law also covers other forms of discrimination based on race, religion, nationality, and sexual orientation. A different law, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), covers age-based discrimination. The Supreme Court has concluded that not all conduct that may appear to be sexual harassment is in fact sexual harassment. The conduct must be suffi- ciently severe or pervasive to alter the condition of the victim’s employment and create an abusive or hostile working environment. Some courts have held that creation of a hostile work environment does not occur in instances in which an employer, upon learning of harassing conduct against an employee, takes prompt remedial action against the offending employee (Fried and Miller, 1998).

Although sexual harassment is clearly a big problem, there are solutions. The key solution is to develop a sexual harassment education and com- pliance program. Such a program is contingent on adopting a sexual harassment policy (see sample on pages 71-72) that is signed and followed by all employees. Besides developing a less hostile environment, a facility manager needs to develop a response process for when sexual harassment occurs or is alleged. The facility manager needs to designate a representative who will be in charge of handling all sexual harassment claims. That person must be sympathetic and listen to any com- plaints. The representative then must investigate the claim, being mindful of personal and pos- sibly civil rights, especially if the accused turns out to be innocent. If the accused has engaged in inappropriate conduct, the person must be disciplined according to the severity of the con- duct, whether through a warning or immediate termination or various other options in between. The entire process must be documented, and all employees must understand that there cannot be retaliation against anyone involved in the process. The representative should also follow up with the alleged victim, government entities, and insur- ance companies as appropriate to make sure the matter is resolved and to minimize the possibility of similar incidents occurring again. The sample sexual harassment policy provides a good start to any sexual abuse prevention program.

■  71

Sample Sexual Harassment Policy

Fitness◾Center,◾Inc.◾(FCI)◾is◾committed◾to◾providing◾a◾workplace◾free◾of◾any◾and◾all◾sexual◾harass- ment.◾It◾is◾both◾against◾the◾law◾and◾FCI◾policy◾for◾any◾employee◾or◾nonemployee◾to◾sexually◾harass◾ any◾coworkers,◾employees,◾or◾customers.◾FCI◾will◾strictly◾enforce◾this◾policy◾to◾the◾full◾extent◾of◾the◾ law,◾and◾adherence◾to◾this◾policy◾is◾a◾mandatory◾condition◾of◾continued◾employment◾with◾FCI.

◾ sexual harassment defined Sexual◾harassment◾is◾defined◾as◾any◾unwelcomed◾sexual◾advances◾or◾visual,◾verbal,◾or◾physical◾ conduct◾of◾a◾sexual◾nature.◾Any◾conduct◾that◾creates◾an◾offensive◾and◾hostile◾work◾environment◾ is◾sexual◾harassment.◾Furthermore,◾any◾sexual◾conduct◾that◾is◾coerced◾by◾a◾person◾in◾a◾posi- tion◾of◾apparent◾or◾actual◾power◾or◾authority◾is◾sexual◾harassment.◾Sexual◾harassment◾involves◾ a◾wide◾variety◾of◾behaviors◾between◾members◾of◾the◾opposite◾sex◾as◾well◾as◾members◾of◾the◾ same◾sex.◾It◾should◾be◾clear◾that◾some◾conduct◾that◾may◾be◾appropriate◾in◾a◾social◾setting,◾ between◾friends,◾or◾even◾between◾individuals◾involved◾in◾a◾consensual◾relationship◾may◾not◾be◾ appropriate◾in◾the◾workplace.◾Some◾prohibited◾conduct◾examples◾are◾described◾in◾this◾docu- ment.◾These◾represent◾only◾examples◾and◾are◾not◾an◾exhaustive◾list◾of◾conduct◾that◾is◾defined◾ by◾FCI◾and◾the◾courts◾as◾sexual◾harassment.

◾◾ Physical◾harassment:◾unwanted◾physical◾contact◾of◾a◾sexual◾nature◾including,◾but◾not◾limited◾ to,◾fondling,◾groping,◾suggestive◾touching,◾impeding◾or◾blocking◾movement,◾brushing◾up◾ against◾the◾body,◾or◾any◾other◾activity◾that◾causes◾contact◾or◾the◾threat◾of◾unwanted◾contact

◾◾ Verbal◾harassment:◾excessive◾sexual◾jokes,◾innuendo,◾or◾suggestive◾comments;◾persistent◾ and◾unwanted◾sexual◾advances;◾propositions◾or◾requests◾for◾companionship;◾any◾verbal◾ offer◾ of◾ employment,◾ advancement,◾ increased◾ salary,◾ or◾ other◾ benefits◾ in◾ exchange◾ for◾ sexual◾activity;◾threatened◾or◾actual◾employment◾reprisals,◾threats,◾demotions,◾or◾termina- tions◾after◾refusal◾of◾any◾sexual◾advances;◾any◾graphic,◾lewd,◾or◾offensive◾comments◾about◾ a◾person’s◾body◾or◾body◾parts

◾◾ Nonverbal◾harassment:◾staring,◾leering,◾obscene◾gestures;◾displaying◾or◾distributing◾offensive◾ or◾sexually◾suggestive◾objects,◾pictures,◾cartoons,◾drawings,◾or◾posters;◾making◾or◾airing◾sug- gestive◾or◾insulting◾sounds;◾writing◾or◾distributing◾offensive,◾suggestive,◾or◾obscene◾notes◾ or◾letters

Examples of sexual harassment or potential sexual harass- ment due to a hostile work environment can be found in many sport facilities. In one case, 25 women worked as cleaning and janitorial staff members at a large stadium. Imagine that you are a foreign worker, and your supervisor threatens to deport you or hurt your chance of staying in the country if you do not do what you are told. You are not asked to clean the supervisor’s car or perform other tasks that are inappropriate; rather, you must perform sexual favors to keep your job or avoid deportation. At this sport facility, the cleaning supervisor grabbed the women, tried to take off their clothes, attempted to have sex with them, and threatened them with termination if they did not cooper- ate. The women filed a claim with the Equal Employment

Behind the scenes: sexual harassment

Behind the Scenes

Opportunity Commission (EEOC). The EEOC and Astro- dome USA worked out a settlement of more than $500,000 to settle the claims (Fried and Miller, 1998).

Every year more and more claims of sexual harass- ment surface in the sport business world. Most sport and athletic cases focus on a coach misbehaving with athletes, but there are also cases of female employees being mis- treated by their employers. One of the more famous cases in the past couple of years was an $11.6 million judgment against Isiah Thomas and Madison Square Garden after one of the female executives charged the former star athlete and general manager and his employers with engaging in a pattern of inappropriate behavior (“MSG, Isiah Thomas,” 2007).

continued ▶

72  ■

This◾is◾not◾an◾exhaustive◾list◾of◾prohibited◾conduct.◾The◾term◾offensive◾or◾obscene◾refers◾to◾ any◾conduct,◾activity,◾words,◾or◾sounds◾that◾an◾average◾person◾of◾normal◾sensitivity◾would◾find◾ offensive◾or◾obscene.

◾ sexual harassment reporting Procedures If◾ you◾ believe◾ that◾ you◾ have◾ been◾ the◾ subject◾ of◾ sexual◾ harassment,◾ immediately◾ report◾ the◾ harassment◾to◾your◾supervisor,◾the◾human◾resources◾department,◾or◾FCI’s◾sexual◾harassment◾ coordinator◾(Ms.◾Sally◾Smith).◾Do◾not◾report◾the◾conduct◾to◾the◾person◾who◾allegedly◾harassed◾ you,◾but◾to◾anyone◾who◾is◾independent◾of◾or◾superior◾to◾the◾alleged◾harasser.◾Do◾not◾wait◾a◾ significant◾period◾(more◾than◾one◾week)◾after◾the◾alleged◾harassment◾has◾occurred◾to◾report◾ the◾incident.◾Such◾actions◾could◾jeopardize◾the◾ability◾to◾fully◾investigate◾a◾complaint◾or◾to◾find◾ necessary◾witnesses.◾All◾complaints◾will◾be◾promptly◾investigated◾in◾a◾discreet◾manner.◾Information◾ will◾be◾given◾to◾the◾complaining◾party◾only◾after◾a◾thorough◾investigation◾has◾been◾completed.◾ Investigation◾will◾normally◾entail◾conferring◾with◾the◾parties◾involved◾and◾any◾potential◾witnesses◾ disclosed◾by◾the◾complainant.◾FCI◾will◾take◾any◾and◾all◾necessary◾steps,◾including◾all◾forms◾of◾ discipline,◾to◾stop◾the◾offensive◾or◾inappropriate◾conduct.◾The◾complainant◾will◾be◾informed◾of◾all◾ findings◾uncovered◾through◾the◾investigation◾process◾and◾all◾actions◾taken◾as◾a◾result◾thereof.◾ FCI◾takes◾every◾sexual◾harassment◾claim◾seriously◾and◾will◾resolve◾any◾and◾all◾complaints.◾No◾ punitive◾action◾will◾ever◾be◾taken◾against◾a◾complainant◾who◾files◾a◾valid◾complaint.◾FCI◾will◾ not◾tolerate◾any◾retaliation◾or◾conduct◾of◾a◾retaliatory◾nature◾against◾any◾person◾who◾has◾filed◾ a◾ valid◾ complaint◾ or◾ who◾ is◾ a◾ witness◾ in◾ any◾ sexual◾ harassment◾ investigation.◾A◾ person◾ who◾ files◾a◾false◾and◾malicious◾sexual◾harassment◾claim◾will◾face◾severe◾disciplinary◾repercussions◾ including,◾but◾not◾limited◾to,◾termination.

If◾FCI◾is◾unable◾to◾successfully◾resolve◾a◾complaint◾through◾the◾use◾of◾internal◾procedures,◾ or◾if◾any◾employee◾who◾suffers◾sexual◾harassment◾is◾reluctant◾to◾utilize◾the◾internal◾procedures,◾ such◾employee◾can◾file◾a◾complaint◾with◾any◾appropriate◾state◾or◾federal◾agency.◾The◾employee◾ bulletin◾ board◾ contains◾ a◾ poster◾ reiterating◾ FCI’s◾ sexual◾ harassment◾ policy◾ and◾ describing◾ appropriate◾contact◾agencies◾for◾filing◾claims.◾State◾or◾federal◾agencies◾will◾normally◾conduct◾ an◾investigation◾and◾attempt◾to◾resolve◾the◾matter◾if◾a◾claim◾is◾filed◾with◾such◾a◾government◾ entity.◾If◾evidence◾is◾found◾of◾sexual◾harassment,◾the◾matter◾can◾be◾brought◾to◾a◾public◾hearing.◾ Possible◾remedies◾could◾include◾back◾pay,◾promotion,◾reinstatement,◾hiring,◾changes◾in◾FCI’s◾ policy◾and◾procedures,◾emotional◾distress◾damages,◾and◾possible◾fines.

FCI◾has◾never◾tolerated◾and◾will◾never◾tolerate,◾and◾the◾law◾specially◾prohibits,◾any◾retaliation◾ against◾any◾employee◾for◾filing◾or◾otherwise◾participating◾in◾any◾hearing,◾proceeding,◾or◾inves- tigation◾associated◾with◾a◾valid◾sexual◾harassment◾claim◾filed◾with◾any◾government◾agency◾or◾ commission.

If◾you◾have◾any◾comments,◾questions,◾or◾concerns◾about◾sexual◾harassment,◾please◾contact◾ FCI’s◾sexual◾harassment◾coordinator.

I,◾_____________________,◾have◾read◾and◾understand◾all◾the◾above◾statements.◾I◾have◾had◾an◾ opportunity◾to◾ask◾any◾questions◾I◾have◾concerning◾FCI’s◾sexual◾harassment◾policy.◾In◾consider- ation◾for◾being◾hired◾or◾continuing◾my◾employment◾with◾FCI,◾I◾hereby◾agree◾to◾follow◾FCI’s◾sexual◾ harassment◾policy◾and◾will◾indemnify◾and◾hold◾FCI◾harmless◾for◾any◾and◾all◾liability◾and◾attorney◾ fees◾if◾I◾engage◾in◾inappropriate◾conduct◾including,◾but◾not◾limited◾to,◾sexual◾harassment◾or◾ retaliating◾against◾any◾person◾who◾has◾filed◾a◾sexual◾harassment◾claim.

________________________________◾ ◾ _______________

Signature◾ ◾ ◾ ◾ ◾ Date Reprinted,◾by◾permission,◾from◾G.◾Fried◾and◾L.◾Miller,◾1998,◾Employment law,◾(Durham,◾NC:◾Carolina◾Academic◾Press).

sample sexual harassment Policy (continued)

Management◾Theory◾and◾Human◾Resources◾ ■  73

Summary Facility◾ managers◾ must◾ manage◾ facilities◾ and◾ the◾ people◾ who◾ are◾ in◾ them.◾ Although◾facilities◾cannot◾be◾motivated◾or◾fired,◾employees◾can,◾and◾that◾is◾why◾ facility◾managers◾have◾to◾spend◾a◾significant◾amount◾of◾time◾managing◾employees.

Besides◾ managing◾ employees,◾ facility◾ managers◾ have◾ to◾ become◾ leaders◾ or◾ retain◾leaders◾who◾can◾motivate◾personnel◾to◾provide◾the◾highest◾level◾of◾service◾ quality.◾Leadership◾entails◾making◾tough◾decisions,◾and◾one◾of◾the◾more◾difficult◾ decisions◾ may◾ be◾ whether◾ to◾ use◾ an◾ outsourcing◾ company◾ rather◾ than◾ existing◾ personnel.

Managing◾people◾is◾an◾art◾and◾an◾acquired◾skill.◾Not◾everyone◾is◾comfortable◾ with◾managing◾others.◾However,◾leaders◾need◾to◾be◾found◾in◾every◾facility◾to◾take◾ charge◾and◾ensure◾that◾work◾is◾done,◾whether◾by◾employees,◾volunteers,◾interns,◾ or◾ independent◾ contractors.◾ By◾ combining◾ current◾ employees◾ and◾ industry◾ professionals,◾along◾with◾using◾information◾from◾industry◾associations,◾a◾manager◾ can◾increase◾his◾skills◾and◾comfort◾level◾in◾managing◾and◾leading◾others,◾and◾the◾ result◾will◾hopefully◾be◾a◾better◾facility◾and◾work◾environment◾for◾everyone.

A◾facility◾manager◾is◾often◾called◾upon◾to◾be◾a◾referee◾in◾disputes◾involving◾other◾ administrators,◾ employees,◾ patrons,◾ external◾ contractors,◾ government◾ officials,◾ the◾ media,◾ and◾ many◾ others◾ who◾ can◾ affect◾ those◾ working◾ in◾ a◾ facility.◾ Besides◾ mediating◾ disputes◾ and◾ helping◾ to◾ resolve◾ conflicts,◾ a◾ manager◾ has◾ to◾ serve◾ as◾ a◾ mentor,◾ clergyperson,◾ and◾ psychologist◾ at◾ different◾ times.◾The◾ other◾ major◾ element◾that◾necessitates◾significant◾managerial◾oversight◾comprises◾all◾the◾legal◾ requirements◾ related◾ to◾ hiring,◾ training,◾ promoting,◾ and◾ terminating◾ employees.◾ Issues◾ from◾ unionization◾ to◾ sexual◾ harassment◾ take◾ a◾ significant◾ amount◾ of◾ a◾ manager’s◾time,◾and◾there◾is◾never◾a◾downtime◾when◾it◾comes◾to◾legal◾concerns.◾ The◾next◾part◾highlights◾the◾various◾issues◾associated◾with◾building◾the◾facility◾in◾ which◾the◾employees◾will◾work.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  Define◾management◾and◾then◾leadership,◾and◾then◾explain◾the◾difference◾

between◾the◾two.

  2.  How◾would◾you◾motivate◾employees◾if◾they◾do◾not◾respect◾you◾as◾a◾leader?   3.  Do◾you◾have◾the◾managerial◾strength◾to◾fire◾a◾friend◾who◾has◾not◾performed◾

up◾to◾expectations◾but◾has◾not◾done◾anything◾wrong?

  4.  Read◾a◾management◾book◾and◾critique◾it◾for◾application◾to◾the◾facility◾ management◾area.◾What◾can◾you◾take◾from◾the◾book◾to◾apply◾in◾the◾facility◾ management◾context?

  5.  Why◾would◾any◾facility◾want◾to◾hire◾a◾facility◾management◾company?   6.  What◾would◾you◾include◾in◾the◾job◾analysis◾and◾description◾for◾an◾usher,◾a◾

concessionaire,◾and◾a◾facility◾manager?

  7.  Under◾what◾circumstances◾would◾it◾be◾advisable◾to◾outsource◾facility◾ management◾functions?

  8.  How◾would◾you◾handle◾a◾sexual◾harassment◾complaint◾in◾a◾sport◾facility?   9.  Develop◾specific◾policies◾and◾procedures◾you◾believe◾would◾be◾important◾to◾

include◾in◾an◾employee◾manual.

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■  75

Facility Development

part ii

Although it is critical to know how to run a building, the first item to address is having a building. Part II examines the process of creating and building a sport facility. There are numerous types of sport facilities, so it is impossible to exam- ine each and every kind. Thus, an overall view is used to acquaint the reader with the general steps taken when a facility is planned, designed, and then built.

Chapter 4 highlights the facility planning pro- cess. Imagine preparing for a wedding but failing to contact a caterer, a hall, a photographer. . . . The event would be a disaster. Similarly, every facility needs to go through a comprehensive planning process to make sure the right facility is built, with all the right components. This chapter discusses what issues should be examined during the plan- ning process, suggests strategies for garnering com- munity support, identifies the possible constituents who should be involved in the decision, shows how to conduct a needs assessment, describes the types of facilities that can be built, and concludes with an analysis of feasibility studies.

From the planning process, the reader is brought to the facility site analysis and then the

building design phase. Chapter 5 highlights how to choose the best potential site for building a new facility. The adage “location, location, location” is very appropriate, as a perfect facility structure built in the wrong location can never be perfect. Fans want to go to a game or event and travel the best route and be in the best area. Once a facility is built, it cannot be moved, so location is criti- cal. The chapter goes on to cover analyzing the potential sites, examining strengths of and con- cerns with various sites, and analyzing the costs associated with various sites before ending with facility design issues.

The last chapter in Part II examines how to build the facility. From deciding who will build the facility and at what cost through obtaining the occupancy permits, the building process can be very stressful and contain many hurdles. Vari- ous construction elements are covered in chapter 6, from the materials used to build facilities to specific components in sport facilities such as fields and locker rooms. The chapter ends with an analysis of the cost to build a facility and what is required to finalize a facility before it can be used.

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4

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾the◾principles◾of◾planning◾a◾facility.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾need◾to◾continually◾plan◾for◾existing◾facilities.

◾◾ Develop◾a◾thorough◾understanding◾of◾how◾to◾plan◾for◾a◾new◾facility.

◾◾ Compare◾the◾various◾types◾of◾sport◾facilities◾as◾an◾aid◾to◾finalizing◾ options◾that◾arise◾in◾the◾planning◾process.

◾◾ Appreciate◾that◾some◾of◾the◾data◾utilized◾to◾justify◾building◾new◾ facilities◾will◾be◾uncertain◾or◾biased,◾and◾try◾to◾verify◾all◾data.

◾◾ Develop◾an◾understanding◾of◾the◾entire◾facility◾business◾plan◾process◾ and◾the◾components◾necessary◾to◾gain◾appropriate◾approval.

Facility planning

78  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My Name is Don Aselin, and I was the owner and operations manager for Sportspark of New York in Rochester. I have been an operations manager for 42 years. I started as a softball player in college and fell in love with the amateur sport industry. My first job after graduating with a degree in accounting was as a sales

account executive for a national music company promoter. After working in that capacity for 10 years I decided to change venues in my life, do something I loved, and became an event administrator for the local county parks department programs. At the time I managed a crew of 5 full-time and 20 part-time employees. My daily responsibilities included

◾ managing 300-plus softball teams, from youth to adult leagues;

◾ directing the scheduling and special events of these countywide leagues; and

◾ coordinating all equipment needs and field maintenance.

After working in that job for three years I decided to take on a partner and build a 40-acre multisport facility in New York called Sportspark of New York. At the complex, I worked my way up from facility manager to operations manager as I learned the spe- cific needs of the sport industry. The most difficult part of my job was handling the facilities planning, budgetary process, large-scale scheduling, various team scheduling conflicts, food service trends, field and court maintenance, staffing advertising, and promotion of the amateur sports we were involved in. In the 1970s there were no national amateur sport facility support groups to help find the answers to all our operations questions. Most efforts on our part were trial and error, but in most cases we were suc- cessful. Our needs included, but were not limited to, the following:

◾ Exchanging ideas with other parties around the country that were doing basically the same thing we were in New York on a multisport level

◾ Establishing high standards among the local and regional amateur sport facilities to promote growth of all our amateur sport programs and facilities planning

◾ Setting up some sort of bulk purchase pool to help defray costs to maintain the integrity of our facility budgets

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◾A se

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◾ Coordinating the construction standards to help improve facility designs and layouts to best accommodate multiple amateur sports on the same fields for complete multiuse of facilities

◾ Working as a liaison with the national amateur sports sanctioning bodies to help promote the sports and events for our facility

◾ Establishing and coordinating standards in hiring and training staff for a multisport facil- ity atmosphere

In 1981 a group of amateur sport facility owners and operators and park and recreation directors started a national nonprofit organization called Sportsplex Operators and Developers Association (SODA) in Hutchinson, Kansas, to resolve and work on some of these problems on a national level. Today, SODA operates out of New York, and I am happy to have worked my way up through the ranks of their board of directors to become its executive director in 1997. SODA works hand in hand with the gov- erning bodies of national amateur sports to help set standards for safe and efficient playing environments for all amateur athletic facilities. At SODA, some of the biggest mistakes we see developers run into most often are as follows:

◾ Overplanning on a scale that is not attainable with local market demographics or market con- ditions and not allowing enough green space for future development

◾ Limiting a facility to a single sport instead of multiple sports as needed to survive popularity swings in amateur sports

◾ Not developing sport facilities in stages (at least three phases) to preserve cash flow and help pay for portions of future expansion rather than financing

◾ Not limiting debt service where possible

◾ Not finding the appropriate and adequate financing to carry out the proper development of a major sport facility (most new facilities in the past 10 years ran out of money before the projects were completed)

To help the amateur sport industry, publications such as this one are a must to maintain the integ- rity of the industry and to give guidance to those who wish to develop it, promote it, and make it a viable national business. Had these resources been available to me some 42 years ago, my life and my operations would have been much easier in the area of facilities planning and management.

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  79

Planning is the process of determining a facil-ity’s future direction. Facility management is not conducted using a fortune teller gazing into a crystal ball. Facility management occurs through proper planning and then execution of the plan. This chapter deals with the planning process and its importance for facility managers.

As discussed in chapter 2, planning is a fun- damental skill required by all managers. Manag- ers must plan for capital improvements, staffing needs, crowd dynamics, emergencies, and book- ing and scheduling (including breaks for sched- uled and unscheduled maintenance).

Whether developing goals and objectives or planning new marketing techniques, any facility manager finds that planning occupies a significant amount of time. The planning process is most evident in facility management, which involves planning for each event, all repairs, ticket-selling strategies, facility renovations, and all new construction. Thus, planning can originate as a result of short-term needs or a long-term vision. There are numerous planning demands for a large stadium or arena and different issues for a high school facility. Since these demands are so dif- ferent, it would be impossible to cover all issues for each facility. Thus, this chapter covers general planning issues.

This chapter addresses the steps in the plan- ning process, with a detailed examination of planning for existing facilities and planning for future facilities. Special attention focuses on the steps involved in the planning process for a new facility. Additional discussion centers on facilities in Houston, Texas, and New Haven, Connecticut. We examine the types of facilities that exist, how to conduct a feasibility study, how to determine the best site selection, and how to develop an appropriate facility plan that can be used to con- vince the voters or lenders to support the project. A critical component of this plan is the financing element. How will the new facility be financed, and where will the money come from for contin- ued operations and maintenance?

Fundamentals of Planning Planning can help make an otherwise unworkable deal work. For example, Clark College in Vancou- ver needed some extra classroom space for sports medicine and sport management classes and worked out a deal to help construct a 5,000-seat

baseball stadium to be shared with a professional baseball team. Both entities would receive some- thing of value through looking outside the box to solve a problem (Hewitt, 1998). Thus, planning needs to examine unique solutions that accom- modate the needs of multiple parties. Robert Kraft, owner of the New England Patriots, provides another example. To generate additional profits, Kraft wanted to develop a comprehensive enter- tainment establishment for his team. Through aggressive land acquisitions, he purchased a large amount of land and built Gillette Stadium. He then built adjacent to the stadium a shopping, dining, and entertainment complex named Patriot Place that features numerous stores, restaurants, and entertainment venues.

There is no one correct method to plan. Never- theless, a facility cannot exist without planning. Some facilities lie vacant because of incorrect planning, while other facilities have too many events and demands on facility time because of poor planning. Thus, planning is the process of determining the appropriate allocation of precious resources to ensure facility success. The failure to properly plan will not necessarily lead to failure of a facility. However, it can lead to significant hardship that may take years to overcome or may never be overcome.

Planning can be accomplished through numer- ous means. The most productive planning tech- nique is to utilize a group of people. The group can include a broad range of people, from facil- ity users and community members to lawyers, architects, and engineers. These people are col- lectively referred to by some as “a gang in a room” (AGIR). This technique contrasts sharply with the authoritarian technique whereby one person decides everything. Although the latter technique is frequently used in smaller buildings, this does not make it correct—a group can always provide additional insight to help improve the accuracy of projections. The process in which one person makes all the decisions is often called OMOM (one man on a mountain) (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997). The OMOM process is also seen in a top-down management system in which all those under the leader are afraid to challenge the leader, and they push a project through no matter how bad they think it is.

Two types of planning are critical for facilities: planning for existing facilities and planning for future facilities.

80  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Planning for Existing Facilities A manager may be hired to help develop a facil- ity from the beginning conceptual stages, since a manager may be able to identify concerns or opportunities during the planning process. Some facility managers specifically take a job managing a yet-to-be-built facility because they want the challenge or the opportunity to be part of some- thing new and exciting—and it can be very excit- ing to work on a building from the design phase all the way through to obtaining the occupancy permit. But while most facility managers never plan for more than one new facility during their careers, managers of an existing facility always need to plan for the next day, month, and year.

Planning for an existing facility entails examin- ing the current uses and future potential uses. For some facilities this process can be fairly simple. Managers of a single-use facility such as an ice rink know what events will be held in the future and how to plan for those events. Such planning includes coordinating maintenance schedules and personnel; monitoring electricity usage to keep the ice frozen; scheduling daily events, spe- cial events, and games; coordinating concession purchases and sales; and dealing with numerous other concerns associated with various facets of the facility and its ancillary areas (bathrooms, parking lots, and so on). Fiscal planning is often the most important planning concern. In an ice rink, a breakdown of the Zamboni can generate five-figure expenses within minutes. If the facility has only $5,000 in the bank and no credit, how can it handle such emergencies? Through plan- ning, the facility hopefully has analyzed existing systems and maintenance needs to project future capital requirements.

Money, Personnel, and Scheduling Money is needed to run a facility. After a given sum of money has been raised to construct a facil- ity, there obviously needs to be enough money to keep it running. This concern is often raised at planning meetings when a facility is being pro- posed, but it is not as frequently addressed later. At schools, for example, often the primary concern is providing appropriate funding for teachers or charging students a fee for participating in sport so that there is money for transportation, coaches, or uniforms. Facility-related costs are frequently an afterthought. It is not uncommon to walk into

a gymnasium and see nonfunctioning lights. Is the school waiting for more lights to go out so that it is worthwhile bringing in a hoisting unit, or does the school simply lack funds to replace the lights?

Personnel is another major concern in planning for existing facilities. Are there enough employees to operate the facility? The hours that the facility will be open and the events that will be held help dictate the number of people that will be required for facility operation. The planning process will also help determine where employees may be needed and what skills will be needed.

Another major issue in the planning pro- cess is facility scheduling. If the facility has 20 scheduled events for a week, how will all the events work together without causing problems? Scheduling may also raise equity issues. Will all the basketball games be played at night? If so, is this fair to the minor sports such as volleyball or badminton? Could such a schedule be seen as discriminatory, particularly if the volleyball play- ers are all women? Furthermore, would it matter what participant numbers are expected for each event? These types of questions require careful consideration.

These examples help suggest how important planning is for an existing facility. The planning processes required for the future of an existing facility are similar to planning for a new facility. Background data (internal and external) need to be obtained and compared with facility policies and procedures. All this information is crafted into a document, the plan, that helps drive the facility into the future.

Space Management Space management refers to future growth needs and the proper allocation of time and space for bookings, which are the best means to maximize revenue generation. A facility may be large enough to support current needs, but what if new activi- ties are added and there is no additional room? Management might need to lease (rent) additional space so there will be enough space for all activi- ties. Move management may require analyzing where in a building people or equipment can be moved to free up space. However, space planning requires a more significant effort to provide for the future. The failure to plan can result in unneces- sary moves and relocating expenses, the need to rent additional space, underutilization of existing space, and related situations that not only waste

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  81

money but can also demoralize those who must pay the price for poor space management.

Facility managers normally plan based on standard allocations such as the square footage required for each staff member multiplied by the number of staff members. If each marketing employee requires 100 square feet (9.3 sq m) and there are currently 10 marketing employees, then the office space for marketing, not including corridors or other common areas, needs to be at least 1,000 square feet (93 sq m). If the office area is only 1,000 square feet, what would happen if a new employee was hired? Another 100 square feet would be needed. Through space planning, a facility manager creates space for future growth through such means as redesigning existing space or leasing additional space with the idea that personnel can grow into a facility.

Other space planning concerns include swing space and growth space. Swing space is any space that is available during renovations, alterations, or realignment. A corner of the gym used to store equipment during renovation of a room is an example of swing space. Growth space is space contiguous to currently utilized space that allows a business to expand without undertaking any addi- tional construction or leasing (Cotts and Lee, 1992). Large businesses require 2% to 3% growth space, and smaller businesses require 5% to 7% growth space. Growth space is based on historical growth data or anticipated future growth if new programs or activities are planned. Thus, growth space plan- ning requires significant managerial input.

Facilities often face problems when adminis- trators plan for growth and do not tell the facil- ity managers about the plans. In one facility, the school administrators planned for a nature trail with a crushed-gravel walkway. The facility administrator was not asked about facility-related concerns and was not consulted during the entire process until the construction began. At this point he rushed to raise concerns such as the lack of toi- lets to service the area, the lack of electricity, the need to ensure compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act, and other problems relating to the growth space. These last-minute concerns cost the school a significant amount of time and money. This situation probably could have been avoided through proper planning. Issues that should be examined by the facility and business managers include the amount of space available, the type of space available, the overall facility

condition, architectural limitations, and the abil- ity to interact with other business units.

Planning for Future Facilities Future facilities raise numerous concerns such as where to build, what to build, and how to pay for the facility. Only through effective planning can a facility be developed that meets the greatest cur- rent needs, anticipates future needs, and causes the least amount of harm. For example, facilities today need to be planned with an eye toward media exposure, demographics, property size, planned events, being environmentally friendly (LEED cer- tified), and the “sellability” of commercial rights such as naming rights and personal seat licenses (PSLs). A list of planning questions that one should ask when considering the construction of a new sport facility is shown on page 82.

This planning process starts with an analysis of existing internal and external constituents. The internal constituents are the people who will use the facility, such as athletes, students, or specta- tors. The external constituents are stakeholders outside the facility such as government leaders, alumni, donors, and others who have an interest in the facility but are outside the traditional facil- ity planning process. A politician may approve funds that can help construct the facility, and she may eventually use the facility. However, this person is still considered an external constituent since she is not a primary user. People who are a potential internal constituent because they might at one time use the facility are distinguished from people for whom the facility is planned and who may use the facility every week.

How should a group, whether public or private, plan for a new facility? Steps include the following:

◾ Conducting a feasibility study ◾ Developing a potential budget ◾ Organizing various planning committees ◾ Setting realistic goals and objectives ◾ Researching the political and financial mar- ketplace

◾ Trying to bring aboard the right people before the project even starts

Other useful planning strategies include gar- nering community support, creating a planning committee, conducting a needs assessment, and identifying comparable facilities.

82  ■

Typical Planning Questions for a New Sport Facility

◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾be◾an◾integral◾part◾of◾the◾organization? ◾◾ Does◾the◾facility◾take◾into◾account◾current◾and◾future◾needs? ◾◾ Is◾the◾facility◾planned◾for◾maximum◾usage? ◾◾ Is◾the◾facility◾centrally◾located,◾and◾are◾there◾existing◾transportation◾routes◾such◾as◾roads? ◾◾ Is◾adequate◾parking◾available? ◾◾ Are◾utilities◾available◾such◾as◾electricity,◾sewage,◾water,◾and◾gas? ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾comply◾with◾all◾local,◾state,◾and◾national◾standards? ◾◾ Has◾the◾soil◾been◾tested◾for◾any◾contamination? ◾◾ Has◾the◾title◾been◾searched◾to◾make◾sure◾there◾are◾no◾claims◾against◾the◾property◾such◾

as◾liens? ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾be◾constructed◾with◾cost◾reduction,◾environmental◾concerns,◾and◾reduced◾

maintenance◾costs◾as◾top◾priorities? ◾◾ Can◾the◾space◾be◾maximized—for◾example,◾can◾the◾rooftop◾be◾used◾for◾additional◾rec-

reational◾activities? ◾◾ Has◾safety◾been◾highlighted◾throughout◾the◾planning◾process? ◾◾ Has◾system◾engineering◾been◾analyzed◾to◾reduce◾electrical◾and◾maintenance◾costs? ◾◾ Are◾locker◾rooms◾planned◾with◾sloped◾floors◾so◾water◾can◾drain◾effectively? ◾◾ Have◾surface◾choices◾been◾analyzed◾to◾lower◾maintenance◾costs◾and◾reduce◾the◾threat◾

of◾dust,◾allergens,◾and◾other◾airborne◾material? ◾◾ Is◾the◾facility◾planned◾with◾adequate◾buffer◾room◾between◾activity◾areas? ◾◾ Will◾the◾ceiling◾height◾be◾sufficient◾to◾support◾all◾intended◾uses? ◾◾ Is◾the◾facility◾designed◾with◾enough◾usable◾storage◾areas? ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾meet◾all◾lighting,◾sound,◾and◾related◾usage◾standards? ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾utilize◾security◾systems◾such◾as◾closed-circuit◾television◾(CCTV),◾card◾scan-

ners,◾or◾special◾locks? ◾◾ Have◾ broadcasting◾ issues◾ been◾ taken◾ into◾ consideration◾ if◾ there◾ may◾ be◾ broadcasts◾ in◾

the◾future? ◾◾ Are◾the◾needs◾of◾the◾media,◾such◾as◾a◾press◾box,◾being◾considered? ◾◾ Are◾scorekeeping◾and◾timekeeping◾needs◾being◾considered? ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾need◾specialized◾equipment◾such◾as◾backboard◾systems,◾floor◾plates,◾wall◾

hangers,◾ceiling◾attachments,◾and◾other◾specialty◾items? ◾◾ Will◾specialized◾rooms◾be◾needed◾for◾such◾activities◾as◾ticket◾sales◾or◾laundry? ◾◾ Will◾personal◾transportation◾(vertical,◾horizontal)◾be◾installed? ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾accommodate◾the◾needs◾of◾the◾disabled,◾and◾how◾will◾it◾accomplish◾this◾goal ◾◾ Will◾the◾facility◾utilize◾general◾or◾reserved◾admissions,◾and◾what◾type◾of◾seating◾options◾will◾

be◾available? ◾◾ What◾risk◾management◾steps◾have◾been◾taken◾to◾avoid◾both◾minor◾and◾serious◾threats? ◾◾ How◾many◾bathrooms◾will◾be◾available,◾and◾will◾there◾be◾options◾for◾men,◾women,◾children,◾

and◾families? ◾◾ Is◾there◾enough◾room◾for◾people◾to◾mingle? ◾◾ How◾many◾concessions◾stands◾will◾be◾built,◾and◾where◾will◾they◾be◾positioned?

From◾Details, details◾1985.

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  83

Community Support

If any public funds will be used, the planning process requires community involvement in order to generate community buy-in. Any effort to reach out to the public requires the facility planners to be honest. People should not be invited to meetings if they will not be allowed to provide meaningful input that will be used. If people attend the meetings and are ignored, the process will generate more negativity than would be the case if it had never been undertaken. Although the community meeting should be very formal, it must also be fun and engaging to help bring people to meetings in the future. Numerous community boards fail because the meetings are not produc- tive, are boring, and are a waste of everyone’s time. This process can also be enhanced if the board members are focused on the public good rather than individual agendas.

Often the most important part of gaining community support is convincing the public about the need for the facility. Through utilizing common sense and allies, facility planners can win some opponents over. Some opponents may need incentives, which can be identified through negotiations. Others will always be opponents. But planners should never burn bridges, even if there is posturing. People who are major oppo- nents today may change their tune years down the road (e.g., when they have grandchildren who want to use the facility). Thus it is important to take care when dealing with opponents in the planning process.

Some opponents will use the strategy known as NIMBY (not in my backyard). According to this position, the facility is worthwhile and is needed, but it should be built someplace else. For example, citizens frequently are in favor of jails but do not want one built in their town. And although some die-hard sport fans would love to see a stadium within walking distance of their homes, other fans do not want the traffic and noise associated with having a stadium in their “backyards.” At the extreme ends of the spectrum are supporters who want the facility no matter where it is built and their opposites, the BANANA opponents. BANANA stands for “build absolutely nothing anywhere near anything.” These people oppose building a facility because of a reluctance to spend public funds, a dislike of sport, or countless other reasons. Regardless of the reason for support or

opposition, a facility planner needs to understand and appreciate opponents and respect their right to disagree.

It is also crucial for planners to be forthright from the very beginning. If those involved in the planning process believe they have been heard and that their concerns have been addressed, they will be more likely to be supporters rather than detractors. Fairfield University in Connecticut was sued by four neighbors over playing fields equipped with lights. The neighbors claimed that the sound was too loud and that lights from the fields allowed them to read the newspaper in their houses at night without any of their own lights on (Tepfer, 1999). If these neighbors had been involved in the planning process, and had been informed about the systems being installed and the times they would be used, the lawsuit could possibly have been averted. At the same time, though, it is important to note that even if everyone is involved in the planning process and every view has been raised, there will always be disgruntled people who will challenge the plans for a facility.

Some community facility planning boards travel to visit other facilities to compare and con- trast various features. This is an active planning component that can generate enthusiasm among participants because they learn more about their purposes and the importance of their analysis in shaping the facility. However, voters and support- ers may be resentful if too many trips are taken or if the trips are used as political payoff. Special care should be taken to choose committee mem- bers who will represent their constituents in an honest and forthright manner.

Planning Committee It may seem relatively easy to create a committee to help plan for the future facility; the difficulty lies in determining who should be on the commit- tee. The appointment process is often very politi- cal, and leaving out key constituents can lead to significant trouble for a planned facility. The process is designed to elicit critical assistance, not develop enemies. A typical committee to plan for a college recreation center might include the following representatives (Greusel, 1992):

◾ Administration (student life, development, finance, provost, student activities, public relations, and even the president)

84  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

◾ Athletic department (administration, coaches, trainers, student-athletes, alumni athletes)

◾ Faculty (faculty users, faculty senate, physi- cal education faculty, staff members)

◾ Recreation staff (intramural staff, club sport staff, student participants)

◾ Students (traditional, dorm residents, com- muters, evening, undergraduate, graduate, international, minority, and disabled stu- dents along with student government)

◾ Off-campus constituents (alumni, booster clubs, university foundation members, local government officials, neighbors, local non- profit organizations, high schools, athletic organizations)

Part of establishing a planning committee is choosing one or more leaders to lead the meetings. Leaders must get everyone to cooperate and work toward the same goals. Part of this task requires the leader to focus the participants on ideas rather than personalities. Sometimes people have great ideas, but the ideas are not heard over personality clashes or turf and ego battles.

One of the leader’s responsibilities is to foster compromise. Areas in which compromise can be successful include space, time, programs, and quality (Greusel, 1992). For example, marble may be the material of choice for part of a facility, but it is expensive. A compromise is to use a special finish that looks like marble but costs significantly less. Compromises take place throughout the planning process. However, it should be noted that those who can override the planning process also shepherd in numerous changes. Thus, the committee might decide on a particular material only to have the mayor override the decision. This happens commonly in some projects and can lead to exasperation of the board members.

Even with significant planning and compro- mise, there is no guarantee that elements from the planning process cannot go wrong, as shown in the Houston example on pages 85-86. In fact, a number of facilities have been tarnished because of similar naming debacles. Some were built with naming rights contracts as one of the revenue- generating sources to secure bonds. A facility may be sponsored by a very reputable business, but the situation changes if the business is sold, goes bankrupt, or becomes embroiled in a controversy. The TWA Dome in St. Louis changed its name

to the Edward Jones Dome and lost the goodwill generated by the stadium name recognition when the airline went bankrupt.

Naming rights changes cannot normally be planned for by the facility planning committee and attorneys except through an exit clause in the naming rights contract. First Union Center in Philadelphia faced a name change when Wacho- via Bank took over First Union Bank. With more bankruptcies, mergers, and acquisitions, there will probably continue to be changes that a committee cannot anticipate when planning a facility. But committees cannot focus only on sponsors when trying to avoid problems in the planning pro- cess; it is not just corporations that can generate negative publicity. In Bridgeport, Connecticut, the mayor was convicted on numerous racketeering and corruption charges, some of them stemming from deals regarding the design and construction of a baseball park and arena (“Ganim,” 2003). Even though the facilities are operating well and were running fine before the convictions, the convic- tions created a negative perception of the facility and of the integrity of the planning process.

These types of concerns should be examined throughout the planning process, as biased people can disrupt or destroy the project by trying to advance their own agendas or poor choices. Thus, leaders need to exercise strong managerial skills to prevent the committee from being hijacked. Direction can be provided by assigning subcom- mittees very specific tasks, called charges, such as researching sites. Having been organized and given its charge, the committee must critically analyze what type of facility is needed.

Needs Assessment As shown in the Houston example, the plan- ning process for a new baseball stadium started with a needs assessment made by the planning committee. The assessment showed that profes- sional sports were a major benefit to the Houston community and economy, and the city did not want to lose another professional sport franchise. The needs assessment can be based on internal demand as highlighted by future facility users or by industry-driven needs. Industry-driven needs can be based on various factors, from competing institutions to market forces.

The market-driven needs assessment can be based on industry data showing whether or not a current facility meets industry standards. A

■  85

Behind the Scenes: the Houston Stadium process

Behind the Scenes

The planning process in Houston started with the rec- ognition of a need for a new ballpark, sparked by the NFL Houston Oilers’ leaving for a new football stadium in Nashville. The Oilers had asked for a new stadium in Houston, but there was little public or government support for the idea. This rebuff was partially blamed on the owner, who had a contemptuous relationship with the fans and politicians even though the team contributed significantly to the local economy. On the basis of this loss, the city did not want to lose the Houston Astros baseball team.

Houston’s mayor and county judge established a com- mittee to examine possible sites for a new baseball field. The committee was composed of various community, busi- ness, and industry leaders, including corporate leaders, judges, elected officials, and even university professors (among them the author of this book). The committee returned three major conclusions:

1. The economic value of major sports in Houston was significant to the point that they deserved some level of public support.

2. Professional sports added significant qualitative values to the community.

3. An active program to support developing profes- sional and amateur sports could add significant value to Houston (“Shaping Houston’s Sports Future,” 1996).

The committee concluded that the Astrodome, built in the 1960s and opened in 1965, was too small at 60,000 seats for football, but too large in comparison to the inti- mate baseball stadiums being built in the 1990s.

The preferred plan raised by the committee entailed a $200 million renovation of the Astrodome to be used for football, a $250 million baseball stadium next to the Astrodome, and $175 million for a downtown basketball and hockey arena. However, the arena was not to be examined in the same bill as the baseball stadium. It was thought that if the two were lumped together, it would be too difficult to get voter approval. The proposal was to locate the baseball stadium in the Astrodome area rather than downtown because this option would help buttress the local economy, would reduce the risk that the rodeo would be the only event taking place in the area, and would reduce costs by $20 to $25 million (in comparison to costs for a downtown stadium) since the land was free and infrastructure was already in place. Other reasons were that a large parking lot already existed on the premises, and fans were accustomed to traveling there (“Shaping Houston’s Sports Future,” 1996).

In anticipation of the need to fund the facility with tax- backed bonds, the county had to obtain voter approval for the proposed stadium. In a poll of 650 likely voters, citizens were asked if they supported a new ballpark, and they agreed as long as no new property or sales taxes were to be used. Among the potential voters, 49% thought that the ballpark should be built near the currently existing Astro- dome, while only 31% thought it should be built downtown— where it eventually was built (Stinebaker, 1996). Despite the benefits just described and public sentiment, and contrary to the committee’s conclusions, the political and business

E4804/Fried/DF 4.1/344236/KE/R1

continued ▶

86  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

1999 survey examined college fitness centers and determined the average types, size, and amenities. The survey results showed, for example, that the average college fitness center had increased 10% to 20% between 1994 and 1999. Furthermore, during the same period, the number of recreation directors reporting that they needed to share facili- ties with athletics or physical education decreased from 80% to 56%. Thus, more collegiate fitness centers were being built across the United States and were often being dedicated exclusively to student fitness needs (Patton, 1999). Since that survey, college fitness facilities have grown in cost from averaging $14.2 million in 2004 to $19.4 million in 2009 (Bogar, 2008). These facilities have developed some new trends such as more climb- ing walls, more rooftop usage, more environmen- tally friendly facilities, and a return to mixed-use facilities to prevent wasting floor space. This type of information can be critical in the needs assess- ment area if one of the primary concerns for a fitness facility is to help recruit more students. If prospective students are comparing various col- leges, one of the considerations that may tip the scale is the availability of a recreation center. If a

college wanted to stay competitive, it would need to build such a facility.

Demographics-based market-driven concerns can focus on age, nationality, religion, race, and gender. Some facilities have thrived by catering to specific clientele. Some churches are building health clubs for their current and future members as a way to distinguish themselves and recruit. Curves for women and other health clubs are designed to reach a particular market segment in need of such facilities.

Facility users’ gender is an important consider- ation. If a college is 75% female, more equipment or program space should be set aside for women’s activities versus male-oriented equipment or activities chosen strictly on the basis of their overall popularity. Table 4.1 lists preferred fitness equipment based on a gender survey. Such data are crucial for determining space needs and pro- posed activities for a given facility. On the basis of these data, and unless internal surveys suggest otherwise, a new fitness center that expects to serve equal numbers of men and women would probably emphasize treadmills and bikes to please the largest number of users. Knowing what the

leaders decided to build the ballpark downtown. The major leader promoting this effort was Kenneth Lay, the chairman and CEO of the now-bankrupt Enron Corporation.

The Union Station ballpark was built under the assumption that the Astros would contribute 32% of the construction costs, which was a greater contribution than that provided by owners at several other projects: Camden Yards (10%), Coors Field (24%), Rangers Ball- park in Arlington (26%), Jacobs Field (30%), and Bank One Ballpark (32%) (“Advantage: Houston Taxpayers,” 1996). Such comparisons were part of the effort to sway the public to support the ballpark. The battle was hard fought, and the proponents went so far as to have Mr. Lay write a major editorial piece in support of the vote with the assistance of the Reverend William Lawson, pastor of Wheeler Avenue Baptist Church, which may be the largest church in Houston (Lay and Lawson, 1996). The vote for Proposition 1 was very close, with only 16,000 votes separating the supporters from the opponents. The vote was partially split along racial and economic lines. Only 46.2% to 50.3% of Caucasians voted in favor of the stadium, while 68.1% to 69.2% of African Americans voted for the stadium (Williams, 1996).

Later, Enron agreed to pay $100 million for the naming rights to the ballpark for 30 years (Williams, 1999). Enron would possibly be able to earn as much as $200 mil- lion over the 30 years through managing the ballpark’s energy services and all mechanical and electrical equip- ment. Enron fought with a competitor, Reliant Energy, over which company would lay pipes under downtown streets to deliver cold water for temperature control of the buildings. Reliant Energy’s subsidiary had initially bid $8.73 million, while Enron had bid $12.7 million for the rights to provide the stadium with chilled water (Williams, 1998). With the subsequent demise of Enron, the Astros removed Enron’s name from the ballpark, which is now called Minute Maid Field.

Although this situation happened a number of years ago, it highlights the political battles that can rage around a planned sport facility. There is no such beast as an uncontested arena or stadium project because there will always be someone wanting others to pay and people objecting to their money being spent on services they believe are not as important.

Behind the Scenes: the Houston Stadium process (continued)

From◾Houston◾Chronicle◾1996.

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  87

internal and external constituents want helps to identify the type of facility to be built.

Types of Facilities There are countless types of sport facilities, from empty fields to billion dollar stadiums. Some sport facilities are easy to distinguish. Stadiums and arenas are obviously sport facilities if their primary tenants are professional teams. Other facilities, such as civic centers and multipurpose venues, are blended-use facilities in that they are used for sport but also for numerous other types of events. Another category includes facilities that are used primarily for other activities but also sometimes for sport. Recreation areas such as open fields or beaches may not traditionally be considered sport facilities but at various times serve as such. Knowledge of the broad array of facility types can help planners determine the best facility (or facilities) to serve the constituents.

Stadiums Stadiums are large facilities designed to house

certain field sports such as football, baseball, soccer, lacrosse, rugby, and track and field. Stadi- ums may seat fewer than 100 spectators or more than 100,000. Professional baseball stadiums often hold between 40,000 and 50,000 people; football stadiums often hold between 65,000 and 90,000. All stadiums need a relatively flat surface for play. Almost all fields are built with a crown to assist in water runoff. The crown, a raised section in the middle of the field that a person at ground level can see at the end of a gradual incline, helps reduce the accumulation of water on the field through the use of gravity. Sport stadiums also have additional commonalities such as spectator seating, locker rooms, parking lots, concession

stands, press boxes, and TV and audio sound rooms. These areas vary based on facility size. Thus, a small high school football stadium may have a stand on top of the press box for filming a game. A college or professional stadium may have several rooms for the same purpose.

Structurally, stadiums are now built exclu- sively with steel and concrete. In the 1900s, the first stadiums were built with wood and often burned down. Chapter 1 includes discussion of the stone coliseums—they are still around today, although they may not be in the best shape. Today, stadiums are primarily built for safety and fan convenience.

Arenas Arenas differ from stadiums in their capacity to host more types of events, and they are also pro- tected from the elements. Arenas are fixed seating facilities that can hold from several hundred to more than 30,000 spectators. Professional sport arenas typically hold between 12,000 and 22,000 fans. Similar to stadiums, larger arenas typically have locker rooms, storage areas, press boxes, and concession stands. One of the key elements of an arena is an open floor plan for basketball or hockey. This means that various techniques need to be used in the design process to support the weight of a roof and possibly a scoreboard without any middle support columns.

An arena can host sport events, concerts, cir- cuses, family shows, conventions, and a multitude of other events to increase profits. In fact, most economists argue that a single-use stadium such as a football-only stadium has very limited financial return. During the 10 to 15 event days at a stadium, a lot of money can be made; but the low number of event days puts a limit on total profitability. In contrast, an arena may generate 200-plus event days a year, which provides opportunities to earn more total revenue per year than is the case for stadiums.

Arenas can be constructed with an ice surface for skating or hockey. These systems are very com- plex and beyond the scope of this text. Ice floors require miles of piping and wires to transfer brine or other solutions to the floor subsurface. Numer- ous layers of water are sprayed and frozen to build an appropriate surface. The efforts required to prepare an ice surface are detailed and complex. Significant planning is needed when designing such an arena. For example, most arenas require

Table 4.1 preferred equipment by gender

choice men Women

1st Free◾weights Treadmills

2nd Bikes Steppers

3rd Treadmills Elliptical◾trainers

4th Steppers Bikes

It◾should◾be◾noted◾that◾women◾are◾generally◾more◾inclined◾to◾try◾ new◾ fitness◾ options◾ such◾ as◾ yoga◾ and◾ Pilates.◾ Women◾ are◾ also◾ generally◾more◾flexible◾than◾men◾and◾are◾more◾interested◾in◾toning◾ than◾building◾muscle◾mass.

From◾Patton◾1999.

88  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

a large number of mounting plates in the floor to help hoist the tons of equipment needed for events. Circuses can use more than 100 tons of hanging equipment, and the mounting plates help lift all this weight and serve as tie-down spots. The plates need to be installed before installing an ice-making system since drilling any holes can rupture underlying pipes.

Gyms Some gyms are health clubs that have floor space for aerobics. Other gyms are mini-arenas with a complete basketball court and space for other indoor activities. Today, more than ever, gyms are sprouting up all over the country because of their adaptability. A gym can be used for basket- ball, volleyball, badminton, dancing, aerobics, floor exercises, indoor games, and other activi- ties. Multipurpose is the key to the modern gym. Through technical innovations, improvements in floor surfacing, and other modern amenities, gyms can now be quickly converted from bas- ketball to volleyball and badminton and then to indoor soccer, lacrosse, or dance classes. Gyms are often equipped with multipurpose activity courts (MACs); there are currently several hun- dred such facilities in the United States at various levels (Popke, 2001). The MAC surfaces often include hardwood, synthetic sheet goods, poured urethane, interlocking plastic tiles, and similar flooring elements that can be used for various sports. These types of courts have been installed in facilities measuring 65 by 165 feet (20 by 50 m) as well as in facilities as large as the 104- by 185-foot (32 by 56 m) facility at the University of California at Santa Barbara (Popke, 2001). Similar to gyms are small recreation centers that might focus on quick workouts such as Curves or on a specific sport such as martial arts centers.

Community Sport Centers Community sport facilities can be anything from a pool to a health club, a bowling alley, or an enclosed field. Public parks and schools are con- sidered the most frequently built and managed community facilities. Other community facilities include YMCAs, community recreation centers, and sport facilities built by homeowner associa- tions. Pools are often a major component within community-based sport facilities. As with ice skat- ing and hockey surfaces, pools are highly complex and beyond the scope of this text. Pool construction

itself may be simple, but the heating, pumping, and chemical filtration systems are not. Many people and companies are experts in these systems and are able to help develop and manage pools.

Sportsplexes A sportsplex is a multisport facility that may include indoor or outdoor spaces or a combina- tion of the two. Sportsplexes can be owned by a public entity or a private entity, partnership, or corporation. Typically, sportsplexes have softball fields, soccer fields (both indoor and outdoor), roller-hockey rinks, basketball courts, volleyball courts, and various other recreation facilities or a combination of these.

According to the Sportsplex Operators and Developers Association (SODA) site newsletter, the average sportsplex lies on 47.9 acres of land (SODA, 1993). About 43% of these facilities have 25 to 35 acres, the most popular size range. The average sportsplex has 6.5 softball fields, and the majority of the fields have lights. The average facility is in operation nine months of the year and has been in existence for eight years. Volley- ball is the second most popular sport played at SODA facilities, and soccer is being played more frequently (SODA, 1993).

Domes Domed stadiums have had a major impact on sport facility development since the 1960s. The Astrodome, which was built in 1964, was the first domed stadium. The Astrodome ushered in the building of other domed facilities in cities such as New Orleans, Seattle, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Atlanta, and Detroit.

One of the major reasons for creating domed stadiums was to ensure that games would take place. Cities with unfavorable climates could remove the weather factor by playing indoors. Ticket holders would not need to worry about whether the game would go on. Also, bad weather could deter fans from attending games, hurting ticket sales. Another important reason for build- ing a dome was the ability to hold a variety of events year-round. Domes can host numerous events—the Superdome in Louisiana, for example, hosts New Orleans Saints football games, Tulane University football games, the Nokia Sugar Bowl, and the Bayou Classic and has been the scene of five Super Bowls and three National Collegiate Athletic Association Final Fours. However, with

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  89

Facility Focus

The New Haven City-Wide Field House is a large gym with an indoor track, a weight room, space for a portable full-size basketball court, concession areas, locker rooms, and other amenities to serve several public high schools in New Haven, Connecticut. Some interesting facts about this facility include the following:

◾ The 219-yard (200 m) indoor track is housed in a 360- by 160-foot (110 by 50 m) building frame.

◾ The precast wall systems were built in Quebec, Canada, and trucked to New Haven.

◾ There are 58,900 square feet (5,472 sq m) of sport surfaces.

◾ The entire facility is 102,000 square feet (9,476 sq m).

◾ The school district considered a Mondo system (rolls of synthetic surfacing) but utilized a liquid applied surface costing $350,000 that has no seams but is harder to clean.

◾ Approximately $4.5 million was spent on steel, with 160-foot-long (50 m) trusses, weighing 45 tons, having to be cut in half to be transported and then welded back together in New Haven.

◾ The total construction costs were estimated at between $250 and $260 per square foot.

◾ The heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system utilizes two air-handling systems the size of trucks that are mounted on the roof. When the heat index reaches 100 and the air cannot be cooled, par- ticipants need to be sent home; also if the outside temperature is at 0 °F (−18 °C) and no heat is avail- able, the participants are sent home.

Facility Focus: new Haven city-Wide Field House ◾ The seating capacity is 2,500 and includes both

fixed and portable seating. The portable seating is rolled out with hydraulic lifts that are transported on movable surfaces so the weight of the lift and seats does not harm the floor.

The field house was initially managed by an external management company, using unionized custodial staff under a collective bargaining agreement with the New Haven public schools. After several years the public schools brought the management in-house to maximize their potential revenue and more effectively control scheduling and maintenance. Scheduling is more compli- cated for the facility compared with many other facilities. Although the field house is attached to Hillhouse High School, the facility is designed to be used by all 12 public high schools in the city.

The planning process was complicated by the political battles associated with a citywide field being attached to one of the key athletic-oriented high schools in the region. Many believed that Hillhouse High School would have an unfair advantage because the school would be able to use the facility during class time (which they do) and would have preference when scheduling events. When developing a rotation schedule, management had to carefully decide when each high school would use the facility. Management has had to deal with a variety of political battles when making these hard choices, but such battles were not unexpected when the facility was being planned. Thus the same political battles that raged before the facility was built are still being fought to this day.

the development of retractable-roof stadiums, the fixed-domed stadium has decreased in popularity.

One of the major disadvantages of domed sta- diums is that they do not work perfectly for every event. The Seattle Kingdome had a configuration that was not optimal for either football or baseball. For baseball, 50% of the seats were in the outfield. Also, when the weather was nice, fans were not able to enjoy the game with Mother Nature. This concern helped foster retractable-roof stadiums in the 1990s. The Toronto SkyDome, which opened in 1989, was the first stadium capable of opening and closing its roof. Since then, retractable-roof stadiums have been built in cities such as Houston,

Seattle, and Milwaukee. Their popularity has increased because many teams no longer wish to share facilities and want a stadium built for their specific sport. The Astrodome, which now has no professional sport team tenant, can still hold events and create revenue in other areas. Across the street from the Astrodome is Reliant Stadium, home of the Houston Texans, which has a retractable-roof system. The Arizona Cardinals’ stadium (Univer- sity of Phoenix Stadium) opened in 2006 with a rolling field that can be positioned outside the facil- ity to optimize sun and water absorption and then brought into the domed stadium so fans can enjoy games indoors on the best possible grass surface.

90  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Domes are being built more frequently for facilities other than stadiums, such as pools, tennis courts, and synthetic fields. More facili- ties are utilizing fabric domes to increase their revenues and operating seasons. Domes fall into four categories:

◾ Solid construction involving glass, metal, or wood and sometimes built on movable tracks

◾ Air-supported structures in which fabric is kept in place by air blowers and possibly cables

◾ Frame-supported structures in which fabric is stretched over an aluminum or steel frame (the frame can be either permanent or remov- able)

◾ Construction involving tensile membrane fabric stretched over masts, similar to the construction of circus tents (Cohen, 2001)

Fabric structures are inexpensive compared with solid structures. A typical frame-supported structure can cost about 30% to 50% less than a conventional solid structure; an air-supported structure can be built for as little as 10% of the cost for a solid structure (Cohen, 2001). Thus, with about a $1 million investment, a dome can be raised where a conventional building would have cost $10 million. However, although the construction costs are lower, the operating costs (such as air conditioning and heating) are signifi- cantly greater. Extra expense is also required to remove snow, prevent deflations during storms, and provide adequate lighting. Thus, fabric-based domes are not necessarily the right solution if the facility is meant to last 20 to 30 years. However, if the facility is designed to provide a large field without any support beams, an air-supported structure may be the best solution.

The various designs discussed here need to be considered in the planning process to help determine appropriate design issues. Although geographic issues with proposed sites will affect a facility’s design, a rough design needs to be con- sidered based on similar projects. An experienced architect can help design a practical and eco- nomical building. However, care should clearly be taken to make sure the designer has developed similar facilities in the past.

Other Facilities There are countless types of facilities that can be used for recreational purposes. Often facilities were not intended for sport-related purposes but

have evolved into such facilities. For example, wilderness areas can be used for fishing, hunting, backpacking, camping, and other recreational purposes. The front facade of a courthouse can become the best local skateboarding hangout. Other facilities are specifically designed for sport- related activities. These facilities can range from golf courses to water parks.

Some communities prefer to package recreation and sport needs in one location. A community sport complex can be very large and can include an anchor facility (arena or stadium) as well as ancillary facilities such as golf courses, playing fields, pools, playgrounds, and other sport and recreation amenities. Such facilities can often take advantage of a common parking area or common concession stands. Sport complexes are gaining popularity as a means to leverage a location, park- ing, or other amenities while offering the greatest variety of sport facilities. Numerous youth sport complexes exist that may have several baseball fields, soccer fields, or a combination of various sport fields. These facilities are often similar to sportsplexes but may be connected with schools or park and recreation facilities.

Urban sport environments present unique chal- lenges since it is harder in cities to find usable space. This has helped spawn unique facility types such as rooftop facilities. Several universities have built tennis courts and fields on top of parking decks and other structures to reduce the need for additional space. Green roofing refers to planting grass, shrubs, and trees on rooftops to help absorb heat and water while producing attractive areas for birds and for humans to relax. Another benefit of green roofs is the opportunity to play golf. Some green roofs on company buildings include putting greens for use by employees at lunchtime. This setup is similar to that of facilities such as Chelsea Piers in New York, a 30-acre sport village, which is an entire recreation center built on top of a water treatment plant. A roof-based system consists of a waterproof membrane, vapor barriers, thermal insulation, flashings, and a system to both retain and drain water (“Miniature Golf,” 2002).

No matter what type of facility is being consid- ered, it is essential to develop a facility plan and determine its viability through a feasibility study.

Feasibility Studies When the needs assessment has been completed, the next step in the process is typically a feasibility study to see if the needs can be met and at what

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  91

cost. The feasibility study is not developed just to raise funds but rather to identify strengths and weaknesses in the planning process. Questions typically asked are what legal challenges exist, whether the right administrative team is in place, what the facility will be used for during dead time periods, how future expenses will be covered after the facility is completed, and what site options are the best. The inputs required for a feasibility study are outlined to the right, and the outputs obtained from a feasibility study are presented on page 92.

The purpose of the feasibility study is to answer the following questions and provide research information about the project to help make a financial decision:

◾ Can the project be accomplished? ◾ Will the project be suitable and successful? ◾ Is the project logical? (Farmer, Mulrooney, and Ammon, 1996)

The feasibility study focuses on various con- cerns, from demographic makeup to competi- tors in the marketplace. A traditional strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis is often a cornerstone of a feasibility study. A SWOT analysis attempts to weigh the various positive and negative factors that can affect the proposed plan. Strengths can include inexpensive land, favorable borrowing terms, and strong community support. Weaknesses could include contaminated land, high property taxes, and poor managerial foresight. Opportunities could include new leagues, a young and active population, and new technologies or fads. Threats could include significant competition, a lack of trained leaders, and economic downturns. If there are major threats such as a competitor opening a facility at the same time, such information needs to be analyzed or else the facility may be doomed because of poor research and planning.

A key component of any feasibility study is the financing section. Voters, constituents, proponents, and opponents want to know how much public money will be spent on a project and where those funds will come from. It may be that a public recreation area is built by the citizenry, a major donor has given the land, and a foundation has paid for the renovations and construction. However, the public coffers may be tapped for the operational and maintenance costs. In contrast, a private fitness center needs to specify all the anticipated revenue sources and expenses in the business plan and pro forma statements.

Tables 4.2 and 4.3 indicate where potential financing sources can be found to finance a stadium or arena. It is important to separate pre- opening expenses and postoccupancy revenue and expenses, since some revenues and expenses

Input Required for   a Feasibility Study

  1.  Prospective◾owner’s◾financial◾data ◾– Balance◾sheet◾or◾statement◾of◾net◾worth ◾– Business◾experience ◾– Present◾cash◾position ◾– Any◾sport-related◾experience◾(e.g.,◾have◾ any◾managers◾previously◾owned◾a◾club◾or◾ managed◾a◾team)

  2.  Prospective◾site◾locations ◾– Type◾of◾ownership◾to◾be◾obtained◾and◾pres- ent◾status◾of◾selected◾site

◾– General◾topography◾of◾selected◾site ◾– Present◾improvements,◾including◾utilities ◾– Current◾zoning◾of◾site ◾– Population◾within◾20-minute◾drive◾of◾site ◾– Proximity◾to◾other◾sport◾facilities ◾– Neighboring◾businesses◾or◾residences ◾– Metropolitan◾map◾and◾demographics

  3.  Present◾local◾competition ◾– Present◾number◾of◾facilities◾and◾teams,◾by◾ sport,◾in◾the◾largest◾adjacent◾sport◾pro- grams

◾– Cost◾breakdown◾of◾all◾neighboring◾pro- grams

◾– Number◾of◾competitors◾that◾have◾opened◾ or◾closed◾in◾the◾past◾couple◾of◾years◾and◾ the◾reasons◾why

◾– Name,◾address,◾and◾phone◾numbers◾of◾ directors◾of◾all◾sport-related◾teams,◾facilities,◾ leagues,◾organizations

◾– Number◾and◾description◾of◾all◾similar◾facili- ties◾within◾a◾20-minute◾drive

◾– Listing◾of◾typical◾services◾and◾amenities◾ offered◾by◾sport◾facilities◾in◾the◾general◾ area◾of◾the◾proposed◾site◾including◾officials,◾ awards◾programs,◾team◾incentives,◾and◾the◾ like

◾– Breakdown◾of◾percentage◾of◾youth◾versus◾ adult◾programs◾by◾sport◾currently◾in◾area◾ and◾any◾other◾relevant◾demographic◾break- downs◾that◾can◾highlight◾market◾potential

92  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Table 4.3 ongoing operating revenue

revenue source type of revenue

Owner Direct◾contribution

Users Personal◾seat◾licenses Ticket◾deposits Club◾and◾suite◾leases Parking◾revenue Concession◾revenue Naming◾rights◾revenue Ongoing◾taxes◾(such◾as◾sales◾or◾ ticket◾surcharge◾tax)

Targeted◾public Sales◾taxes Car◾rental◾taxes Hotel◾taxes Sin◾taxes◾(liquor◾and◾cigarettes)

General◾public General◾taxes◾for◾road◾and◾other◾ improvements

From◾Harris◾County◾Sports◾Facility◾Public◾Advisory◾Committee◾1996.

are a one-time occurrence while other expenses reoccur annually. Also, some facilities sell their contractually obligated revenue, such as naming rights contracts and luxury suite leases, to gener- ate immediate funds to help build a facility. The problem with such an approach is that it can deplete the facility of future operating revenue that will be needed to pay for operating expenses such as maintenance.

Throughout the planning process, data are gathered on the feasibility of a given plan, site, or facility. The data must be unbiased and must address legitimate issues. Just having numbers will not seal a deal. On the other hand, having appropriate numbers that answer critical ques- tions can help diffuse numerous attacks. Thus, data need to be reliable. Although some feasibility studies make wild assumptions not backed by hard facts, effective planning requires the use of accurate data.

Output Obtained From a  Feasibility Study

  1.  General◾industry◾conditions◾that◾are◾favorable◾ and◾unfavorable◾for◾the◾proposed◾facility

  2.  Statistical◾ and◾ systemic◾ experience◾ of◾ three◾ to◾five◾other◾similar◾facilities,◾including◾critical◾ analysis◾of◾the◾strengths◾and◾weaknesses◾of◾ these◾ facilities◾ as◾ compared◾ with◾ the◾ pro- posed◾facility

  3.  The◾recommended◾facility◾size◾and◾scope   4.  How◾many◾employees◾will◾be◾needed◾to◾oper-

ate◾the◾facility

  5.  The◾development◾costs   6.  The◾operating◾costs◾for◾the◾first◾five◾years   7.  The◾projected◾revenues◾for◾the◾first◾five◾years   8.  How◾the◾facility◾will◾affect◾the◾local◾community   9.  Components◾of◾the◾local◾community◾that◾will◾

positively◾and◾negatively◾affect◾the◾facility

 10.  The◾ main◾ facility◾ users◾ and◾ what◾ additional◾ users◾the◾facility◾could◾attract

 11.  Data◾that◾can◾help◾the◾facility◾obtain◾neces- sary◾financing

 12.  Specific◾ indications◾ of◾ what◾ data◾ were◾ not◾ obtained◾ and◾ why◾ they◾ were◾ not◾ obtained◾ so◾the◾study◾can◾be◾qualified◾(Day,◾1992)

Table 4.2 preconstruction revenue

revenue source type of revenue

Owner Direct◾contribution

Users Personal◾seat◾licenses Ticket◾deposits Club◾and◾suite◾leases Parking◾outsourcing◾contracts Concession◾outsourcing◾contracts Naming◾rights◾details Taxes◾(such◾as◾sales◾or◾ticket◾◾ surcharge◾tax)

Targeted◾public Targeted◾sales◾taxes Car◾rental◾taxes Hotel◾taxes Sin◾taxes◾(liquor◾and◾cigarettes)

General◾public General◾sales◾taxes Property◾taxes Utility◾taxes General◾public◾obligations

From◾Harris◾County◾Sports◾Facility◾Public◾Advisory◾Committee◾1996.

Preliminary Phase Determining the feasibility of a major project is normally a two-phase process composed of a preliminary phase and an expanded phase. The purpose of the preliminary feasibility study is to

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  93

summarize the initial findings. Frequently the study is based on one visit to the proposed site, a cursory review of background materials, and pre- liminary financial and building program examples provided by the owners.

Additional information may become necessary, depending on the scope of the study. For example, in the case of a new arena, the first phase of the study may include previously discussed elements as well as a preliminary market demand analysis for potential events, preliminary testing of poten- tial demand for premium seating (private suites and club seating) and sponsorships, and a rough estimate of operating expenses to determine if there is sufficient economic merit to pursue the project.

Study Size and Comprehensiveness As with any major building project, the size and comprehensiveness of the feasibility study depend on the size and scope of the project. There are no set requirements for the size or depth of the analysis. Studies may range from a few pages to several hundred pages. A preliminary study for the University of Houston’s proposed student recreation center was 42 pages in length, while the preliminary study for Minute Maid Stadium was several hundred pages.

Regardless of the proposed sport facility’s size, essentials of a preliminary feasibility study are as follows:

◾ Site feasibility (based on a preliminary visit) ◾ User-usage feasibility (based on brief back- ground provided by owners)

◾ Design feasibility (based on conceptual design and plans)

◾ Financial feasibility (based on preliminary financial information provided by owners)

Cost and Time Required Much like the size and depth of the study, the cost and time requirements vary. According to University of Houston officials, the preliminary study cost approximately $30,000. The feasibility study for Minute Maid Stadium cost approxi- mately $3.3 million (Rynd, 1998). Of that amount, approximately $1 million was allotted for the preliminary study.

Expanded Phase After the feasibility study comes the all-important (and often all political) economic impact analy- sis. The political reality of both feasibility and

economic impact analyses is that they are usu- ally undertaken to justify a position that either a sport organization or elected officials have adopted or are proposing (Howard and Crompton, 1995). Frequently the goal of independent stud- ies is not to find the truth but rather to legitimize the project that the sponsoring group wants to develop; these studies can seldom be more than position papers for proponents or opponents of a particular project.

Economic Impact Economic impact is defined as the net economic change in a host community that results from spending attributed to a sport event or facility (Howard and Crompton, 1995). Economic impact studies typically examine direct impact (the effect of the first round of spending), indirect impact (the ripple effect of additional rounds of spend- ing), and induced impact (further ripple effect resulting from spending by employees of affected businesses).

What is the economic impact of a sport facil- ity? For a large stadium or arena with a profes- sional sport team, the impact is felt through direct spending, indirect beneficiaries, and increased salaries for those only tangentially related to the facility. Thus, every event and facility generates some impact, ranging from customers’ spending on tickets to the facility’s buying hot dogs from a local distributor.

The following is a sample of results from an economic impact report for an event at a motor speedway. The economic impact was based on several assumptions, including the following:

◾ Projected attendance was 130,000 fans.

◾ Approximately 45% of the fans were to travel from more than 150 miles (240 km) away and stay overnight, while the remaining 55% were local or regional fans.

◾ Approximately 80% of the overnight stays were to be double occupancy.

◾ The estimated travel expenditures were based on a U.S. travel data study.

Based on these assumptions the projected eco- nomic impact was $8,881,700 and was calculated as follows:

Local fans: 36,000 spending $22 each = $792,000

Regional fans: 40,000 spending $44 each = $1,760,000

94  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Double-occupancy main guests: 23,400 × $151 each = $3,533,400

Secondary guests: 23,400 × $44 each = $1,029,600

Single-occupancy guests: 11,700 × $151 each = $1,766,700

Total $8,881,700 From◾Charlotte◾Motor◾Speedway◾1994.

Additional Elements All economic impact studies include a ripple effect. The ripple effect represents the spread of money through the economy. Assume a pebble is dropped in the water. The pebble will create a ripple of expanding waves in the water. Similarly, one dollar spent at a sport facility will create a ripple effect throughout the community as parts of that dollar pay wages, buy products, cover expenses, and so on, which helps redistribute the money throughout the community. This con- cept of a ripple effect in an economy is termed a multiplier by economists (Andelman, 1992). Commonly used multipliers are sales, income, and employment. The multipliers are derived from input–output tables that disaggregate an economy into industries and examine the flow of goods and services among the affected industries.

These data need to be carefully scrutinized for accuracy. Sometimes additional expenditures are

left out of the equation, such as media expendi- tures when a large number of press members are attending an event. On the other hand, economic impact studies often overstate simple issues such as how many people who may be staying overnight are in fact sharing a room. For some events, it is not uncommon for four or more people to occupy a room designed for two. If this fact is not considered in the initial estimate, the estimate will be overin- flated. This is one reason a number of studies have concluded that large sport facilities do not produce the economic benefits projected in the economic impact studies (Johnson and Sack, 1996).

Other concerns regarding economic impact studies include redirected spending, which refers to money that would have been spent on other entertainment in the same area, such as spending at a local movie theater rather than at the ballpark; displacement, which refers to a portion of hotel rooms that would have been full whether or not the event took place (e.g., conference in town); and induced effects, which refer to the multiplier effect and visitor spending being recirculated in the community (Schumacher, 2001). These con- cerns are not necessarily bad, but they need to be analyzed in the feasibility study in order for the study to be taken seriously. It should also be noted that in some cases the data are not as important

The following represents the type of comprehensive economic analysis that is undertaken for an event that will attract a large number of out-of-state spectators. The example assumes the event will attract 10,000 spectators from another state and totals the direct expenditures attrib- uted to these fans. It should be noted that the per person per

category per person per day expenditure total direct expenditure

Food◾and◾beverages $15.00 $150,000

Night◾clubs◾and◾bars $2.00 $20,000

Retail◾shopping $15.00 $150,000

Lodging $20.00 $200,000

Misc.◾expenses $2.50 $25,000

Total $54.50 $545,000

Behind the Scenes

Behind the Scenes: economic impact analysis day expenditure is derived through interviewing a represen- tative sampling of event attendees and extrapolating from those results what a typical out-of-state fan would spend.

This chart highlights that the average out-of-state fan will spend $54.50 a day at the event, which generates a total direct infusion into the community of $545,000.

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  95

as in others. For example, even if the economic impact section of the feasibility study shows very little prospect for return, a city may still pursue building a large stadium or arena to achieve “major league” status, revitalize a city, develop a positive image, or serve political agendas (or achieve a combination of these) (Schumacher, 2001). Thus ego and civic pride often are the driving forces behind a new facility rather than significant economic impact (Day, 1992).

Other areas examined in the expanded feasi- bility study include, but are not limited to, the following:

◾ Private financing (equity, corporate bonds, letters of credit, limited partnerships, public offerings, leasing versus purchasing)

◾ Government financing (government obliga- tion bonds, revenue bonds, special districts, certificates of participation, grants, redevel- opment districts)

◾ Hybrid financing (private equity/government bonds, public land/private improvements)

◾ Operating assumptions (income, expense, payroll, general and administrative, per cap estimates, usage estimates, break-even analy- sis, stabilized levels, normal capacity)

◾ Business plan (preopening, opening, and executive summary)

Site Planning Site selection and design are covered in detail in chapter 5. However, site selection needs to be critically addressed in the planning process because of the impact that a site may have on the success of a project. Most feasibility studies examine at least one site for a proposed facility. It is important to examine site issues at this point in the process because a plan will be worthless if the land is too expensive, for example, and if the economic assumptions will not work.

A site also needs to be analyzed for legal and governmental concerns. For example, if a stadium is planned for a parcel near an airport, federal officials may need to be contacted to make sure the facility will not interfere with the line or height of flight to and from the airport. Environmental issues are another concern.

Some states have specific guidelines for sport facilities that can affect the sites to be potentially presented to the public. Massachusetts has spe-

cific school standards requiring that a school with more than 12 classrooms have a separate gymnasium with at least two teaching stations, each measuring a minimum of 3,000 square feet (280 sq m). Gymnasiums at the secondary level require two stations, and each station must be 6,200 to 7,500 square feet (576-700 sq m) (“Educa- tion Laws,” 2002).

Besides local and governmental concerns, a potential site can involve significant community concerns. The NIMBY argument can doom a proj- ect even if the project satisfies all the feasibility concerns and promises to be very successful. If the facility is to replace an existing facility loved by the local population, the plan may be sunk if the citizens go to the federal government and obtain historical designation, which would prevent tear- ing down the old facility. This is only one option. The citizens can also petition for reconsideration, start a letter-writing campaign, hold fund-raisers to buy the property and preserve it, or use a host of other strategies. That is why it is critical to develop a selling plan to generate support and hopefully avoid detractors. It is impossible to get rid of all detractors; they will be present in every project. However, it is possible to dampen their influence or even win over a large percentage to support the facility.

When examining potential sites, numerous sources of information can be useful. Data can come from the following sources:

◾ Federal and state agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey, Army Corps of Engineers, and regional land-planning studies

◾ Information from city and county authorities, such as zoning maps, property tax records, and planning abstracts

◾ Public records such as mortgage histories, liens, leases, and easements

◾ Site-specific issues such as blueprints or building permits

◾ Interviews with current or former owners, real estate appraisers, and planning consul- tants (Cotts and Lee, 1992)

Developing and Selling the Future Plan All the data obtained through numerous studies will not necessarily influence the right people. Those who are in support of the proposed facility will not necessarily require convincing. However,

96  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

additional data can reinforce their decision and provide them with information to buttress their positions. Those opposed to the facility may be willing to change their minds if the right data are presented to address their needs or concerns. The information is most important for those who are sitting on the fence and can be convinced that the project is in fact worthwhile. Those that need convincing can range from voters and politicians to people who will be asked to underwrite the bonds used to finance the stadium or arena. Smaller facili- ties can also utilize the data to support or reject initial notions about the success of a given facility.

Selling the plan for a proposed facility can take many forms. Conventional campaigns such as advertising on billboards and in the newspapers are traditionally undertaken. However, support can also be generated through word of mouth, letter-writing campaigns, asking individuals to serve on committees or assume honorary posts, holding public meetings, and bringing athletes to community events to generate support. Gathering support is a very sensitive process. Some people may be willing to vocally support a new facility, but normally the opponents are much louder than the proponents. It is critical to examine means to interest people in the project without alienating opponents. Chapter 5 discusses this fine line in greater detail.

Business Plan for a Facility If economic impact numbers are simply plugged into a press release, most readers do not know how to interpret them. If the data are properly presented through the business plan for a facil- ity or through a similar document, the planning process is often more successful than when the feasibility report is utilized by itself. Similarly, if no feasibility study is used, the business plan may be the only comprehensive planning tool that a prospective facility manager undertakes.

Once the basic background information is gath- ered, an initial business plan for a facility needs to be developed. This process is designed to solidify the entire facility planning process from theoreti- cal, practical, financial, and managerial perspec- tives. By acquiring additional information on the site and on construction and operations costs, management can develop a more detailed business plan that will be required by anyone considering funding the facility. Thus, even though elements not yet discussed in this book are required for a

business plan, it is important to consider busi- ness plans as part of the planning process. The business plan is the roadmap that incorporates ideas for the facility into a formal document for others to examine.

The business plan serves multiple purposes such as helping allocate resources and setting realistic goals and objectives. It also establishes standards for measuring feasibility and operates as a benchmark for future activity. Whenever a facility veers from its course, the plan can help the manager make decisions to get the facility back on the right track. Of course, no matter how well the business plan is prepared, it cannot guarantee reaching the destination safely. The major project pitfalls are listed on page 97.

Starting a facility without a well-thought-out business plan is like traveling into unknown ter- ritory without a map. If prepared with care, the business plan or roadmap will not only indicate the route to follow to reach goals but will also highlight hurdles that may be encountered along the way. Creating an effective business plan involves seven steps:

1. Determine and define the business oppor- tunity. A facility is a livi3ng entity that will grow and change. Therefore people starting a sport facil- ity need to take the time to determine exactly what type of facility they want and what they want the facility to become as an extension of themselves.

2. Make an operational plan. This covers geo- graphic location, facilities and their improvement, production, layout, and key strategies and plan- ning plus certain areas of administration, depend- ing on the facility. The operational plan highlights how the facility will be managed. It specifies, for example, when grass will be planted, what type of grass it will be, how it will be watered, how the soil will be compacted, what type of crown- ing will be used, what aeration technique will be used, and what fertilizer will be used.

3. Create a marketing plan. For good reason, market analysis is often considered the most important activity an entrepreneur can engage in before a business start-up. This analysis teaches the person not only a great deal about the market- place and prospective competitors but also much about the prospects for success. The marketing plan specifies how the facility will be marketed toward teams, events, tournaments, and other revenue-producing activities, from arcade games

Facility◾Planning◾ ■  97

to concession items. It is as critical to properly budget for the marketing of a facility as it is to budget for building the facility. Failing to develop a sufficient budget and marketing plan will doom even the best-designed building. The days of “If we build it they will come” are long gone given the multitude of events and other activities drawing our time and resources.

4. Develop a business structure. Will the busi- ness operate as a sole proprietorship, with a partner or partners, or under the corporate/LLC (limited liability corporation) form? Each of these forms has certain advantages and disadvantages. This part of the business plan specifies who is involved in the planning process or if a management team is being formed that will help launch the facility and then remain in place. Frequently people reach this step and only then receive legal advice that the project cannot be completed because of zoning or other legal restrictions. That is why it is advisable to have an attorney and an accountant on the management team during the organizational planning step. A developer needs to obtain input from others before progressing and must heed their advice.

5. Define your resources. This part of the plan focuses on resources that will be used, ranging from political ties to financial resources. The impact of any recent legislation affecting the facil- ity needs to be noted.

6. Work up a financial plan. The financial plan will also serve as an operating plan for the finan- cial management of the facility. This will be the final test of the viability of the overall business plan. Whereas the budget helps track the future direction of the facility, the financial plan dictates whether the budget is realistic, what steps will be needed to obtain funding, and exactly how much money will be needed.

7. Complete the business plan. After all the preceding elements have been completed and if the decision is to go forward with the facility, then all the plans need to be coordinated and reviewed for fine-tuning purposes. Nevertheless, just com- pleting the business plan does not finish the job because the business plan is worthless unless it is acted on.

Financing the Facility Chapter 11 discusses financing in greater detail. Still, it is imperative that the planning process include analysis and confirmation of the financial

Major Construction  Project Pitfalls

◾◾ Failing◾to◾involve◾all◾the◾stakeholders◾ in◾ developing◾ the◾ facility’s◾ mission◾ and◾both◾long-term◾and◾short-term◾ goals

◾◾ Failing◾ to◾ develop◾ and◾ then◾ follow◾ a◾well-defined◾process◾such◾as◾how◾ long◾ the◾ development◾ process◾ will◾ take

◾◾ Not◾giving◾enough◾time◾to◾develop◾ and◾ complete◾ the◾ project;◾ most◾ projects◾ take◾ about◾ three◾ years◾ to◾ complete◾(2-3◾months◾to◾assemble◾ the◾ project◾ team;◾ 3-4◾ months◾ for◾ the◾ feasibility◾ study;◾ 2-3◾ months◾ to◾ bring◾a◾public◾project◾to◾a◾vote;◾6-8◾ months◾to◾design;◾12-18◾months◾to◾ construct;◾and◾12-18◾months◾to◾pre- pare◾for◾a◾facility’s◾opening)◾(Ballard◾ and◾King,◾2002)

◾◾ Failing◾ to◾ find◾ and◾ acquire◾ all◾ the◾ necessary◾ support◾ for◾ a◾ project— both◾political◾and◾financial

◾◾ Both◾ not◾ listening◾ to◾ all◾ the◾ stake- holders◾ and◾ spending◾ too◾ much◾ time◾trying◾to◾please◾each◾and◾every◾ potential◾constituent

◾◾ Not◾ building◾ at◾ the◾ right◾ location◾ and◾ not◾ having◾ enough◾ land◾ for◾ future◾expansion◾needs

◾◾ Trying◾to◾focus◾on◾building◾a◾perfect◾ facility◾rather◾than◾trying◾to◾make◾the◾ best◾possible◾facility◾while◾consider- ing◾its◾various◾constraints

◾◾ Failing◾to◾set◾aside◾enough◾money◾ for◾emergencies◾and◾for◾an◾operat- ing◾fund◾to◾run◾the◾building◾once◾it◾ is◾opened

◾◾ Failing◾to◾critically◾review◾the◾quali- fications◾ and◾ track◾ record◾ of◾ the◾ architect◾and◾builders◾(this◾includes◾ failing◾to◾monitor◾their◾work)

◾◾ Trying◾ to◾ do◾ some◾ things◾ cheaply◾ such◾ as◾ spending◾ less◾ on◾ certain◾ critical◾items◾for◾the◾facility◾(such◾as◾ a◾roof)◾and◾spending◾more◾on◾items◾ that◾are◾not◾as◾critical

98  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

viability of a proposed facility. The facility planner needs to determine whether to purchase, build, or lease. This analysis examines the cost of capital, lease terms, purchase price, the cost and political ramifications associated with borrowing money, and any political ramifications associated with owning versus leasing. Although a project may not make sound economic sense, some facilities are built to accomplish political goals. If a business or municipality builds a facility to appear progres- sive, obtain a competitive advantage, or meet some other ulterior objective, the fact that the facility is a loss leader may not be as big a concern for the politicians. If a facility has been built for purely

political motives, the planning process most likely failed to critically examine costs and expenses. If the facility has not been properly planned, politi- cal opponents can attack the financing scheme or revenue sources. Thus, financial planning is criti- cal even in politically motivated projects.

The financial ramifications also affect final selection of the site and the design. Chapter 5 addresses various site-related issues, from politi- cal ramifications to hostile neighbors. It is impera- tive to base any decision about a facility being built on a combination of variables, and among these the financial concerns should be the most carefully analyzed.

Summary Planning◾for◾a◾new◾facility◾is◾the◾process◾of◾examining◾what◾type◾of◾facility◾will◾meet◾a◾ given◾need◾or◾objective◾and◾working◾out◾the◾justification◾for◾building◾or◾leasing◾the◾ facility.◾The◾types◾of◾facilities◾that◾can◾be◾built◾are◾limited◾by◾people’s◾imaginations,◾ the◾laws◾of◾physics◾(e.g.,◾whether◾or◾not◾a◾design◾can◾hold◾the◾weight◾of◾the◾roof),◾ political◾constraints,◾laws◾and◾regulations,◾and◾the◾amount◾of◾money◾available.

Besides◾ determining◾ what◾ facility◾ to◾ build◾ or◾ lease,◾ a◾ facility◾ planner◾ needs◾ to◾ justify◾the◾need◾for◾the◾facility.◾Not◾many◾buildings◾are◾built◾in◾the◾absence◾of◾some◾ need.◾The◾planning◾process◾for◾a◾specific◾facility◾should◾examine◾the◾rationale◾for◾ building◾the◾facility◾based◾on◾solid◾empirical◾numbers◾rather◾than◾hunches.◾If◾the◾ financial◾numbers◾from◾a◾feasibility◾study◾indicate◾that◾a◾project◾is◾not◾viable,◾then◾ the◾project◾should◾not◾be◾undertaken.◾However,◾if◾the◾planning◾process◾indicates◾ success,◾then◾the◾next◾step◾is◾to◾finalize◾the◾site◾selection◾and◾facility◾design.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  Why◾is◾planning◾important◾for◾an◾existing◾facility?   2.  Why◾is◾planning◾essential◾for◾a◾future◾facility?   3.  Research◾one◾of◾the◾recently◾built◾stadiums◾or◾arenas◾to◾see◾what◾planning◾

was◾undertaken◾and◾how◾long◾the◾planning◾process◾took.

  4.  Design◾a◾business◾plan◾for◾a◾martial◾arts◾studio◾to◾be◾built◾or◾leased◾in◾your◾ town.

  5.  Develop◾a◾strategic◾plan◾for◾facilities◾on◾your◾campus◾to◾help◾them◾grow◾over◾ the◾next◾two◾years◾and◾then◾over◾the◾next◾five◾years.

5

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾the◾importance◾of◾location◾in◾choosing◾the◾proper◾site.

◾◾ Analyze◾the◾various◾components◾that◾need◾to◾be◾considered◾when◾ choosing◾a◾sport◾facility◾site.

◾◾ Analyze◾the◾various◾external◾issues◾affecting◾a◾proposed◾facility◾site.

◾◾ Understand◾specific◾components◾within◾a◾facility◾such◾as◾locker◾ rooms◾and◾concession◾areas.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾layout◾needed◾for◾an◾effective◾floorplan.

Facility Site and deSign

100  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My n a m e i s N a n c y Freedman, and with 25 years of experience as an architect at Sasaki Asso- ciates, specializing in the design of collegiate sport facilities for the last 6, I have led more than a dozen project design teams in the process of site and facility design for recreation and athletic sport venues.

Sasaki Associates is a large interdisciplinary design firm that places a very high value on inte- gration of site and building design. The firm began more than 50 years ago as a landscape architec- ture and planning practice and has evolved into a world-renowned design firm with equal acclaim for its campus and urban planning (2008 Beijing Olympics), landscape architecture, interior design, site design, eco-technologies (sustainable design), and campus architecture of all building types. The unique history of Sasaki has yielded a sports design practice that is particularly focused on the importance of site selection, site design, and build- ing design and the sensitive integration of all three.

As a principal and project manager, part of my job is to guide clients (college and university presi- dents, facility directors, recreation directors, ath- letic directors) through the process of site selection. Most sport facilities for college campuses are large buildings—often they have the largest footprint of any building on the campus. Typically they take up large volumes of space and have high roofs and few windows. If handled poorly, these buildings can become eyesores, since they can be out of scale with the majority of other campus buildings. Also, they require large sites and often large parking areas in close proximity. Choosing an appropriate site is the first critical task facing the client and design team. A great building cannot overcome a poor site choice if the building is located in the wrong part of campus or if the site is encumbered

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with zoning restrictions, poor soils, steep slopes, wetlands, utilities that must be relocated, unrecep- tive neighbors, and so on. Usually there is no ideal site, so the process is one of understanding each site’s pros and cons and the costs associated with necessary improvements.

The sports projects I lead often include outdoor fields. Planning and design of these fields involve a detailed understanding of a plethora of factors: size required for each sport, preferred playing surface (natural grass or synthetic turf), types of synthetic turf, drainage requirements, maintenance require- ments and institutional capability, solar orienta- tion preferences, spectator requirements, ancillary buildings (equipment, dugout, toilets, maintenance vehicles), lighting, broadcast, acoustic impact, and trash collection and removal. A basic understanding of costs is also critical, since many owners will have to analyze the trade-offs of each amenity against the project budget.

As an architect, most of my time is spent manag- ing the process of designing the buildings. The basis of the building design is the program—a detailed description of each space that should be included in the building. For each space, the program lists the size, function, desired adjacencies, architectural features (walls, floors, ceilings, dimensions, acous- tics, lighting), and building systems (temperature, humidity, electrical requirements). Once the pro- gram is agreed on, the design work begins. Design typically evolves through phases (schematic design, design development, construction documents), with the product for each successive stage getting more detailed and specific. The final documents are actu- ally the basis for the contract with the builder, setting out the design intent in sufficient detail such that the builder can implement the design.

This chapter describes the critical fundamental design decisions that are made early in a project, ide- ally before the start of schematic design. Understand- ing the factors that go into making these decisions is key, since they are complex, with far-reaching repercussions for your future facility.

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  101

Sport facilities are traditionally designed to last 50 years. The design process takes into con- sideration elements such as regional temperature, average snowfall totals, water concerns (humidity, sea salt, mist), seismic movement, wind-related concerns, and other environmental issues. The natural concerns are in addition to human issues such as fan violence, vandalism, and crowds. The planning process requires a critical analysis of all these elements to help determine the most appropriate type of facility to build.

Although a number of technical characteristics are involved in deciding what type of facility to construct, the process offers numerous opportu- nities for creativity. A gym does not need to be a rectangular cement building. Planners can choose colors that brighten the facility, blend with other buildings, or blend into the surrounding land- scape. Tile, glass, wood, and other materials can be chosen that enhance a given design or form a type of facility that has never been attempted before. Various roofing systems can be added to help reduce costs and provide optimal lighting. Facilities are limited by three basic constraints: money, site configuration, and the creativity of everyone involved in the planning process.

Chapter 4 discusses the steps in facility plan- ning, which includes completing a needs assess- ment and feasibility study. The next steps are determining the site and designing the facility. The first part of this chapter examines some of the broader concerns regarding site location and its impact on the proposed facility. The chapter concludes with an analysis of site selection and design, including the various facility components that must be designed and their effect on the deci- sion to build a given facility.

Site Location Site location is one of the most important consid- erations in the planning of any sport facility. “The literature on sports and entertainment facilities has focused primarily upon financing, economic impacts, and intangible benefits associated with constructing a new facility. The ubiquitous and controversial ‘economic multiplier’ and the intangible economic and cultural benefits have remained at the core of the sports facility literature throughout its development in the past 20 years. However, facility location has often been over- looked” (Chapin, 1997). Even a high-quality com- plex cannot succeed if the population for which it is designed does not use it, does not know where it is located, or refuses to travel to the site. Decid- ing on the right site requires analyzing numerous issues (see figure 5.1). Acquisition methods, cost considerations, and environmental constraints are just some of the factors. There are also political, community, and accessibility issues.

Private organizations that are considering building will have different goals from the entities involved in a public facility. A private facility is normally built to generate a profit. In contrast, a publicly funded facility is normally built to meet community needs. All facilities must be revenue generators to survive, but the private facility must generate a profit. Public ownership can have many drawbacks, such as limited funds, bureaucratic management, and the need to obtain voter approval on new funding initiatives. Other problems include the need to utilize the competi- tive bidding process, which can lead to the least expensive but not necessarily the most qualified contractor. Political agendas and conflicting egos

E4804/Fried/Fig 5.1/344241/KE/R1

Suitability of site

Special restrictions

Site development concerns

Tax implications

Government regulations

Neighbor concerns

Location/Land

Competitive forces

Alternative locations

Lease vs. purchase

Mission and goals

Valuation concerns

Site selection

Figure 5.1 Issues◾that◾affect◾site◾location.

102  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

of political leaders can also hamper negotiations and make the process almost unbearable (Chapin, 1997). Even with these problems, the ability to tap public land and public coffers is a tremendous benefit and can be a great opportunity.

Private entities may want to work with gov- ernment entities because of the eminent domain power held by government units. Eminent domain allows a government entity to seize private prop- erty and use it for the public good after compensat- ing the owner for its fair market value. If a private facility developer wants a piece of land but cannot convince the landowner to sell, the facility has to be canceled or has to be built around the unobtain- able lot. A facility can also be held hostage to a landowner who demands a huge payoff. The situa- tion is different if a government entity is involved or if the private entity enlists governmental help. In this case it may be possible to seize the property for the public good and then use it for the facility.

Site Planning Whether a public or a private facility is to be built, site planning begins with the appointment of a site committee or one individual to find the right site. Typically a site committee is organized and then meets to discuss the goals of the facility. Although one person can certainly find a site, a single individual will not likely appreciate every concern or issue that might arise. That said, some very successful facilities have been built with one person spearheading the entire process.

Next, committee members develop a site mission statement. The mission statement will drive the options available for the most appro- priate sites. The mission statement might focus on choosing a site that minimizes the negative impact on natural resources or that leverages the relationships between various government and nongovernment entities. After writing the mis- sion statement, the site committee develops goals and objectives. The goal, for example, might be to purchase a facility within a half mile of a major freeway. A site objective might be to purchase a site with more than 3 acres for under $300,000. Appropriate tactics for realizing this objective might be driving around the area and determining which properties have at least 3 acres, contact- ing the assessor’s office to find out the assessed value, and contacting property owners to see if they are interested in selling. Other tactics might include contacting a real estate broker or deter- mining which property owners are in default

on their mortgages or property taxes. The goals and objectives will affect various site options. For example, if the facility will need an external water source for irrigation, then being located near a water source such as a lake or river might be an important goal or priority. Analysis of the proposed facility leads to a better understanding of site needs.

In site planning, a SWOT analysis can be par- ticularly helpful. As detailed in chapter 4, the SWOT analysis encompasses strengths, weak- nesses, opportunities, and threats. A hypotheti- cal SWOT analysis for a sportsplex with several softball fields is shown next. The SWOT analysis, coupled with the strategies and objectives, is synthesized into an action plan, which will help determine how much land is needed.

Hypothetical SWOT  Analysis for a Sportsplex

Strengths Convenient◾location

Cheap◾land

City◾willing◾to◾work◾with◾owners

Strong◾local◾support

Weaknesses Rough◾ neighborhood◾ surrounding◾

the◾property

Needs◾extensive◾infrastructure◾repair

Limited◾funds◾from◾the◾city◾and◾state

Opportunities Many◾softball◾players◾in◾the◾area◾are◾

not◾being◾served

Local◾schools◾may◾want◾to◾use◾facility

Parks◾ depar tment◾ needs◾ more◾ space

Threats Parks◾department◾wants◾to◾build◾its◾

own◾fields

A◾ competing◾ facility◾ 20◾ miles◾ (32◾ km)◾away◾is◾starting◾to◾advertise◾ in◾the◾area

The◾popularity◾of◾the◾sport◾is◾decreas- ing◾throughout◾the◾country

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  103

whatever reason, the developer will have another option. Another reason to have more than one property in mind is leverage. If the facility devel- oper can make the seller think he is competing with another potential landowner, the seller may be more willing to negotiate a more favorable price.

When examining potential sites, a facility developer needs to sell the project. Although it is important to have several locations under consideration, a developer will eventually have to focus on one primary site in order to obtain necessary approval and support. Even for small facilities, surrounding businesses or residents can become the greatest supporters or opponents of a proposed site, and their response can either help finalize a site or doom the site before the facility can be built.

Promoting the Positive

Communicating the plan includes letting the sur- rounding businesses know exactly how the facility will enhance the area. The idea of attracting cus- tomers to an area may greatly influence local busi- ness owners but can possibly anger residents. The local government authorities should be informed if they are not already part of the committee. It is important to get the support of the local leaders to increase perception of the site’s positive aspects. Government officials welcome the opportunity to say they were part of a new facility. Getting positive government officials involved early will only enhance the facility’s success.

The community will also need to be informed about the project and about how the facility will improve the area. Surrounding neighborhoods and organizations will want only what is in their best interest, not necessarily what is best for the community as a whole. Showing the community the positive aspects of the project and getting the community’s support are critical. The following are examples of positive community influences:

◾ Increasing property values

◾ Lowering crime rates among youth groups by keeping kids off the streets

◾ Allowing the community better access to recreational events

◾ Additional tax revenues from out-of-town teams competing in tournaments

◾ Additional spending in surrounding areas resulting from increased traffic

Size There is no formula for determining the size of the parcel required. Whatever type of analysis is used, extra room needs to be considered for future growth and for handling problems that might arise in the construction process. If there is not enough room and the construction process uncovers problems, the land may not be usable. The appropriate site size is contingent on the sports that will be played in the location. Table 5.1 on page 104 provides dimensions for the playing areas for fields and gyms.

Once the specifics of a site are determined, a search committee is formed to look for an area that meets the land size requirements, keeping in mind the facility’s goals and objectives as well as preliminary design concerns. All potential sites should be reviewed closely with respect to the following questions:

◾ What are the surrounding businesses?

◾ What is the residential neighborhood status within a 5-mile (8 km) radius?

◾ Will resident neighbors and the community welcome or object to the facility?

◾ How can the area benefit from the intended facility?

◾ Are the proper utilities in place (gas, electric, sewer, water, phone)?

◾ What, if any, are the zoning restrictions?

◾ How will nighttime lighting and noise influ- ence the surrounding area?

◾ Is extra parking already in place?

◾ Will the sale of alcohol be met with resis- tance?

How the committee answers these and similar questions will influence the final site chosen for the facility. One important decision is whether to communicate potential site locations before the land is purchased. Any tipping of the hand concerning a potential site can have a significant impact on the land’s price. Thus, until the land has been purchased, the plan should be commu- nicated only to a small audience.

Potential Sites After locating several sites, the facility developer must determine which route to take to acquire the site. In any real estate investment, the purchaser should always have more than one prospective location. If the first choice is inadequate, for

104  ■

Table 5.1 Playing Field dimensions

Play area SaFety SPace total area

activity indoor/outdoor Width length Width length Width length

Badminton Indoor 20.0 44.0 6.0 8.0 32.0 60.0

Basketball

Junior◾high◾instructional Indoor 42.0 74.0 6.0 8.0 54.0 90.0

Junior◾high◾interscholastic Indoor 50.0 84.0 6.0 8.0 62.0 100.0

Senior◾high◾instructional Indoor 45.0 74.0 6.0 8.0 57.0 90.0

Senior◾high◾interscholastic Indoor 50.0 84.0 6.0 8.0 62.0 100.0

Neighborhood◾elementary◾ school

Indoor 42.0 74.0 6.0 8.0 54.0 90.0

Community◾junior◾high◾ school

Indoor 50.0 84.0 6.0 8.0 62.0 100.0

Community◾senior◾high◾ school

Indoor 50.0 84.0 6.0 8.0 62.0 100.0

Boccie Indoor◾ 18.0 62.0 3.0 9.0 24.0 80.0

Fencing

Competitive Indoor◾ 6.0 40.0 3.0 6.0 12.0 52.0

Instructional Indoor◾ 3.0 30.0 2.0 6.0 7.0 42.0

Field hockey Outdoor◾ 180.0 300.0 15.0 15.0 210.0 330.0

Football Outdoor◾ 160.0 330.0 15.0 30.0 190.0 390.0

Lacrosse

Boys Outdoor◾ 180.0 330.0 18.0 15.0 216.0 360.0

Girls Outdoor◾ 210.0 300.0 13.0 30.0 236.0 360.0

Air rifle Indoor◾ 5.0 50.0 6.0 20.0 17.0 90.0

Shuffleboard Indoor◾ 6.0 52.0 6.0 2.0 18.0 56.0

Soccer

Outdoor* Outdoor◾ 225.0 360.0 5.0 – 235.0 360.0

Indoor* Indoor◾ 82.0 137.8◾ – – 82.0 137.8◾

Squash

Singles,◾hard◾ball Indoor◾ 18.5◾ 32.0 – – 18.5◾ 32.0

Doubles,◾hard◾ball Indoor◾ 25.0 45.0 – – 25.0 45.0

Tennis

Deck◾(doubles) Indoor◾ 18.0 40.0 4.0 5.0 26.0 50.0

Hand Indoor◾ 16.0 40.0 4.5◾ 10.0 25.0 60.0

Lawn◾(singles) Indoor◾ 27.0 78.0 12.0 21.0 51.0 120.0

Lawn◾(doubles) Indoor◾ 36.0 78.0 12.0 21.0 60.0 120.0

Paddle◾(singles) Indoor◾ 16.0 44.0 6.0 8.0 28.0 60.0

Paddle◾(doubles) Indoor◾ 20.0 44.0 6.0 8.0 32.0 60.0

Table Indoor◾ 9.0 31.0 – – 9.0 31.0

Volleyball

Competitive◾and◾adult Indoor◾ 30.0 60.0 6.0 6.0 42.0 72.0

Junior◾high◾school Indoor◾ 30.0 50.0 6.0 6.0 42.0 62.0

Water polo Indoor◾ 65.6◾ 98.4◾ – – 65.6◾ 98.4◾

Wrestling Indoor◾ 28.0◾diameter◾ 5.0◾diameter◾ 33.0◾diameter

Notes:◾All◾dimensions◾are◾shown◾in◾feet.◾*Represents◾the◾dimensions◾of◾the◾largest◾recommended◾playing◾field;◾some◾fields,◾given◾limited◾ space◾and◾resources,◾can◾be◾smaller◾in◾size.

From◾Planning Areas and Facilities for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation Court and Field Diagram Guide.

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  105

◾ Increasing civic pride of the neighborhood around the facility

◾ Enhancing the city’s reputation to help attract new businesses and residents

Although such positive influences are pos- sible from any project, a facility can also reduce property values, increase crime rates, and reduce recreational choices. Every facility project needs to be critically examined to determine what true positive and negative impacts may occur over time. A nice new facility can be an economic engine or can become an unused eyesore.

Once communities, politicians, and others are notified, the next step is getting their input. Local leaders such as church officials, neighborhood board of directors, and other community lead- ers will want to have input into the new facility during the entire process. Careful attention needs to be paid to the information provided by the community leaders. Including these people on the organization committee or on an advisory board can alleviate some concerns. The public will probably wish to have major input in the facility’s design (e.g., the exterior color or the size). How- ever, some people can also be troublemakers who can make the process more difficult. Such people may demand numerous changes or modifications that could make a proposed facility impractical.

Handling Opposition

Once the public knows about the proposed site, opposition to the project is bound to arise. Nor- mally, the opposition is much more vocal and organized than is the support for a project. After the opposition has been identified, their concerns should be addressed quickly and thoroughly. The more rapidly the facility developer can help influ- ence the opposition, the better chance the project will have of being realized. Restating the positive influences mentioned earlier and emphasizing how the opposition can benefit will hopefully change the opinions of some. Being able to change the opinion of any member of the opposition will greatly enhance the facility’s creditability. The opposition’s arguments will also bring up issues not initially considered. Thus, having an open forum to discuss a proposed site or facility can produce valuable benefits.

Opponents should not be ignored or scorned, as they can be a positive tool for facility growth. Addressing their concerns can be the most chal- lenging part of site selection. For example, if reli-

gious leaders are doubtful about game scheduling on Sundays, the committee might inform them that all Sunday games will be played after 2:00 p.m. This will allow participants to go to church in the morning. A site close to a church can be chosen to reduce travel time, or the facility can be opened for church league participants.

Finally, several managerial issues should also be considered when sites are being explored. Secrecy is a major concern from a political, financial, and competitive perspective. Political squabbling can follow any potential site, and such squabbles can be minimized if no specific site is identified until the very end. On the flip side, if homeowners or businesses are affected, they can rebel if they have not been part of the process from the very beginning. Financially, if landowners know that a facility is being planned and that their land is being considered, they will try to raise the selling price. Lastly, competitors who know that a new facility is being planned may purchase the land to stifle competition.

The analysis discussed so far is appropriate for private facilities. However, most public sport or recreation facilities are built on public land that is already owned or is being acquired through emi- nent domain. Since such land may be in unique areas, sport facilities are often customized or adapted to fit the surroundings. Public land that lies in a flood plain might still be used for sport fields most of the year. Nevertheless, although site selection issues may be minimized if the public owns the land, they do not disappear. Some issues can be resolved quickly—zoning, for example, since the government can modify the zoning for the public benefit. However, irate neighbors can still pose a problem. If the lights from a new field will spill over into a neighborhood, the residents will be up in arms regardless of whether the facil- ity is public or private. Thus, for public facilities, significant effort needs to be expended to avoid the same problems that befall private facilities.

Site Considerations Every potential site must be analyzed for unique concerns, from cost to environmental factors. For example, will the landowner be unwilling to sell the land no matter how much the facility devel- oper is willing to pay? On the other hand, if the public is involved, what political ramifications might there be if the city took the property through eminent domain, even if it paid the prevailing market value?

106  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Other important criteria to examine about potential sites are applicable laws or jurisdictional regulations. Even if price is not an object, if the site is not properly zoned or if the municipality does not allow certain structures, the site will not be an option unless the laws change. For example, state laws may dictate what size facility is required for a school. Thus, even if price or zoning were not issues, the ability of the site to accommodate the needed building size would need to be determined before proceeding.

Alaska, for example, has specific regulations governing school pools. The regulations allow state reimbursement for building expenses if the pool is used for an instructional program or as an emergency water storage facility within a fire suppression system. However, funding is not available to combine the two features, even though such a strategy would not be difficult to accommodate. The regulations cover details such as competitive pool size, which must be at least 75 by 30 feet (23 by 9 m) in order to handle 30 students per class and 720 students per year in swim-related classes. Beginning swimmers, under the guidelines, must have at least 100 square feet (9.3 sq m) each, and intermediate and advanced swimmers must have at least 120 square feet (11 sq m) each (“Swimming Pool Guidelines,” 1997). Other examples of regulations include the required number of parking spaces and how far the entrance of a facility that serves alcohol can be from a church or school.

Countless other issues can affect a potential site. To successfully plan and describe a mul- tipurpose facility, the committee must include a detailed plan of what the facility will entail, what sports will be offered, what amenities will be offered, and what the community can expect from the new facility. Some issues include the following:

◾ Area size and availability (both funds to purchase and willingness to sell)

◾ Appropriate historical information records showing, for example, whether the land was used as a Native American burial ground or used for storing chemicals

◾ Legal issues such as accessibility, conve- nience, parking, safety, and adaptability

◾ Orientation of the playing fields ◾ Government (federal, state, and local) regu- lations

◾ Time allotted for development (Farmer, Mul- rooney, and Ammon, 1996)

Location, zoning and other regulations, user needs, community impact, and land features are also important site considerations. These are discussed next.

Location When it comes to land options, three factors can make or break a facility: location, location, and location. The facility developers must ensure that the location is suitable for the type of facility or business being planned. For example, someone who is planning to build a large recreation com- plex should probably not look into investing in a piece of land that is a wildlife sanctuary, a wetland, or a flood plain. Choosing a site entails doing some intense research but also requires common sense. A developer who plans a facility that will cover 4 acres should not buy 4.5 acres, as there will not be enough room for parking or expansion. It is always important to allow room for adequate parking, and it might be important to purchase additional land for future expansion. It is key to a successful investment to locate an area that generates proper exposure, has good vehicular access, comes at a reasonable cost for site development, and meets government restric- tions or zoning laws.

Zoning and Other Regulations A site should be zoned so that commercial rec- reation is a compatible use. This saves the addi- tional step of changing the zoning or acquiring a variance. Since recreation is a broad term as used in zoning regulations, it is often possible to “slip the project through” in many zoning clas- sifications. Industrial and manufacturing zoning usually accommodates commercial recreation. Business and commercial zoning is generally too expensive for consideration. Residential zoning is not recommended because of the fights that can erupt with neighbors. There is a split regard- ing open space and agricultural zoning that can be resolved only on a case-by-case basis. Zoning issues can also affect liquor-related policies and procedures.

Lighting and noise from a potential site can also raise zoning concerns. The most important aspect related to lighting and noise is the effect on the neighborhoods around the facility. Most cities and neighborhoods have restrictions

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against intrusive lighting and disturbing noise. Light and noise issues could relate to the type of events that will be held in the facility, the time of day and days of the week events will be held, and the type of crowd that will be attending the various events. I once received a letter from the high school in my hometown announcing a zoning application for temporary lights. The high school wanted to have a weekend extravaganza with two games on Friday night and two on Sat- urday night. Since the artificial turf field did not have permanent lights, they would need to bring in temporary lights for the games. However, to use the lights the school needed to inform all the neighbors about the plans and then go through the city’s planning and zoning commission (with the ability for neighbors to protest the applica- tion) for approval. The school was allowed to use the lights but needed to turn them off by 9:30 at night. This is just one example of the complex and thorny issues that can revolve around zoning regulations that are in place to promote quality of life for those living in a given community. Although some issues can be resolved through negotiations with neighbors, it is often easier to approach elected officials and try to change the zoning classification for a given site. Zoning concerns, however, are not the only regulatory issues that may affect a site.

Apart from local or regional guidelines, laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) pose further restrictions for a proposed site. Criti- cal consideration of ADA issues needs to be part of the design process (chapter 12 deals in detail with the ADA). If participants or spectators will need to travel over rough terrain to get to the facility, it may be inaccessible and thus possibly violate the law. One last concern might be a historical building. If a building has been designated as a national historic site or any similar protected designation, then a potential builder might not be able to tear down or renovate the building. In some contentious projects, opponents have petitioned to obtain protection of older buildings as a way to stop a proposed development.

User Needs

After the analysis of government regulations, the next step is to analyze the potential users. The first question to ask is who the typical facility users will be and what their needs are. Future facility users typically want to know the following:

◾ Size of facility ◾ Proximity to major transportation routes ◾ Hours of operations ◾ What events will be held ◾ The cost of building and using the facility

The second question is what groups will be able to effectively utilize the facility. It may be envisioned that local community organizations, charity groups, service organizations, and schools and professional teams will be permitted to use a facility, but what if people in these groups cannot reach the site? If a facility is planned for use by a school, will children be able to walk, or will a bus be used? Who will have priority for use? Will schools always have first priority, or will the facil- ity be reserved on a first-come, first-served basis?

The third question has to do with what the community wants from the site. If the site has historical value or is part of a natural habitat, the community may fight vigorously to prevent its use. Projects have been delayed or scrapped because local citizens succeeded in getting an area designated as a historical site or as an envi- ronmentally protected area.

Community Impact Another important consideration is the facility’s potential economic impact. Specifically, are there intangible benefits or cultural benefits associated with the site? The economic effect of a new facil- ity could include new enterprises in the area and increased local land values because of increased traffic flow (i.e., local businesses will increase tax revenue and offer more employment opportuni- ties). Negative aspects of the site may include lights, noise, or traffic in residential areas. Indeed, the failure to properly consider these factors is often the most costly blunder from a public rela- tions and legal perspective.

Land and Environmental Considerations So far the site considerations have centered on external issues, from government concerns to community impact. But the focus will always come back to the land. If the land option is not appropriate, whether because of location or geographic limitations, the site should not be pursued. Other features to review regarding the site may include the following:

◾ Detailed geography (soil, subsoil, vegetation) ◾ Population composite (demographics of area)

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◾ Constituency representation (political clout) ◾ Flood areas (drainage, runoff) ◾ Climate, precipitation, winds, natural disas- ter strikes (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes, earth- quakes, floods)

◾ Capital improvement plan maps (illustrat- ing current and planned projects by council district)

◾ Enterprise zone ownership and land use maps

◾ Acreage (adequacy for buildings, parking, picnic areas, and so on)

◾ Additional acreage for expansion ◾ Shape (acute angles or odd shapes are pos- sible wasted space)

◾ Topography (level terrain, steep slopes) ◾ Zoning regulations (e.g., permit require- ments, parking, setbacks)

◾ Access (from principal roads and local streets; truck or bus access)

◾ Security considerations

It is very difficult to obtain approval for all envi- ronmental and off-site challenges without having outside cooperation. Facility developers must do their homework by checking and rechecking all issues when considering each site option. No single site will meet all the requirements for any facility developer. However, once all the affected parties are contacted and all the requirements finalized, it is much easier to select the best site options.

Several impact studies are required for every potential site. These studies must be completed before any work begins. The developer must find out if the land contains any hallowed grounds (e.g., Native American burial grounds). Other types of sensitive sites include cemeteries and sites of archeological finds or digs. Some sensi- tive sites can be uncovered through a review of old newspaper articles or interviews of local resi- dents. Contamination is another potential issue. If there was a gas station or a manufacturing plant on the site in the past, then it is likely that the site was contaminated.

Soil Testing When surveying the land, soil testing is important because it will reveal what is beneath the soil. Soil testing helps determine whether the land

has been polluted or used as a waste dump. In one example, a wealthy philanthropist offered to give a private school some land for new school grounds. The land was located next to old rail- road tracks and had been used for dumping over the years. The school conducted soil testing to see if there were any potential hazards to which the children could be exposed. Because of this heightened duty to protect children, the school paid more than $140,000 to test the soil and then had a second test conducted when some results were inconclusive. In the end the land was shown to be contaminated with everything from heavy metals to cyanide and oil. The costs to clean the soil were potentially so high that the school gave the land back to the donor.

Another issue related to soil testing is what surface will be best suited for the facility. If the surface will be grass, for example, the ground needs to be tested to ensure that it can support grass. In many instances the type of grass used (see chapter 8) can be adapted to the present soil. How- ever, some facilities are looking to use a specific type of grass, and in these cases the soil must be examined for compatibility with that type of grass.

Finally, soil treatment may also be a major concern. If the playing surface requires chemicals (e.g., football, baseball, and soccer fields), the chemicals need to be tested for their effectiveness in various climates as well as their environmental friendliness. The primary concern is any kind of runoff into rivers or drainage into other properties. If there is a potential for chemical runoff from the proposed site to another property, this could mean potential litigation or future cleanup concerns.

Core Drilling It is important to understand the kind of founda- tion the facility will be built on; therefore, an engi- neering firm is needed to conduct core drilling to test whether the foundation is sand, clay, dirt, or rock. New technology allows a site to be examined using ground penetrating radar (GPR) to examine rock and soil density. A rock foundation will raise the excavation costs significantly because of blast- ing or other major work. Clay varies in consistency and is affected by wetness. Clay can be very sticky, messy, and difficult to work with in constructing a building or developing a field. Another impor- tant consideration is whether or not the land is at sea level. Water may become a problem if the foundation has to be set deep in the ground. The

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ground around and under the foundation can be saturated and therefore difficult and expensive to work with. In this situation, equipment must be brought in to pump out the water, adding to the cost. Thus, what may have seemed a good deal on cheap land could turn into a major expense. Common sense suggests that if the price is too good, there might be a reason for the low value.

Grading Every site needs to be graded, or leveled and pre- pared for construction. This can include removing dirt, rocks, trees, and other vegetation. Grading can also include disposing of wood, concrete, metal, or other building materials left on the site. Additional grading may be necessary if the site is located along a river or other body of water. Most grading involves moving dirt. The type of soil and the amount being moved determine most grading costs.

Because grading can be costly, the facility builder needs to get bids. Prices vary depend- ing on the type and quantity of material being moved. Soil is easier to move than other types of material such as rocks or trees. Grading costs are determined by the cubic yard. The cost to move (and possibly replace) dirt, plus equipment, labor, and trucks, can exceed $25 per cubic yard (0.76 cu m); but the cost does not necessarily end there. A survey team is needed because the area to be graded needs to be precisely measured. If signifi- cant grading costs are anticipated or additional expenses are involved, the site could turn out to be too expensive.

Wetlands and Endangered Species With any construction project, there will be consultation with and approval from federal and state governments. The site must not be on any protected land. Some wetlands are federally or state protected, as well as some trees, especially older trees. Animals that have been placed on the endangered species list can also pose a problem. Thus, if there are protected oak trees that also serve as the nesting grounds for protected owls, there is almost no chance that a variance will be given to remove the trees. However, if there is little threat to an endangered species or to pro- tected land, the government will probably give a variance. As part of the site analysis process, the facility developer must retain an environmentalist to examine the site and determine what wildlife

will be affected. The time of year when the site is examined has an impact on protected migratory animals that may use the site in certain seasons and not others. If the habitat survey is conducted at different times during different seasons, any potential impact on migratory animals can be minimized.

Accessibility Does the prospective site have access roads to handle the future traffic? If yes, will it be able to handle the traffic flow? Can the current roads handle the exiting traffic without causing major delays for other motorists? Will the facility be located next to a highway, or will people need to travel on back roads to get to the facility? Will access roads go through neighborhoods where parking and noise could become major issues? Will stop signs or stop lights need to be installed, and if so, how far apart will they be placed? Regardless of the answers to such questions, the next question is who will build the needed roadways and how much will they cost. The state department of transportation will probably be involved in significant road analysis and con- struction issues. Thus, it is important to get local officials, residents, and state officials involved in any thoroughfare planning process. Although infrastructure issues are covered in the accessibil- ity analysis, there may be a number of noninfra- structure concerns such as the need for police and traffic patrols for any new roads. Such elements can be significant because a facility may have to pay thousands of dollars for off-duty police to help with traffic flow and pedestrian crossing.

Road access is not the only access-related factor. Buses may need to reach the facility, and large trucks deliver items and remove trash. Such vehicles may be able to travel only on certain roads. Parking areas need to be developed for these vehicles, and entry and exit bays may need to be built to allow vehicles to load and unload. Some facilities also have a helicopter pad to allow for arriving dignitaries and emergency transporta- tion flights.

With any new construction or renovation proj- ect, the state needs to be involved in the process from the very beginning. One major concern for the state could be the facility’s impact on traffic. The state transportation department might require a certain number of entryways and exits from the parking area to make sure vehicles can exit in case

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of an emergency and that exiting traffic would not pose a hardship to the existing traffic flow.

Utilities

Site utilities are a major concern, as the cost of bringing utilities to a remote site may be prohibi- tive. Where the sewage waste will go and where the utilities will come from are just two of the issues that need to be addressed. Water usage must be considered for sprinklers, fire protection, and building use (e.g., restrooms). Storm drain- age, energy sources, telephone lines, and solid waste disposal are all factors. Economic factors such as acquisition costs, taxes, financing, and development costs should also be considered for all utilities (Farmer, Mulrooney, and Ammon, 1996). The primary utility concerns include gas and electricity, phone, and cable/satellite.

With respect to electricity and gas, if the com- plex is built in an open area as the Houston Astro- dome was 40 years ago, supply lines will need to be run to the site. The most important question is how an enormous arena will be cooled. If electric- ity will be used to power the cooling system, the facility will need a tremendous amount of power. Water can be used as a coolant for some facilities. Pumping cold water through the hot water radiat- ing system reduces the cost of cooling a building compared with traditional air conditioning sys- tems. Facility developers who will be relying on city or municipal services should make sure that the city is able to generate the amount of power needed, or that the extra energy can be purchased on the open market or produced through options such as solar cells, fuel cells, or wind-powered devices. If the site does not have enough capacity in the area for the proposed facility’s needs, the facility and utility company might need to build generators or a substation.

Issues of capacity and load capabilities also apply to telephone and cable systems. Will new phone lines be added? If so, will they be above ground or possibly fiber-optic cables buried underground? Cable may be very expensive if it has to go through rock. Satellite data and image delivery is gaining in popularity, and the wiring and delivery costs are lower as long as the receiv- ing dish can be positioned appropriately.

Water, Drainage, and Sewer

When working with water and sewer provisions, it is extremely important to know if a city has the

capacity to serve the facility’s needs. The follow- ing factors must be considered:

◾ Is there water on the site?

◾ Is there an existing well?

◾ Will water be brought in and removed through city or municipal delivery systems?

◾ Will the facility need to build its own water and sewer systems (e.g., septic system, drain fields)?

If water will be transported or additional lines need to be built, the project will become more expensive. That is why some facilities build their own sewer tank and wastewater treatment plants on-site or utilize recycled water. Water concerns also are prominent when it comes to irrigation or a sprinkler system for the playing surface. Where will the water come from? How much will it cost? These questions help determine if a site is suit- able and which grass type should be used. The $455 million University of Phoenix Stadium for the Phoenix Cardinals was built with a field tray (retractable field) so the field can be removed from the stadium to obtain more rain and sunshine and to allow the facility to be more versatile. It is the first retractable field in North America, and the green revolution might encourage other stadiums interested in grass fields to follow the same strategy of increasing the number of hours grass is outside the facility to obtain more water.

Besides water delivery, a site must be able to deal with water drainage and retention. The site slope must be just right to allow the proper drainage so that water does not remain standing, and when the water leaves the area it should collect in either a man-made or natural basin. The next problem is how to get the water out of the basin. Some water will evaporate, and some will soak into the ground. The remaining water will need to be pumped out and placed elsewhere. This is extremely important in areas that get an abundant amount of rain. In an outdoor stadium or even one with a retractable roof, mosquitoes will not only affect the fans but may also affect the athletes. If the mosquitoes are bad enough, the city may have trouble attracting qual- ity athletes to come and play. Fans and customers can also become upset if they have to walk through puddles to get where they want to go.

After examining all the potential land and environmental concerns, the facility developer is almost ready to make some final decisions. The

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  111

following suggestions can help narrow the list of potential sites:

◾ Physical examination of proposed sites

◾ Feasibility studies (see chapter 4) specifi- cally developed for the potential sites (facts including development trends, conditions, and populations)

◾ Site information, including site surveys, soil testing, erosion analysis, surface water resources, wetland issues, groundwater, precipitation, climate, open areas, utilities, existing buildings and roads, projected roads, residential areas, commercial and industrial developments, easements, rights-of-way, and zoning restrictions

◾ Meetings with local leaders, citizen commit- tees, and other groups

◾ Analysis of recreational, aesthetic, and engi- neering features

◾ Most important, the cost of each option and what the facility developer can afford

Site Cost Obviously, care needs to be taken in buying and developing land to ensure the best possible deal for the amount of money spent. If facility develop- ers cannot afford a piece of land, they cannot buy it. Two important questions are involved in cost consideration: (1) How much will the land cost, and (2) who will pay for it? If the public owns the land, then the decision may not be as diffi- cult, even for a private facility developer. Many facilities, from professional baseball stadiums to local gyms, are built with a blend of public and private cooperation, land, and perhaps financial assistance.

No matter who pays for the land, there needs to be enough money available to keep the facility operating. Facility operations can assist in paying off a facility’s debt service, but this is not advis- able. For a successful project, there needs to be enough money for both building and operation. If all operational revenue goes to debt service rather than maintenance and growth, the facility will fail.

Affordability The most important question facility develop- ers can ask themselves is “What can I afford?”

When it comes to determining land value, there are three different valuation methods: (1) the cost approach, (2) the direct sales comparison approach, and (3) the income approach. The cost approach determines value by adding the value of any improvements to the value of the vacant land when purchased. If the land was purchased for $1 million and $500,000 in improvements were made, then the land should be valued at $1.5 million.

The direct sales comparison approach ana- lyzes similar properties in the area that have sold recently. If three properties in the area sold for $20,000 an acre, then the property in question should be worth around $20,000 an acre. How- ever, such an approach works just when land is being compared. When buildings are being com- pared analyzing can become tricky if a building has limited uses or few similar facilities. Thus, this approach is very difficult for sport facilities since there rarely are multiple sport facilities for sale in the same area.

In the income approach, land value is based on the present value of future benefits of property- generated income (Fisher and Martin, 1994). This approach requires analyzing future income streams and then determining the present value of those streams. Thus, a city might be able to project that a stadium can generate $20 million dollars a year in the future after the stadium is built. Based on this revenue stream, the land can be given a specific value based on what will be built on the site and how much money the site can generate.

After determining the property’s value, devel- opers must decide if the price is within their limits. It is not wise to settle for a tract that is cheaper because of its size. It is normally better to give up some of the location benefits in order to obtain the right amount of land. At the same time, though, it is important to remember “loca- tion, location, location”; and if the large parcel is too far away from customers, it may not be the ideal choice. A recent trend has been to create a destination location. Such a location combines a sport venue with ancillary retail, lodging, and entertainment options. Although some of these destination locations are downtown, such as Staples Center in Los Angeles, others are being built outside city limits, such as Gillette Stadium (including Patriot Place) in Foxborough, Massa- chusetts, and the new Dallas Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas.

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Taxes If a private developer is buying land, he must also consider what taxes will have to be paid. Taxes are charged based on a percentage of the property’s assessed value. Government agencies have created incentives through the granting of tax credits, depreciation deductions, and prop- erty tax reductions to encourage developing and rehabilitating certain properties. The value of such incentives is deemed nonrealty interest (Fisher and Martin, 1994). Negotiating with government officials before buying a property is crucial to lower property taxes. If government leaders really want a facility, they may waive significant tax obligations, and this can make a project economi- cally feasible.

Other Fees Other fees may include land-clearing costs and even surveying costs. These costs are incurred in all projects, but their extent varies. For example, a site may include swampland or a high water table, requiring drainage, and also forest land that needs to be cleared. These costs can be significant. How- ever, every challenge can also represent a potential opportunity. One way to ease the financial burden of land clearing is to have a logging company come in and clear-cut the land for timber. Of course this would be an option only with heavily wooded property and if a logging company is interested in buying the trees. Thus, good lumber tress can be an asset for a given site.

Buying Versus Leasing Facility developers often stretch their financial resources to purchase a site, clear the land, lay a foundation, build a shell, complete the interior, equip the facility, and then open the facility for business. This is clearly a long process with numerous expenses. The only means to avoid these start-up costs is to renovate and utilize an existing facility instead of buying. An exist- ing facility often has appropriate government approval (zoning), parking areas, HVAC equip- ment, and other options that significantly reduce the price in comparison to the price of a new building. Although the developer loses some of the glamour associated with building a new facility and the flexibility to build exactly what is needed, the cost savings can be substantial. However, although an existing facility might be cheaper to start with, the renovation costs for

some projects are so large that it is often more worthwhile to build a customized new facility.

To help make a sound financial decision, it is important to perform a buy–lease analysis. In this approach, the net present value of the cash outflow associated with the lease option is com- pared with the cost for buying the property. The option with the lower present value is preferred (Cotts and Lee, 1992). This means that the current value of the cost of building is compared with the cost of leasing a facility, and the project that costs less from the beginning (assuming all other factors are the same) is chosen. The following two alternatives help highlight the analysis required to compare projects:

◾ Alternative 1: signing a five-year lease, with annual payment of $5 million each year, for a facility that can be occupied with only minor modifications. The minor modifica- tions are not covered by the landlord, but all other maintenance and facility expenses are covered by the landlord.

◾ Alternative 2: buying a building for $25 million and spending another $10 million modifying the building, which after five years would have a salvage value of $20 million. Yearly operating and maintenance for the facility will be $1 million a year.

Yearly projections for the two options are shown in tables 5.2 and 5.3.

Leasing the facility would cost the facility developer $11.03 million over five years after taxes. In contrast, purchasing, renovating, and then selling the building (salvaging) after five years would cost $8.86 million. Thus, in this example, alternative 2 would make the best sense if the project was evaluated just on the basis of which project would make the most financial sense. There is a risk when buying in that the price of the property (salvage value) could drop or increase significantly. On the other hand, when leasing it may be difficult to find another viable facility option after five years, or the new lease obligations may be significantly higher. These issues need to be explored when trying to deter- mine whether to purchase or lease. One of the key benefits associated with leasing the facility is that the lease payments are deductible as a business expense. This results in the tax shield reducing the overall cost for leasing the facility.

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  113

For a first-time facility developer, leasing may be the only option because of capital restraints. Yet even major corporations utilize leasing methods to tackle expansion and short-term needs. Leases can have the drawback that the owner may limit renovations or uses of the building. Ultimately, if a leased project fails, developers may lose more money than if they owned the land outright. This happens since the developer might have lease payment obligations and will have no assets when the lease period ends.

A lease allows predictability of rental costs, but only minimal control. The landlord controls issues such as renting adjoining space to compet- ing businesses and can prevent certain activities not expressly covered in the lease. These policies can make the facility less attractive for the facil- ity developer. To avoid such problems, a lease agreement needs to cover the concerns that could potentially arise during the lease term. The fol-

lowing are some of the key clauses that should be included in a lease:

◾ The parties to the lease and what the facility will be used for

◾ Description of the leased property

◾ Commencement date and length of time of the lease

◾ Payment amount or method of calculating rent

◾ Responsibility for expenses: property taxes, insurance, utilities, janitorial and mainte- nance, and management

◾ Method of handling delinquent payments

◾ Alteration or improvement restrictions

◾ Restrictions on the operation of the tenant’s business or on subsequent assignment or subleasing

Table 5.2 yearly Projections for alternative 1

year

Action 0 1 2 3 4 5

Lease◾obligation –5 –5 –5 –5 –5

Minor◾maintenance◾ 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Tax◾shield 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9

Net◾cash◾flow –2.5 –2.5 –2.5 –2.5 –2.5

Discounted◾cash◾flow –2.5 –2.38 –2.18 –2.05 –1.92

Cumulative◾facility◾cost –2.5 –4.88 –7.06 –9.11 –11.03 –11.03

Shown◾in◾millions◾($).

Table 5.3 yearly Projections for alternative 2

year

Action ◾ 0 1 2 3 4 5

Purchase◾of◾building –25

Renovations –10

Depreciation ◾ –4.5 –4.5 –4.5 –4.5 –4.5 –4.5

Operations/Maintenance ◾ 1 1 1 1 1 1

Tax◾shield ◾ 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94

Salvage◾value 20

Net◾cash◾flow –29.56 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94

Discounted◾cash◾flow –29.56 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.79 17.36

Cumulative◾facility◾costs –29.56 –28.67 –27.82 –27.01 –26.2 –8.86

Shown◾in◾millions◾($).

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◾ Use of common areas and facilities ◾ Indemnification of landlord and insurance requirements

◾ Remedies in the event of total or partial destruction

◾ Rights in the event of condemnation ◾ Right of entry ◾ Early-termination penalties ◾ Arbitration provisions for resolving disputes ◾ Statement that the lease represents the entire agreement

◾ Future options in the lease ◾ Subordination and partial invalidity of the lease

◾ Compensation if the government takes the land (eminent domain) (Fisher and Martin, 1994)

The other option when it comes to obtaining a location is buying the land. One major advantage of purchasing the land is that if all else fails, the developer can walk away from the project with land that could be sold.

Site Selection As explained so far in this chapter, before a final site can be chosen a committee must look at all variables. Once the potential sites have been nar- rowed to a manageable final list, each site must be inspected one last time. Various factors go into making a final decision:

◾ Review of feasibility studies (economic and political impact) as covered in chapter 4

◾ Permits (lease, license, or letter) and whether they can be obtained

◾ Site information (from environmental issues to historical concerns such as burial grounds)

◾ Regulations (building codes, health ordi- nances, and other concerns that may make a proposed site unusable)

◾ Community involvement—is there a signifi- cant amount of opposition?

◾ Affordability and decision whether the facil- ity should be purchased or leased

◾ Easements—will the neighbors have the right to go across the property?

◾ Zoning (cluster, flood plain, open space) issues and whether the facility can be clas- sified as business use only or as commercial and residential

◾ Restrictive covenants that may limit who can purchase the land or use it for certain purposes

◾ Aesthetic value of the site and whether there are any beautiful views, trees, or waterways that may affect the site’s use

◾ Recreational opportunities such as whether the site can be used for indoor and outdoor facilities

No single variable makes one site better than another. A good analogy has to do with the pur- chase of a residence. Although one spouse may want more space in a house, the other may want a nice neighborhood or beautifully manicured lawns. One family member may want a certain type of restroom, while others may want energy- efficient appliances. With so many variables, it is difficult to develop a consensus that forces a lot of people to compromise on their final choice. The factors on the preceding list are some of the compromise elements that those on the planning committee may have to consider.

Finally, the benefits and costs for each site are compared and the final site is selected. Often site selection comes down to a “gut” decision. Site selection can be finalized because of a hunch or just a feeling, but only after a thorough review. If a developer has done all the analysis before making this gut decision, then there is no problem with using this technique: There may be two equally attractive options, and a final decision will need to be made on instinct or intuition.

Facility Design Once a site has been selected, facility design is the next step. The design may incorporate ele- ments of the site; Camden Yards in Baltimore, for example, incorporated brick warehouses as part of the design. A recent phenomenon has been to design open-air stadiums to incorporate a view; stadiums in Denver and Pittsburgh have views of the downtown skyline. No one design can be used as a cookie cutter for other facilities.

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Behind the Scenes: dallas Mavericks’ Failed Proposal

Behind the Scenes

The entire planning and construction process is obviously complex. This example is from a planned, but failed, initia- tive to build an arena in Lewiston, Texas, for the Dallas Mavericks and Stars. Before American Airlines Center was built in Dallas, the Mavericks and the Stars were looking for a new home. They looked both in and outside Dallas. One proposal was the city of Lewiston in an adjoining county. The voters in Lewiston narrowly defeated a bill that would have authorized the selling of bonds to build the proposed arena. The initiative involved more than 87 steps before the facility would even open its doors. These steps primarily related to financing and feasibility but also dealt with construction issues (Lewiston, 1995).

1. Do financial and political groundwork for creating new state law necessary to levy taxes.

2. Call election for half-cent sales tax.

3. Hold election day for half-cent sales tax.

4. Hold half-cent bond closing with the release of bond proceeds.

5. Hire political consulting firm.

6. Hire public relations firm.

7. Call general obligation bond (GOB) election for county residents.

8. Hold GOB election.

9. Release GOB bond proceeds.

10. Develop complete financing package.

11. Negotiate and determine the arena ownership structure.

12. Negotiate with all parties for ownership contract.

13. Develop memorandum of understanding highlight- ing key contractual terms.

14. Develop terms and conditions for three categories: anchor tenant, concessions, and sponsorship.

15. Develop terms under which the anchor tenant will be bound to stay in the facility.

16. Research and finalize potential sponsors.

17. Research and finalize agreement with conces- sionaire if food service is being outsourced.

18. Retain consultants to help in securing additional sponsors.

19. Research and finalize list of potential facility man- agement providers.

20. Retain consultants to research potential facility management companies.

21. Research luxury marketing and suites sales, including having staggered expiration dates to maximize revenue.

22. Analyze potential purchasers of luxury suites.

23. Obtain commitment for 75% of luxury suites before progressing further with project.

24. Analyze potential purchasers of premium seating.

25. Obtain commitment for 75% of premium seats before progressing further with project.

26. Analyze various companies that will be asked to provide long-term services to the arena.

27. Research all necessary equipment and fixtures such as concession stands.

28. Send request for financing to commercial banks and institutional investors.

29. Obtain binding letters of financing that provide the terms for borrowing money.

30. Test the debt instruments to determine interest.

31. Test any potential equity instruments to gauge interest.

32. Obtain bond opinion letter from attorney indicating that conditions of bond indenture comply with all applicable laws.

33. Escrow closing of bonds and release funds to start construction.

34. While financing is being pursued, examine site needs.

35. Undertake a detailed survey of all potential final sites.

36. Conduct geotechnical engineering of subsurface at final site(s).

37. Conduct environmental and wetlands analysis.

38. Conduct phase I feasibility study to determine market demand for events, sponsorship, and so on.

39. Conduct phase II feasibility study examining pre- mium seating market.

40. Conduct phase II feasibility study examining financial projections.

41. Undertake an economic impact report for the direct, indirect, and induced spending impact of the new arena.

42. Undertake a traffic study to see what impact the arena will have on local and regional traffic.

43. Close on the site and purchase the land.

44-58. Undertake various steps with the state legislature and department of transportation to build a high- way bypass for the arena.

59. Conduct design phase involving architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical, interiors, acous- tic, civil, planning, landscaping, codes compliance, elevators, lighting, roofing, rigging, and related professional services.

60. Use order of magnitude package to clarify the project’s scope—a preliminary pricing tool.

61. Receive estimates from initial engineering analysis followed by the first round of value engineering.

continued ▶

116  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

62. Architect prepares schematic design.

63. Developers undertake value engineering to reduce costs.

64. Architect prepares design documents.

65. Developers undertake value engineering to reduce costs.

66. Architect prepares construction documents.

67. Developers undertake value engineering to reduce costs.

68. Build suite mock-ups to simulate how the suites will look and help sell suites.

69. Work with architect to hire appropriate consultants such as construction managers.

70. Hire a graphic designer to prepare signs and graphic images of the new facility.

71. Ensure that the architect works with the developer throughout the construction process.

72. Begin physical construction.

73. Solicit bids for construction, and award the contract to the best builder or contractor.

74. Undertake site preparation such as clearing and grubbing.

75. Set foundation and slab-on-grade such as drilled piers.

76. Pour concrete structures such as columns and decks.

77. Install precast seating such as precast stair treads and risers.

78. Build roof structure.

79. Build enclosures such as masonry and glass.

80. Build interior partitions with masonry and drywall.

81. Install finishes such as carpentry, painting, floor coverings.

82. Place fixed and movable seating.

83. Finish all suites.

84. Finish concession fit-outs for all cooking and service equipment.

85. Finish building parking garage.

86. Reach substantial completion of project, and complete punch list.

87. Obtain occupancy permit.

Behind the Scenes: dallas Mavericks’ Failed Proposal (continued)

Even recreation centers have different facility designs based on numerous considerations such as the following:

◾ Off-site variables (e.g., rivers, sewage treat- ment plants, industries)

◾ Safety factors (roads, buffer zones, sight lines, emergency access)

◾ Proper drainage for turf and hard-surface areas (flood zone area)

◾ Fencing and planting to serve as separation of areas

◾ Placement of service building for safety, control, and supervision (access for vehicles)

◾ Layout of walkways for safe and efficient circulation (must meet ADA requirements)

◾ Lighting of fields, courts, and general areas ◾ Cost of maintenance (preventive and cor- rective)

◾ Provision of first aid facilities, equipment, and supplies

◾ Taking advantage of existing topographic features, trees, and vegetation

◾ Accessibility and use of the site for the aging and disabled

◾ Use of durable and vandal-proof materials and equipment

The facility developer will also have to deter- mine how all the building elements will fit together into the facility. This part of the design process allows for significant creativity, within the budget. A facility planning committee can develop numerous ideas and communicate these ideas to the architects and engineers. However, at some point the words need to be transformed into drawings that will hopefully adequately portray the desired results. Architects can help highlight the possible results through scale models and blueprints. A scale model is a miniature version of what the facility will look like. Construction documents, which include blueprints and writ- ten specifications, also show how the facility will look.

The facility design begins with a site plan that includes a number of separate drawings—the master site plan, grading plan, irrigation plan, landscape plan, traffic flow plan, and fencing

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  117

plan. Additional plans include the building plan; floor plan; construction drawing; lighting plan; and specifications for all irrigation, lighting, fencing, recreation area (playground) equipment, buildings, and regular facility equipment.

The master site plan gives an overall view of how the finished facility will look on the site. The grading plan shows how the site will be leveled, where dirt will be moved, and what trees or natu- ral areas will not be touched. The irrigation plan shows where sprinkler systems will be placed. The landscaping plan shows how shrubs, flowers, artwork, and even fake streams may be located and incorporated into an overall landscaping strategy. The traffic flow plan indicates where cars will park and how roads will be designed to ease congestion and speed entry to and exit from the facility. The fencing plan indicates how natural boundaries and man-made fences will be incorpo- rated to secure the property in the most aesthetic manner possible. The other plans show how dif- ferent elements of the facility will fit together to produce the best design for accomplishing the facility’s objectives safely and cost-effectively. An architect can help analyze numerous concerns during the design process to help maximize the building’s value. For example, although it might be nice to build a very high ceiling, if more space can be created by expanding the building (length- or widthwise versus heightwise), a larger facility could possibly be built for the same cost. The architect can examine not just the design but also how much it will cost to operate a facility since a bigger facility requires possibly more janitorial costs compared with a tall building that might require more energy to circulate air.

Building Systems Components within any facility include exterior enclosures from walls to roofs, windows, doors, and other elements such as skylights. The inte- rior can include vertical space dividers such as walls and partitions, horizontal space dividers such as floors and ceilings, plumbing systems, HVAC systems, fire protection subsystems, elec- trical networks, communication systems, security systems, and furniture, fixtures, and equipment (FFE). The numerous systems in a sport facility are covered in greater detail in chapter 7. How- ever, it is important to note here that buildings, especially the technology-driven buildings of today, are not just a collection of walls. They are often as complex as the human body. There are

miles of cables running throughout a building along with wood, steel, ductwork, and glasswork, among many other components. All these materi- als present design and construction challenges (construction is covered in the next chapter) that need to be analyzed during the planning process. For example, a glass wall may appear attractive, but the potential energy loss and cleaning costs may make such an option less attractive than a brick wall requiring very little maintenance and conserving a significant amount of energy.

Ancillary Facilities One of the important considerations in the design process involves ancillary facilities. It is one thing to say that a gym will be built but another to specify what ancillary rooms or areas will be built around the gym. Those involved in the plan- ning process will undoubtedly generate numerous ideas; and if the budget allows, many ideas will be incorporated when the facility is being designed since it is cheaper to build in the extra areas than to add them at a later date. Some of these adjacent areas could include locker rooms, coaches’ offices, training rooms, exercise areas, media rooms, restrooms, storage areas, and equipment rooms.

One of the key factors in accurately determin- ing the price for a structure is the details of the elements within the structure. For example, what size should the locker rooms be? How many lock- ers should be installed? How many toilets and shower stalls should be included? Each element costs money and needs to be examined before the construction process starts. The design pro- cess also affects the price (e.g., tile walls versus marble walls).

There is no one correct calculation for proper facility construction standards or requirements. However, through significant research some organizations have developed guidelines to help in the facility design and planning process. One such association is the National Intramural- Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA), which published their research findings in Space Plan- ning Guidelines for Campus Recreational Sport Facilities (Brown and Haines, 2009). The study highlights numerous potential guidelines. For example, a college campus building an indoor sport facility should have 228 assignable square feet (ASF) of locker room space for every 1,000 students on campuses with 3,000 to 9,999 stu- dents. Using this figure, a campus of 5,000 stu- dents building a new indoor facility would utilize

118  ■

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: american airlines center American Airlines Center, home of the NHL Dallas Stars and the NBA Dallas Mavericks, is a fan-friendly complex utilizing the very latest technology. It was built after the failed attempt to get voter approval for an arena in Lewiston—highlighted in “Behind the Scenes” earlier in this chapter. David M. Schwarz Architectural Services of Washington, D.C., was the primary entity responsible for creating the arena. Mr. Schwarz designed the center to evoke deco-tinged civic buildings from the 1920s and 1930s, complete with soaring arches, vaulted roofs, and square pilasters with streamlined concrete capitals (Dillon, 2002). The arena was built with four lobbies, one for each side of the facility. Although the design has no specific source, a person might see similarities to everything from a train station to an airline hangar.

The center was meant to be the heart of a new urban commercial area (called Victory Park) designed to reinvig- orate the city of Dallas. Victory Park is a $3 billion, 75-acre, mixed-use development with more than 4,000 residences and 4 million square feet (371,600 sq m) of commercial and retail space (Victory Park, 2009). It is being built by Hillwood Development Company, a large company owned by Texas billionaire Ross Perot and his family. Since the development is just a stone’s throw away from downtown Dallas, the project needed to serve as a continuation of downtown. The location is between Interstate 35, Dallas North Tollway, and the Woodall Rodgers Freeway. Thus, it is conveniently located and next to an arts district. The site was part of a destination location and will continue to help serve as an economic engine for downtown Dallas.

American Airlines Center revolutionized sport build- ing systems, especially in terms of new technologies. Wrightson, Johnson, Haddon & Williams was responsible for acoustics and noise control recommendations, design of the building’s sound reinforcement system, design of all video systems including distributed television, the broadcast cable system, design of the low-voltage cable

system, and the scoreboard and replay systems. The ceil- ing of the center is lined with acoustical tiles, nylon swags, and large flat-plane surfaces. Nylon swags absorb sound during concerts, and the planes direct fan noise back to the playing surface for sporting events. The ceilings and walls are covered with perforated vinyl and metal, giving sound a place to escape.

Video was also pushed to new levels. In January 2001, American Airlines Center awarded a $7.9 million digital signage package to Daktronics. The deal, which was one of the largest and most sophisticated in the world for a sport venue, provided an integrated scoring, video, and information display system. The unique scoreboard, which hangs 35 feet (10.7 m) above the playing surface, has eight sides and is 25 feet tall by 49 feet wide by 49 feet deep (7.6 by 15 by 15 m). It weighs 80,000 pounds (36,300 kg) and took eight cables to raise. Daktronics ProStar VideoPlus LED technology is incorporated in the scoreboard, which is a 68-billion-pixels color display system capable of showing video, animation, and graph- ics. Additional displays are located throughout the facility, including one continuous ring of full-color digital advertis- ing technology that circles the entire inside of the arena on the platinum-level facade. American Airlines Center is the first venue to use HDTV wide screens throughout. The facility is also the first building to incorporate three major displays: the scoreboard, the end zone displays, and the 360° ring around the club level.

“The technology allows us to sell every item to every seat,” said Martin Woodall, the Mavericks’ representative on arena issues. “No other building does this” (Wrightson, Johnson, Haddon & Williams, 2004).

Here are some key facts about American Airlines Center (Mooradian, 2001):

◾ 19,200 seats for basketball ◾ 18,500 seats for hockey ◾ 20,021 seating capacity for concerts ◾ 1,600 club seats ◾ 2,000 platinum seats ◾ More than 500 accessible seats ◾ 142 suites ranging in price from $150,000 to

$300,000 per season ◾ 840,000 square feet (78,038 sq m) ◾ 24 ticket windows ◾ 12 escalators, 10 elevators ◾ 550 televisions throughout the facility ◾ 280 men’s room urinals and 96 stalls ◾ 337 women’s room stalls

In 2008 Forbes magazine ranked American Airlines Center the fourth most lucrative arena in the United States.

©Talking◾Sport/Photoshot

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  119

approximately 1,140 ASF [5 (5,000 students divided by 1,000 since the number is based on 1,000 students) × 228] for men’s and women’s locker rooms. Thus, the proposed new facility should have around 1,140 square feet (106 sq m) of locker rooms equally divided between men’s and women’s locker room (570 ASF each).

Locker Rooms Determining the number of lockers and total space needed for a changing room is not an arbitrary exercise. The most efficient way of allocating space for a changing room is by means of two simple formulas. The first formula, used to deter- mine the optimal number of lockers, is a function of the number of people using the changing room and the number of storage lockers in each unit. (A locker unit is used because most lockers are not sold individually, but rather in units of 10, 20, or more lockers, and the lockers can be small storage lockers or large lockers.) It is calculated as follows:

number of lockers needed = people using the chang- ing room + 10% of people using the changing room ÷ number of storage lockers in each unit

For example, if a school regularly has 100 students using the changing room, the formula would be 100 + 10 (10%) / 5 mini lockers would equal 22 units needed for the locker room.

Once the optimal number of lockers has been determined, the area needed for the changing room is determined. According to the second formula, the total amount of space a participant should have around a locker is 14 square feet (1.3 sq m). This could mean a 2- by 7-foot (0.6 by 2.1 m) section or some other permutation that allows people to stretch and move around while getting dressed and using the space (Gabrielsen and Miles, 1958).

Concessions Concessions are a major revenue generator, so concession areas need to be built with money in mind. A sink placed too far away from a prepara- tion area could be a health code violation, but it also would mean that employees need to spend more time preparing food, which means lost income. Similarly, concession areas need to be designed to help sell the most items possible in the shortest time period. Thus, concession areas often have a large number of point-of-purchase locations so orders can be processed quickly and lines are minimal. The optimal number of pur-

chase processing locations can be calculated using a formula similar to that for lockers and based on the latest industry research. Chapter 14 covers the concession area in greater detail.

Other Areas

Calculations similar to those for lockers and conces- sion stands can be made for other facility compo- nents. One industry consultant recommends 8.5 to 10.5 gross square feet (0.8-1.0 sq m) per student as a base number for a recreation center. This number can be higher in small residential colleges where the students will use the center more frequently than on large urban campuses, whose students may be members of other clubs. Additional space needs to be added to the base number for employees (1-1.5 gross square feet [0.09-0.14 sq m] per employee) and alumni and community members (5-7.5 gross square feet [0.46-0.70 sq m] per alumnus/commu- nity member) (Brailsford and Noyes, 2000).

Space concerns are also important in the design of office space, as people do not like small offices that may be hard to move around in. However, some offices can be built into gym walls that have glass windows so that employees who supervise the gym can see into the gym. In fact, many facili- ties have unique internal areas. At Ohio State Uni- versity, among several other places, dorms have been built into the football stadium to maximize space usage.

Restrooms need to be carefully planned, since larger facilities may have thousands of people using the restrooms at the same time. Women traditionally take longer to use restrooms, so larger public assembly facilities often have more women’s stalls than men’s. Also, empirical data and personal observations show that men use fewer sinks for washing their hands than do women. Such data need to be used to help design restrooms with appropriate fixtures.

Sport facilities also have numerous attributes not found in typical office buildings, such as family restrooms, luxury suites, bleachers, and audiovisual rooms. Some of the often overlooked adjacent areas that need to be planned in a sport facility are shipping and receiving (loading docks, storage, access to dumpsters, proximity to users and freight elevators), security (operations center, guard post, access to storage equipment), mail distribution room, and food service (access to refrigeration and cooking equipment, vending locations, loading docks) (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

120  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Layout Regardless of the amenities or rooms being con- sidered, all ideas need to be highlighted in the initial layout. Ancillary areas need to be included in the initial drafts since structural issues may be associated with these areas that can affect the facil- ity. For example, the wiring, soundproofing, and viewing perch of a sound booth need to be devel- oped with careful foresight. Architects often try to identify all the usable areas for the facility and then develop a way to link all these areas. They frequently use common space such as a foyer or an atrium from which usable spaces can be accessed. Areas can be linked by hallways, which are also a common space. Some areas in the facility will be dedicated to specific uses such as stairways, elevators, janitor closets, and storage closets.

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: the new yankee Stadium Although the new Yankee Stadium in New York is beautiful, the $1.5 billion facility (the most expensive MLB stadium built to date) is right across the street from the old stadium and has identical dimensions. However, within days of opening, the complaints began pouring in. People were complaining about more than just the high cost of tickets behind home plate, which were selling for more than $2,000 a game. What was the biggest complaint? The wind. According to Yankees general manager Brian Cashman, “We’re dealing with some phenomenon that we don’t have our hands wrapped around” (Antonen, 2009). Within the first 23 home games, 87 home runs had been hit, making the park the favorite for long-ball batters throughout the league.

The culprit named by many is a jet stream to right field. Wind patterns are a critical element during the design phase, similar to sun movement patterns, rain, and other natural elements. The Yankees even conducted several wind analysis studies during the design phase and hired a specialized engineering firm to look at the issue before opening the stadium. Since public funds, along with private funds, were used in the construction process, opponents of the project started attacking the construction of a “bad stadium” (Antonen, 2009). Wind can affect not only home runs but also the patrons’ experience; fans do not like to watch baseball in swirling winds, under a scorching sun, or while wearing coats because of the cold weather. Fans for years braved the summer winds at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, where pins were given away in the 1990s for fans who were able to survive the cold temperatures and wind during extra-inning night games. The Yankees could possibly change the stadium’s roof slope, add material to the roof to move the wind, or raise the outfield walls. In 1994, after the Texas Rangers opened their new stadium, they added a mesh windscreen to the roof to alter the wind. In Philadelphia and Houston, the teams had to increase the height of the outfield wall in response to the wind’s effect on the number of home runs hit when the new ballparks were opened.

The Yankee stadium example highlights how even in the most expensive stadiums there are going to be design issues overlooked or underestimated by the architects and builders. Only when a facility is actually used will some of these flaws come to light.

Some of the additional concerns that architects analyze are as follows (Walker and Stotlar, 1997):

◾ Path of travel and distance an athlete would have to walk from one area to another such as from a locker room to a training room

◾ Noise from one area that can affect another area

◾ Security concerns between different areas

◾ The availability of storage rooms and janito- rial closets

◾ Government regulations such as Occupa- tional Safety and Health Administration requirements that may affect placement

◾ Environmental surround concerns such as rooms requiring windows or a view

©Talking◾Sport/Photoshot

Facility◾Site◾and◾Design◾ ■  121

Blueprints

No matter what elements are eventually decided on by the facility developer, these concepts, ele- ments, thoughts, and concerns will eventually need to be documented. It is best for an architect to have been involved with the facility planning process from the beginning. If not, all the ideas need to be boiled down to a written description showing how all the elements fit together. During this process, ideas may be scrapped or modified, and a site may even be ruled unfeasible because of design constraints. This process often entails mul- tiple rounds in which changes and more changes are tinkered with to reach a final decision. It is best to have any changes identified and incorpo- rated at this point in the process to reduce costly alterations when construction begins. When this review process is completed, a final set of draw- ings called the blueprints will emerge.

Blueprints are so named because the diagrams were initially made with white lines on a blue background (today the diagrams have blue or black lines on off-white paper, making it easier to

write comments and notations). Many diagrams are drawn for any given project, from broad depic- tions showing the building envelope to detailed mechanical drawings showing where all the plumbing components will be located. The plan view is a bird’s-eye view from the top down of how the facility will look. In contrast, an elevated view is a view from street level showing what the outside walls will look like. The detail view draw- ings show internal elements such as individual rooms or stairways in detail. A sectional view is a detailed view of how a horizontal or vertical ele- ment will look when cut in half. This could be a drawing of metalwork or insulation inserted into a wall to provide appropriate reinforcement. This cutaway view in the sectional prints is used by the construction crews to construct building units pursuant to necessary strength or building code requirements. The mechanical view highlights the mechanical and electrical systems within the planned building. Lastly, the plot and survey lines show the boundaries of the property on which the building will be constructed (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997).

Summary This◾chapter◾focuses◾on◾identifying◾the◾best◾possible◾site◾for◾building◾a◾sport◾facility.◾ Although◾it◾is◾impossible◾to◾have◾a◾perfect◾location,◾a◾number◾of◾locations◾might◾ be◾very◾good◾for◾an◾intended◾project.◾Each◾site◾needs◾to◾be◾evaluated◾based◾on◾ variables◾such◾as◾size,◾cost,◾location,◾zoning◾concerns,◾and◾community◾impact.

With◾very◾strict◾state◾and◾federal◾laws◾affecting◾land◾use,◾some◾facility◾sites◾may◾ not◾be◾appropriate◾because◾of◾environmental◾concerns.◾Soil◾tests◾are◾administered◾ in◾the◾hope◾of◾finding◾a◾site◾with◾minimal◾cleanup◾needs.◾Sites◾can◾also◾be◾chosen◾ based◾on◾the◾expense◾of◾elements◾needed◾to◾make◾the◾site◾usable,◾such◾as◾access◾ to◾ water,◾ roads,◾ and◾ utilities,◾ which◾ can◾ be◾ expensive◾ additions◾ to◾ any◾ proposed◾ site.◾After◾these◾variables◾are◾considered,◾each◾site◾needs◾to◾be◾evaluated◾based◾ on◾the◾anticipated◾cost◾for◾completing◾the◾project◾on◾that◾particular◾site.◾After◾this◾ analysis◾ has◾ been◾ completed,◾ a◾ site◾ is◾ chosen◾ and◾ a◾ facility◾ designed.◾The◾ next◾ chapter◾covers◾how◾the◾facility◾is◾actually◾built.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾would◾make◾the◾best◾facility◾site◾for◾a◾stadium?   2.  What◾would◾make◾the◾best◾facility◾site◾for◾an◾arena,◾and◾is◾it◾different◾from◾a◾

site◾that◾would◾be◾great◾for◾a◾stadium?

  3.  What◾concerns◾arise◾with◾government◾entities◾and◾proposed◾facility◾sites?

122  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

  4.  Examine◾a◾newly◾built◾facility,◾and◾research◾issues◾that◾arose◾in◾choosing◾that◾site.◾Be◾sure◾to◾ examine◾political,◾legal,◾and◾financial◾hurdles◾that◾may◾have◾been◾encountered.

  5.  What◾are◾some◾arguments◾to◾make◾to◾convince◾local◾businesses◾and◾residents◾to◾support◾a◾ planned◾arena◾or◾stadium◾in◾their◾community?

6

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾plans◾for◾building◾a◾structure◾are◾finalized.

◾◾ Understand◾the◾public◾bidding◾process◾often◾used◾to◾construct◾new◾ facilities.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾elements◾involved◾in◾the◾construction◾process.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾to◾calculate◾construction◾costs.

◾◾ Know◾how◾to◾complete◾the◾construction◾process.

Facility construction

124  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Thomas Beebe, and I have been involved in facilities planning, facilities man- agement, program manage- ment, and construction for more than 30 years. I am the director of busi- ness development for Petra Construction Corporation, and we have assisted the University of New Haven

in more than 35 different projects ranging from cost estimating to program managing and constructing the David A. Beckerman Recreation Center. At the time, this was the single largest construction project in the university’s history at 56,504 total square feet (5,249 sq m), providing fitness and recreation space for students, staff, and faculty. The highly visible project exceeded all expectations and is the focal point on campus.

We were intimately involved in the project from inception, translating to a higher-quality process and product. It is critical for the owner, design profes- sionals, and construction manager to collaborate as soon as possible to identify a clear scope of work, budget, and schedule.

It is equally important to effectively lead the process, especially since there are a multitude of ongoing issues and decisions that require a very organized and structured approach. Team leadership can be from the owner or in this case the program manager. In simple terms, the ongoing challenges can be characterized as follows:

◾ Clearly define the issue. ◾ Identify and evaluate the options. ◾ Make informed decisions as they affect quality, cost, and schedule.

The recreation center presented some unique challenges. The soil was not stable enough to support the massive building, and the best solution was to install more than 250 aggregate piers (holes drilled in the soil and filled with compacted rock). Surplus soil was reused elsewhere on campus at a substantial cost savings. Input from students, staff, and faculty

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e .

was critical. University representatives from voice, data, security, and audiovisual provided key input early in the design phase to ensure appropriate design and cost analysis. As the design progressed, Petra and the design professionals evaluated the most cost-effective structural steel and glass systems for this application.

At the end of each design phase, a detailed soft cost analysis was completed by the program man- ager, while the construction manager completed construction cost estimates based on input from subcontractors. This important process provided the owner with an accurate snapshot of the anticipated total project costs and schedule.

The project was initially over budget. The uni- versity was presented with specific options to either eliminate some program elements from the building (jogging track and racquetball courts) or increase the budget. The budget was increased because the program elements were considered very important to the use of the building.

The project team met twice a week throughout the project to analyze constructability and identify cost reduction opportunities. It is important to recognize the use of durable materials and quality workmanship in the building, particularly with respect to operating expenses. Facilities management should collaborate with the project team to offer their perspective on materials and maintenance. The large lighting fixtures over the three courts were designed to be switched at three different light levels to conserve energy. The mechanical systems were fine-tuned for maximum value, and the local utility company participated in project team meetings to advise the team on available rebates.

The world of design and construction is under- going a major evolution. The design professionals and the builder must be the appropriate fit for the project, and the process must be based on collabora- tion, trust, and synergy. It is critical to implement teams and processes that will result in the best build- ings at the highest possible value to the owner. To accomplish these objectives, the owner must be very clear about the program and must make timely and informed decisions, all while actively engaged as a focused and informed member of the project team.

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  125

There are two primary ways to build a sport facility. The first is to determine how much money might be available for the project and then to fit the facility into the budget. Thus, if a school bond issue raises $2 million for a gymnasium, the school will have to make sure that the facility is constructed for less than this figure because it will still be necessary to purchase furnishings (chairs; special bleachers; basketball hoops; and other furniture, fixtures, and equipment). If the school does not have any other funds to dedicate to the construction process, then the options are very limited.

The other option, referred to as the planned approach, entails examining what is specifically needed and then developing an ideal facility within rough cost constraints. After a basic analy- sis has been completed, a detailed cost estimate can be developed. When all the component prices are roughly established, a facility developer can start eliminating items that have a low priority or are not feasible economically in order to fall within the potential budgetary constraints. This process is often referred to as value-based engineering. Unlike other approaches that are more reaction- ary and often produce a facility that is less than desired, the planned approach strives to utilize management prioritizations to allocate funds in a rational manner. This text emphasizes the planned approach of researching all potential options and then developing a comprehensive building plan.

Although budgeting should have been ana- lyzed in both the planning and design processes, costs are still a major issue in the construction process. Change orders, material discrepancies, union disputes, delays in material delivery, budget overruns—there are literally thousands of cost concerns that can cause price fluctuation. For example, over the past several years the cost of metals such as steel and iron has risen sig- nificantly due to an international building boom. However, the recent economic downturn reduced demand, and prices have fallen significantly. Thus, demand increased construction prices, and reduced demand reduced costs. A facility devel- oper needs to appreciate these variables since prices can fluctuate significantly before, during, and after a construction project.

Assuming a reasonably stable budget, this chapter focuses on the process of building a sport facility. The chapter starts by analyzing site preparation procedures through the construction

planning and preconstruction phases and then moves on to the foundation, frame, and roofing. The last sections cover project costs and complet- ing the facility.

The facility construction process involves vari- ous elements decided through the planning and site selection processes. No one builds anything, whether a bookcase or a house, without detailed advanced planning, deciding on the right size, and obtaining the right materials. The following phases help put the construction process in the proper context with issues previously discussed and those covered later in the text:

Programming Phase ◾ Deciding what to build ◾ Examining space, cost, and other criteria ◾ Deciding what events will be held at the facil- ity, including capacity and amenities issues

◾ Deciding the number and location of food and beverage preparation and sales areas

◾ Finalizing support areas that will be needed

Design Phase ◾ Designing the facility with architects ◾ Preparing schematic drawings and cost esti- mates

◾ Developing the design, adding details such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems

◾ Reviewing and verifying the documents ◾ Reviewing operations to ensure that systems will operate as intended

◾ Preparing construction, legal, and bidding documents

Construction Phase ◾ Awarding the contract after checking refer- ences and qualifications of all parties

◾ Developing the construction schedule through substantial completion of the facility

◾ Completing the construction process and change orders

◾ Going through the inspection process

Occupancy Phase ◾ Finishing, including completing punch lists ◾ Obtaining the occupancy permit ◾ Doing facility maintenance and renovations

126  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Construction Planning Chapter 4 covers some of the planning issues that affect the facility. However, once the facility design, style, and site are chosen, several steps still need to be taken before construction actually begins. During the construction planning phase, the first question is who is going to build the facility. There are several issues to examine when deciding on the final builder, such as reputation, the final cost, and the construction contract.

Builders Every project, including public facilities, has an owner. Owners can build the facility themselves if they have the resources. A government entity that has a public works department may have all the construction personnel already on the payroll to build a facility. This can save time and money in comparison to the situation with other owners who must hire each trades group needed. Private owners may have a designated builder that has worked with them in the past and is willing to build the sport facility. However, the primary step to be taken by a facility owner is to interview several builders, obtain several price quotes, and then select the builder. Owners who do not want to be involved in the process can hire a consultant, construction manager, or contractor to manage the building process. An owner’s representative is the middle person between the owner and those who will build the facility, such as the architects, construction managers, and contractors.

Public projects are significantly different from owner-constructed facilities. In the latter case, the owners can choose whomever they wish to design and build the facility. Almost all public projects must go through the bidding process. The bid- ding process may come into play in the planning process as various architectural, consulting, or design companies are examined.

Project Bids One of the first elements within the bidding pro- cess is the request for qualifications (RFQ). The RFQ helps determine which companies meet the minimum requirements for building the facility. This does not mean that a given company will construct the building; rather, it determines which companies will move on to the next round, in which financial and other variables are analyzed.

Most states require by law that professional ser- vices be procured based on qualifications, not necessarily price. Normally, RFQs determine the best company to assist with tasks such as devel- oping the master plan; consulting projects such as feasibility studies or soil testing; architectural, engineering, or design services; construction man- agement; or facility management.

RFQs are typically published in the legal sec- tions of the newspaper to provide appropriate public notice. The RFQs may contain written descriptions mailed to past contractors with the municipality; these letters contain a project summary, a detailed analysis of services being requested, detailed explanation of the expected deliverables, and possible submission require- ments or selection criteria. Potentially interested companies are often invited to attend a walk- through in which they can examine a potential facility or site.

Besides the cost to advertise an RFQ, the bid package itself can be expensive. It can cost $300 to print the documents (specifications and drawings) for a typical bid set. Bidders are often asked to put down a deposit that covers the printing costs; they will obtain a refund after a winner is chosen. Regardless of what process is used, the expense needs to be considered, or a reprographic busi- ness needs to be consulted to make copies for any potential bidders. The bidder may have to pick up other costs with no guarantee of ever getting any contracts. It is not uncommon for a company to submit numerous bids and qualifications during a year and receive only a limited number of actual projects, if any.

In addition to RFQs, there are requests for pro- posals (RFP) and requests for bids (RFB), which are basically the same. Both request particular action; for example, an RFP can ask a company how it would propose solving a problem or what price it would charge to build the facility. Some- times an RFQ produces a list of several qualified companies, and those qualified companies receive an RFB and are asked to bid on a project. Criteria for determining who might get the bid are listed on page 127.

The bidding process requires significant give and take. The owner or management team must know what other major projects are going up for bid, must give potential bidders enough time to submit a bid, should not set a submission date

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  127

before major holidays, and should require a bid bond that would prevent the winning bidder from backing out (Kocher, 2007). A bid is often the starting point for negotiations and developing a contract. However, the bid can be modified and redeveloped during the construction process as issues or concerns arise.

Contracts The person or business that wins the bid or is awarded the contract normally meets with the facility developer to finalize a contract and all the associated terms. Each entity involved has to understand its role in the construction pro- cess. Facility developers often feel entitled to do

whatever they want with the facility when it is being built. However, any efforts on their part to change the facility design during the construc- tion process often result in large time delays and increased costs.

To help deal with this concern, specific con- tractual relationships need to be developed. The options available are listed next. The advantages and disadvantages of some of the options are outlined in table 6.1.

◾ Pay a lump sum for the construction so the total costs are known at the start. If costs rise, however, the quality might have to decline.

◾ Pay a set cost plus a fixed fee to the contrac- tor as his profit. The contractor knows he will earn his profit, so he will try to build the facility under budget and try to avoid cutting corners.

◾ Hire a construction manager or general con- tractor to serve on the developer’s behalf, and give that person the financial authority to complete a project. The construction manager handles all the details and is an advocate for the developer, so he works to reduce costs and save as much money as possible through value engineering and getting multiple bids from subcontractors.

◾ Hire a construction company to complete the project for a guaranteed maximum price.

◾ Enter into a turnkey contract in which a construction company builds the facility with very little input from the future owner; when the construction is completed, the construction company turns the keys of the new building over to the new owner.

◾ Enter into a design/build contract, which is similar to the turnkey process with the exception that the owner rather than the builder provides the land and may control the schedule and budget (Bentil, 1989).

The construction manager/general contractor (CM/GC) needs to become involved in the very earliest phases of the construction process—most frequently, in a private facility, during the plan- ning process. As the party responsible for final construction and for hiring the subcontractors, the CM/GC can collaborate more effectively with all other parties including the developer and architect. The CM/GC can also help with reducing

Builder Criteria

Although◾ there◾ is◾ no◾ one◾ correct◾ list◾ of◾ expected◾experience◾or◾skills◾for◾any◾com- pany◾ responding◾ to◾ an◾ RFQ,◾ RFP,◾ or◾ RFB,◾ the◾following◾are◾some◾basic◾concerns:

◾◾ Length◾ of◾ company◾ existence◾ (to◾ determine◾ staying◾ power◾ if◾ some- thing◾goes◾wrong)

◾◾ Relevant◾project◾experience◾(have◾ they◾ built◾ something◾ similar◾ in◾ the◾ past)

◾◾ Expertise◾ and◾ experience◾ of◾ engi- neering◾staff

◾◾ Experience◾ with◾ other◾ companies◾ already◾ working◾ with◾ the◾ facility◾ planners

◾◾ Past◾ experience◾ working◾ for◾ the◾ municipality

◾◾ Staff◾experience◾on◾similar◾projects ◾◾ State◾ or◾ other◾ required◾ licensure◾

(both◾firm◾and◾personal◾licenses) ◾◾ Existence◾of◾required◾elements◾such◾

as◾insurance◾or◾local◾office ◾◾ Technical◾competence ◾◾ Letters◾of◾recommendation ◾◾ Past◾record◾of◾coming◾within◾budget ◾◾ Past◾experience◾with◾problems◾and◾

how◾they◾were◾resolved

128  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

budgeting and scheduling restraints since he is involved from the beginning and represents the developer. The CM/GC is also a facilitator to ensure that the design, schedule, cost, and “build- ability” issues are working smoothly.

One of the requirements of starting the con- struction process is often some form of guaran- tee that the work will be completed. Although contracts provide some form of protection, they are worthless if the construction company goes out of business or has multiple shell companies to hide its money. One step that can be taken to avoid this problem is to have construction bonds or insurance that pays the facility owner if the builder or general contractor fails to perform. In one example in Connecticut, a city hired a pool builder to build the city pool. As part of the construction bid requirement, the builder was required to post a $950,000 bond. The project faced significant delays and cost increases. The contractor blamed the delays and cost increases on the rocks found on the site. On the basis of the delays, the town council voted that the contractor was in default. Such a step was required in order to start the process to collect on the performance bond (Gannon, 2002).

Preconstruction Phase Besides finalizing the builder and any contractual issues such as construction bonds or liquidated damages clauses to penalize a builder that does not finish construction on time, several additional steps need to be taken before actual construction begins. For example, preconstruction meetings are held to make sure the architect or engineer, owner representative, contractors, and other parties are all on the same page. Does each party have all necessary resources and personnel to complete its tasks, especially if these may be needed in a sequential manner? No project runs without glitches. However, some glitches are more expen- sive than others. If a roofing crew is supposed to begin installing the roof starting on July 1 but the trusses are not completed on that date, the crew could be waiting around for weeks, all having to be paid. The workers must be available because if they move to a different job, there is no guarantee they will be available when the trusses are finally up—delaying the project even more and incurring even more expenses. Thus, all the parties includ- ing project managers, superintendents, engineers, architects, laborers, carpenters, subcontractors,

Table 6.1 advantages and Disadvantages of Various construction options

construction option advantages Disadvantages

Lump◾sum ◾◾ Fixed◾price ◾◾ Owner◾in◾control◾of◾quality◾and◾of◾◾

operation◾and◾management◾(O&M) ◾◾ A◾single◾responsible◾contractor

◾◾ Lengthy◾process ◾◾ Numerous◾revisions◾over◾time ◾◾ Impact◾of◾cost◾escalation◾most◾severe ◾◾ Contractor◾and◾owner◾or◾designer◾not◾

necessarily◾working◾together

Construction◾management ◾◾ Impact◾of◾price◾escalation◾reduced ◾◾ Construction◾management◾works◾as◾

owner’s◾agent ◾◾ Owner◾in◾control◾of◾quality◾and◾of◾O&M ◾◾ Design◾construction◾time◾reduced

◾◾ Total◾cost◾not◾known◾until◾construction◾ started

◾◾ Extra◾costs◾when◾modifications◾made

Guaranteed◾max◾price ◾◾ Complete◾plans◾can◾be◾finished◾later ◾◾ Maximum◾price◾known◾from◾start ◾◾ Owner◾in◾control◾of◾quality◾and◾of◾O&M ◾◾ Design◾construction◾time◾reduced

◾◾ Any◾changes◾increase◾costs ◾◾ Contractor◾and◾owner◾or◾designer◾not◾

necessarily◾working◾together ◾◾ High◾contractor’s◾profit◾margin

Turnkey ◾◾ Complete◾plans◾not◾necessary ◾◾ Price◾fixed◾at◾start ◾◾ Design◾construction◾time◾reduced

◾◾ Hard◾for◾owner◾to◾make◾changes ◾◾ Contractor◾and◾owner◾or◾designer◾not◾

necessarily◾working◾together ◾◾ Less◾say◾on◾quality◾and◾O&M ◾◾ High◾contractor’s◾profit◾margin

Modified◾from◾Cotts◾and◾Lee◾1992.

■  129

Behind the scenes: constructing a Baseball or softball Field

Behind the Scenes

It is important to hire an experienced general contractor and architect. Any contractor who has ever moved dirt says that she is capable of following a grading plan and constructing fields. Potential architects will also claim that a field is a minor project for them. However, there are many nuances to the grading plan, irrigation system, and other systems that directly affect the facility’s quality for years to come. Anyone interested in building a baseball or softball field should ask potential general contractors and architects for references concerning fields they have actually built and then question the maintenance person for that facility.

Various Field layouts

The standard and accepted softball infield is a “skinned” surface. Attempts at using a grass surface have generally been ill advised. A dirt surface is easier to maintain and holds up better under the extensive use a field receives. The actual mix of dirt is dependent on the facility’s location. Various clay–sand mixes can be purchased, but over the long term the field will end up with indigenous materials of some sort. The facility developer should choose “clean” material, free from rocks and small pebbles, and then properly apply and maintain it. A properly maintained clay–sand mix will result in a first-class infield.

Drainage is a major consideration in the construction of infields. It is important that the infields be crowned to induce drainage, but more important is a regular schedule of infield dragging patterns so that material is not con- stantly being dragged off but rather returned to the infield. It is also important that the problem areas around home plate and the bases be properly maintained and dragged in a pattern consistent with the rest of the infield.

A second issue that is rarely addressed is the cut of the infield dirt. The cut is the distance of the radius around the pitcher’s rubber at which the outfield grass starts. Baseball and softball have gone to a livelier ball, and the bases have been moved back. Although some sanctioning now rec- ommends a 65-foot (20 m) radius to the grass cut, some facility developers recommend a minimum of a 75-foot (23 m) cut. This solves a maintenance problem, decreases the cost of the irrigation system and maintenance, and provides some additional flexibility for women’s events.

Field Maintenance

Outfields should be made of grass and require a proper irrigation system. The major maintenance issue is that of wear in the areas where the outfielders, particularly the left fielders, play. The extent of the problem is determined by

the design, quality of maintenance, and amount of use. In some cases it is simply impossible to avoid the occurrence of these spots, and annual resodding over these areas must be scheduled. This is particularly true for wet fields. Drainage is again an issue, since wet spots are the spots most easily damaged. A 3% grade should be constructed through the turf areas to move the water away from the field. The irrigation system should be properly monitored to prevent player-induced wet spots due to overuse. Also critical is constant aeration of the worn areas to prevent soil compaction problems.

A second construction consideration is warning tracks. Lawsuits have been filed against complexes without warn- ing tracks after players have run into fences. In addition to the safety factor, warning tracks have some very practi- cal cost-saving effects. They cut down on the cost of the irrigation system and maintenance of turf, provide access for the occasional vehicle that must cut across the field, are easily maintained, and add prestige to the complex. The material used on the warning tracks need not be as closely scrutinized as that used in the infields. A crushed- rock mix that will absorb water is most appropriate. The critical concern is again a maintenance issue—keeping the warning track and infield substances separate so that the infields are not contaminated with the warning track substance. Warning tracks are generally constructed using the same material as dirt parking lots and walkways since this option is inexpensive.

Dimensions

The outfield fence must be a minimum 300-foot (91 m) radius from home plate, and all side fencing must be a minimum of 20 feet (6 m) from the foul lines. It is recom- mended that in complexes of more than one field, all fields be identical in dimension. Facilities should also be constructed with a north–south orientation so that the third base line is on the north side of the field. This helps minimize the sun glare for players.

irrigation

Effective turf maintenance requires proper watering, fertil- izing, aerating, and mowing. Of these elements, water is the most critical. The type of irrigation system is deter- mined by the facility’s climate; however, all facilities require some sort of automatic irrigation system. The sprinkler systems with smaller heads are safer and better suited for the playing surface than systems with large heads. Skimping on the irrigation system can be a serious error.

continued ▶

130  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

material suppliers, equipment suppliers, con- sultants such as surveyors, professionals such as lawyers, and even city or municipal building inspectors need to work together on a set schedule. Even with a set schedule, there will always be delays, from workers not showing up on time to material not arriving or inspectors being on vaca- tion. That is one reason why builders and owners need to set aside contingent schedules and funds for any and all potential delays.

Documentation Also important in this phase is making sure that all the proper documentation is available to all parties. The preconstruction documents that are needed, in addition to the construction contract, include what are commonly referred to as contract drawings. Among these are the following:

◾ Site drawings, which provide information on the geographic location, how the project contours to the land, any roads and parking lots, and where current and future utilities will be placed

◾ Architectural drawings, which show the floor plans from the lowest to the highest floor

◾ Structural drawings, which show all the supporting systems such as foundations, columns, floor systems, roof systems, and other elements depicted in great detail (such as where pieces should be welded together and how)

◾ Plumbing drawings, which depict the water distribution system from piping to fixtures

◾ Mechanical drawings, which provide infor- mation about the HVAC system (e.g., the location of ductwork and where heating and air conditioning units will be placed)

◾ Electrical drawings, which show the electri- cal and electronic demands for the building and placement of electrical and electronic fixtures (Bentil, 1989)

Once all the documents and parties are ready, the construction process can begin. The first step is site preparation.

Site Preparation Building contractors cannot just start building on a site. They first need to establish a field office and then build an access road for equipment and materials to reach the site. Next, the rough grade of the site needs to be evaluated. This may entail removing existing buildings, utilities, vegetation, and other impediments to construction. The pro- cess of removing tree stumps, bushes, and other undergrowth is called grubbing and is normally accomplished fairly quickly with a bulldozer. Existing buildings can be more complicated. Tearing down some old stadiums has required a significant amount of explosives. Other facilities may have asbestos or other hazardous components that may require care, money, and time to abate.

Soil boring is then undertaken to determine if the soil is suitable for the proposed foundation. Core drilling, covered in chapter 5, can include testing of the subsoil strength. Testing for con- taminants or rocks often does not go as deep as strength testing to determine how deeply cement

Some options that can be included in the irrigation system are an automatic clock, a computer monitor, and a sensor system. The automatic clock is not really an option as it is an integral part of the irrigation system; any system without a clock is inadequate. The clock should provide watering in the various cycles during the hours the fields are not in use. The size of each station can be determined by the professional who designs the irrigation system. It is of course vital that the complete watering cycle be accomplished within 8 to 12 hours so as not to interfere with games.

A sensor system is very cost-effective in areas where irrigating can be expensive. A sensor system shuts off

Behind the scenes: constructing a Baseball or softball Field (continued)

a station when it determines that the root system has received adequate water. These systems can cost around $3,000 per field and result in a highly efficient use of water. A sensor-based system can produce a 30% to 50% reduc- tion in water consumption. It also eliminates overwatering and the accompanying maintenance problems.

A final consideration for the irrigation system is to install couplers within the dirt portion of the infields, located so hoses can water down the dirt in the infield and then be removed for play. The most common maintenance problem in the dirt areas is lack of water. Couplers or faucets allow the field maintenance staff to bring a hose to the center of the field and water the infield.

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  131

pylons may have to be sunk to ensure a strong sup- port. Through the boring process, a contractor can determine the presence of rock, organic materials, or a water table that can affect the foundation. After the clear surface for the site is exposed, earthwork operations begin. Earthwork includes stripping the existing topsoil, mass excavation or filling (site grading), building excavation, and backfill (Bentil, 1989). Typically, the first 4 to 6 inches (10-15 cm) of a site is removed, unless a facility existed on the same site in the past, because it is not a suitable base on which to build a foundation. The area that needs to be cleared is the building area, which is defined as 5 feet (1.5 m) beyond the limits of the proposed structure.

Normally the ground is not flat but has dips, valleys, hills, mounds, and other irregularities. A topographic survey of the site will show all these contours and help the contractor determine what areas need to be lowered or filled so that the site will be properly graded for supporting the foundation. The grading plan was discussed in chapter 5. Rough grading is the initial move- ment of clay, earth, gravel, or sand; fine grading is the smoothing of the site to a finished surface. If a hole needs to be dug to support the founda- tion, or for a basement, garage, elevator shaft, or substories for a structure, the contractor will need to excavate the site.

The contractor can utilize machine excavation (trenching machines, bulldozers, and excavators) or hand excavation. During the excavation pro- cess the contractor may run into water and then will need to engage in dewatering, or extracting water. Water can be removed through pumping the water out directly, pumping the water from one pit to another, draining the water to a lower elevation, or installing a permanent pumping system (Bentil, 1989).

After the site is at the appropriate level, the soil is chemically treated to prevent insects such as termites. Utilities are also added at this point, and some of the basic landscaping may also be completed at this time.

Construction Elements Building a facility is similar to putting together a jigsaw puzzle. Most people put a puzzle together by looking at the picture on the box to see what the puzzle should look like. They then sort the pieces with edges and put the frame together.

After the frame is in place the inside can be com- pleted. Similarly, the construction process for a PAF typically starts with examining the plans, building a foundation for a solid structure, creat- ing the external shell, and then completing the interior. The construction process must include examination of the material used for the facil- ity’s base, the exterior components, and then the interior elements.

Foundation Materials Before examining the foundation, it is important to understand the basic construction material that will be used throughout the construction process. Wood is one of the materials most commonly used since it can be easily shaped or cut to size. Wood is typically used for joists, columns, posts, beams, and trusses. If the wood is laminated, which pro- vides greater strength, it can also be used for rigid frames, arches, vaults, and other areas requiring significant strength. Most lumber is categorized by size—for example, 2 by 4 inches (5 by 10 cm) and 4 by 4 inches (10 by 10 cm)—and grade, which refers to its quality.

Concrete is one of the most frequently seen construction materials because it is not flammable, is highly versatile, and is relatively inexpensive. Cement (or Portland cement) is made of silica, lime, slag, flute dust, and alumina. These ingre- dients are mixed, heated, cooled, and pulverized, and then the powder is sold either in bulk or in bags. Combining cement with water, sand, gravel, crushed stone, and other inert items makes con- crete. Concrete is rated by its strength after it has been allowed to cure (harden) for a 28-day period. Concrete that will be exposed to freezing elements, such as in sidewalks, needs to have a strength of about 4,000 psi (pounds per square inch). Stronger concrete can reach a strength of 19,000 psi (Bentil, 1989). Since concrete can suffer from tension and shear, reinforced steel is often placed in designated locations to strengthen it. Concrete can be cast in place (poured on the spot) or precast (formed at a different location and then trucked to the spot where it will be erected), or it can take the form of masonry such as concrete blocks, which are used for load-bearing walls. Similar to concrete blocks, walls can be made of bricks, stones, rocks, and other inert hard compounds.

Structural steel is often used to frame a building. Steel can lose strength over time because of corro- sion or when exposed to severe heat, as evidenced

132  ■

Behind the scenes: Field renovations

The◾first◾step◾in◾the◾process◾of◾converting◾a◾grass◾field◾ to◾an◾artificial◾turf◾field◾is◾to◾remove◾the◾grass.

Once◾the◾grass◾is◾removed◾and◾enough◾topsoil◾is◾ removed◾for◾drainage◾preparation,◾a◾laser-guided◾ bulldozer◾will◾level◾the◾field.

You◾should◾not◾start◾a◾building◾project◾without◾having◾ all◾the◾necessary◾supplies,◾and◾on◾this◾project◾all◾the◾ drainage◾piping◾was◾stored◾on◾the◾side◾so◾as◾not◾to◾ interfere◾with◾the◾construction◾process.

In◾this◾renovation◾effort,◾the◾high◾school◾already◾had◾ a◾nice◾track,◾so◾the◾track◾was◾covered◾to◾protect◾it◾ from◾harm◾and◾a◾drainage◾system◾was◾installed◾on◾ the◾perimeter◾of◾the◾new◾field◾to◾assist◾in◾drainage.

Behind the Scenes

In spring 2007, bulldozers started removing the grass turf at the Hall High School field in West Hartford, Connecticut. After examining the cost benefit analysis for installing an artificial turf field, West Hartford decided to replace both high school grass fields with artificial turf systems. The process began with preparing the area around the field that would not be changed. Protective tarps needed to be installed over a synthetic track to avoid causing the track

harm. Next, all the equipment and supplies were brought in to avoid potential delays. While removing some grass turf, numerous dump trucks carrying stones were brought in to install the underlying drainage system. The photo sequence below highlights some of the steps taken in the process to install the field that cost almost one million dol- lars. The total installation process took approximately five months to complete—just in time for the fall football season.

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  133

in the 9/11 tragedy. Steel is produced from three basic materials: iron, ore, and limestone. Steel is often used to help carry the vertical and horizon- tal loads of the structure to the foundation. Steel columns can support elevated concrete slabs on higher floors because of the strength that steel possesses.

These examples show the breadth of construc- tion materials that can be used. New materials are constantly being developed, and the growth in energy-efficient materials will continue to expand the types of materials available. For example, building blocks made of plastics or other recycled products can have as much strength as concrete blocks.

Substructure and Load Once the types of materials are known, it is easier to appreciate the various elements that make up the structure’s lowest levels. The level at and below ground level is called the substructure. The substructure helps transfer the structural load from a building into soil or rocks for the safest base possible. The substructure is typically composed of a slab-on-grade and a foundation. (The process is called slab-on-grade if a concrete floor placed directly on the ground can support the structure.) The slab of concrete is poured over a polyethylene sheet (commonly called Visqueen), which is laid

over crushed gravel or stone to prevent moisture from penetrating the concrete and getting into the structure. The slab is usually reinforced with steel-wire mesh to provide additional strength.

The foundation transfers the building weight (load) to the earth below. Several types of load need to be carried. Dead load refers to the total weight of the entire building including frame, walls, floors, roof, and foundation. Live load includes all the people, furnishings, equipment, and ele- ments such as rain or snow on the roof. The live and dead loads are carried down to the founda- tion through columns. The columns can be set in either a shallow or a deep foundation. A shallow foundation utilizes “footers” to transfer the load to the earth below the foundation. However, if the earth below the foundation is not strong enough, a deep foundation may be used. A deep foundation transfers the load deep into the ground to bedrock if the subgrade surface is not strong enough. This deep transfer is completed utilizing piles sunk into the ground; the piles are made of timber, concrete, or steel (Bentil, 1989). To ensure that the piles provide a stronger base, they are often driven into the ground in clusters and then capped.

Superstructure The previous element deals with the ground level and everything underneath that supports

Once◾the◾field◾is◾leveled,◾a◾covering◾is◾placed◾over◾ the◾soil◾to◾prevent◾weeds◾from◾coming◾through,◾and◾ then◾drainage◾pipes◾and◾stones◾large◾enough◾to◾ allow◾for◾percolation◾are◾added◾before◾the◾final◾field◾ surface◾is◾installed.

Once◾the◾artificial◾turf◾is◾installed,◾the◾playing◾surface◾ can◾look◾immaculate,◾and◾the◾upkeep◾costs◾associ- ated◾with◾seeding,◾mowing,◾watering,◾fertilizing,◾and◾ weeding◾a◾grass◾field◾are◾eliminated.

Photos◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

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the structure. The superstructure is everything above the substructure and includes the framing, columns, beams, and trusses. Framing can be made with steel, concrete, wood, or masonry. The various materials can be formed at another loca- tion and then set, bolted, welded, or connected on-site. Concrete is often poured in liquid form to be cured and finalized in place. Cast-in-place concrete requires significant planning for form- work, which consists of creating the molds used to contain the poured concrete. Formwork is the critical component for holding poured concrete in its intended shape and can amount to about one-third of the cost of the overall concrete work. Table 6.2 lists the cost percentage breakdown of various components within a complete concrete- framed building.

Exterior Components In addition to the frame, the support is also an integral component of the construction process. The support is also referred to as the exterior closure, building skin, or envelope. This ele- ment, which is often the most expensive, not only serves as an external barrier to the elements but can also serve as a structural element such as a load-bearing wall.

The exterior can be made of wood, cement, metal, or other materials, often covered first by a waterproofing material and then with an external material that can be seen from outside the facility. This outside “skin” of a building is frequently called the exterior fascia or external facing. The exterior fascia can be made of glass, brick, steel, plastic, masonry, wood, or other elements. These elements, or combinations thereof, are held in place with a metal frame. The frame can be precast

or built on the spot; fascia can be built around a frame or can be hoisted into place from precast segments. No matter what method or material is used, all fascia needs to be weatherproof and must provide some degree of insulation to minimize energy usage. Other exterior components that must be built include the roof, turf, and watering system.

Roofing A roof is not as expensive as might be assumed. However, a problem with a roof, such as a leak, can cause extensive damage to the building and items within the building. There are three types of roof: pitched, flat, and dome. A pitched roof is built at a slope to facilitate drainage and the melting of snow. A flat roof has a minimal slope (a drop of one-eighth to one-half inch [0.32-1.3 cm] per foot of run) to drains. A dome can be used to provide greater clearance for internal activities while also ideally allowing water and snow to drain more effectively. However, a number of sport domes and traditional roofs have collapsed because of wind, the weight of excess snow, or both. Roofing is covered in greater detail in chapter 7 as one of the primary building systems.

A roof is typically supported through a truss system of wood or steel angles connected together to increase strength. These frames support the roof and also serve as a support mechanism for such items as the scoreboard, speakers, lights, and other rigging. These support systems are even more important in basketball and hockey facili- ties that use a large-span roof since there cannot be any center support beams. In other facilities where a center support column can be used, the weight load potential for the roof can significantly increase. These facilities can often support heavy weights on the roof such as HVAC systems. Such weights cannot be sustained by most open-span roofs.

At the same time the roofing system is being installed, internal construction can begin. The substructure, superstructure, exterior fascia, and roof need to be mostly completed before internal work begins to prevent weather damage to internal components.

Turf One of the important decisions for any facility is whether to have natural turf fields or artificial turf, such as AstroTurf or FieldTurf. A new system that reduces rug burn and is softer on ankles is the

Table 6.2 cost Percentage Breakdown of a

concrete-Framed Building

component Percentage

Form◾labor◾to◾make◾the◾concrete◾mold 28

Concrete 24

Reinforcing◾steel◾materials 19

Placing◾labor 11

Reinforced◾steel◾labor 11

Form◾material 7

From◾Bentil◾1989.

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  135

FieldTurf infill system, which utilizes a loosely laid mixture of recycled rubber granules and sand within a fiber mat consisting of 2.5-inch- long (6.4 cm) polyethylene fiber imitation grass blades. The mat rests on a compacted subgrade of free-draining rock and an underground drain- age system (Korcek, 2001). (The subgrade is the surface underneath the mat.) For FieldTurf the underneath structure consists of stones (normally 1-2 inches [2.5-5 cm] in size) compacted down so they do not move, but also spaced so that water can filter down to the drainage system. Some claimed that AstroTurf, which traditionally had a subgrade made of cement with padding on top, contributed to ankle sprains (Korcek, 2001). The

subgrade is critical for more than just safety rea- sons. A well-designed subgrade can help drain a field, allowing teams to play even in bad weather conditions. The FieldTurf system can drain 10 inches (25 cm) of rain from a field in an hour.

The FieldTurf system has been increasing in popularity since the late 1990s; the average cost per square foot is $7 using the infill system versus $16.50 per square foot for synthetic fields (Korcek, 2001). This price range has stayed consistent for years and represents the installed costs for these types of fields. In one project, Northern Illinois University installed 94,720 square feet (8,800 sq m) of the infill type of synthetic grass (in 5-yard- wide [4.5 m] sections). The project also used

One of the biggest new trends for sport facilities is sus- tainable, green, or environmentally friendly construction efforts. The following represent several unique construc- tion options that can help save the environment and eventually reduce facility operating expenses.

◾ The Waterless Company in Vista, California, has developed waterless soybean-based high- performance composite (HPC) urinals. The larg- est water users in offices and sport facilities are urinals. These urinals were created in the hopes of saving facility owners from ever-increasing water, sewer, and maintenance charges and are said to produce paybacks in less than two years—all while conserving water.

◾ Another company looking to make a difference in the environment is Integrity Block located in Los Altos, California. IB creates building materials that can be used as replacements for concrete blocks. The materials are more environmentally friendly, have some recycled content, and more important, offer no practical drawbacks compared with traditional concrete blocks. IB’s building materials are the same cost as concrete blocks and have equivalent structural strength. Because they are manufactured in block form, there is no new or additional training required for construction workers.

◾ The LED Downlight from LED Lighting Fixtures is a lighting system that uses just under 11 watts to pro- vide 650 lumens of light, for a measured efficiency of 60 lumens per watt. The company Solar Illumina- tions has developed streetlights, spotlights, outdoor wall lights, and even Christmas lights that generate

Behind the scenes: Building a Green sport Facility

Behind the Scenes

their power from the sun during the day and use that energy to illuminate at night. Perhaps facility managers could utilize this technology for all their outdoor lighting needs, including fields and stadiums.

◾ Parking lots require significant maintenance and upkeep. A facility can use recycled pavement or crushed seashells for the initial paving or repairs of the parking lots. Several companies have developed solar cells embedded in roof shingles and in road- ways. The roof shingles are a known entity, but the parking lot could be a great location to embed solar collectors since most of the day the parking lots are empty and the surface is clear of most obstructions, thereby maximizing the amount of direct sunlight.

◾ “It’s amazing what a 3.8-billion-year head start can do when it comes to problem solving” (Biomimicry Institute, 2009). For example, macrotermitine termites construct mounds that, because of their structure, maintain a constant internal tempera- ture. Although the external temperature can vary significantly, several factors allow mounds to stay at 87 °F (31 °C) inside throughout the year. These fac- tors include internal heat capacity and vents to help release warm internal air through the mounds’ top. These principles influenced the Eastgate Center, built in 1995 in Harare, Zimbabwe, which uses about 35% of the energy required for temperature regulation compared with similar conventional office buildings. This saved the owners $3.5 million up front because the facility was built without air conditioning. Similar natural systems can be built into future sport facilities.

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370 tons of silica sand and 90 tons of granular rubber, which came from recycled tires (Korcek, 2001). Savings from such systems include time and expense savings because yard marker lines do not have to be painted. Synthetic grass can come already painted, and the paint does not wash away, which can save numerous hours of repainting.

Watering System As mentioned in chapter 2, most facility managers who have grass or turf fields need to pay careful attention to weather reports. Rain can be the saving grace for a dry field, but too much rain can lead to puddles and excessively fast drainage with failure of the water to soak into the ground. Too little rain requires the facility manager to spend significant time and money making sure that the surface is watered at the right time. Since it’s impossible to know when it might or might not rain, a water delivery system must be installed to supplement the drainage system in each field. The steps for installing a watering system are as follows:

◾ Clear the area

◾ Grade the area

◾ Select the necessary pipes

◾ Install the watering system

◾ Cover with rocks to ensure proper drainage

◾ Cover with appropriate soil and sand

◾ Add grass (select type of grass and method of planting according to type of soil, events, and weather conditions)

◾ Water significantly

◾ Maintain the field through proper mowing, aeration, watering, fertilizing, and pest con- trol

Other External Components Other external components that should be exam- ined include areas such as parking lots, roads, lights, security cameras, fences, billboards, out- door restrooms, and a host of external amenities that can be added to a facility. Some facilities have external buildings such as maintenance sheds or garages to store vehicles. External systems are covered in greater detail in chapter 7.

Interior Components The primary internal components include parti- tions, millwork, doors and hardware, building

systems, and furniture and finishings. Partitions may be either movable or permanent. A locker room may have permanent partitions between the visitors’ and home locker rooms. An example of a movable partition is a gym divider that can be raised to create a large gym space or lowered to create distinct playing areas. Partitions can also serve as firewalls or load-bearing walls.

Millwork refers to wood, plastic, or metal com- ponents with customized finishes. The term origi- nated from the milling process that converted soft woods into such items as molding and trim. Over the years new processes have been developed to make millwork from other materials. Examples of millwork include door frames, coving, handrails, shelving, and similar components that add a dis- tinctive look and feel to a building.

Doors, frames, and hardware refer to metal or wood doors hung on wood or metal frames using hinges. There are numerous variations, from revolving doors to turnstiles, that affect how people get into and out of a facility. Whether wood or hollow metal, doors typically carry a label with either a letter (A to E) or an hour rating (from one- third of an hour to three hours), which is the fire rating for the door.

In addition to completion of all internal com- ponents, systems must be integrated throughout the building. Systems include HVAC, electrical, communication (sound, computer, telephone), plumbing, and fire suppression (covered in more depth in chapter 7). Each system requires wires, pipes, ducts, and other components that need to be installed before the walls, ceiling, and floors are put in place. Many facilities are built with drop ceilings on each floor. These ceilings are in fact like false closets. They create a space between the ceiling of one floor and the floor above. Within the space a significant amount of wiring and piping can be installed for easy access and changes. Drop ceilings often have a metal grid with light fixtures and fireproof acoustical title.

Furniture and Finishings Finishings include such items as paint and wall- paper, ceiling tiles, flooring, and artwork on the walls. Wall finishes include paint and wallpaper and other coverings. Ceilings can also be fin- ished; many facilities use fire-retardant acoustical sprays that both protect against fires and help bounce sounds back to the floor. Flooring can be hardwood, tile, ceramic, or commercial carpet- ing. Flooring choices are often based on cost and

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Facility Focus

High schools are jumping on the artificial turf bandwagon to obtain several specific benefits. The primary benefit is that an artificial turf field can be used almost every day and around the clock. Most grass fields need time off to grow, cannot be played on more than a couple hours a day at most, and require constant maintenance. The cost to maintain a grass field at a high school can be $20,000 to $50,000 a year when mowing, fertilizer, resodding, aeration, pesticides, and general maintenance are taken into account. Thus, many schools are willing to invest possibly a million dollars to install an artificial turf field. In fact, approximately 3,500 such fields have been installed throughout the United States.

In 2004, the Chappaqua Board of Education (New York) passed a resolution to appoint a committee to explore the concept of installing artificial turf on the competition field at Horace Greeley High School. The committee met and exam- ined the cost associated with installing an artificial turf field versus the maintenance cost for a grass field. The costs associated with maintaining a grass field include the following:

Lining fields and minor repairs (12 hours/week × 20 weeks × $25 per hour) $6,000

Lining materials and equipment costs for all sports $3,500

Contract grass mowing, trimming, and field aeration $6,000

Twice yearly overseeding ($2,500 per application) $5,000

Sprinkler repairs including labor and materials $2,000

Total yearly natural turf costs $22,500

In contrast, the annual cost to maintain an artificial turf field was estimated at $2,500. The cost to install a 90,000-square- foot (8,360 sq m) artificial turf field was estimated as follows:

◾ Excavation and base construction costs, including the entire drainage system, was estimated at $2.50 to $3.00 per square foot, or $225,000 to $270,000 for the field.

◾ Installation of the artificial grass system would cost $3.85 to $4.30 per square foot, or $346,500 to $387,000 for the field.

◾ Underlying padding for the turf (if applicable, as some systems do not require padding) would cost $0.80 per square foot, or $72,000 for the field.

◾ Adding lines and logos to the field costs $3,000 for a set of lines, for a total cost of $15,000. ◾ Total cost for installing the field was estimated at $658,500 to $744,000 (Athletic Field Turf Committee, 2004).

Besides examining cost and maintenance issues, the committee examined 23 brands of available turf. All brands were installed over sand or a sand and rubber mixture. This was important because the committee was looking into safety associated with the artificial turf field. The two primary concerns were shock absorbency and injury prevention. Early in the life cycle of the first AstroTurf fields, the turf was installed over concrete, which resulted in a very hard surface that caused numerous injuries.

Shock absorbency of any field, be it natural grass or artificial turf, is measured by the G-Max level. A field’s level of shock absorbency is determined by using a unit of measurement called the G-Max, where one “G” represents a single unit of gravity. An artificial turf field with a high G-Max level has a lower ability to absorb the force of a collision (which places more impact on the athlete). In contrast, a surface with a low G-Max level absorbs more force, which lessens the impact on the athlete. Much of the basic work on shock absorbency in the United States relates to protection from head injury and focuses on trauma from major impacts. According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, a playing field whose G-Max level is 200 or more should be replaced. A G-Max level under 200 is generally considered safe. Following is a list of different surfaces and their approximate G-Max levels (Athletic Field Turf Committee, 2004):

◾ Muddy grass: 75 ◾ Natural grass (dense, good condition): 80 ◾ Synthetic infill turf with standard padding: 110 ◾ Packed clay baseball infield: 175 ◾ Frozen natural grass: 200

This analysis shows that synthetic fields are a little less shock absorbent than natural grass fields, but since the G-Max level is consistent all year round, the artificial turf fields are safer and prevent unstable or quickly changing conditions.

Facility Focus: High school Football Fields

138  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

maintenance criteria. However, usage also dictates finishing needs, since areas such as showers require tile or other types of water-resistant sur- faces on the walls and floor. Artwork can also be classified as a finishing because it enhances the ambiance of the facility. Sport facilities often have a significant amount of sport memorabilia on the walls that may need protection from deterioration or theft. Finishing also refers to drapes, mirrors, light fixtures, and numerous other elements that make the facility more pleasant.

In older facilities, materials may have stayed the same color as when they were made. For example, concrete areas typically stay gray. Now, the number of options is almost limitless; for example, dyes can be added to cement, and cement adhesion paint can transform dull areas into a bright environment.

The furniture and finishings component of facility construction is often one of the most inno- vative aspects of building a new facility. There are almost infinite options for everything from sta- dium seats to chairs or benches in a locker room. Furniture includes all the various items installed within the facility that make it functional. For a locker room, the furniture can range from dress- ing booths and television sets to entertainment systems and whirlpool tubs.

Furniture, fixtures, and equipment are com- monly referred to as FFE in the facility manage- ment industry. In a large stadium or arena, FFE could refer to everything from the scoreboard and sound system to photocopiers and Zambonis. Smaller facilities have an equal number of FFE ele- ments, from free-weight machines in a gym to the juice dispenser at the health bar. Typically each item in a facility that is not physically attached to the property or that can easily be removed is put into the category of FFE.

Seating One thing that needs careful consideration in the design of a facility is the fanny of the customer. Some spectator seating entails wood or metal bleachers, while higher-quality seats are made of formed plastic. Similar to the situation with airline seats over the years, stadium seats have been shrinking as facility designers and manag- ers try to squeeze more people into the stands. In Europe, seats are a minimum of 29.5 inches (75 cm); the recommended minimum is 30 inches (76 cm). The typical seat in the United States is 33

inches (84 cm) wide. However, at some colleges the width per seat is as little as 17 to 19 inches (43-48 cm). Although this may appear too narrow, airlines regularly use 17- to 18-inch (43 to 46 cm) seats. In the New York subways, width per seat was 16.5 inches (42 cm) in 1907, increased to 17.25 inches (44 cm) in 1927, and settled at 17.6 inches (45 cm) in 1971.

The seat growth trend in part reflects the increase in the girth of the average person. Today, in fact, double-wide seats are designed for fans who are obese. This is not just for convenience (since the customer can be charged for two seats) but possibly a requirement to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Seat size is increasing for the general public as well. The old seats in the Indiana Pacers’ arena were 18 inches (46 cm). However, the newer Conseco Fieldhouse has a minimum seat width of 21 inches (53 cm) (Jorgensen, 2001). The size of seats and benches affects issues such as capacity, aisle width, egress, and emergency evacuations.

Flooring Flooring can include carpet, resilient flooring (vinyl tiles), composite flooring, wood flooring, and stone. Flooring can make a significant differ- ence in sport facilities. For example, the system used to support the wood floor in a basketball gym can take many forms with different levels of sup- port, or resiliency. A high school basketball court has a significantly different substructure from a professional basketball court based on the weight load and physical demands placed on the floor.

According to the Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, approximately 70% of all sport floors installed in the United States each year are made with maple (Kronish, 2002). Maple is utilized because it is durable, long lasting, flexible, easy to maintain, and very attractive. A well-maintained maple floor could last 70 to 100 years. The famous parquet floor in the old Boston Gardens exempli- fied the beauty and durability of wood flooring. However, wood flooring has different degrees of quality. First-grade lumber is almost defect free and the most expensive. Most colleges and professional teams play exclusively on first-grade floors. After first grade is second grade (better grade). Third grade, the least expensive, is the quality grade most frequently used by schools on a tight budget.

One of the most important decisions in install- ing a wood floor is uniform stability. Uniform

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  139

stability ensures uniform ball bounce, faster play, and longer durability. This is more important than higher shock-absorbency levels. The floor system should also have a well-engineered sub- floor system that does not compromise stability. One method is to use padding underneath the subfloor. In fact, under wood floors there are often several levels of padding and shock-absorbent systems that allow the floor to give. Point-elastic surfaces restrict the impact underfoot to the point of contact, whereas with area-elastic surfaces an impact can be felt up to 20 inches (51 cm) away (Viklund, 1995). Specific differences in climate and performance expectations can also dictate which wood floor will work best in any given gym.

Synthetic floors are utilized if wood flooring is not the preferred choice for expense reasons or if the facility will have multipurpose uses unsuit- able for wood. There are three types of synthetic floors. Poured urethane is embedded with rubber granules to meet resilience needs. The urethane is poured onto a concrete substrate and can last almost 40 years if it is properly maintained (damp mopping and use of some industrial cleaners) and resurfaced every 10 years. The maintenance requirements for such floors are less than for wood floors, which may need to be resurfaced every year if used extensively (Kronish, 2002). Rolled and sheet goods are various types of synthetic surfaces that are purchased in large rolls or sheets and are applied directly on top of cement or other subflooring. These floors typically do not last as long as urethane, but they are simple to clean and come in a variety of colors. The last category of synthetic floors is modular polypropylene tiles. These plastic-based tiles are resistant to water, more difficult to damage, and very easy to install and repair. However, they do not provide the same resiliency and do not have the same look as some of the other synthetic floor systems.

The steps of the floor selection process include the following:

◾ Determine which room or space the floor will cover.

◾ Prioritize which sports and activities will use the room.

◾ Determine whether the floor should be area- elastic or point-elastic.

◾ Review the performance criteria for the vari- ous floor types being considered.

◾ Test floor options and compare costs. ◾ Review potential warranties. ◾ Compare the life-cycle costs for the various floor options.

◾ Conduct activities on floors installed in other facilities.

◾ Make the final decision. ◾ Hire people who have previously installed the type of floor selected (Viklund, 1995).

One of the keys for a synthetic floor is having an appropriate concrete subfloor in which no curing agents have been used and in which the variation is no more than one-eighth of an inch (0.32 cm) for every 10 feet (3 m). The slab should have a hard steel-troweled finish and should be adequately waterproofed (“More Than Just a Gym Floor,” n.d.).

The issues involving flooring can be complex. From shock absorption and deformation to surface friction or rolling loads, there are many concerns that are typically beyond the scope of knowledge and experience of most beginning facility manag- ers. That is why it is beneficial to use an expert who understands both wood and synthetic floors to help choose the right materials.

Special Considerations Numerous special considerations arise in building a sport facility. The uniqueness associated with each facility makes sport facilities harder to design and build than some other types of facilities. Everything from energy conservation to drainage for artificial turf fields must be considered. This section covers a few of the more common special concerns.

Restoration and Renovation No analysis of the construction process would be complete without consideration of restoration and renovation. Because of the cost of some sport facilities or their historic importance, the deci- sion may be to renovate rather than build a new facility. Renovations can be almost as expensive as construction, and restorations can cost more than a facility originally cost to build. The reno- vations and restorations of historic Soldier Field in Chicago cost approximately $606 million. This amount is significantly greater than the initial cost of building the stadium in the 1920s, which was $13 million (“Make No Small Plans,” 2003).

140  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Renovations are often undertaken on college campuses, where building a new stadium or arena may be cost prohibitive, and the nostalgia evoked by an old facility would make any effort to demol- ish a stadium futile and politically suicidal in the eyes of alumni and major givers. For example, the Ross-Ade Stadium on the Purdue University campus was built in the 1920s and has been reno- vated four times. A new renovation project under- taken in 2001 focused on increasing traffic flow on concourses and concession areas while main- taining the historical importance and feel. These concourses were very narrow because they were obstructed by an old steel-frame renovation of the upper stands using cross-bracing beams. With the aid of architects and structural engineers, it was possible to remove most of the bracing to increase room and at the same time avoid compromising the structural integrity (White and Slade, 2001).

One concern with renovations is that initial construction may have complied with existing rules and laws, but renovations need to comply with current building codes and laws. At Purdue, the stadium was built without analysis of the lat- eral sway load, since this was not a requirement at the time. The need for renovations to comply with building codes can open a Pandora’s box. In fact, some facilities do not undertake any reno- vations because they may create more problems than solutions. This can occur, for example, when renovations affect asbestos-covered materials and the costs for required asbestos removal (abate- ment) are more than the total value of the antici- pated renovation project. Another concern entails grandfathering of existing facilities under certain laws such as the ADA. Existing buildings do not need to undertake renovations for the purpose of complying with the ADA or with some other codes or laws. However, any new renovations or additions must comply with such laws.

The decision whether to renovate or restore or to build a new facility is based on various factors, among them a building’s having historical desig- nation and protection or having a unique place in a community’s history. The process requires exam- ining the potential costs and the various political ramifications associated with the work. Before any work is undertaken it is critical to examine various systems, from life safety and fire systems to structural specifications and mechanical and electrical systems. It may not make sense to spend a lot of money on the outside of a facility when

the inside is worthless because of incompatible electrical systems or because insulation or fire protection will be too expensive to modify. Thus, the process of restoring or renovating a facility requires more planning than that of designing a new facility. The following are some of the issues that need to be covered:

◾ Is information available on maintaining exist- ing systems?

◾ Are there health concerns such as asbestos or lead paint?

◾ What impact will the work have on existing tenants?

◾ Are parts still available, or will items need to be hand or machine made?

◾ Is there time available? (Restorations often take longer than building a new facility.)

◾ Are there qualified workers who can help on the project?

◾ Is a lot of money available for when things go wrong and unexpected scenarios arise?

Buildings are sometimes built with renovations in mind. This phenomenon has more recently been seen with newer Olympic facilities, which are being built with significant temporary seat- ing that can be removed after the Games so the facilities are easier and cheaper to maintain. Some Olympic facilities undergo significant renova- tions. Georgia Tech University made a $45 million renovation to the site of the 1996 Olympic swim- ming and diving events. The facility was turned into a campus recreation center with a pool, diving well, water slide, hot tub, and three-story climbing wall; two floors added above the facility offer six basketball courts, exercise studios, a roller hockey rink, and an elevated jogging track (“Tech Puts $45 Million,” 2004).

Green Buildings Whether the issue is conserving energy or recycling building products, conservation has become a major concern for new facilities. A key for new facilities is their ability to minimize waste. From reducing the amount of wasted energy to building with sustainable materials, constructing more efficient facilities is a sound and correct decision. When Qualcomm Stadium hosted Super Bowl XXXII, the 68,000 fans in attendance generated approximately 70 tons of trash. The numerous games, tailgate parties, and

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Facility Focus

Soldier Field, home of the Chicago Bears of the NFL, opened in 1924. The facility has had a rich tradition, with a panoramic view of Lake Michigan and perimeter columns that made it a landmark in Chicago. However, as an older facility it had problems that were hard to overcome, such as poor sight lines for viewing the game, uncomfortable seats, and not enough restrooms. The stadium underwent numerous renovations, the largest occurring in 1979 when new lights were installed along with artificial turf and upgrades to locker rooms, seats, and sight lines. More restrooms and concession stands were added several years later. Several years after those renovations, the arti- ficial turf was removed and replaced with a natural grass surface. At the same time, 116 skyboxes were installed, increasing the seating capacity to 67,000 fans by the end of the 1980s (Ryan, 2004).

Even with all these changes, the facility was not ideal, and the Bears wanted a new stadium. Thus, in 2001 the decision was made to build a new stadium inside the old stadium. Instead of tearing down the old stadium, as has occurred with many new football and baseball stadiums, Soldier Field’s facade was barely touched. The inside received a significant makeover, with the architects creat- ing a sleek metal oval-shaped stadium inside and above the older rectangular stadium. The $606 million project, completed in 2003, has two times as many restrooms and four times as many concession stands as before. The Bears paid $200 million of the renovation costs and covered cost overruns totaling almost $50 million. Surpris- ingly, the new stadium lost seats and now sits only 61,500 fans, making Soldier Field one of the smallest stadiums in the NFL. There are 133 luxury suites that can sit 16 people each. Below the suites is a 100,000-square-foot (9,300 sq m) club that opens directly into an underground parking lot (Ryan, 2004). The renovations have been a hit, as the facility regularly hosts more than 200 event days each year.

Although every renovation project can present chal- lenges, the renovation of Soldier Field was especially difficult because of the tight time schedule and the amount of work needed to complete the project. The Chicago Park District, which owns the stadium, inserted a clause in the contracts that penalized each contractor $4.5 million for every game the Bears missed because of construction being incomplete. Since the project was supposed to start right after the season ended, the contractors had only several months to complete their work. One of the key areas of the project was replacing a significant amount of

Facility Focus: renovating soldier Field cement. The concrete restoration was supposed to start in March 2002. Most of the concrete components were almost 80 years old. The Public Building Commission of Chicago refused to issue a repair permit without an updated condition survey of the concrete. All the concrete surfaces had to be sounded, and deteriorated areas were marked with paint, measured, identified by number, and entered on the plans. The permit was issued after a two- month delay. This forced National Restoration Systems, the cement repair contractor (working with the primary general contractor, Turner Construction) to start its work two months later than planned.

The concrete restoration contractor was faced with a 300% increase over the original contract, an expanded scope of work. Numerous critical locations throughout the structure had to be repaired on second shifts and week- ends because of worker congestion and safety concerns. Double shifts, seven days a week, were scheduled as necessary to complete the concrete repairs. More than 60,000 square feet (5,500 sq m) of concrete repairs were completed on time, and the crew completed the project with a perfect safety record (“ICRI 2005,” 2005).

The renovation project was not without controversy. After a year of being open, broadcasters were still making fun of the stadium’s new shape, and fans did not appre- ciate the blend of the old and the new. Although typical renovation projects are not as extensive as the process at Soldier Field, this example helps highlight that facili- ties may go through many renovations until some point in time when they need to be gutted or torn down to build a new facility.

AP◾Photo/Brian◾Kersey

142  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

other activities associated with major sporting events generate an enormous amount of waste each year. American buildings consume 30% of the nation’s total energy and 60% of all electricity used (McCarron, 2001). The process of creating energy-efficient buildings is called green design. Green design should be analyzed in the facility planning process and in the actual design process discussed in chapters 4 and 5. However, even if a building is designed with conservation in mind, the facility may not accomplish this goal if it is not constructed properly.

The best-designed building will not work well if the materials are not efficient or not properly connected to reduce air loss. Green design con- siders the building design, site, region, build- ing envelope, construction materials, building systems, and other variables. Through life-cycle costing of materials or initial costs, maintenance costs, and finally replacement costs, a facility or its components can be examined to determine if they are operating efficiently and conserving energy. Green facilities typically cost more to build, but in the long run their maintenance and energy usage costs more than make up for the higher starting price (McCarron, 2001). Facilities being built to comply with LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) criteria cost 5% to 10% more than other buildings. LEED takes into consideration a facility’s site, water, energy, air, and materials. It is hoped that LEED-compliant facilities will be environmentally friendly and, in the long run, reduce facility operational costs.

All the LEED variables affect the construc- tion process. For example, the site criterion is affected by local environmental conditions. If care is to be taken to avoid harm to adjoining land, the construction process may need to be significantly altered. Chapter 7 highlights the money-saving options in various lighting systems. If energy-efficient lighting systems are installed from the beginning, subsequent costs to convert a system can be eliminated, and energy efficiency can be reached right away. Additional building considerations include cogeneration. Cogenera- tion involves analyzing the combined heat and power produced at a power plant. Most power plants convert only 35% of the fuel into electrical energy. An additional 8% of the electricity is lost during transmission, and the rest of the energy produced during the conversion process is heat energy released into the environment (McCarron,

2001). A green facility would be designed so that the power plant is near a pool or other area that could use the heat energy to reduce heating costs. If the plant is closer to the area that will use the electricity, then less electricity will be lost in the transmission process.

Building materials play a major role in energy conservation. Insulation and vapor barriers help reduce HVAC needs but do not address air circu- lation since air is trapped in a building. Exterior color can also have a significant impact. Facilities in the south are often built with light-colored or reflective materials to reflect heat, which reduces cooling demands during the summer. Walls can also be designed to collect sunlight during the winter and then reradiate the heat throughout a facility. The roof can even be used as either recreation areas or rooftop gardens. Although numerous materials are available for constructing a building, and many are now made with recycled products, there can be potential health concerns. Chapter 7 highlights some of the air quality issues that can occur with any facility, including green facilities. Green-related sport efforts are gaining in popularity and frequency. Every facility manager needs to seriously examine the issues, from gray (reclaimed) water usage to the facility’s carbon footprint, because customers and government officials will start demanding accountability.

One key component of green building is reduc- ing trash during the construction process. The average new construction project generates 3.9 pounds (1.8 kg) of waste for every square foot (0.09 sq m) built. Thus, if a 50,000-square-foot (4,645 sq m) building is being considered, the builder can expect to generate 97.5 tons of waste (Monroe, 2008). With plastic, aluminum, and tires taking on average 300 years to decompose, it is critical to reduce the waste generated during the construc- tion process. The owner, architect, contractors, and construction manager need to be on the same page before a project starts and follow a detailed waste reduction plan to minimize construction waste.

Project Costs Cost-based concerns are numerous, and costs often drive the entire construction process. To help complete a project with the lowest potential costs, facilities often utilize value-based engineer- ing. Value-based engineering can be combined with value construction to see where money can

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  143

be saved. Value-based engineering needs can be addressed at all points during the design and con- struction process. The developer should always remind the site supervisor or general contractor that cost is a major concern that must be strictly monitored.

The costs of new buildings or facilities differ based on numerous variables. Generally speak- ing, there are six standard budget items for a new building:

1. Preliminary costs

– Acquisition of site – Site decontamination – Site development – Legal fees – Cost of bond issue – Promotion and publicity – Preliminary architect fees for preparation of preliminary plans

– Consultant fees (legal, tax, bonds, polling, political)

2. Architectural fees

– Preparation of architectural and engineer- ing plans (working plans)

– Supervision of construction – Engineering requirements

3. Construction costs

– Building contract and subcontracts – Supervision costs – Building permits

4. Furniture, fixtures, and equipment (up to 15% of the total budget)

– Building – Outdoor play areas

5. Insurance costs to pay the facility developer if the construction company fails to com- plete the project

6. Contingencies (usually 10% of the total cost)—may include more money for paint, new toilet seats not included in the initial budget, and countless other last-minute additions or changes to the original design budget (Gabrielsen and Miles, 1958)

This breakdown of costs associated with the construction process was written more than 50 years ago; however, numerous cost elements have stayed the same over the years. Costs are often examined today in terms of whether they are direct or indirect. This categorization is somewhat misleading because all costs end up being direct costs in that the facility developer will have to

pay them. Traditional direct costs include labor, materials, equipment, and subcontractor costs. Indirect costs typically include builder profits, legal fees, insurance costs, printing costs, and other such expenses. Costs that are often over- looked include strikes by laborers, escalating costs associated with inflation and litigation delays, and weather-related delays.

Cost Variables When constructing a facility, it is necessary to examine variables that can affect project costs. Every construction project faces changes before and during the construction process. When a facility is being designed, cost considerations can help dictate whether to use tile or marble as floor- ing. During the construction process, the builders often run into trouble when unexpected issues arise. For example, a chosen window design might no longer be available, so a more expensive alternative is required to complete the project on time. Each change costs money, but some changes can be less expensive if different materials can be used. Cost variables apart from those relating to design and construction include the following:

◾ Access to market and distribution centers and the cost to penetrate a market

◾ Cost of transporting and purchasing supplies ◾ Site-related costs ◾ Relocation and moving expenses ◾ Interest expenses on borrowed funds ◾ Environmental costs ◾ Prevailing wage rate for laborers and skilled craftsmen

◾ Costs related to various taxing and permitting authorities that get involved

◾ Costs related to various government authori- ties such as building inspectors and their requirements (Cotts and Lee, 1992)

An additional variable affecting cost is quality. The higher the quality of items used, the higher the price. For example, the typical cost for a wood basketball floor is between $8.00 per square foot for a low-quality floor and $18 per square foot for an NBA-quality floor. Between these two extremes, most facilities try to get the best bang for their limited dollars. A typical college basketball court is 94 by 50 feet, or 4,700 square feet (29 by 15 m, or 436 sq m). At $10 per square, such a floor

144  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

would cost $47,000 installed. Table 6.3 shows average flooring costs per square foot for various sport and non-sport floors.

Quality can be seen in almost every facet of the construction process. Skilled artisans can be brought in to complete the fine woodwork, which can be very attractive—and expensive. Machine- finished woodwork may not be as attractive, but it can be significantly less expensive and still have a high enough quality that you do not enhance the risk of injury or future failure of the item. Paint can also vary based on quality and cost. An interior paint designed to last for 10 years will be cheaper than a paint designed to last for 20 years. Although the initial cost for the cheaper paint may make it an attractive option, the costs to repaint down the road should convince any facility builder to go with the better paint to avoid higher future maintenance costs. Every possible component can be purchased at various price points. The key is quality, looks, longevity, politics, and price.

Construction and Other Costs Construction costs can be calculated in several dif- ferent ways. The most accurate cost analysis always occurs after a facility has been built and all the costs have been tabulated. However, this does not help those on a fixed budget. Banks, lenders, and investors need to know the cost of a project before it begins. Several techniques exist to estimate the potential cost for a building. The three primary methods are the end-product units method, the ratio method, and the physical dimensions method.

The end-product units method is used when enough historical data are available to compare the proposed building with previously built facili- ties. Thus, if other gyms were recently built in a given region for $1.5 to $3.0 million, the builder could assume that a new gym would fall into the same range.

The ratio method is used for facilities with extensive equipment needs. The equipment costs are so high that their cost is multiplied by a ratio based on historical data to help determine the potential completed cost.

The physical dimensions method examines components being included in the facility and then adds the square foot values of those com- ponents to determine a potential price. One service that compiles such data is Means Build- ing Construction Cost Data. Someone building a 20,000-square-foot (1,860 sq m) gym could look at the data and see that similar gyms have been built for $98.80 per square foot, which translates to approximately $2 million as the estimated cost to build the new gym.

An excellent resource for calculating construc- tion costs is RSMeans Square Foot Costs. These books have information on the costs required to construct various facilities. From 1990 to 2001, a typical 20,000-square-foot (1,860-square-meter) gymnasium increased in cost from $69.55 to $98.80 per square foot. Some of the largest changes include the following:

◾ The cost per bleacher seat increased from $67-$78 in 1990 to $170-$205 in 2001.

◾ A swing-up, wall-mounted basketball back- stop increased from $1,575-$2,350 per back- board to $1,825-$2,750.

◾ A wood-deck roof increased from $10.76 to $13.51 per square foot.

◾ Floor finishing increased from $7.65 to $9.72 per square foot.

◾ The cost of paint more than doubled, from $0.71 to $1.43 per square foot.

◾ Plumbing increased from $4.15 to $6.80 per square foot.

◾ Cost of a single-zone rooftop unit, gas heating, and electric cooling system increased from $7.46 to $9.26 per square foot.

◾ Lighting and power-related construction increased from $4.01 to $5.99.

Table 6.3 average square Foot costs for

indoor Floor systems

type average cost per square foot

Anchored◾hardwood◾floor◾system $9.00-$12.00

Resilient/floating◾hardwood◾floor◾ system

$7.00-$11.00

Interlocking◾polypropylene◾tiles $5.50-$6.50

PVC◾sheet◾goods◾with◾foam◾◾ backing

$7.00-$8.00

Rubber◾sheet◾goods◾◾ (10◾mm◾thick)

$8.00-$9.00

Full-pour◾polyurethane $6.00-$7.00

Sandwich◾system $6.50-$7.50

From◾“Price◾Points,”◾2006.

Facility◾Construction◾ ■  145

Some costs stayed the same: For example, architect fees have stayed the same at 7% of the total construction costs, and contractors’ fees have stayed the same at 15% (Balboni, 2001).

Construction-related expenses should include not only the cost for the facility itself but also all furniture, fixtures, and equipment. Design and start-up and move-in expenses such as the fol- lowing should also be estimated:

◾ Freight, storage, delivery, and setup ◾ Office supplies, cleaning supplies, and day- to-day materials

◾ Maintenance supplies ◾ Advertising and communication costs ◾ Facility insurance ◾ A sinking fund for the replacement of build- ing components that wear out

In an analysis of the total construction costs, a worksheet can help determine what the real costs may be for a given facility. A sample project is highlighted above. The hypothetical project is a $30 million arena. The $30 million project quickly escalates to a $41 million project when the design-related costs, FFE, and contingencies are added. This analysis helps highlight how certain projects can quickly get out of hand and why constant financial vigilance is required to avoid cost overruns.

Completion and Analysis After the facility is constructed, it is not necessar- ily finished. Many facilities have opened for an event or game before the facility was complete. Part of the final building process entails cleaning

Total Project Cost Estimation Form

  1.  Probable◾construction◾cost◾ $30,000,000◾ ______________

  2.  Design-related◾cost◾ $3,000,000◾ ______________

Multiply◾line◾1◾by◾0.1

  3.  Furniture,◾fixtures,◾and◾equipment◾ $3,000,000◾ ______________

Multiply◾line◾1◾by◾0.05◾(normal),◾0.1◾(above◾average),◾or◾0.15◾(extensive)

  4.  Subtotal◾ $36,000,000◾ ______________

Add◾lines◾1,◾2,◾and◾3

  5.  Contingencies◾ $5,400,000◾ ______________

Multiply◾line◾4◾by◾0.15

  6.  Total◾project◾costs◾ $41,400,000◾ ______________

Add◾lines◾4◾and◾5◾(does◾not◾include◾financing,◾land◾acquisition,◾or◾other◾special◾costs)

146  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

up the spot. Some final completion projects might take several days or weeks. One major concern is when builders leave a lot of trash and debris behind when they leave a site.

A prefinal inspection is conducted with the general contractor, architects or engineers, owner, and possibly others (fire and city inspectors) to examine the quality of the construction. Any defi- ciencies are recorded on a punch list. A punch list can record small matters, such as a gap in a door or window frame or torn carpeting, that need to be addressed before the owner will take owner- ship of the building. After all these problems are corrected, a final inspection is completed. The architect or engineer accepts the project as final on behalf of the owner, and then the contractor submits a request for final payment. When all the work is completed, the owner or builder needs to apply to the local government authority for an occupancy permit allowing the doors to be opened to the general public.

Thereafter, the project needs to be finalized. This happens when as-built drawings and any operating and maintenance manuals are obtained, along with affidavits showing that all amounts have been paid and there are no builder’s liens against the property (Bentil, 1989). This is when

the project’s overall success and cost can be ana- lyzed. Whether or not a project was successful is largely subjective and is determined by many factors, including intermediate scheduling and completion dates, procedures, accidents or mis- takes along the way, and of course the end result. The most common pitfalls of building a new facil- ity are listed on this page.

Cost analysis is much more objective. Actual project costs can be assessed in terms of the budget, industry norms, and comparable facili- ties. Although no two facilities are the same, some comparisons can be very beneficial. Table 6.4 presents the costs for two different sports plexes.

These comparisons show that some facilities can be significantly more expensive than others based on a number of variables. The Illinois facil- ity spent $310,000 more on its design for three fields as compared to the six-field Arizona facil- ity. The Illinois facility was significantly more expensive in terms of shrubs and trees, lighting, site mobilization, snack bars, and development fees. The Arizona facility was more expensive when it came to having to spend $100,000 to drill wells in the desert to help water the fields and for an administrative building.

Common Pitfalls When Building a Facility

◾◾ Not◾contracting◾with◾an◾experienced◾sport◾architect◾or◾engineering◾firm ◾◾ Not◾letting◾the◾designers◾know◾all◾the◾facts ◾◾ Allowing◾the◾architect◾or◾engineering◾firm◾to◾interview◾and◾hire◾consultants,◾which◾can◾lead◾

to◾a◾loss◾of◾control◾and◾increased◾pricing ◾◾ Hiring◾a◾contractor◾who◾has◾never◾built◾a◾facility◾in◾the◾given◾market ◾◾ Failing◾to◾establish◾a◾hard◾budget ◾◾ Approving◾changes◾before◾they◾can◾be◾evaluated◾and◾costed ◾◾ Not◾monitoring◾work◾done◾by◾subcontractors ◾◾ Failing◾to◾have◾regular◾planning◾and◾progress◾meetings ◾◾ Failing◾to◾define◾requirements◾for◾documentation◾including◾punch◾lists ◾◾ Allowing◾politicians◾to◾get◾involved◾in◾the◾construction◾process ◾◾ Failing◾to◾have◾proper◾training◾before◾taking◾over◾the◾facility ◾◾ Failing◾to◾budget◾enough◾for◾contingencies

From◾Cotts◾and◾Lee◾1992.

■  147

Table 6.4 cost comparisons for two sportsplexes

six-FielD coMPlex in arizona tHree-FielD coMPlex in illinois

Description actual cost average per field cost actual cost average per field cost

Engineering/Architectural◾plans 40,000 6,666.67 350,000 116,666.67

Site◾mobilization 140 23.33 122,938 40,979.33

Site◾grading◾and◾prep 65,480 10,913.33 166,367 55,455.67

Storm◾drains 0 0 71,632 23,877.33

Sewers 19,036 3,172.67 14,860 4,953.33

Water◾system 45,000 17,000.00 14,894 4,964.67

Underground◾cable 6,000 1,000.00 10,000 3,333.33

Well◾costs 100,000 16,667.67 5,000 1,667.67

Topsoil 6,000 1,000.00 24,000 8,000.00

Sod◾and◾soil 59,000 11,500.00 139,445 46,481.67

Shrubs/Trees 23,230 3,871.67 298,000 99,333.33

Paths/Walls 66,100 11,016.67 72,000 24,000.00

Warning◾tracks 5,015 835.83 12,000 4,000.00

Area◾lighting 21,201 3,533.50 131,000 43,666.67

Sports◾lighting 185,000 30,833.33 220,000 73,333.33

Parking◾paving 101,450 16,908.33 100,000 33,333.33

Fencing 57,900 9,650.00 65,000 21,666.67

Scoreboards 15,000 2,500.00 22,000 7,333.33

Batting◾cages 48,890 8,148.33 63,775 21,268.33

Tot◾lot 27,785 4,630.83 62,542 20,247.33

Volleyball◾court 20,403 3,400.50 27,551 9,183.67

Basketball◾courts 0 0 88,223 29,407.67

Picnic◾area 11,772 1,962.00 5,000 1,666.67

Entryway 4,000 666.67 10,000 3,333.33

Snack◾bars 290,150 48,358.33 446,150 148,716.67

Trash◾enclosures 4,700 783.33 4,000 1,333.33

Maintenance◾shed 14,215 2,369.17 66,500 22,166.67

Admin◾building 300,000 50,000.00 13,750 4,583.33

BBQ◾area 25,000 4,166.67 3,000 1,000.00

Fees◾and◾permits 103 17.17 8,900 2,966.67

General◾conditions 10,950 1,825.00 109,000 36,333.33

Maintenance◾equipment 35,000 5,833.33 22,500 7,500.00

Concession◾equipment 65,000 10,833.33 40,000 13,333.33

Park◾furnishings 3,000 500.00 8,000 2,666.67

Computers 0 0 10,000 3,333.33

Video◾security/PA 17,000 2,833.33 6,000 2,000.00

Bleachers 10,600 1,766.67 20,000 6,666.67

Signage 2,900 483.33 6,000 2,000.00

Inventory◾and◾supplies 22,000 3,666.67 8,000 2,666.67

Preopening◾expenses 16,000 2,666.67 20,000 6,666.67

Legal/Accounting 8,500 1,416.67 30,000 10,000.00

Feasibility◾study 3,800 633.33 25,000 8,333.33

Development◾fees 144,600 24,100.00 225,000 75,000.00

Totals $1,641,920 $273,653.33 $3,168,027 $1,056,009

Reprinted,◾by◾permission,◾from◾G.◾Fried,◾S.J.◾Shapiro,◾and◾T.D.◾DeShriver,◾2003,◾Sport finance◾(Champaign,◾IL:◾Human◾Kinetics),◾110.

148  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Summary For◾anyone◾who◾has◾seen◾a◾building◾go◾up◾from◾a◾flat◾piece◾of◾land,◾the◾experience◾ can◾ be◾ moving.◾The◾ creation◾ process◾ is◾ more◾ intense◾ if◾ someone◾ has◾ invested◾ a◾ significant◾ amount◾ of◾ time◾ and◾ energy◾ in◾ designing◾ the◾ facility◾ and◾ obtaining◾ necessary◾ funding.◾The◾ construction◾ process◾ is◾ easier◾ when◾ it◾ is◾ possible◾ simply◾ to◾contact◾a◾construction◾company◾and◾have◾the◾company◾build◾a◾facility◾from◾ plans.◾ However,◾ most◾ larger◾ facilities◾ need◾ to◾ follow◾ the◾ bidding◾ process,◾ which◾ should◾lead◾to◾a◾competitive◾contract◾and◾a◾lower◾total◾price.

After◾ a◾ contract◾ is◾ entered◾ into◾ with◾ a◾ general◾ contractor◾ or◾ another◾ entity◾ responsible◾for◾building◾the◾facility,◾the◾site◾needs◾to◾be◾prepared.◾Once◾the◾site◾is◾ cleared,◾the◾foundation◾can◾be◾laid,◾followed◾by◾the◾substructure,◾superstructure,◾ roof,◾ flooring,◾ FFE,◾ and◾ landscaping.◾ Numerous◾ issues◾ arise◾ throughout◾ the◾ construction◾ process,◾ often◾ focusing◾ on◾ cost◾ and◾ quality.◾ The◾ element◾ that◾ completes◾ a◾ project◾ is◾ covered◾ in◾ the◾ next◾ chapter—systems◾ that◾ are◾ installed◾ within◾a◾facility.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾material◾would◾you◾use◾to◾build◾a◾facility◾if◾you◾were◾concerned◾only◾

with◾appearance◾(as◾opposed◾to◾price)?

  2.  Where◾can◾money◾be◾saved◾in◾construction◾of◾a◾facility?   3.  Should◾a◾facility◾be◾built◾with◾a◾lot◾of◾glass◾windows?◾What◾are◾the◾pluses◾

and◾minuses?

  4.  Travel◾to◾a◾construction◾site◾and◾observe◾what◾construction◾phase◾the◾ facility◾is◾going◾through.◾Pay◾careful◾attention◾to◾the◾types◾of◾equipment◾and◾ materials◾being◾used◾along◾with◾the◾number◾of◾people◾working◾at◾the◾site.

  5.  Develop◾a◾project◾completion◾timeline◾highlighting◾all◾the◾various◾steps◾seen◾ from◾the◾time◾a◾facility◾is◾first◾conceived◾until◾the◾construction◾process◾is◾ completed.

  6.  How◾would◾you◾reduce◾waste◾in◾the◾construction◾process?   7.  What◾green◾solutions◾could◾you◾develop◾that◾are◾more◾creative◾than◾

changing◾light◾bulbs◾or◾using◾solar◾or◾wind◾energy?

■  149

Facility SyStemS and OperatiOnS

part iii

Think of a car for a second. Most people would love to have a car with a flashy exterior and a comfortable interior. However, the main focus of a car is to travel from one place to another. Thus, no matter how beautiful a car might look or feel, the heart of the car is the engine and all the ancil- lary systems such as steering, transmission, and cooling. All these parts need to work well together in order for the car to work properly. Similarly, a facility contains numerous systems, and in order for the facility to operate effectively, these systems need to be maintained for optimal efficiency.

Chapter 7 examines the basic systems contained in any sport facility. No matter its size, every facil- ity needs to have a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system; energy systems; and lighting, plumbing, fire suppression, and a host of smaller systems. Systems can raise numerous issues, from how to install the systems to energy conservation concerns. The chapter covers internal as well as external systems. Special care has been given to some of the often overlooked systems such as waste management and audiovisual systems.

Chapter 8 then moves on to facility operations, which examines how a facility is actually run. Some facilities used for only a single event have

fewer concerns than a facility that hosts both bas- ketball and hockey games on the same day and requires a major changeover. Special attention is given to unique sport components such as locker rooms, gym floors, and bleachers. The chapter provides a significant focus on grass fields, from starting a field to keeping it at the proper height and health. Although fields are often overlooked, they are one of the most important components of any external sport facility.

Finally, chapter 9 focuses on facility mainte- nance. It might seem like a simple task to clean a room, but imagine cleaning a facility that has a million square feet (92,900 sq m). The main- tenance process starts with developing a plan, setting aside a budget, finding the right staff, supervising the staff, and then evaluating what they have done. Through conducting a compre- hensive maintenance audit, a manager can deter- mine what steps to take in maintaining a facility. Furthermore, through benchmarking, a manager can make sure the facility is running efficiently compared to either preestablished standards or industry norms. The chapter ends by offering some specific maintenance steps and some green building initiatives.

beckyh
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7

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾some◾of◾the◾ways◾in◾which◾the◾systems◾in◾a◾facility◾ interact.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾issues◾associated◾with◾heating,◾ventilation,◾and◾air◾ conditioning◾systems.

◾◾ Understand◾the◾importance◾of◾air◾quality◾and◾how◾it◾is◾maintained.

◾◾ Characterize◾the◾energy◾systems◾used◾in◾a◾facility.

◾◾ Know◾how◾the◾plumbing◾system◾delivers◾and◾extracts◾water.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾various◾internal◾and◾external◾systems◾that◾help◾a◾ facility◾function.

Facility SyStemS

152  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Tom Saun-ders. I am the director of operations at Arena at Harbor Yard in Bridge- port, Connecticut. Arena at Harbor Yard is a 10,000-seat multiuse facility hosting AHL hockey, NCAA bas- ketball, concerts, family shows, and a host of other events. A structure of this size requires facility sys-

tems to make sure the building is run properly for numerous events.

The importance of efficiently operating facility systems and equipment cannot be understated. These systems include but are not limited to HVAC, lighting, audio, data, safety, security, and waste management. High energy costs and increased competition are but a few reasons for implementing a facility systems plan and keeping equipment in good working order.

A facility’s HVAC system is not only one of the highest start-up costs for a building but also one of the largest annual expenses. Without an efficient HVAC system, a building’s operating budget can be eaten up by energy expenses. A networked communications system along with automated programs for regulating both air temperature and humidity can control when systems are on and off based on the required setting and schedule. Relying on human control to change settings can lead to lost time and money. Keeping sys- tems in good working order through regular inspec- tions and changing working parts such as filters will keep the equipment running properly for many years.

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Lighting systems are another large energy user for buildings. Implementing a system to control a lighting system is key to managing costs. Computer lighting systems allow people to turn lights on and off when needed without having to go from one end of the building to the other. Installing sensors and replacing bulbs and ballasts with high-efficiency equipment is also imperative.

Updating your systems when outdated is another key ingredient of an efficiently run building. Here at Arena at Harbor Yard, we recently installed an infrared camera system to run our ice plant. This not only saves us thousands of dollars a year in energy costs but also keeps our ice in optimal shape for all types of events. Hockey players and figure skaters have a very specific type of ice they like to skate on. This automated system keeps the ice surface at the optimal condition for any type of event.

With the high demand for energy today, doing everything you can to decrease your consumption is a requirement. Many government departments and energy companies have savings programs to help your facility run as you need it while using less energy. They offer rebates on everything from installing energy-efficient lighting and refrigera- tion upgrades to cash incentives for running your building on a generator during hot summer days when energy demands are high. Contact your electric company account executive for a full list of programs.

All facility systems are tied together and need operating plans to keep them running cohesively and efficiently. The implementation and upkeep of these systems is a top priority for any facility opera- tions department.

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  153

Chapter 6 covers the building envelope and the process of building a facility, including all the necessary components. These components can encompass the electrical wiring, fire suppression piping, phone and data lines, plumbing systems, roof, parking lot, and all-important heating, ven- tilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system.

The post–World War II era radically changed buildings. For example, more exterior glass, lighter construction, nonopening windows, and an emphasis on interior comforts changed the way facilities were managed (Carlson and DiGi- andomenico, 1992). These new buildings required HVAC systems to ensure compliance with new ventilation codes and to provide a comfortable work environment.

This chapter critically examines the systems within a building—how they operate and strategies for maximizing their effectiveness. The first and foremost system within a building is the HVAC system. The HVAC system cannot operate without all the appropriate ductwork, electrical supply, and associated hardware. But even if all the mechanical elements are present, if the system is too noisy it can interrupt an event. Concert goers listening to an orchestra play a quiet piece in a quiet theater do not appreciate suddenly hearing the air condition- ing system come on and begin to rattle.

Other systems covered in this chapter include lighting, plumbing, internal systems, and exter- nal systems. These systems are the soul of the building, and no building can work unless they are functioning properly. If the plumbing system malfunctions, spectators will be upset about the toilets or the lack of water. If a fire suppression system is not functioning, scores of deaths could be the result. Parking, an external system, allows people access to a facility and can also be a source of revenue.

It should be noted that automation has revo- lutionized the way systems operate. Systems can be programmed to turn on and off based on variables ranging from the light level to the time or the number of people in a room. Furthermore, security systems based on an identification card, the iris of the eye, the voice, or thumbprints cannot work without a computer to analyze the information and compare it to information in a database. Older systems relied on information cards to track maintenance records. Now com- puter programs provide records for energy audits, material inventory, maintenance management pro-

grams, scheduling software, and numerous other applications. Thus, it is important to remember that the systems discussed in this chapter need to interact with an automated processing system to function effectively and maximize value while minimizing expenses.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

You have probably sat in your dorm room or apart- ment sweating on a hot summer day. You open the window to let air in, but there is no breeze and the room is still hot. You turn on the air conditioner, which cools the air. The air conditioner is a form of an HVAC system. An HVAC system is needed in every building because buildings keep inside air inside and outside air outside, unless someone wants to interchange the air by opening a window or door. Otherwise, buildings are designed to be closed. A building will always have some pas- sive air coming in through walls, windows, open doors, broken seals, or more aggressive means such as attic fans. Although it is nice to keep warm air inside during winter and warm air out during summer, this is difficult because of build- ing structures (such as high ceilings that trap heat near the roof) or building materials that do not effectively prevent air and temperature transfer. Thus, electronic systems from vents to hot-water registers to air conditioners are used to keep a room or building at the desired temperature, move air around, and regulate the humidity level.

Air needs to be moved in and out of every build- ing. One area that requires significant ventilation is the kitchen. Kitchen appliances such as deep fryers, ovens, and broilers produce a significant amount of heat that needs to be vented out of the area. In a facility, if the venting system can be run underneath seating areas, then some of the radiant heat can help warm the building. Incidentally, if the system is designed correctly, the smells from the kitchen can be pumped through the facility to help generate interest in purchasing food.

The HVAC system can contain numerous components, and each component needs to be critically analyzed to determine if changes or modifications are needed. An HVAC system typi- cally accounts for 20% to 25% of a new facility’s cost. Thus, significant time and effort need to be spent on maintaining the system so it operates

154  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

effectively. This can be a never-ending battle because everyone has different demands. Some people like it hotter, others enjoy slight breezes, while others like to have fresh air.

Heating A building heating system utilizes an energy conversion process to create usable heat and a

control system to distribute the heat. If conven- tional fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas are used, the facility needs a heat plant to process the fuel into heat. Other heating options, such as city steam, do not require a heat plant. The fuel is transformed through a heat transference system into steam, warm air, or hot water that is pumped through the facility to generate heat.

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: iceSheffield arena When Sheffield International Venues (SIV) decided to build a two-sheet ice rink, the HVAC system was a major priority, and they wanted to make sure the system was appropriately monitored to run as smoothly as possible. A system was needed to monitor chillers, boilers, domestic hot-water services, air-handling units (featuring humidifica- tion and dehumidification plants), and the complete light- ing system. SIV contracted out with Tridium, a company focused on building system automation, to develop a Web- based monitoring system where managers could monitor all aspects of the facility from any Web-based computer

anywhere in the world. This accessibility ensures that all supervisory actions such as monitoring, adjustment, data archiving, and equipment maintenance can take place from any PC (Tridium, 2009).

Built at a cost of £15.7 million (approximately US$25 million), iceSheffield features two Olympic-size ice rinks and seating for more than 1,500 people in a state-of-the- art sport facility, located next to the English Institute of Sport. Besides having a state-of-the-art computer system built in 2003, the facility has become very involved in energy management. iceSheffield and its parent operat- ing entity (SIV) published their energy efficiency goal and have been active in highlighting the progress they have made to date. Their energy efficiency commitments are highlighted here:

◾ Reducing CO 2 emissions

◾ Reducing energy consumption and costs ◾ Eliminating as much waste as feasibly possible ◾ Increasing energy efficiency

They plan to achieve these goals through the following methods:

◾ Increasing monitoring of usage, load management, and tariff negotiation

◾ Investing in energy-efficient and green energy technologies

◾ Improving staff awareness and involvement ◾ Encouraging voluntary initiatives

SIV produces monthly reports that show energy con- sumption trends, outline any investments made, compare consumption year on year and month on month, show comparisons to targets, and highlight the reasons for any vacancies. Reports are also published every year for the board and are made available for public perusal (on request) (iceSheffield, 2009).

Clive◾Mason/Getty◾Images

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  155

Once the heat is generated in a heat plant, it is transferred to the building. One option is a warm- air transference system in which the warm air is pumped by means of ductwork through the same distribution system utilized by the air condition- ing system. Hot-water transference systems utilize baseboard heaters or convectors, which are like car radiators. When cold air hits the tubes filled with hot water, the cooler air is warmed, thus warming the room. Steam-heating transference systems are similar to hot-water systems, but steam is pumped through the pipes rather than hot water. Steam systems utilize radiators that are similar to the convectors for hot water but are exposed directly to the air in the room; convectors are normally covered to prevent burns.

Once the fuel is transferred to heat and the heat is transferred to the proper location, a heat control network dictates where the heat will actually go. The heat control network is usually governed by a thermostat, which measures the temperature and its location and compares these results to predetermined temperature settings. Computers are also utilized to monitor room temperature and provide more efficient heat distribution. Some facilities use a combination of heating systems. Thus, a facility might have radiant heating but will also utilize ceiling fans to help circulate the hot air. In addition, new technologies are now making it easier to heat a room. In-ground heat- ing coils can be installed in cement floors. These coils heat the cement and radiate the heat more effectively than forced air or radiator systems and can result in more even distribution and reduced heating expenses.

Cooling The most popular cooling system is a vapor compression system. The heart and soul of this system is the refrigerant, which starts absorb- ing heat when it boils. Besides a refrigerant, the vapor compression system requires an evapora- tor, a compressor, a condenser, and an expansion device. These elements are typically integrated into one or two units. However, such a system is classified not as an air conditioning system but as an air chilling system. Other air chilling systems operate similarly to heat radiator systems except that cold water is pumped to radiators and the surrounding hot air is chilled. No matter what system is used, the intent is to reach an ideal air temperature.

Some people prefer a hot environment while others like it cooler (facts about temperature impact on facility users are shown at the end of this page). The HVAC system should be designed to automatically maintain an appropriate tempera- ture and humidity level. Most people consider 64.4 °F to 77 °F (18-25 °C) a comfortable and pleas- ant temperature, and 30% to 60% is the preferred humidity level (Immig and Rish, 1997). The ideal range is a warm environment between 65 °F (18.3 °C) and 75 °F (23.9 °C); the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM, 1992) recommends a temperature range of 68 °F to 72 °F (20-22.2 °C) (Immig and Rish, 1997). These numbers are not standards, but recommendations.

Another major factor that affects air condition- ing is humidity. A high relative humidity means that the amount of moisture in the air is high. Humidity is especially important in sport because it affects the amount of heat produced by an ath- lete and the ability of air to absorb moisture from the body. If the humidity level is more than 80%, the ability of air to absorb moisture from the body is reduced, and an athlete will sweat more. That is why people tend to sweat much more when competing in humid summer air than when they work out at the same intensity in lower humidity. The ACSM recommends a humidity level below 60%, but this level is very hard to achieve, even in some air-conditioned buildings.

Cooling effectiveness is influenced by the occupant heat load. The heat load is affected by two factors: (1) the number of people in a facility and (2) their activity. If a large number of people are jumping around and producing heat, the air

Temperature Impact   on Facility Users

◾◾ Age:◾Older◾patrons◾prefer◾warmer◾tempera- tures◾compared◾with◾younger◾patrons.

◾◾ Gender:◾ Women◾ prefer◾ warmer◾ climates◾ than◾do◾men.

◾◾ Activity◾ level:◾Those◾ engaged◾ in◾ working◾ activities◾ prefer◾ cooler◾ temperatures,◾ and◾ those◾ who◾ are◾ just◾ sitting◾ prefer◾ warmer◾ temperatures.

From◾Borsenik◾and◾Stutts◾1997.

156  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

conditioning system must work harder to com- pensate for the added heat they are generating. In addition to occupants, appliances such as stoves also produce a heat load.

Ventilation It is estimated that people in industrialized coun- tries on average spend 70% to 90% of their time indoors (Immig and Rish, 1997). Ventilation helps produce better air quality by extracting older air and replacing it with new air. The ACSM recom- mends 8 to 12 air exchanges per hour in a gym- nasium, which can be accomplished with several large ceiling fans. Most facilities utilize multiple intake and exhaust locations to circulate the air appropriately. For example, a central ventilation system for a building draws from every corner of a room and possibly returns the air through a center location.

Air Quality Air quality has various meanings. Some people prefer the broader term air environment, which includes air, temperature, humidity, and ventila- tion rate. However, these factors do not necessar- ily affect air quality. External air quality cannot be managed the same way as indoor air quality. Thus, if a stadium is 1 mile (1.6 km) from a dump, it may be safe on some days, but on windy days the smell may be horrendous. External air quality can be influenced by the following:

◾ Smells (which can be caused by any of the following)

◾ Chemicals (volatile organic compounds, pes- ticides, cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide)

◾ Biological elements (molds, fungi, microor- ganisms, and dust mites)

◾ Physical components and pollutants (dust, radiation, radon, respirable particles, elec- tromagnetic fields) (Immig and Rish, 1997)

A variety of factors can also influence indoor air quality (IAQ), which refers to the nature of air that affects the health and well-being of a facility’s occupants:

◾ External variables including climate, water infiltration, and ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air

◾ Building- and HVAC-related factors such as building design; structural materials; and HVAC design, operations, and materials

◾ Internal variables such as interior design, building materials (paints, sealants, adhe- sives, carpets), furnishings, equipment, occupant activities, pest management, clean- ing agents, and any internal construction or renovation (Immig and Rish, 1997)

Air quality is such a major issue that the orga- nizing committee for the 2000 Sydney Olympics prepared the document “Environmental Guide- lines for the Summer Olympic Games” as part of the city’s Olympic bid. All facilities in Sydney were required to comply with the recommenda- tions. Following are some of the IAQ guidelines specified in the document:

◾ Indoor air quality needs to be considered in all facility design.

◾ Operating manuals should be developed for all facilities to help maintain good IAQ.

◾ Facilities should use foliage plants with known capacity to absorb indoor air pollut- ants.

◾ Air quality should be managed through selecting building materials that do not emit harmful levels of pollutants; can be easily cleaned with benign cleaners; do not emit harmful levels of radiation; and are resistant to microorganisms such as bacteria, mold, and dust mites.

◾ Construction should be completed with sufficient time to have the new buildings dissipate any volatile constituents (Immig and Rish, 1997).

Air quality was an even bigger concern at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Construction efforts pro- duced significant air pollution and waste. This pollution, compounded with the already poor air quality, resulted in some athletes wearing breath- ing masks and the government banning cars from the road.

One of the greatest concerns about IAQ involves ice arenas. The arenas themselves are not the big- gest problem, even though new “airtight” build- ings minimize the amount of passive ventilation in a building and temperatures are kept lower to reduce the cooling costs. The problem is with the resurfacers (often called Zambonis). In a study of

■  157

Behind the Scenes: calculating air exchange

Behind the Scenes

The ACSM recommends 8 to 12 air exchanges per hour in a gymnasium. To calculate the appropriate ventilation rate, the volume of space (length × height × width) needs to be determined. This number can then be compared with the amount of air handled by the air exchange medium such as exhaust fans. If an exhaust fan can pump out 20,000 cubic feet (570 cu m) per minute (cfm), it can achieve an air exchange every six minutes in a 120,000-cubic-foot (3,400 cu m) building. This can be extrapolated to 10 air exchanges per hour. Another way to calculate the ventilation rate is to use the room floor area. Some building codes require 0.5 to 12 cubic feet (0.014-0.34 cu m) of air per minute per square foot of floor space. A third method depends on the number of people using a building; 900 to 1,200 cubic feet (25-34 cu m) of air per hour for each occupant is the standard according to the American Society of Heating, Refrig- erating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997).

A large arena may not need the recommended number of air exchanges per hour when very few people are present. However, if there are 20,000 people in the building, numerous air exchanges are needed to keep the air from being stuffy. This is especially true if people are smoking (now prohibited in many states) or if a lot of carbon monoxide is being produced (e.g., by Zambonis in hockey; in fumes pumped out by monster trucks; or through indoor fireworks). Assume that a room can hold 100 people and that the ventilation rate is 10 cubic feet (0.28 cu m) per minute (cfm) per person. Multiplying the number of people by the ventilation rate (100 people × 10 cubic feet) produces the preferred ventilation rate of 1,000 cubic feet (28 cu m) per minute for the room. The following calculation from an actual gym helps highlight the process of calculating appropriate air exchanges.

The gym, located in the South (where heat and humidity are high), measures 102 by 72 by 23 feet (31 by 22 by 7 m). Thus it measures 7,344 linear feet (2,240 m) and 168,912 cubic feet (4,780 cu m). The gym has four roof vents, each with a cfm rating of 17,000. Calcu- lating for 8 air exchanges per hour, the numbers are as follows: 168,912 × 8 exchanges per hour = 1,351,296 cubic feet (38,264 cu m) that need to be exchanged per hour / 60 minutes in an hour = 22,522 cfm. This rate can be met easily if two fans are on. Calculating for 12 air exchanges per hour, the numbers are as follows: 168,912 × 12 exchanges per hour = 2,026,944 / 60 minutes = 33,782 cfm. This standard can be met if two fans are on (34,000 cfm) and is greatly exceeded when all four fans are on (68,000 cfm). Thus, the ACSM-recommended air exchange ratio can be met if two ceiling exhaust fans are used and can be increased even more if all four fans are operating.

◾ Although this example is of a gym, concerns about air quality are primarily associated with ice arenas. In fact, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has published specific information to help ice facilities maintain healthy air quality. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emis- sions from indoor sources and by not carrying air pollutants out of the building. High temperature and humidity levels can also increase pollutant concen- trations. In enclosed ice arenas, a primary indoor air concern is the release of combustion pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO

2 ), and particulate matter (PM) into the air from

the exhaust of fuel-fired ice resurfacers (EPA, 2009). Because of the unique use and purpose of ice arenas, the EPA recommends that facility managers take specific steps such as the following:

◾ Educate workers on their role in protecting occu- pants and maintaining indoor air quality.

◾ Establish procedures for responding to indoor air complaints and emergencies.

◾ Provide adequate mechanical ventilation. At a minimum, the American Society of Heating, Refrig- erating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 62.1-2007, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, or the most recent edition for sport arenas, should be followed.

◾ Ensure that the fresh-air intake is not located near the exhaust from loading areas and outside vehicles and that the intake is not blocked.

◾ Consider replacing or upgrading older equipment that does not meet current EPA emissions stan- dards with newer compliant equipment.

◾ Warm up resurfacing equipment in a well-ventilated room or a room equipped with a local exhaust.

◾ Use ice edgers only when the ventilation system can adequately exhaust the emissions. Keep arena gates open during resurfacing to allow for better air circulation.

◾ At a minimum, establish a system of monitoring air quality (e.g., taking concentration measurements in the arena and on the ice), especially for major combustion pollutants, during and shortly after use of any fuel-fired equipment.

◾ If at all possible, switch to electric equipment to replace combustion equipment.

◾ Have all combustion equipment such as resurfacers, edgers, forklifts, water pumps, and auxiliary genera- tors regularly maintained by a qualified technician (EPA, 2009).

158  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

19 rinks, those with propane- and gas-powered resurfacers showed a much greater likelihood of having a dangerous level of nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide. At one rink the level was 4,000 parts per billion, which was 36 times the recom- mended maximum exposure (“Breath of Not-So- Fresh Air,” 1999). Three states, Massachusetts, Minnesota, and Rhode Island, have standard air quality requirements for ice rinks. Electric resur- facers produce much less nitrogen dioxide but cost about $20,000 more than other resurfacers.

Chemicals in the air are nothing new for sport facilities. Casinos are known for pumping in fresh air or pure oxygen to keep people awake. Some sport facilities take the opposite approach when they anticipate rowdy crowds. Thus, at a monster truck pull or motocross event where the crowd could be rowdy, an arena may slow down the ven- tilation to keep the carbon monoxide levels high, which makes the fans sleepier and more lethargic and thus lowers the risk of a rowdy crowd. Any such strategies need to be used with caution to avoid violating Occupational Safety and Health Administration or other standards and causing illness. These steps are also affected by new laws being passed regarding smoking in public places and the ways in which a facility needs to respond when fans smoke. Thus, ventilation can involve numerous legal and ethical issues.

As stated earlier, buildings are designed to be closed. To reduce the loss of hot air, the amount of natural or passive ventilation is limited. This reduces the air exchanges that occur naturally and makes it necessary to increase the number of air exchanges to ventilate a building. To improve air quality, maximizing air ventilation is more important than maximizing air circulation (Immig and Rish, 1997).

Although there is no magic recipe for improv- ing IAQ, strategies include building with the right materials, removing harmful materials or restricting access to harmful areas, limiting the use of certain pesticides, installing localized exhaust systems, and diluting the environment through more aggressive ventilation (Immig and Rish, 1997).

Energy Systems Energy, especially electric energy, is indispensable for sport facilities with all their lights, cooking equipment, electronic scoreboards, and so on.

Approximately 67% of the energy used in larger office buildings is electrical energy (Carlson and DiGiandomenico, 1992). Large sport facilities typically consume the same amount of energy during game days through use of all the electronic devices, although they use much less electricity when the facility is not putting on an event. Of the total amount of electricity used in a typical build- ing, 40% is used by the cooling system, 33% for lighting, and 12% for heating. By analyzing where and how energy is utilized, a facility can take specific steps to reduce expenses. For example, alternate cooling and air movement strategies need to be implemented to reduce HVAC costs. Furthermore, although lighting costs account for 33% of a building’s electrical costs, most build- ings are unoccupied 72% of the time (Carlson and DiGiandomenico, 1992). Thus, lights need to be shut off when someone is not in a room to help save energy. In addition, new lighting systems are being built using wireless lighting, in which light- ing fixtures are connected through a computer program. Instead of turning light switches on and off, a computer monitors the lights and can be programmed to shut them off at specified times. Such a system is a new component of computer- aided facility management (CAFM).

A watt is a measure of electrical energy used. Higher-wattage appliances utilize more energy than lower-wattage appliances. Electricity is billed in kilowatt-hours (a kilowatt is 1,000 watts), which represents the energy consumption rate. Thus, a room with five 200-watt light fixtures turned on is using 1,000 watt-hours, which equals 1 kilowatt-hour.

Backup generators are critical for life safety sys- tems in a sport facility. With possibly more than 100,000 people in a public assembly facility, what happens if the power goes out? Backup energy is required for lighting and sound systems so exit instructions can be broadcast over loudspeakers or on the scoreboard. A backup generator may also be required to maintain the HVAC systems to keep ventilating the building or remove harmful smoke from certain areas.

Lighting Imagine trying to read at night without a light. Now imagine trying to see a hockey puck or a base- ball coming at you at close to 100 miles an hour (160 km/h) and having poor lighting. In sport, lighting is crucial for seeing the action on the field

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  159

during a night game, seeing the action on the ice or court in an arena, or seeing weights being lifted. Facility managers need to be concerned with both indoor and outdoor lighting. Before detailing the specific types of lighting at facilities, a general explanation of lighting terminology is in order. Ambient lighting, or atmosphere lighting, refers to actual sunlight. Both indoor and outdoor facilities utilize ambient lighting. Indoor facilities utilize free and effective lighting through windows that allow sunlight into a facility. Outdoor facilities typically have light available during daytime hours. However, both indoor and outdoor facili- ties rely on lights when the sun is blocked or after the sun starts setting. The Houston Astrodome, for example, was originally built with glass panes in the dome to allow sun into the facility to help the grass grow. However, the glare from the sun made it very difficult to field balls, which led manage- ment to paint the glass and install AstroTurf.

A lamp refers to any source of light, whether a candle, flashlight, torch, or spotlight. The output produced by any lamp is measured in lumens. A lumen is the amount of light energy that strikes a specific distance from the light source. If 1 lumen falls a distance of 1 foot (0.3 m) from the light source (called a standard candle), the light intensity is called 1 foot-candle. The further one moves away from the light source, the larger the area that the lumens are spread over, so light inten- sity decreases. Light intensity is measured by the foot-candles at the playing surface (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997). Foot-candle requirements for vari- ous sport surfaces are highlighted in the sidebar on this page. These are the recommended numbers when a system is installed; changes can occur as a result of wind movement and burned-out lamps, for example, which requires facility managers to be vigilant with light maintenance. Thus, over several years 100 foot-candles can be reduced to 70 foot-candles and detract from a quality event.

Indoor Lighting

Lighting can be provided by various means, such as windows that let in natural ambient light, gas lanterns, and light bulbs. Light sources can be placed in different locations from the ceiling to the floor. The exact location depends on style and how strong the light needs to be. The opti- mal light strength and direction also depend on the particular activity. For example, badminton is best played with darker-colored walls to help

with seeing the shuttlecock. However, play can be enhanced either through the use of indirect lights all over the court or through strategic placement of direct lights around the court’s outer boundaries to help prevent losing shuttles in the light.

Direct lighting is light that is directed down- ward from a fixture. Indirect lighting from ceiling fixtures focuses the light against the ceiling so that 90% of the light energy is reflected back to the floor from the ceiling. In contrast, diffuse lighting reflects only 40% to 60% of the light energy back from the ceiling to the ground, and semi-direct lighting reflects 60% to 90% of the light back to the floor. Semi-indirect lighting bounces back only 10% to 40% of the light from the ceiling to the floor, with the remaining percentage being direct light to the ground (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997).

The key to any indoor lighting system is to have the proper light, directed at the proper spots, and replaced at regular intervals. Table 7.1 shows

Foot-Candle Requirements   at Various Sport Surfaces

These◾ are◾ the◾ recommended◾ numbers◾ when◾ a◾ system◾is◾installed.◾Because◾of◾the◾lighting◾needs◾of◾ cameras,◾a◾higher◾foot-candle◾amount◾is◾required◾ for◾any◾facility◾where◾a◾broadcast◾is◾going◾to◾occur.

Baseball◾ 50-150◾ foot-candles◾ in◾ the◾ infield;◾ 30-100◾ foot- candles◾in◾the◾outfield

Basketball◾ 30-100◾foot-candles

Football◾ 30-100◾foot-candles

Hockey◾ 30-80◾ foot-candles◾ from◾ youth◾ to◾ college◾ com- petition;◾ over◾ 100◾ foot- candles◾ for◾ professional◾ ice◾hockey

Soccer◾ 30-75◾foot-candles

Softball◾ 30-100◾foot-candles◾in◾the◾ infield;◾20-30◾foot-candles◾ in◾the◾outfield

Swimming◾pool◾ 30-180◾foot-candles

Tennis◾ 40-125◾foot-candles

Track◾ 30-50◾foot-candles From◾Fried◾1999.

160  ■  Managing Sport Facilities

differences between three types of indoor systems and the impact associated with direct versus indirect lighting.

The fact that a system is cheaper to install does not mean that the system will be less expensive in the long run. Incandescent lamps typically last for 1,000 hours. If such a lamp is in an office and the office light is on 10 hours per day, four days a week, for an average of 4.33 weeks per month, the light will be on 173 (10 × 4 × 4.33) hours a month. By dividing the expected life by the hours per month (1,000 / 173), one can determine that a typical incandescent lamp in that office will last 5.8 months (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997). A fluorescent lamp typically lasts for about 6,000 hours. Knowing the lamp’s life expectancy is especially critical for lamps above a gym floor that may be 30 feet (9 m) in the air. To change the lamps the facility must rent or buy an expensive hoist system. The new kids on the block are com- pact fluorescent lights (CFLs) and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which are much more energy effi- cient than traditional light bulbs. CFLs are more expensive than incandescent bulbs and contain mercury, which can cause a disposal issue. LED lights were initially very small but now are being clustered together, and new silicon technology can enhance the lights and reduce the costs. LED lights are long lasting (10 times longer than even CFL bulbs); durable (no filament so they last longer); cool (generate 95% less heat than incandescent

bulbs); and most important, more energy efficient, as LED lights use one-third the electricity of CFLs and one-thirtieth the electricity of incandescent bulbs (“Energy Efficient Lighting,” 2009).

Rigging Indoor lighting is normally suspended from the ceiling. Lights, scoreboards, and sound systems cannot merely be attached to the roof or super- structure. The entire system utilized to suspend items from a facility’s roof is called rigging. The key variable for rigging is the load capacity. Load capacity refers to how much weight the system can support. For example, a given beam may be able to support 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg) at its center point or 10,000 pounds (4,536 kg) across its whole length. Besides weight loads, riggers need to understand weight limits, forces, geometry, the strength of rigging equipment, safety concerns, and dynamic loading (Donovan, 1994). All these aspects are associated with one overriding con- cern: safety. Rigging strength can be significantly reduced by age, wear, heat, fatigue, chemical exposure, and the impact force can play on the rigging gear (Donovan, 1994). On the basis of these dynamics, the rigging can help determine what lighting system may be installed in a facility.

External Lighting In 1883, General Electric installed open-face lights across a minor league field and created what some consider the first night ball game (Steinbach, 2001b). Others claim that the first night game took place in 1924 and that the first professional night game was held in 1935 at Crosley Field in Cincinnati (Lindstrom, 1993). Lighting an athletic facility is not as simple as mounting high-powered lights on towering posts and aiming them at the surface. There are various factors to consider in terms of the actual light, the structures, and the electrical devices needed.

Quantity and Quality An effective indoor and outdoor sport lighting system is measured by both the quantity and the quality of the lights. The proper quantity, or level, of lights differs according to the level of play and is measured according to initial and maintained foot-candles (Rogers, 1994). Initial foot-candles relates to the amount of light produced with a new system; maintained foot-candles is the light level in an older system that has been running for a while.

Table 7.1 Direct Versus

Indirect Lighting Systems

SyStem

Category Direct Inverted high bay

Asymmetric indirect

Wattage 400 1,000 1,000

Number of fixtures 40 20 20

Cost to install   (estimate)

$13,920 $10,600 $30,000

Energy use*   (kilowatts/year)

92,160 115,200 115,200

Annual energy  cost

$3,926 $4,907 $4,907

*Based on lights being on 16 hours a day, seven days a week, for  12 months.

From Brooks and Martinez 2002.

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  161

The quality of lighting is measured by the uni- formity, or evenness, of light on the field. Poor light uniformity poses a threat to player safety and often detracts from spectator enjoyment. Lighting that is uneven makes players appear to change speed when they move from light areas to dark areas, making the action hard to follow (Rogers, 1994).

Besides cost, one of the biggest problems with any external lighting system has to do with light leaving the intended area through glare, trespass, and sky glow (Steinbach, 2001a). Glare refers to light that is hard on the viewer’s eyes. Glare can also be defined as a point of very bright light. This problem can come from too much light or uneven light on a field. Trespass describes light that was intended to go into one area but also enters into another area. Trespass is often referred to as spill (light is spilling from the intended area). The last term, sky glow, is light that is directed or reflected upward and is wasted in space. Sky glow can be seen as an orange haze over a city when one is flying in a plane at night. These problems can be minimized with fixed visors, internal louvers, soft lighting systems, and faceted reflectors.

Structural Considerations

The two structural components of an outdoor lighting system are the luminaire assemblies and the poles. The luminaire assembly, which con- sists of the lamps, reflectors, ballast mounting, crossarm, and mounting hardware, should be engineered as a single integral unit. The unit is installed and positioned by field aiming, which entails creating a grid on the playing surface with strings and flags and then targeting each light fixture to a point on the grid. After all the align- ments are completed, light levels are measured and workers lock each light into place.

The poles used for a lighting system can be made of wood, concrete, or steel. Wood poles are the least expensive to purchase and install but have high maintenance costs due to warping and twisting from exposure to the elements. Concrete poles are less expensive than steel poles and can be buried directly in the ground. Concrete poles are often found on the coast, where sea salt can cause extensive damage to steel. Steel poles have a long life, cost little to maintain, and are aestheti- cally pleasing. New telescoping steel poles are being developed that can be raised and lowered by means of a motorized mechanism. This process

can reduce costs by making it cheaper to replace lamps, and the poles can be lowered before a major storm.

Energy Usage One of the key elements of managing any system within a facility is tracking usage and expenses. If certain systems cost more to operate than they should, they should be replaced. A refrigerator that runs continuously can cost several hundred dollars more per year than a cycling unit. The largest energy expense for any facility, 50% of total energy cost, originates from the kitchen. The greatest single energy use within a kitchen comes from cooking, followed by equipment and lighting (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997).

An energy audit examines where energy usage and energy losses are coming from. Assume that a facility uses 1,000 bulbs that are 100 watts each. The energy consumption from these lights will be 100,000 watts (100 × 1,000). The audit can help identify the cost associated with such energy usage and then be used to propose acceptable alternatives. If the facility could use 75-watt bulbs in place of the 100-watt bulbs with no appreciable difference in lighting, there could be a significant savings. The 75-watt bulbs would produce 75,000 watts of energy consumption, which is a 25% reduction in energy expenses. Furthermore, it might be feasible to reduce the hours used from 10 to 7 hours per day, which would also represent a significant savings (30%).

Energy Conservation After the audit, an energy program needs to be developed. The first phase entails trying to estab- lish a specific goal. For example, a facility man- ager could plan to reduce energy consumption 10%. If the facility has a zoned HVAC system, the temperature setting in unoccupied offices could be reduced to 55 °F (12.8 °C) during the heating season and allowed to reach 85 °F (29.4 °C) during the cooling season (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997). Another usage strategy is to limit water consump- tion by guests. Restrooms in stadiums and arenas often have built-in sensors on toilets, urinals, and faucets to reduce the total amount of water used. Other energy reduction strategies include replac- ing windows and caulking; installing time clock and motion detection systems to automatically open and close appliances; installing load-cycling systems that monitor electrical usage and turn

162  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

devices on and off in a cyclical manner to save energy and reduce costs; and using a computer energy control system that can cycle loads, control demand, and reduce total energy consumption. In 1992 the federal government passed the Energy Policy Act, which sets fixture flow requirements. New toilets should use less than 1.6 gallons per flush (gpf) (6 L), and urinals should use less than 1.0 gpf (3.8 L). Showerheads and faucets should use less than 2.5 gallons per minute (gpm) (9.5 L) (Jahrling, 2007).

Savings can be substantial for certain renova- tion projects, but long-term financial analysis needs to be performed. Some modifications can reduce energy consumption by $1,000 annually; but if it costs $100,000 to make the modifica- tion, then the project should not be undertaken. The following example highlights a successful renovation project that saved significant energy consumption and costs. The parking lot at Bryant College in Rhode Island used 32 mercury vapor fixtures, 400 watts each, mounted on eight 30-foot (9 m) poles. Because of the poor lighting in the location, there were five auto accidents annually and a dozen break-ins. The school replaced the lights with eight 1,000-watt high-pressure sodium fixtures. The new fixtures cut the operating and maintenance costs by 45%, which saved the col- lege $3,000 annually. Just as important as the cost savings, the parking lot became safer, and this saved the college $6,000 annually in claims pay- outs. Thus, a $12,000 investment in new fixtures paid for itself in about 16 months (Sanders, 1998).

New technologies are also furthering energy conservation. Computerized maintenance man- agement systems (CMMSs), discussed in chapter 9, are now being developed with very unique features to save money and energy. Besides shut- ting down lights or turning off systems, new CMMSs can respond to external weather condi- tions. Through monitoring external weather, a CMMS can switch off certain systems or reduce the amount of resources utilized. For example, if lawn sprinklers are on a timer, the CMMS can automatically override the timers if it is raining so that water is not wasted.

It should be noted that some energy conserva- tion ideas cannot be implemented. For example, the water temperature in dishwashing units cannot be reduced below the minimum tempera- ture to ensure killing germs. These standards are set by government health agencies.

Plumbing Plumbing systems help transport water and waste from one area to another; they are critical in sport facilities for restrooms, kitchens, and showering areas. The first question to raise with plumbing systems concerns the amount of water pressure necessary to lift water to the highest plumbing fixture. If drinking fountains are on the fifth floor of a stadium, there needs to be enough pressure for the water to rise from below street level to the fifth floor. Otherwise the fixture will not work. If there is not enough water pressure, a water- circulating pump must be used to get the water to reach the fifth floor.

The plumbing system is highly technical. For example, if one pipe is feeding five toilets, 35 gal- lons per minute (gpm) (132 L) of water pressure is needed, which would require a 1.5-inch (3.8 cm) feeder pipe. If the facility has 20 toilets all connected to the same pipe, the pipe has to be 2 inches (5 cm) (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997).

Strategies to   Conserve Energy

◾◾ Leave◾ appliances◾ and◾ electronics◾ off◾and◾unplugged◾when◾not◾in◾use.

◾◾ Clean◾dirty◾air◾filters. ◾◾ Fix◾dripping◾faucets◾and◾other◾leaks. ◾◾ Clean◾ during◾ the◾ day◾ to◾ minimize◾

lighting◾at◾nighttime. ◾◾ Locate◾ thermostats◾ in◾ the◾ right◾

area◾(i.e.,◾not◾next◾to◾a◾vent◾which◾ can◾register◾one◾reading◾while◾the◾ rest◾of◾the◾facility◾is◾much◾hotter◾or◾ cooler),◾and◾try◾to◾use◾zone◾cooling◾ and◾heating.

◾◾ Keep◾ windows◾ and◾ skylights◾ clean◾ to◾let◾in◾more◾light◾and◾heat.

◾◾ Make◾sure◾vent◾and◾air◾returns◾are◾ not◾ blocked◾ and◾ are◾ operating◾ efficiently.

◾◾ Switch◾ to◾ energy-efficient◾ models,◾ appliances,◾and◾lights.

◾◾ Switch◾to◾waterless◾toilets◾and◾urinals. From◾Garris◾2008.

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  163

Wastewater Systems

Within the miles of plumbing in a large stadium or arena, a large proportion is for water that is going to fixtures for waste removal to the sewer systems. Maintenance concerns include inspections of the traps and vents. A trap is a U-shaped pipe under a fixture that contains a certain amount of water; its purpose is to allow water to drain from the fixture but prevent sewer gases from entering the building. Vents allow air to circulate within the drainage system to prevent wastes from coming up through the traps. Besides making sure traps and vents operate effectively, facilities must make every effort to prevent clogging of toilets, which is a major concern and a turnoff for customers. The toilets need to be inspected on a regular basis; maintenance workers should have access to augers, rods, and snakes so that they can unclog a toilet quickly.

Water recycling can also be used to remove wastewater, especially during drought conditions. Thus, it may be possible to recycle shower and sink water for use in watering plants. This process is called gray watering, and water can be taken from numerous sources both inside (sink water) and outside (downspouts) a building. In addition to its uses for drinking, showering, and food prepara- tion, water is required for other systems that may not ever be used, such as fire suppression systems.

Fire Suppression Systems Although fire suppression systems might not seem to be a major concern, an estimated 1.7 million fires occurred in 2003, resulting in 4,000 civil- ian deaths and more than 18,000 injuries. One fire that grabbed the media’s attention occurred at the Station, a night club in Rhode Island that used pyrotechnics. The resulting fire killed more than 100 people. The Station did not have any fire sprinklers. In contrast, three days earlier a night club in Minneapolis caught fire under similar conditions, but thanks to the club’s automatic sprinkler system, the fire was extinguished with- out any casualties (Monikowski and Victor, 2005). This example highlights the importance of fire suppression systems.

Most people do not think about fire safety as a plumbing issue. However, putting out fires effec- tively requires more than fire extinguishers and axes. Compounds must be delivered to the fire location, and these compounds are transported

through plumbing systems. The average financial loss in a facility ravaged by fire without a sprinkler system is $2.2 million versus only $0.4 million for buildings with sprinklers (“Understanding the Hazard,” 2000). Furthermore, a fire causing more than $1 million in damages occurs every 31 days for facilities without sprinklers versus 152 days for facilities with sprinklers. These numbers are impressive, and the cost to obtain such protection is only $1.5 to $3 per square foot.

There have been a number of sport facility fires over the years; some have killed more than 100 fans (Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 2002). Fire risks have decreased as a result of facility construction techniques. At the turn of the cen- tury, numerous baseball stadiums were destroyed by fire since they were made of wood. With the modern concrete structures (which are not a fuel for fire), it is harder for a fire to thrive but still possible. In the 9/11 tragedy, the twin towers, primarily made of concrete and steel, were still burning several weeks after the attacks.

The first step in fire prevention entails devel- oping strategies that minimize the potential for fires. Fire prevention involves asking the follow- ing questions:

◾ Does the facility comply with all appropriate codes and industry standards?

◾ Are the various fire alert and suppression systems adequate?

◾ Are hazardous chemicals or compounds isolated?

◾ Are there safe escape routes and exits? ◾ Are employees trained in responding to vari- ous fires?

◾ Are there annual fire suppression tests? ◾ Have the fire and carbon monoxide alarms been tested in the last three months?

Another step is to determine where there are potential fire hazards. Most fires originate in the kitchen area, from cooked food or hot cooking appliances. Fires can also start in equipment rooms where torches may be used to repair or improve equipment (e.g., waxing hockey sticks) or in places where combustible material (old boxes) is stored, such as the bottom of stairwells. In fact, one of the deadliest fires of all time in a sport stadium occurred when trash that had been accumulating for years caught on fire at a soccer game. On May 11, 1985, at Bradford’s soccer

164  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

stadium in England, 56 fans burned to death and 200 were injured when fire engulfed the grand- stands (“Sport Disasters,” 2003).

Armed with a good understanding of the potential hazards, facility managers can start the process of developing fire prevention strategies. These strategies can entail facility-related steps such as properly housing flammable liquids and combustible materials and training employees on the proper response to fires. One of the most important steps in fire prevention training is con- ducting mock drills. If a facility is housing 15,000 for an event, the facility manager needs to conduct large-scale fire simulation exercises to effectively train employees and give local emergency officials the chance to learn about the facility.

The next step is to have proper alarm systems. A fixed-temperature detector identifies when the temperature around the alarm is at a predeter- mined point and then signals an alarm or triggers a suppression system. A rate-of-temperature- rise detector is triggered when the temperature increases a preset amount in a given time period, such as 15 °F (8 °C) in 30 seconds. Some alarms are designed to identify smoke rather than heat. Besides having the proper alarm and detection devices, it is essential that devices be placed in the right areas and then maintained. A typical smoke detector unit covers 900 square feet (84 sq m) and should not be more than 35 feet (10.7 m) from the next detector. Detectors should not be placed in high-humidity areas or where there is excessive air current (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997). Other options include flame-detector alarm sys- tems and manual pull alarms. Regardless of the system used, fire codes require all such devices and control systems (fire panel) to be inspected and tested yearly. Once an audit has been con- ducted and the proper alarm system developed, a fire suppression system must be installed.

The following are the types of fire suppression systems that can be used in a facility.

◾ Wet-pipe sprinkler systems are always filled with water that is ready to flow onto a fire when the sprinkler head is triggered.

◾ Dry-pipe sprinkler systems are used in cold weather where water freezing is a problem. In these systems the pipes are filled with air, which is released when the sprinkler is trig- gered. The released air triggers a valve that releases water into the pipes.

◾ Deluge sprinkler systems are similar to dry- pipe systems in that there is no water in any of the pipes. However, all the sprinkler heads are open; and if there is a fire, the system trig- gers a flow of water out of all the sprinklers. These systems can cause significant water damage, since a typical sprinkler set at 15 pounds (6.8 kg) per square inch will distrib- ute 22 gallons (83 L) per minute, which can cover a 16-foot (4.9 m) radius.

◾ Preaction systems utilize a timed delay to allow putting a fire out with suppression agents before the water flows into the dry- pipe system. This system is used in areas such as computer rooms or accounting offices where water can cause substantial damage.

◾ Misting and fogging systems suppress a fire by spraying a mist from the sprinklers.

◾ Standpipe and hose systems are required in addition to sprinkler systems. These large pipes, often seen on the outside of large build- ings, are like fire hydrants. A fire department can attach fire hoses to these pipes and start pumping water.

◾ Chemical systems use carbon dioxide, halon replacements, and dry chemicals instead of water. These systems are critical for han- dling class B (flammable liquid) and class C (electrical) fires. Dry chemicals can cause significant damage to electrical connectors, so such a system is appropriate around a kitchen but not a computer room (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997).

A last concern about fire is the fact that often the smoke from a fire causes more harm than the fire itself. The building should be designed to funnel smoke outside, and all building codes related to fire suppression must be properly fol- lowed (e.g., separation of elevator lobbies from corridors).

Laundry System Every facility produces laundry. High school, col- lege, and professional teams need to wash towels, jerseys, physical education apparel, and other items almost daily. Health clubs that offer towels to their members may have their own laundering system or may outsource to a private company for all laundry work. The proper laundering of

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  165

athletic apparel depends on having a functional laundry room, maintaining the laundry room, and maintaining the equipment.

The equipment needs for a laundering facil- ity vary depending on the amount of items that require laundering. High schools and small col- leges generally require only one or two 50-pound (22.7 kg) washers and 75-pound (34 kg) dryers, while larger universities require as many as 10 of each (Mundt, 1997). Laundry facilities should use microprocessor-controlled washing machines that allow the user to specify fabric-appropriate cycles, spin speed, and water extraction levels. Some facilities forgo having a laundry system by utilizing outsourcing options, such as linen rental services, commercial laundries, or even disposable linens.

Interior Systems Interior systems can range from carpeting and floor tiling to video and audio systems. These systems are designed to enhance the overall facility experience. If seats are not comfortable, a fan will not want to come back. If carpeting is not provided between a locker room and a pool, patrons may have to walk on cold and possibly slippery tiles and may not be as comfortable. If the scoreboard or audiovisual equipment is not at the optimal level, then fans will not have as good an entertainment experience. This section focuses on some of the important systems that are often overlooked: audiovisual and sound-related systems, broadcasting data networks, and personal transportation systems.

Behind the Scenes: Getting the laundry clean

Behind the Scenes

Almost every major stadium and arena (both at the college and professional level) has a laundry room, and steps must be taken to minimize the wear and tear on the laundry system. The key to making sure the laundry facility is properly running is to develop a preventive maintenance schedule and use tried and true laundry strategies. The following list consists of laundry tips that will help keep a laundry facility running smoothly (Mundt, 1997):

◾ Shake out all uniforms and towels before loading them into the washing machine, as this will prevent drainage problems.

◾ Test the hardness of the water that is fed into the washing machines. If the water hardness is 3.5 grains or more, increased sediment deposits in water lines can lead to restricted water flow.

◾ Make certain that all bolts attached to the washer fit tightly to reduce machine vibration.

◾ Regularly check the ports in a washer’s laundry detergent dispenser. Powdered soaps can easily become lodged in the dispenser, leading to improp- erly washed apparel.

◾ Regularly check the screens where the water inlet hoses meet the water inlet connections to remove all sediment.

◾ Regularly check the lint screens on the dryers, and remove all sediment after each drying cycle.

◾ Regularly check the vents and exhaust hosing to make sure no lint is present that can possibly fuel a fire.

◾ Chlorine bleach effectively removes stains, disin- fects, and deodorizes yet is not recommended for team apparel because its harshness easily dam- ages many fabrics.

◾ Fabric softeners are highly recommended because they eliminate static cling and minimize wrinkling.

◾ Generally speaking, white fabrics can be washed with hot water, although warm water is the best temperature overall. Detergents are not as effective when water temperatures slip below 65 °F (18 °C).

◾ Do not overload or underload washers and dryers; load the machines so that the clothes are relatively loose, thereby allowing free circulation and ulti- mately resulting in better cleaning, less abrasion, and longer wear.

◾ Stains from mud, grass, and blood are common with athletic apparel. However, such stains are easily treated if certain steps are taken before washing. Muddied apparel should be set aside, and once the mud has dried, it should be brushed off and the clothes rinsed with cold water. Grass stains can be removed with simple over-the-counter stain removers before washing, while blood stains can be soaked in cold water for 30 minutes before washing.

166  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Audiovisual Systems One of the most visible components of any audio- visual system is the scoreboard, and fans would not appreciate going to a game and not being able to see it. Scoreboards started out as manual communication devices with people moving the numbers by hand. The electronic age has produced magnificent scoreboards costing millions of dollars and providing a plethora of sights and sounds.

The first color display was installed in 1972 at Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, at a cost of $1 million. In 1986 Sony introduced its Jumbotron. Today’s systems utilize light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which have bright colors and can also last up to 50,000 hours. New technological advances are expected for displays, including organic LED (OLED) and field-emissive displays (FEDs), which have excellent resolution and are also cheaper to manufacture (Pihos, 2001).

Finding the right sound level in a facility is important. Health club members would not appre- ciate an aerobics room where the music was too loud. The sound system utilized for large stadiums and arenas has to produce enough sound at an appropriate level of quality with as little noise interference as possible. The sound system at the National Stadium in the National Sports Complex in Malaysia, which was completed in 1998 at a cost of US$220 million, includes 190 amplifiers, 220 loudspeakers, and 700 ceiling speakers (Whelan, 2001). The front-of-the-house loudspeakers had to be suspended from the membrane roof, which has only one access point. The distance from the control room to these loudspeakers is almost 1 mile (1.6 km). To improve sound to the lower bowl, 64 additional loudspeakers were installed under the second tier (Whelan, 2001). Eight horns were also installed and attached to eight amplifiers and bat- tery backup units in case of an emergency.

The system is connected through fiber-optic cables to help transmit the converted analog audio signal to the preferable digital form. These cables are fed into the control room, which houses a 16-channel, eight-bus mixing console. Since sound in the stadium changes based on ambient sound created by the fans, the system includes automation that keeps the broadcast sound at a predetermined level above the noise created by the fans. As this example highlights, sound sys- tems can be very complex, and a qualified sound technician is critical for ensuring sound quality.

Sound Control Recreational activity sounds are caused by normal facility use and are unavoidable. Mechanical sounds, on the other hand, are the sounds pro- duced by the machinery on which the facility operates and hence are avoidable; they can be controlled if properly planned for in the design phase. Recreational activity sounds consist of both airborne sound and structure-borne sound, each with different transmission mechanisms that lead to different control strategies. Airborne sounds are primarily the sounds caused by facility users, such as those from voices, music, whistles, and cheers; structure-borne sounds, or impact sounds, are those caused primarily by direct impact with some part of the facility’s structure. A basketball player’s foot hitting the floor while the player is cutting to the basket creates both air- and structure-borne sounds. The airborne sound is the sound of the screech of the player’s sneaker, while the structure-borne sound comes from the direct contact of the player’s foot with the floor.

Structure-borne sound is much more difficult to control given the fact that it vibrates and is transmitted to the air. Consider a bouncing bas- ketball as an example. The sound caused by the basketball vibrates off the floor and is transmitted to the air, where it spreads in the form of a dull thud. Additional structure-borne sounds can come from mechanical systems, the plumbing system, electromechanical systems (e.g., HVAC), and external factors such as traffic or construction. If a building has single-pane glass windows, external sound will be freely transmitted inside. However, thermal windows will significantly reduce a sound path into the building.

Noise control can be achieved through sound absorption, which involves decreasing echoes and reverberation within a space through the control of airborne sound transmission with doors, ceil- ing tiles, and so on, as well as through the control of impact or structure-borne sounds. Airborne sounds travel through the air with relative ease but are effectively muted by solid barriers. Because airborne sounds travel as compression waves, they will reflect off of hard surfaces such as concrete or wood but can be absorbed by resilient material such as fiberglass insulation or acoustic tile. A solid partition, if it provides complete separation with no “leaks,” can also effectively isolate air- borne sound (Whitney and Foulkes, 1994). This

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  167

is especially critical for adjacent areas such as offices next to a gym.

Broadcasting Although many professional sport teams make money from ticket sales, many also make a large

percentage of their revenue from television broadcasts. Most facilities cannot just install a camera and expect to produce images that can be broadcast on national television. A camera is only the beginning of the process. A facility needs to have appropriate lighting that allows athletes to

Facility Focus

The Dallas Cowboys’ new stadium opened in 2009 and was accompanied by a gigantic four-sided high-definition (HD) scoreboard. Mitsubishi developed the scoreboard using their Diamond Vision technology, which powers the world’s largest 1080p LED displays. The HD screens total nearly 13,000 square feet (1,200 sq m). The scoreboard is designed in such a way that those sitting on the side- lines can view the two largest screens, and those in the end zone can watch two smaller screens. The following are the key specifics for the scoreboard video screens (Lawler, 2008):

Center-Hung Sideline Displays (2)

Width: 159 feet, 7 and 1/16 inches (48.6 m)

Height: 71 feet, 4 and 3/4 inches (21.8 m)

Total LEDs: 10,584,064

Screen area: 11,393 square feet (1,058 sq m)

Power consumption: 635 kilowatts

Screen weight: Approx. 170,000 pounds (77,000 kg)

Video source: 1080p HDTV

Center-Hung End Zone Displays (2)

Width: 50 feet, 4 and 3/4 inches (15.4 m)

Height: 28 feet, 6 and 3/4 inches (8.7 m)

Total LEDs: 2,088,960

Screen area: 1,439 square feet (134 sq m)

Power consumption: 80 kilowatts

Screen weight: Approx. 25,000 pounds (11,300 kg)

Video source: 1080p HDTV

Owned by Oklahoma City and managed by SMG, Ford Center has hosted more than 600 events and almost six million guests since opening in 2002. On March 4, 2008, Oklahoma City voters approved a temporary one-cent sales tax to fund major upgrades to the Ford Center. Plans included the addition of a grand entrance with a multistory atrium and new restaurants, clubs, conces-

sion areas, bunker suites, loge boxes, rooftop gardens, a warm-up basketball court, locker rooms, team offices, and a family fun zone. A scoreboard was also planned for the center as part of the effort to attract an NBA team. Before the start of the 2008-2009 basketball season, the Seattle Supersonics moved to Oklahoma City and were renamed the Thunder.

In June 2009, Daktronics was chosen to design, manu- facture, and install an integrated scoring and video display for the Ford Center. The $3.9 million system is to be opera- tional before the start of the 2009-2010 Thunder season. One interesting component of the proposed system is tilted video panels on the bottom of the center-hung scoreboard that will provide high-quality, easy-to-view video and infor- mation to fans sitting courtside and in other lower seating areas. The feature was specifically asked for by the team to improve the fans’ viewing experience. An LED ring display sits atop the center-hung scoreboard, capable of providing game-in-progress information, statistics, spon- sor promotions, cropped video clips, animations, graphics, and advertisements (Daktronics, 2009).

Facility Focus: Scoreboards are Getting larger at cowboys Stadium and Ford center

©Talking◾Sport/Photoshot

168  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

see the action well but at the same time allows those watching at home to see it without numer- ous shadows or dark areas. For proper placement of a camera, room has to be made on the sidelines and in the stands for mobile camera vehicles, as well as overhead for aerial cameras on guide wires attached to scoreboards and goals or baskets. In addition, seats in front of the camera will need to be “killed” so fans will not be standing up and blocking the view. Some of the facility require- ments for broadcasting an event include these:

◾ Place for a mobile control room weighing about 14 tons

◾ Room for camera vehicles ◾ Place for a cable tender vehicle ◾ Room for an electrical generator vehicle ◾ Space for possible additional vehicles such as aerial antenna trucks and mobile videotape vehicles

◾ Location to place possibly several miles of cables

◾ Location for camera stands that can support up to 600 pounds (272 kg)

◾ Electrical power source to supply a three- phase 50-hertz, 200- or 300-amp supply

◾ Rigging or poles to support additional light- ing requirements

◾ Appropriate wall coverings and coloring that provide a suitable broadcast background

◾ Proper acoustical design of the structure to absorb and reverberate sounds (London Sports Council, 1975)

Data Network The data network is used to deliver data effectively throughout a facility. The data system covers everything from phone lines to the data required to control the scoreboard. With more and more building systems being controlled by computers, a seamless integration of computer systems, ranging from ticketing and security to HVAC and water control systems, must exist. A primary focus is on computer-related data, whether for a ticketing operation or just internal e-mail. Data security is a paramount concern for any data network. Hackers can potentially break into the system and steal the credit card information of season ticket holders or send malicious e-mails to those on the network. Although some safety can be developed

through installation of firewall software, designed to prevent hackers from getting into the system, internal controls need to be added since current or former employees are often as likely a source of a data attack.

Significant savings can be realized if computer network concerns are addressed during the build- ing of a facility rather than during renovation work. Existing facilities often need to put holes in walls to embed the data lines (fiber or coaxial) so that wires are not exposed. To avoid costly wall repairs, some facilities in special cases have used external wiring that is placed on the ground or near the ceiling and then along the wall. All these headaches and costs can be eliminated when a new facility is designed and provided with appro- priate data lines. With the recent development of wireless systems, facilities can create a complete communication system (Wi-Fi) for all facility employees and patrons at a very reasonable cost. These systems need to be secured to avoid lost and compromised data.

Personal Transportation Systems Personal transportation systems include elevators, escalators, and people movers. There are two types of transportation systems: vertical and horizon- tal. An elevator is a vertical system; a horizontal system moves people across a floor (e.g., people movers or trams at airports). Horizontal systems are not typically found at sport facilities, although some sport complexes with multiple venues install such systems to decrease movement time. In con- trast, vertical transportation systems are visible at every sport facility. The Americans with Dis- abilities Act has forced facilities to make available more vertical transportation systems for persons who are disabled. People who are elderly and other customers may also appreciate vertical transporta- tion systems, and these represent a good customer service option. The former Shea Stadium had 21 escalators to move as many as 56,000 patrons an hour. The Stadium’s escalators varied from 22 to 48 inches (56-122 cm) wide and were as long as 120 feet (37 m). To help encourage patrons to leave through the stadium’s ramps, the escalators were shut off in the seventh inning (Steinbach, 2008).

Exterior Systems Exterior systems provide strength to the building structure and provide ancillary building amenities.

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  169

Thus, a roof protects the contents of the building and ensures that the building will not face struc- tural problems due to water damage. A landscap- ing system provides aesthetic and environmental benefits. Transportation and parking systems are also discussed here.

Roofs There are four basic types of overhead spectator protection, classified according to the amount of coverage they provide. Small sun canopies pro- vide minimal protection as they are not supported by interior columns, which could interfere with the sight lines. These canopies offer protection for the upper rows and are often viewed as more ornamental than functional. Such roofs are often used at sportsplexes to provide some shade.

Full roof canopies, high above the playing sur- face and crowd, cover most of the facility. These roofs normally have an opening in the middle where sunlight and the elements can enter. One of the biggest problems with this type of system is that as the sun travels across the sky it creates a major headache for televised events. Light areas and shadows tend to change during the course of an event and make photography more difficult. Full roof canopies are often seen at major inter- national soccer venues.

Domes have gained popularity throughout the world in the past 30 years. These roofs cover the entire seating bowl and are supported at the perimeter so that no internal columns are needed. They allow a facility manager to control the tem- perature and lighting. The major drawback is that many fans and players prefer to have some sun exposure, even in winter conditions.

Retractable roofs have gained in popularity over the past 20 years through innovative designs that allow relatively quick closure. Retractable roofs enable a facility to be open on nice days and can close in about a half hour when inclement weather threatens an event (Mancia, 2003).

For every $1 of damage a roof sustains, an esti- mated $10 worth of damage occurs in the structure below the roof (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997). There are several roofing systems that can protect a building: overlapping layers of roofing felt, coal tar pitch with gravel, elastomers (which when cured look like vulcanized rubber), thermoplastic roofing that softens when heated and hardens when cooled, fiberglass-reinforced roofing, and steel or aluminum roofing. Each roof has its own

benefits and disadvantages. Some roofs work better in cooler weather, and others work best in hot climates. A building designer or architect can help identify the best material to use in the construction of a roof.

Another concern with a roof is the weight that has to be carried. For example, a 1-inch (2.5 cm) puddle of water in a 100-square-foot (9.3 sq m) area on a roof can weigh 520 pounds (236 kg). That weight significantly increases when the water is in the form of snow. Many roofs have collapsed because of excessive snow, metal fatigue, or both. The 2 ½ acre roof of the Hartford Civic Center col- lapsed in 1978 several hours after a University of Connecticut basketball game due to ice and snow accumulation.

As with other systems discussed throughout this chapter, it is imperative not only to install an effective roof system but also to maintain it properly after installation. The roof is one of the most important systems in terms of the need for proper maintenance. One maintenance strategy is to check all downspouts to make sure they are not clogged. Clogged gutters can cause deterioration in wood; and during the winter, frozen water can cause cracks or other problems. Roofs should be inspected on a regular basis, but always at least once in the spring to identify concerns that could be addressed during summertime. A roof requires both an external inspection, to see if parts are falling down or whether there are uneven wear points, and an internal inspection for leaks, rust- ing, peeling paint, musty odors, discolored ceiling tiles, and warped wood.

Building and Grounds Other external components that need to be regu- larly inspected and maintained include the build- ing facade, which can deteriorate significantly in urban areas from factors such as car emissions, acid rain, and sea salt. Windows, doors, signs, parking areas, and sidewalks all need to be prop- erly maintained and supervised.

Most landscaping is coordinated with profes- sionals who are experts in soil, climate, water, and horticultural issues to help a facility manager make the right decisions. Although visual appeal is critical, safety is also important. For example, some ornamental plants have prickly leaves. A landscape architect would never plant cactuses or similar prickly plants, for example, in an area where children may play.

170  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

But landscaping is for more than just visual appeal. Landscaping can generate cost savings by reducing maintenance-related expenditures. Strategies include the following:

◾ Utilizing plants that do not grow much after they are planted

◾ Using plants grown specifically for disease and insect resistance or drought tolerance

◾ Using perennials in planting beds to mini- mize grass maintenance

◾ Planting small shrubs close to each other to minimize the need for weeding

◾ Installing an automatic irrigation system to reduce water and manpower costs (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997)

Transportation Systems Not every facility has a transportation system. Most facilities have several vehicles for moving items from one location to another. For example, small three-wheel or four-wheel carts similar to golf carts are used by maintenance workers to move from one location to another or for tasks such as trash removal. If any vehicles are in poor shape, the facility may be liable. Thus, if the brakes on a vehicle are poor and are not repaired, the facility may be held liable if as a result an employee is injured or a patron is hit by the vehicle.

Bigger events can require bigger vehicles. The Atlanta Olympics used a large number of buses to transport athletes from events to other events or to the athletes’ village. However, the entire system was plagued by overworked drivers who did not know routes, were often late, or were even com- mandeered by irate athletes. According to one of the officials, some of the drivers might not have had any training in driving buses (Sullivan, 1996).

Parking and Public Transportation System Numerous parking concerns need to be addressed, from drunk drivers to auditing of the parking attendants to avoid fraud. Additional concerns can include handicapped parking spaces, aggres- sive drivers, rough terrain, managing cars and people parked on multiple levels, and criminal misconduct. Different event goers have different parking habits as shown at the right. This type of information may prove useful for determining

the appropriate number of parking attendants, identifying crowd management issues, and under- standing how to manage and market parking areas more effectively.

Safety Crime statistics serve notice to facility managers that criminal acts are foreseeable and that facilities can be sued should such acts occur. Fights, assaults, robberies, underage drinking, and illegally scalp- ing tickets are just some of the criminal activities presenting liability challenges. Cases claiming liability on the part of facilities for the criminal acts of third parties often allege such charges as poor lighting, missing or broken light bulbs, weak locks, no access control, poorly trained guards, or poor management policies. One report indicated that approximately 7% to 9% of simple assaults throughout the United States occur in parking facilities or near parking lots. Furthermore, 8% of all violent crimes, 6% of all rapes and other sexual assaults, and 7% of total assaults occur in parking lots or garages (Abbott and Fried, 1998).

Parking lots and garages are critical for sport facilities, as only 5% of fans attending games uti- lize public transportation while another 5% take leased buses. Estimates show that football fans are more likely to carpool averaging 3.5 passengers per

Parking Habits   of Attendees

◾◾ Baseball◾ fans:◾ park,◾ see◾ the◾ game,◾ and◾leave

◾◾ Football◾fans:◾make◾a◾day◾of◾it;◾park◾ before◾the◾game◾to◾tailgate◾(unless◾ the◾game◾starts◾at◾or◾before◾noon)

◾◾ Baby◾boomer◾concert◾goers:◾arrive◾ right◾before◾the◾event

◾◾ Country◾ music◾ fans:◾ arrive◾ early,◾ conduct◾ themselves◾ in◾ an◾ orderly◾ fashion,◾and◾follow◾parking◾rules

◾◾ Rock◾ fans:◾ tend◾ to◾ linger◾ after◾ an◾ event;◾parking◾problems◾can◾persist◾ well◾after◾an◾event

From◾Outside the arena, parking is the name of the game,◾1997.

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  171

vehicle, while baseball fans traditionally travel with 2.5 passengers per vehicle (Abbott and Fried, 1998). Risk management strategies for ensuring safe parking for fans are listed on this page.

One landmark case concerning liability for conduct that spilled out of a sport facility and led to violence in a parking lot is the Bishop case (Bishop v. Fair Lanes Georgia Bowling, Inc., 1986). According to the case, two groups were using adjoining bowling lanes, and one of the groups engaged in harassing behavior over a significant amount of time. The other group complained to the bowling alley management, which took no action. In fact, the management continued to serve alcohol to the group that was

engaging in harassment even though they were already intoxicated. After the 2:30 a.m. closing, the two groups were the last people to leave the facility. The intoxicated group, which had been the aggressor all evening long, attacked the other group in the parking lot. According to the court’s conclusion, a jury could reasonably find that the bowling alley should have been aware of potential physical altercations between the patrons before the altercation occurred and would therefore be negligent for taking no action and failing to make its premises safe for invitees.

Notice is the key requirement for proving that something was foreseeable. In a suit stemming from a brawl during a 1980 AC/DC rock concert, the concert promoter claimed that there had been no notice because no unruly behavior, fighting, or drinking had been observed that would indicate a potential problem. Even though the arena had no prior problems, the court concluded that the promoter was on notice because a police officer had investigated previous tour stops and was informed of various problems. The officer also knew that the band had attracted a rowdy, drunk, and drug-using crowd in past concerts (Comastro v. Village of Rosemont, 1984).

Alcohol management is another key compo- nent of a parking security risk management plan. Arrests at sport events often revolve around alco- hol abuse or intoxicated behavior (Abbott and Fried, 1998). Risk management strategies designed to reduce alcohol-related injuries include con- trolling tailgate parties and creating a designated driver program for intoxicated fans (Ammon, 1993). However, designing a safer parking area should be the first step.

Environmental Parking Design The use of architectural design to provide greater flexibility in protecting patrons is rapidly catch- ing on throughout the world. Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is a step that can be taken to reduce criminal activities (Gordon and Brill, 1996). This approach entails design modifications that make a facility safer. For example, concrete stairways in parking facilities are effective hiding places for criminals. Crime prevention through environmental design would change stairwells to include large windows throughout, making it harder for criminals to hide and allowing people on the street to see activity inside the stairwell.

Risk Management  Strategies for Ensuring 

Safe Parking

Because◾ of◾ the◾ potential◾ liability◾ asso- ciated◾ with◾ unsafe◾ parking◾ lots,◾ facility◾ managers◾need◾to◾answer◾the◾following◾ questions◾(Abbott◾and◾Fried,◾1998):

◾◾ Are◾statistics◾maintained◾on◾the◾fre- quency◾and◾type◾of◾criminal◾activity◾ occurring◾within◾a◾half-mile◾(0.8◾km)◾ of◾the◾parking◾facility?

◾◾ Has◾a◾thorough◾security◾audit◾been◾ completed,◾ including◾ a◾ review◾ of◾ security◾policies,◾and◾have◾any◾find- ings◾been◾acted◾on?

◾◾ Do◾ both◾ security◾ and◾ nonsecurity◾ personnel◾ understand◾ and◾ apply◾ proper◾security◾measures?

◾◾ What◾ can◾ reasonably◾ be◾ done◾ to◾ prevent◾criminal◾behavior?

◾◾ Has◾a◾long-range◾goal◾been◾estab- lished◾ for◾ promoting◾ security◾ and◾ crime◾prevention?

◾◾ Is◾ a◾ public◾ relations◾ program◾ in◾ place◾to◾inform◾patrons◾and◾employ- ees◾about◾security◾concerns?

◾◾ What◾ does◾ it◾ cost◾ to◾ incorporate◾ additional◾security◾versus◾the◾harm◾ that◾ may◾ be◾ caused◾ to◾ possible◾ victims?

172  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Combined Interior and Exterior Systems

Other systems such as security, pest control, and waste management are both interior and exterior systems and are important for ensuring effective utilization and management of the entire facility.

Security Systems The security system at the Atlanta Olympic Games was considered top of the line. However, before the opening ceremonies, which President Clinton attended, a person was stopped with a gun inside the facility. The intruder had entered the facility using a security company uniform. Even though there were armed guards and an X-ray system to identify hazardous items, the intruder was able to get in. When asked how the intruder had penetrated the elaborate system, a spokesperson replied, “He came early” (Sullivan, 1996). Subse- quent Olympic Games faced significant security cost increases such as the approximately $1.5 bil- lion spent at the Greece Games and the estimated one billion British pounds that might be spent securing the 2012 London Games. Besides paying for personnel, these funds are spent on numer- ous technology components such as biometric systems (pupil and fingerprint recognition) and Segway personal transporters (two-wheel balanc- ing vehicles) for quick deployment of personnel. The rise in security costs is a direct result of the post-9/11 environment, and security will con- tinue to be one of the most important systems for all large sport facilities. To help prevent security breaches, a security plan needs to be developed; and to help implement a security plan, security systems are needed (chapter 13 discusses security concerns in more detail).

Security Devices A security system relies on a number of devices. If a facility is going to be monitored, humans can see only so much even if there are hundreds of guards. To maintain an appropriate monitoring system, a facility may have closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras and a monitoring station. Some sport facilities have more than 100 CCTV cameras scan- ning both the interior and exterior and recording

all images in a digital format that takes up very little data storage space. Some systems are motion activated, while others are integrated with com- puter systems to monitor crowd activities and signal an alarm if someone is moving the wrong way in a crowd (e.g., sneaking in through an exit). Typical devices that may be present in a security system can include the following:

◾ Magnetic door and window locks and switches

◾ Mechanical switches that lock and open doors and windows in case of electrical interruptions

◾ Electrical switches that lock and open doors and windows

◾ Pressure mats that trigger when weight is placed on them

◾ Vibration detectors that respond to movement in restricted areas

◾ Thermal switches that notice changes in temperature when a person enters a room

◾ Audio detectors that identify unusual noises ◾ Infrared detectors that are triggered when a beam is broken (Carlson and DiGiando- menico, 1992)

Alarms fall into two categories; life safety and property protection (Carlson and DiGiando- menico, 1992). Life safety systems, such as a fire alarm, are designed to provide early detection and prompt notification of a hazard. Property protec- tion systems exist in areas housing valuables that may need additional protection. Thus, an athletic facility may have a life safety alarm system in locations where patrons and guests congregate, as well as a property protection system in locations where cash or other valuables are stored. Either system relies on an initiating or a sensing circuit or sensing loop to detect the hazard and then trig- gers the appropriate alarms.

Routine Security Every facility has routine security issues, from those involving the loading docks to those related to cash. The ticket office may need additional security to protect tellers or may require a drop safe so that money can be deposited safely every

Facility◾Systems◾ ■  173

15 minutes. Each facility needs to undertake a security audit to identify security-related concerns so that appropriate systems can be implemented.

The security issues in an arena relate to many types of breaches, from fans bringing in banned items to potential terrorist attacks. Security plan- ning can take place weeks or months before an event. Because of the diversity of security-related concerns, many facilities work very closely with law enforcement officials. Furthermore, every professional sport league has a security director who works with facilities and teams in the league to make sure that events are as safe as possible. The following are some system-related steps that can help improve a facility’s security:

◾ Utilizing video, alarms on doors, and metal detectors at entrances and exits

◾ Utilizing security posts to assist troubled spectators

◾ Reviewing videos from CCTV cameras ◾ Having a security system control center where data are properly stored and secured

Pest Control One of the often overlooked facility concerns is pests. Pests represent a health concern. If a facility has a pest infestation and there are cooking or food service areas within the building, there may be health code violations that could lead the health department to shut down the food service. Pests also represent a marketing concern. An unclean facility with bugs can repel facility users and lead to economic loss.

Pests can be a problem in both the interior and exterior systems. Interior pests can include rats, mice, ants, and cockroaches. Many types of sprays, electronic systems, and even other animals can be used to control pests. For example, the Houston Astrodome utilized cats to keep mice and rats out of the facility. Fans at a game would sometimes have a cat rub against their legs. Astro- dome personnel brought the cats to veterinarians each year, and the cats served as a supplemental deterrent. External control is critical for prevent- ing external pests from entering a facility. Solu- tions can be as simple as fencing or can be more complex, as with ground termite systems.

There has been a movement away from haz- ardous chemicals to other techniques that do not harm the environment. Some facilities have resorted to natural insect killers or pepper as a deterrent. One technique is to heat the area being treated. A kitchen, for example, could be heated to 120 °F (49 °C) at 25% humidity for 8 to 24 hours to kill all the pests in the kitchen. Care needs to be taken to make sure the fire suppression system will not be triggered by such a treatment and that sensitive equipment is removed from the treated area (Mach, 2005).

Waste Management The unglamorous task of waste management is often contracted out to external trash removal com- panies. However, these companies often remove the trash only after it has been collected into major receptacles. Most facilities have their own employ- ees or a janitorial service take care of trash. Some facilities utilize volunteers or student groups to help clear trash after a game. Such removal efforts are undertaken either by hand or with equipment such as leaf blowers used to push trash from upper bleachers down to a central collection area. Trash removal from certain areas such as restrooms and kitchens has to be conducted daily to prevent odors and an unpleasant or unsafe environment.

Waste reduction is both an environmental con- cern and a potential cost reduction strategy. The first key to a waste reduction program is to obtain administrator approval. For example, during a survey of fans at a professional tennis event, one of the most frequently cited potential improvements was the use of recycling containers for soda and beer cans. Management did not think of recycling as a marketing tool, but patrons have applauded the new effort on recycling. In many facilities, if management has not undertaken a recycling effort, patrons can become very upset. Recycling will become an even greater issue with the almost 500 cubic yards (380 cu m) of trash generated at a typical college football game.

Certain recyclable materials may be frequently seen in the trash, but if it is too hard to separate them, they may not be the best materials to recy- cle. It may be possible to eliminate this problem by developing user-friendly storage and collection locations (Hennesey, 2001).

174  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Summary Discussion◾ of◾ the◾ construction◾ process◾ in◾ chapter◾ 6◾ highlights◾ how◾ complex◾ the◾ building◾ process◾ can◾ be◾ given◾ the◾ different◾ types◾ of◾ building◾ materials◾ and◾ other◾ construction◾ elements.◾ Among◾ the◾ most◾ important◾ elements◾ in◾ a◾ facility,◾ and◾often◾the◾most◾expensive◾on◾a◾percentage◾basis,◾are◾the◾systems◾built◾in◾or◾ added◾ on.◾ Everything◾ from◾ HVAC◾ to◾ energy◾ and◾ plumbing◾ systems◾ need◾ to◾ be◾ installed◾and◾maintained◾in◾an◾appropriate◾manner.◾A◾facility◾cannot◾be◾built◾with◾ a◾ mere◾ collection◾ of◾ systems◾ but◾ needs◾ to◾ effectively◾ integrate◾ all◾ the◾ systems◾ to◾ minimize◾costs◾and◾maximize◾benefits.◾An◾HVAC◾system◾needs◾to◾be◾connected◾to◾ the◾electrical◾system◾to◾monitor◾air◾temperature◾and◾save◾the◾most◾energy◾when◾ the◾ facility◾ is◾ not◾ in◾ use.◾The◾ key◾ to◾ the◾ systems◾ is◾ that◾ they◾ are◾ designed◾ to◾ help◾ maintain◾a◾safe◾and◾comfortable◾facility.◾When◾any◾system◾goes◾down,◾the◾entire◾ facility◾is◾affected.◾Facility◾users◾demand◾that◾systems◾work—for◾example,◾that◾lights◾ not◾ go◾ off◾ during◾ an◾ event◾ and◾ toilets◾ not◾ fail◾ to◾ flush—or◾ that◾ they◾ be◾ repaired◾ very◾quickly.◾The◾next◾two◾chapters◾deal◾with◾facility◾operations◾and◾maintenance,◾ which◾are◾critical◾for◾maintaining◾the◾building◾systems.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  Give◾five◾reasons◾why◾an◾HVAC◾system◾is◾important◾for◾an◾arena.   2.  What◾would◾be◾the◾best◾fire◾suppression◾system◾for◾an◾arena?◾For◾a◾health◾

club?

  3.  Visit◾a◾large◾facility◾in◾your◾town◾or◾city◾and◾ask◾to◾examine◾the◾HVAC◾system.◾ Write◾a◾report◾describing◾the◾system.

  4.  Visit◾a◾large◾facility◾and◾examine◾the◾types◾of◾lighting◾systems◾used,◾such◾as◾ indirect◾lights,◾direct◾lights,◾and◾ambient◾lighting.

  5.  Examine◾the◾type◾of◾pest◾management◾system◾used◾in◾your◾dorm◾or◾ classroom,◾and◾evaluate◾its◾effectiveness.

  6.  Visit◾your◾campus◾gym◾and◾examine◾the◾number◾of◾intake◾and◾exhaust◾ areas.◾Try◾to◾calculate◾the◾number◾of◾air◾exchanges◾per◾hour◾needed◾to◾ meet◾the◾ACSM◾recommendations.◾(For◾instructions◾on◾how◾to◾do◾this,◾see◾ “Behind◾the◾Scenes:◾Calculating◾Air◾Exchange”◾on◾page◾157.)

8

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Appreciate◾some◾of◾the◾nuances◾associated◾with◾managing◾the◾ operations◾of◾sport◾facilities.

◾◾ Understand◾the◾steps◾in◾the◾changeover◾process.

◾◾ Analyze◾the◾management◾requirements◾for◾key◾components◾of◾sport◾ facilities◾such◾as◾weight◾rooms◾and◾gymnasiums.

◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾an◾attractive◾and◾playable◾grass◾field◾is◾created.

◾◾ Know◾the◾tasks◾involved◾in◾creating◾and◾maintaining◾proper◾soil◾and◾ good◾ground◾appearance.

◾◾ Characterize◾the◾components◾of◾an◾effective◾field◾maintenance◾ program.

◾◾ Appreciate◾some◾of◾the◾concerns◾unique◾to◾baseball◾and◾football◾ fields.

Facility OperatiOns

176  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Don West-fall. I am the general manager of the Connecti- cut Sportsplex in North Branford, Connecticut. I have been in my current position for five years. I began my management career as house manager of a multiplex movie the- ater for Pacific Theatres in Northern California. I

played and coached college baseball and earned a bachelor’s degree in sports studies with emphasis on sport business. My first sport management job was as an account manager for the New Haven Knights. Within a short period I was promoted to the position of director of ticket sales for the minor league hockey team. After two seasons I was hired as the corporate sales manager for the New Haven Ninjas, an Arena Football 2 team. After one season with the Ninjas, I sold insurance for one year and then was hired as general manager of the Connecticut Sportsplex, which is a privately owned 70-acre indoor and out- door sport and entertainment facility.

My daily responsibilities include but are not limited to the following:

◾ Oversee and direct the day-to-day operations including all concessions, amusements, and human resources

◾ Oversee and direct all repairs and maintenance

◾ Oversee and direct all sales and marketing

◾ Oversee all sports leagues and programs

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◾W e

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◾ Oversee and direct baseball instruction and leagues

◾ Oversee and direct all customer relations

The Connecticut Sportsplex is unique because we are a privately owned facility and must pay for all our operations through our sales. The most dif- ficult part of my job is balancing the expectations of our customers with our fiscal issues and policies. Many of our customers are accustomed to using tax- subsidized public facilities where there are fewer expectations and more freedoms. Because of the size and scope of our business, we are always affected by utility rate increases. Passing these increases to the customer is not always an option, so we must find creative ways to match revenues with expenses.

A large part of creating balance is keeping up with maintenance and repairs. Since the facility is privately owned we must either fix everything ourselves or hire outside contractors, which can get very expensive. Prioritizing repair jobs and keeping up with the daily maintenance have been challenges for me as I had very little prior experience in facility maintenance.

Along with managing maintenance issues, I spend a significant amount of time making sure our employees understand their roles in regard to their specific duties and to our customers. Although my love of sports got me into this business, I have found that the sport aspect is ancillary to the success of our business. The facility—and how it operates— demands constant attention. If the facility is not looking and running its best, our sports programs and customer relations deteriorate quickly and permanently.

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  177

Chapter 3 deals with effective managerial strat-egies for a facility. It is critical to understand how to apply theory and strategies to the day-to- day operations of a sport facility. Scheduling, for example, is one of the major tasks of a facility manager. Whether the goal is to attract events or just accommodate current programs, scheduling can become difficult. Several groups may want to use a gym at the same time. Who will get prior- ity? Will priority be based on politics or revenue generation? What are the goals and objectives for the facility? These are just a few of the questions that management needs to deal with in order to make operations decisions.

In indoor facilities, various concerns are asso- ciated with scheduling, cleaning, floor mainte- nance, and ancillary areas such as restrooms. Man- agement also needs to analyze how to transform a facility from one event to another. Changeover management requires significant time, money, and energy. All aspects of everyday manage- ment and maintenance must also be addressed. Outdoor facilities have their own unique issues, weather being among the most important. It is not uncommon to see a nationally televised football game being played in the mud. Could the mud have been prevented? What steps can be taken to make sure a facility is in reasonably playable condition? Much is involved in preparing a field for an event, from removing snow and painting lines to mowing the lawn in a uniform manner.

This chapter covers some of the basics of scheduling and changeover management and then considers traditional components of sport facilities such as weight rooms, locker rooms, and gymnasiums. Attention is given to specific aspects that need to be managed as well as issues such as general maintenance. The chapter also looks at outdoor facilities from a managerial perspective and outlines the steps required to produce a play- able and safe outdoor surface. Important issues in this context are the types of grass used for playing fields and how to maintain them properly, from mowing and fertilizing to providing for proper field drainage. Significant attention is paid to developing a field maintenance program. The chapter ends with an analysis of unique sport concerns such as synthetic surfaces, grounds management, and safety.

Space Management Space management examines how a facility will be used. A facility that sits vacant wastes space as well as resources. On the other hand, a facility that is overused can deteriorate rapidly. Management has to balance between the extremes of overuse and underuse.

Most facilities have a reservation system whereby someone who wants to use the facil- ity completes a reservation form indicating the desired date, time, and space. In a college, the physical education department often has first choice, followed by the athletic department, intra- mural and recreational sports, student groups, and finally community groups. Facility usage and scheduling are often dictated by political pressure or money. A particular group may have fewer facility users than other groups but receive the best time because of political pressure. Title IX is shifting the priorities and scheduling practices at many high schools and colleges. Whereas his- torically the men’s football and basketball teams were given the best facilities and times, women’s teams are now receiving more equal treatment.

Managing Multiple Venues The management process is even more demand- ing when one is overseeing several facilities. Most colleges have several athletic or recreation facilities that require significant managerial oversight. Facilities can be located miles apart (e.g., the university boathouse, golf course, bowl- ing alley, recreation center, stadium, arena, and fields). Because of tight budgets and in many cases neglected repairs, facility managers often have an uphill battle. A successful facility manager at the college level needs to be an expert in organizing and consolidating resources. Each day a number of events may be taking place in stadiums, arenas, gyms, and playing fields. The manager must be able to change gears at a moment’s notice to handle a variety of events.

To effectively manage the space in multiple facilities, a senior manager needs to appoint a management team. A facility management team, typically reporting to one director, can help manage multiple facilities more effectively. In this case each facility may have its own manager; or

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there may be a manager for fields, for example, and managers for maintenance and other trades positions. It is often more effective to have team members who can apply their trades to a group of facilities than for each facility to have its own specialists. At a single facility, a repairperson might have to do plumbing, electrical, and main- tenance work in order to justify his position. In contrast, a plumber who is a member of a team that manages multiple venues may take care of all the plumbing fixtures in the various facilities. Thus the management team becomes more intimately involved with the overall functioning of the facili- ties, and this type of decentralized system helps ensure that the facilities are operating properly.

Managing Changeover It can be interesting to watch the changeover pro- cess in a facility. Changeover refers to converting a facility from one activity to another. Changeover at a high school gym can be as simple as putting basketballs away and rolling out dodgeballs. More is involved in changing from badminton to vol- leyball because of the differing nets, standards, and equipment. It becomes important for a facility manager to explore all options when scheduling in order to group similar events together to reduce the time and costs associated with changeovers.

The process becomes more complicated when two events use completely different surfaces. In multisport facilities such as baseball and foot- ball stadiums it is necessary to move bleachers, remove pitching mounds, and extend fields to change over from baseball to football. However, since the seasons overlap for only a limited time period, the demand for changing over is limited. In contrast, the need to change over from ice hockey to basketball, or vice versa, occurs over an extended period of time because the seasons overlap significantly.

Changeover management is one of the more complex assignments for maintenance crews. The most complex version entails changing over from an event on ice to any other event. Some facilities can melt the ice so that the floor can be laid on the hard cement. However, this is a very expensive proposition. Madison Square Garden thaws and removes the ice only once during the entire New York Rangers’ season—for the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, because the dogs are sensitive to the ice. Thus, when a basketball game is to be played, the court is normally installed over the ice.

A basketball floor cannot be placed right over ice without damaging both the floor and the ice. An intermediary surface is used to protect the ice; the different types of floor covers include plywood, pressed paper sheets, laminated wood with a foam core, polyethylene shell with a foam core, and thermo-formed urethane foam sheets with fiberglass to reduce expansion and contrac- tion (Townsend, 2003).

The changeover process typically begins as soon as an event ends. Whereas changing over used to take all night, it now can take just a few hours. First Union Center in Philadelphia is man- aged by Global Spectrum, which introduced a quick-change process. The center is home to the Philadelphia Flyers, 76ers, and Wings (lacrosse) and hosts more than 400 events each year. Global Spectrum uses a 47-member crew that includes 25 to 30 changeover employees, six carpenters, six ice crew members, two Zamboni drivers, two electricians, and one telephone technician (Rich- man, 2001).

Changeovers require a great deal of planning, and facilities are being designed with change- overs in mind. For example, Staples Center in Los Angeles averages 130 changeovers each year. The fastest changeover from a hockey surface to a basketball surface was accomplished in 1 hour and 50 minutes. On average, most arenas use 35 to 60 staff members for a changeover, with the greatest amount of time being spent on removal of seating areas (Bisson, 2001).

Specialized Components in Sport Facilities

Some sport facility components, such as locker rooms, do not need to be scheduled or changed; but they still need to be properly managed. Man- agement still needs to schedule employees to work in these areas. Also, time needs to be spent getting areas ready for daily use, from basic cleaning to making sure that the weights in a weight room are in place. This section discusses areas that require additional managerial oversight: weight rooms, locker rooms, and gymnasiums.

Weight Rooms Weight rooms are among the most difficult facility components to manage because of constant use and abuse. Weight rooms must be kept clean and

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  179

safe because of liability concerns. Other issues for weight rooms include maintaining the equipment and developing a positive environment for users.

To maintain a proper level of safety and clean- liness, it is essential for the facility manager to create and implement a customized preventive maintenance program. An effective preventive maintenance program incorporates daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly cleanings and repairs (Dahl- gren, 2000b). The majority of the daily chores involve cleaning of equipment. Odors and per- spiration can accumulate quickly, so the walls, equipment, and sitting and resting areas should be cleaned daily with general household cleaning agents; the floors should be vacuumed daily; and facility users should be given access to clean- ing wipes (soap solution or a mild antibacterial disinfectant on small wipes) to allow them to wipe down the equipment. For vinyl parts of the apparatus, it is best to use an antibacterial diluted to a 10% solution (Dahlgren, 2000b). It is also very important to lubricate all machine joints weekly using lightweight (30-weight) motor oil and to clean them first to avoid lubricant buildup (Dahlgren, 2000b).

Although employees can fix many simple main- tenance problems, at least one employee should take certifying courses provided by machine manufacturers to learn how to fix the machines. Managers may also keep spare parts in the facil- ity to avoid long delays waiting for parts. In some cases there are simple ways to head off repair problems, such as switching one bike for another when one is used more frequently than the other (Dahlgren, 2000b).

Because of the abundance of odors and mois- ture in the air, the manager should change heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) unit filters fairly often (every one or two months). Care should be taken to avoid moisture damage in weight rooms tucked in the middle of larger build- ings. Fans, dehumidifiers, and air fresheners can help improve air quality and user enjoyment and can prevent rust, mildew, and bacteria buildup.

Supervision The weight room’s location can affect the ability to provide proper supervision. With weights and machines blocking one’s view, it is often difficult to supervise the weight room and monitor con- duct. Improved supervision can be accomplished by moving employees around, reconfiguring the

room setup, or even installing a closed-circuit TV system. A check-in desk is an effective tool for monitoring both who enters the weight room and the patrons using the room. Some health clubs have a security access point at the check-in desk, which helps make patrons think that the club is in some sense exclusive and is concerned about crime and inappropriate conduct.

Improving the Feel Weight rooms have been transformed into warm and inviting places. Facilities have expanded through the use of open areas, a large amount of glass to let light in, television set banks, and cen- tral attractions such as climbing walls. Although most owners cannot create large facilities without significant cash, it is usually possible to create a much better environment in the space that already exists.

For example, flooring can come in a variety of colors and patterns and can be used to create unique designs in the weight room. A way to do this is to use one color for workout stations and another color for pathways (Sherman, 1997). The walls can also be painted various colors to generate a more relaxed atmosphere. However, too many colors can become overwhelming, confusing, and “noisy” and can decrease lighting effectiveness. Indirect lighting, or up-lighting, can help create a better and brighter environment. The downside of this approach is that more light fixtures are needed, compared with fluorescent lighting, to adequately light the room.

Repainting and replacing old padding on machines can give equipment a renewed look. The old paint must be sandblasted off the machine; then the machine is repainted and new padding is added. Using nontraditional or school colors when repainting the machines can give the room a personal feel (Sherman, 1997).

Noise-reduction decor can not only decrease the noise generated by clanking weights or loud music but also enhance the feel or look of an area. The concept of function over form does not mean that innovative approaches cannot be taken while designing a visually appealing environment for all users.

Locker Rooms Players of all ages and levels carry waves of emo- tions into the locker room after the game and can quickly create a hazardous environment for others.

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From spitting and regurgitating on the floor to let- ting their blood drip on various surfaces, athletes might not think about their actions when they are tired or upset. Athletes allow their skin to come in contact with many different surfaces within the locker room. Illnesses attributed to unclean surfaces, such as staph infections, are commonly contracted in locker rooms. Because of the moist conditions in this area, bacteria are easily bred and then spread to others (Turner and Hauser, 1994). Care should be taken to clean all surfaces in a locker room at least daily, depending on the use.

Of major concern is methicillin-resistant Staphy- lococcus aureus (MRSA). MRSA usually manifests as a skin infection, such as pimples or boils, and can occur in otherwise healthy people. Having an MRSA outbreak does not mean having a poor facility. Over the past 10 years there have been out- breaks in many facilities, from elementary school gyms to NFL locker rooms. In 2003, a Lycoming College football player died from a bloodstream infection linked to MRSA bacteria. In 2004, news- papers reported that some members of the Denver Broncos had come down with the virus, and future hall-of-fame player Junior Seau allegedly caught it while playing for the Miami Dolphins. In 2007, a former college football player sued Iona College over an antibiotic-resistant staph infection that nearly cost him his leg. The player claimed that the team’s locker room was an unsanitary environment in which players shared towels and equipment. Although the college disputed the allegations, it disinfected a weight room and reviewed hygiene advice after 10 members of an athletic team (includ- ing a coach) were diagnosed with MRSA. The threat of serious injuries from MRSA has prompted the installation or MRSA resistant flooring and regular cleanings with strong cleaners that kill most/all bacteria and infectious material. MRSA resistant flooring entails manufacturing the floor covering with resistant chemicals inside. Existing surfaces can be treated on a regular basis to prevent MRSA, but flooring made with these chemicals do not require as frequent treatments/cleanings.

Another critical concern is the threat of slip- ping on water in areas where there are sinks or showers and in changing areas. The following strategies can create a safer environment in the locker room:

◾ Control traffic flow in the locker room by creating both wet and dry areas.

◾ Reduce the moisture level with a strong HVAC system to help stop the spread of bac- teria and keep the floor dry.

◾ Move outlets at least 6 feet (1.8 m) away from any water source, or install ground fault cir- cuit interrupters (GFCIs) to reduce the threat of electrocution.

◾ Kill bacteria using a quaternary ammonium solution once a week and a mild phosphoric acid solution once a month.

◾ Avoid full-length lockers in the middle of a room to keep sight lines open for supervi- sion. Other options are slant-topped lockers or lockers that are flush with the wall (Turner and Hauser, 1994).

The floor will help determine the locker room’s look, feel, and safety. Since slipping is such a major concern, the floor needs to be constructed with slip-resistant materials or painted with non- skid paint. The following are materials used for most locker room floors:

◾ Ceramic tile provides both durability and a clean look and is primarily used in the wet areas of locker rooms. However, tile can easily become very slippery, and the grout between tiles is hard to clean and can house bacteria.

◾ Carpet, while not common, is slip resistant and has a nice look; but water-soaked carpet- ing can create a musty smell.

◾ Epoxy quartz floors are created when several layers of clear or colored epoxy are put down with a topcoat of sealer. This type of flooring is slip resistant and resilient but harder to maintain than other types of floors and not very attractive.

◾ Coated concrete is basic concrete topped by paint or a thick sealer. It is fairly slip resistant but not very aesthetic.

◾ Similar to the rubber floors used in weight rooms, rubber shower floors are slip resistant but are harder to maintain than other types of flooring (Cohen, 1994a).

◾ To help prevent infections, MRSA-resistant surfaces (whether manufactured or just treated) should be installed and the locker room cleaned regularly with products specifi- cally designed to prevent MRSA.

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  181

Gymnasiums Whether the facility is a 15,000-seat multisport arena or a high school gym used just for basketball, there are certain standard maintenance steps (see tips for maintaining a gymnasium on page 182). A properly maintained gym not only reduces the risk of injury to athletes and spectators but also increases the aesthetic appeal and extends the building’s life. Decent lights, a floor with some give, and the proper equipment may be all that is absolutely necessary. However, most gym users want more. Athletes want a well-finished surface free of defects, a good HVAC system so air can circulate, and appropriate lighting.

Key areas that should be examined when ana- lyzing maintenance needs for a gym include the floor (hardwood or synthetic), bleachers, dividers, basketball goals, padding, dashers, and the glass.

Flooring The primary surfaces used in gymnasiums are wood and synthetic. Wood floors may be maple or other wood options in a variety of grades depend- ing on the amount of money spent. Wood needs to be properly maintained.

The drive to create a floor finish that is able to bend without cracking has resulted in two types of finishes that have varied effects: oil based and water based. The floorboards must bend in order to withstand multipurpose usage and improper cleaning by janitorial staffs (Cohen, 1998).

◾ Oil-based wood floor finishes utilize veg- etable oils and are modified to create a urethane. The urethane is applied to the floor wet and can be damaged in the drying process (Cohen, 1998). As the urethane dries, chemicals are released into the air that are harmful to both humans and the

Facility Focus

When people think of locker rooms, they think about cramped high school or health club locker rooms or the plush rooms used by professional athletes. Some locker rooms stand out in a crowd, and Arizona State Univer- sity’s men’s basketball locker room is one such example. Designed in 2002, the renovated locker room is environ- mentally friendly while offering the latest in innovative technology. The goal was to give athletes and coaches a comfortable, user-friendly space specially designed for maximum productivity.

One of the most exciting elements of the new locker room is the X Locker, a revolutionary personal storage system that looks more like a rental storage locker than a sport locker. The X Locker’s features include the following:

◾ Motorized door with a silent motor to help create an acoustically friendly environment

◾ Personal lockable drawer at each station, ensuring two layers of security

◾ Integrated ventilation system to eliminate odor and moisture from clothing

◾ Computer control panel that allows a personalized touch-screen combination, a custom screen saver for each athlete, and computerized communication from coaches and staff

Every detail, from the flooring to the acoustic insulation, was carefully chosen to fit into the innovative sustainable design. Following are some of the key features:

◾ Recycled and sustainable materials, such as fab- rics, carpet, and bamboo flooring

◾ Energy-efficient lighting with dimmable fixtures as well as sensor light switches

◾ Appropriately sized furniture and fixtures to meet the unique needs of larger basketball athletes

◾ Recycled-cotton acoustic insulation instead of fiberglass

◾ Low (to zero) VOC (volatile organic compound) paints

◾ Low-flow water fixtures ◾ Antibacterial and antimicrobial finishes ◾ Recycle bins

Acoustics and sustainable design elements were incor- porated throughout the project. Locker rooms are known for the constant loud noise associated with yelling, lockers slamming, and other sounds. Research has shown that noise negatively affects an athlete’s ability to focus and can even be detrimental to health. Thus, a 100% recycled cotton product was used to deaden the sound. This prod- uct was safe for the installers (compared with fiberglass) and performs just as well as traditional acoustical products (ASU Basketball, 2003).

Facility Focus: arizona state University’s locker room

182  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

environment. As the liquid portion of the urethane evaporates, it leaves a hard resin on the floor. These types of finishes tend to be higher gloss and not as wear resistant, but they are more flexible than other finishes (Cohen, 1998). Oil-based ure- thanes are the most common type of floor finish for gym floors.

◾ Water-based finishes have a clear color (unlike the oil-based finishes, which are amber colored) and are generally not as thick or glossy (Cohen, 1998). This means that to achieve a higher gloss, more coats must be applied. Unlike oil- based products, water-based finishes do not give off harmful vapors as they dry. Also, water-based products act more like an adhesive when they are applied. This can be bad if there are separa- tions between some of the floorboards. The finish can get between the boards and glue the boards together when it dries (Cohen, 1998). Using a simple surface-prep solution to fill the cracks before applying the finish can avert this problem.

Under normal circumstances a three-quarter- inch-thick (1.9 cm) tongue-and-groove solid maple

floor can last from 40 to 80 years (Brickman, 1997). The floor’s life span is affected by

◾ the events held on the floor, ◾ the moisture level in the gym, ◾ how frequently the floor is cleaned, ◾ whether mats are used to wipe feet before people enter,

◾ the quality and frequency of finish recoating (completed every year or every other year),

◾ the quality and frequency of sanding and refinishing (complete sanding and refinishing needed every 10 to 20 years), and

◾ the frequency of minor and major catastro- phes such as floods (Brickman, 1997).

The cost to completely sand and finish a typical gym floor is around $12,000 to $16,000, while the cost of a new gym floor averages around $60,000. Thus, it is a worthwhile investment to properly manage and maintain a wood floor.

Synthetic floors are often used for multisport facilities that offer basketball, tennis, in-line hockey, soccer, and track and field events. Synthetic materials include nylon turf, rubber, poured urethane, and ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) granules in a urethane binder. Each floor system has unique issues that need to be addressed from a management perspective such as seams, cleaning, and repairs. Exposed seams can present a tripping hazard. Also, some surfaces that have a granular finish are very hard to clean, making it necessary to use special machines or leaf blowers.

Bleachers There are guidelines and standards for both indoor and outdoor bleachers, as well as various tech- niques used for repair and maintenance.

Most gyms are built with telescoping bleachers that are easily taken in and out when necessary. In contrast, arenas are normally built with fixed seating that may include mold-injected plastic seats. Access is a key concern for bleachers. Aisles placed in the middle of the bleachers are the most effective means of access (Scandrett, 1998). A double-loaded bleacher allows aisle access to all its sections. Rows should be spaced about 24 inches (61 cm) apart, although a 26- to 28-inch (66 to 71 cm) space is most desirable to make passage between rows easier (Scandrett, 1998). Usually bleachers rise between 11 and 16

Tips for Maintaining   a Gymnasium

◾◾ Small◾dents◾in◾the◾floor◾can◾be◾removed◾by◾ covering◾ the◾ dent◾ with◾ a◾ damp◾ cloth◾ and◾ then◾pressing◾on◾the◾cloth◾with◾an◾electric◾ iron.

◾◾ Any◾ repairs◾ should◾ be◾ discussed◾ with◾ the◾ floor◾ manufacturer◾ before◾ they◾ are◾ under- taken◾to◾make◾sure◾the◾repair◾will◾not◾void◾ any◾warranty.

◾◾ Gum◾ stuck◾ to◾ various◾ surfaces◾ can◾ be◾ removed◾ by◾ freezing◾ the◾ gum◾ with◾ dry◾ ice◾ and◾ then◾ removing◾ the◾ gum◾ with◾ a◾ putty◾ knife.◾Gum◾can◾also◾be◾removed◾by◾applying◾ peanut◾butter◾to◾the◾area.

◾◾ Urethane◾floors◾can◾be◾repaired◾by◾pouring◾ or◾painting◾a◾new◾layer◾of◾urethane◾over◾the◾ entire◾floor.

◾◾ Masonite◾ should◾ be◾ placed◾ under◾ the◾ wheels◾ of◾ movable◾ bleacher◾ systems◾ to◾ avoid◾damage◾to◾the◾underlying◾floor.

From◾Cohen◾2000.

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  183

inches (28 and 41 cm) from one row to the next to help create acceptable sight lines for the crowd (Scandrett, 1998).

Although some facilities require only 4 feet (1.2 m) of space between the face of the bleach- ers and the court, it is much safer to significantly exceed this minimum amount. If a scorer’s table and player benches are in front of the bleachers as well, there should be a minimum of 10 feet (3 m) from the out-of-bounds line to the front of the bleachers to give 4 feet of circulation space for fans and 6 clear feet (1.8 m) for the athletes, coaches, and staff (Scandrett, 1998).

It is imperative to refer to building codes before installing or modifying bleachers. Following are some of the regulations (whether by the Interna- tional Building Code or the Consumer Product Safety Commission) that may apply:

◾ No more than 16 rows are allowed if they are accessible only from either the top or the bottom.

◾ Aisles are required only when the bleachers are more than 11 rows high.

◾ There should be no more than 20 seats between aisles.

◾ To accommodate wheelchairs, cutouts can be made in various spots along the first row of telescoping bleachers. Platforms can be built overlooking the top rows to provide seating that complies with the Americans with Dis- abilities Act. For a facility that seats more than 500 people, six wheelchair-accessible seats are required, with an additional wheel- chair location required for every 100 specta- tors over the initial 500 (Scandrett, 1998).

Everyday bleacher maintenance can be as simple as sweeping the bleachers and underneath the structures before closing them. While walking underneath open bleachers, a worker can easily look for signs of structural damage such as bent metal cross-braces or chipped paint that indicates fatigue cracks (Steinbach, 2000). Small repairs may be as simple as bending parts back in shape by hand. Moving parts can be lubricated with a lithium-based grease that is dabbed onto the struc- ture using a small paintbrush (Steinbach, 2000).

Behind the scenes: Fixing the Floors

Behind the Scenes

Although most schools replace only one gym at a time, sometimes a better deal can be made if several gyms are repaired at the same time. This scenario occurred when the Fairfax, Virginia, public school district replaced four gym floors. The gyms had various surfaces, such as poured urethane, wood, and vinyl tiles, that were all changed over to maple wood. The gyms are of various sizes ranging from 4,800 to 28,000 square feet (445- 2,600 sq m) and are used daily by the students for classes and athletics; some are also open to the general public.

The schools installed Taraflex Sport M flooring, which is 0.25 inches (6.7 mm) thick and covered with a resistant stain to reduce friction burns, prevent bacteria growth, and minimize maintenance costs. The multilayered floor utilizes a 100% pure vinyl wear layer with reinforced fiberglass and a closed-cell foam backing underneath that helps reduce stress on athletes’ joints when they jump (“Fairfax County School,” 2003).

Schools throughout the world are constantly installing or replacing gym floors, and care needs to be taken to avoid violating the law and harming the environment by

improperly disposing of old gym floor components. Fairfax County entered into a contract in 2000 with Southwest Recreational Industries to replace the gym floor at one of the county’s secondary schools. Shortly before entering into the contract, the school board learned that the exist- ing flooring material contained mercury in excess of the regulatory limit of 0.2 mg/L. Because of these test results, the contract required that the flooring material be handled as a hazardous waste requiring certified proof of disposal. Southwest acknowledged the requirements. Thereafter, Southwest entered into a subcontract agreement with Floor-Tec for the gym floor replacement project. There was finger-pointing between Southwest and Floor-Tec about whether the hazardous material was properly conveyed, but nonetheless, the material was improperly disposed. The dispute resulted in a consent order issued by the Virginia Waste Management Board against the county school board and Southwest (Virginia Waste Management Board Enforcement Action, 2002).

This example highlights that although it is exciting to get a new gym floor, care needs to be taken to avoid envi- ronmental or other hazards during the transition process.

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Gym Components Several other components within a typical gym present legal, managerial, or maintenance chal- lenges. The components covered here include gym dividers, basketball goals, wall padding, dasher boards, and glass panels.

Divider curtains are frequently found in gyms where multiple activities will take place that require some separation. The separation is needed to prevent people from tripping over balls or other objects that might travel from one activ- ity area to another. The curtains can also create distinct areas so that multiple events can occur without the need to use more than one facility. A metal pole or weights at the bottom help keep the curtain straight and taut, but care needs to be taken to make sure that no one is hit by the curtain when it is going up or down. Hanging curtains tend to tear near the bottom. These tears can easily be remedied in place using a portable carpet-stitching machine or by resealing with a strong epoxy. Holes can also be patched by using epoxy to affix spare pieces of vinyl fabric to both sides of the hole (Steinbach, 2000).

Basketball goals can be fixed, dropped from the ceiling, or swung out from the walls. All nuts, bolts, wires, and gears need to be examined for wear and tear. Goals can be shattered and rims can be broken, and these items are hard to repair. Every facility with basketball goals should store an extra backboard and rim in case equipment breaks. Minor repairs and maintenance issues include welding of new net hooks to keep the net in place, repainting a chipped or peeling rim, and reattaching padding to the underside of the backboard.

Wall padding, used to protect players from injury when they run into walls or doors behind the basketball goals, can take significant punish- ment. Facilities often have torn, missing, or ripped pads. Damaged pads can be refurbished in-house. Pads can be removed from the wall, and the inside padding can be removed to patch the vinyl. After the padding (and maybe even the vinyl cover) is replaced and secured with contact cement, the vinyl can be rewrapped and stapled using indus- trial staples (Steinbach, 2000). Small tears can be repaired by using epoxy to glue a small piece of vinyl over the hole.

Dasher boards—used for events such as in-line hockey, indoor soccer, and arena football—need to be inspected to make sure they are not broken,

splintering, or improperly secured. The majority of damage to these boards comes from the vehicles used in the arena (e.g., Zambonis, forklifts). Bad reinstallation can also damage the boards (Stein- bach, 2000). Aluminum- or steel-backed dashers can be bent back into shape by heating the studs first to soften them. Scratches in glass dasher boards can be removed by applying light automo- tive polish, allowing it to dry, then removing it with a buffer. When cleaning other marks off the glass, the recommendation is to use only prod- ucts designed for Plexiglas, as other cleaners can weaken the glass (Steinbach, 2000). Several spare glass panels and plywood dasher boards should be kept in storage to be used if a board breaks.

The facility manager must make sure that all components within a gym or an internal facil- ity are in good shape for the intended purpose. Preevent inspections can help reduce the chance of injury and identify problems that can be fixed through routine maintenance. The same applies to external sport facilities.

Ice Hockey Sheets It can take several days to create a sheet of ice to play hockey or to skate on. Building 1 inch (2.5 cm) of ice can take about 10,200 gallons (38,600 L) of water. The process starts by having a facility specifically built for an ice sheet. This requires a concrete slab with special coils built into it that can be chilled with a brine (salt water) solution that does not freeze at low temperatures. The coils are chilled with the goal of cooling the concrete to around 12 °F (−11 °C). This process takes several days to avoid cracking the concrete. A couple layers of specialized water (the water goes through a reverse osmosis system to remove impurities) are sprayed to create a good bond between the ice and the concrete. The frozen concrete freezes the water sprayed on it. Several coats of white ice paint are sprayed, followed by several layers of plain water. Even after all these layers, the ice is still only an eighth of an inch (0.3 cm) thick. Lines and logos are then added before a crew floods the sheet several times a day for several days until the ice is around 1 inch thick. The ice surface is 21 °F (−6 °C), and 3 feet (0.9 m) above the ice the temperature is 50 °F (10 °C) (“Freeze Frame,” 2008).

The same basic process was followed when a temporary rink was formed at Wrigley Field for a New Year’s game to usher in 2009. A sheet of

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  185

plastic was laid on top of the grass, followed by plywood decking and then 240 aluminum plates connected by pipes built into the plates (the pipes were filled with glycol). The rink was then flooded with water to build 2 inches (5 cm) of ice, the lines were painted, and then an additional half-inch (1.3 cm) of ice was laid down in a process that started December 18th, and ended December 29th, when the last half-inch of ice was added (“NHL Faces Off,” 2008).

Establishing Grass Fields Fields can be covered by natural grass or by

artificial or synthetic turf. Grass fields can be estab- lished either by sodding (covering the ground with rolls of pregrown grass) or by seeding. Seeding is the preferred method because of its relatively low cost and reduced labor requirements. A poor-qual- ity surface is often created when a facility manager does not know about the various types of seeding options available. Both spectators and athletes can be greatly disappointed if a venue looks rough and uncared for. A poor field can also be expensive. In 2002-2003, for example, Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, was in such poor condition that $120,000 had to be spent to put a new field down before the playoffs. This was the second field installed that season, which created a significant expense because another field was scheduled to be installed later that year. Because of the problems with the natural grass surface, the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority was considering synthetic turf (“Giants Stadium,” 2002).

The process of establishing and maintaining an athletic playing field can be daunting. It is easy to avoid difficulties, however, with proper research regarding types of grass, species of grass, variet- ies of grass, seeding rates, and seed quality. The proper choice of turfgrass, either cool season or warm season, depends on the facility’s location. Cool-season turfgrass, as the name suggests, is best suited for areas that are subject to low tem- peratures during the winter months. The optimal growing temperature is between 60 °F and 75 °F (15 °C and 24 °C). Warm-season turfgrass, on the other hand, is less hearty and will die if exposed to freezing temperatures for an extended time.

The optimal growing temperature for warm- season turfgrass is 80 °F to 95 °F (27-35 °C) (Rogers and Stier, 1995). Not surprisingly, warm-season turfgrass is best suited for southern regions. The

swath of land in the United States that begins in southern New Jersey and continues in a southwest direction to New Mexico is known as the transi- tion zone because in this area, both warm-season and cool-season turfgrass can grow, although neither is very well suited for the climate. Thus, facilities in the transition zone often experience trouble maintaining athletic fields.

Cool-Season Turfgrass Three basic types of cool-season turfgrass are used for playing fields—Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb) (Rogers and Stier, 1995). Kentucky bluegrass can reproduce itself because of its underground lateral stems called rhizomes, which allow it to spread over a large area. A drawback of Kentucky bluegrass, however, is its slow growth and thus its inability to provide facility managers with a quick fix.

Perennial ryegrass, on the other hand, germi- nates very quickly and is therefore an ideal turf- grass when facility managers require a quick fix. But it is a bunch-type turfgrass and has trouble recuperating from excessive traffic. Perennial rye- grass and Kentucky bluegrass work well together in that their respective benefits and drawbacks complement each other.

Tall fescue, a turfgrass characterized by coarse wide-leaf blades, is by far the most wear tolerant of the three turfgrasses but is a slow-growing, bunch-type grass. Certain cool-season turfgrasses are not wear tolerant or are intolerant in relation to the cutting heights necessary for playing field maintenance and hence should not be used. These grasses include rough bluegrass, annual bluegrass, annual ryegrass, creeping bentgrass, colonial bent- grass, fine-leaf fescue, centipede grass, bahia grass, and St. Augustine grass (Rogers and Stier, 1995).

Warm-Season Turfgrass Bermuda grass and zoysia grass are the most frequently used warm-season turfgrasses, with Bermuda grass most commonly used for fields where soccer and football are played. The seeds produced by these warm-season grasses are ster- ile, so the grass is established by sprigs or sod. Warm-season grasses grow both by rhizomes and by stolons, which are aboveground lateral stems, making them very wear tolerant and able to recu- perate quickly.

186  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

The resilience of the warm-season turfgrasses, coupled with the various weaknesses of cool- season turfgrasses, makes warm-season grasses the preferred turfgrass for athletic fields. Because the warm-season grasses do not flourish in colder weather but instead lie dormant and then recu- perate with warmer weather, facility managers often overseed a playing field with both types so that regardless of the conditions there is ample green grass on the field. Some universities, such as Michigan State University, have also begun experimenting with turfgrass in an attempt to breed a grass that will flourish in both cold and warm conditions (Rogers and Stier, 1995). Michi- gan State University has been a leader in turf science and helped develop the grass used at the Beijing Olympics.

A new type of grass called seashore paspalum may provide some strong benefits to golf courses. This grass, originally from South Africa, has deep roots and is salt-water tolerant. Because of the deep roots, it does not require as much water as other grasses. Furthermore, because this type of grass can thrive in salt water, salt—which can kill weeds without the use of any other chemicals— can be used as a herbicide. One golf course in the United States spent more than $300,000 a year on water but after switching to the new grass was able to cut water bills by more than 80% (Foust, 2002).

Seeding Rates Once the facility manager has chosen the most appropriate species and varieties for the playing fields, it is imperative to order the proper amount of seeds. Seeds for various species differ in size. Table 8.1 provides the necessary information for determining how much of each type of seed is needed. Deviance from these guidelines will result in either a turf that is too thin or one that is too dense, making maintenance difficult.

Seeds should be spread at a rate of 6 to 12 seeds per square inch (6.4 sq cm) using a broadcast spreader. The broadcast spreader throws the seeds in all directions, resulting in uniform distribution.

Seed Quality It is important to examine seed quality, including the percentage of each turfgrass and variety in the bag, the test date, and the purity percentage. The test date is important because germination declines with time. Therefore, a bag of seed with an old test date will yield less grass than will

newer seed. The purity percentage gives the percentage of weed seed in the bag. A weed seed percentage of more than 0.5% is unacceptable.

Drainage Whether they’re playing little league baseball or major league football, players want to use the field even after it has rained. A quality drainage system increases the chances that fields will be playable after rain. The key to proper drainage and a successful grass field is the couple inches of soil beneath the grass. The area where the grass roots are the strongest is called the root zone. If a person was to take a side cut of a typical field, the grass would be about 2 inches (5 cm) high, while the root zone just under the surface could be 3 to 4 inches (7.5-10 cm) thick. If the root zone is weak, the grass can come out very easily. Fields that take a lot of beating but are still in great shape have a strong root zone. A good field needs to have enough space in the root zone for optimal drainage and for water and minerals to penetrate and enrich the roots. Although the various drainage systems are similar (underground piping and catch basins), the way they are set up depends on which sports are played on the field. The facility manager must carefully plan the type of system that will be used before building the field. To change or modify a drainage system after construction is very costly (Watson, 1998).

Football Fields The first step in creating a good drainage system for a football field is to form a crown in the middle of the field that slopes down toward the sidelines.

Table 8.1 seeding rates

type of grass

approximate number of seeds per pound

seeding rate (lb/1,000 ft2)

Kentucky◾bluegrass 1,000,000- 2,200,000

1-2

Perennial◾ryegrass 200,000 5-10

Tall◾fescue 200,000 5-10

Bermuda◾grass 2,000,000 1-2

Zoysia◾grass 1,000,000 2-3

From◾Roger◾and◾Stier◾1995.

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  187

Standard football field crowns are about 18 inches (46 cm) above the ground level at the sidelines. If the football field is a combination field for football and soccer (flat field), a more moderate approach of about 8 to 10 inches (20-25 cm) is needed (Watson, 1998). Drainage can be enhanced by means of an internal (piping) drainage system installed about 15 to 18 inches (38-46 cm) below the surface and flowing from the middle of the field to the sidelines (Watson, 1998). Pipes on the sidelines take the water away from the field.

Baseball Fields For drainage of surface water from a baseball infield, the highest point is always the pitcher’s mound. The infield should grade down 4 inches (10 cm) toward each base, and then from each base another 4 inches toward the outer edges of the infield. The highest point of the outfield should be where it meets the infield. From this point there is a 10-inch (25 cm) drop toward the fence at a 0% to 2% grade (Watson, 1998).

Water Removal Several techniques can be used to remove stand- ing water from a field. If the standing water is due to blocked drainage pipes, the drainage system needs to be cleaned. Simply cleaning clogged catch basins may be all that is needed. If the water still does not drain, the problem could be compac- tion (where the ground is so hard and the soil so tight that there is no room for water or minerals to

seep down) or a faulty drainage system. In either case, the water must be removed if play is to begin or continue. Water can be removed by using Tur- face (a soil conditioner) or other compounds that absorb water and leave behind a granular residue that breaks up into the soil. Other techniques include using hand sponges, sponges attached to poles, sponges attached to feet, hand or motorized pumps, leaf blowers, and squeegees to move the water to another area.

Field drainage is just one component within a field maintenance program. Fields do not keep themselves in good condition; they require signifi- cant care and attention to make sure grass is grow- ing correctly. The watering, weeding, fertilizing, mowing, painting, and aeration procedures must be carefully managed to avoid destroying the field.

Maintaining Grass Fields Every field is different and requires a custom- ized maintenance program. Players and specta- tors notice when a field has holes, has not been mowed, or is lacking painted lines. These may be relatively minor issues when people are looking for any grassy area in which to play. However, when there is a choice of fields or when safety is a priority, a well-maintained field is critical. Factors to be analyzed when examining field maintenance concerns include financial and human resources, field layout (northeast versus south), types of soils

Behind the scenes: Grass Fields at the Olympics

Behind the Scenes

GreenTech’s natural grass sport-field system was installed at National Stadium in Beijing for the 2008 Olympic Games at an estimated cost of $1.5 million. The turf system, which uses interlocking trays, was also installed at Olympic Stadium in Athens, Greece. The GreenTech sod system is used at Virginia Tech’s Lane Stadium, Giants Stadium in New Jersey, and a handful of other stadiums around the world such as Wimbledon and Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow.

The grass used in this system is initially grown inside 46-inch-square (297 cm sq) trays that are a foot deep. The trays, called modules, are grown at an off-site location. The

modules are then brought to the stadium and connected like tile floor pieces. The installation process takes several days. Once the field is set up, sections of a stadium that receive a lot of wear and tear can be replaced or moved. For the Beijing Olympics, the grass was grown in trays at a location about 15 minutes away. The playing field at Beijing National Stadium was made up of about 6,500 modules. The field has about 80,000 square feet (7,400 sq m) of grass (Gilligan, 2007). The grass system was designed to be installed after the opening ceremony. Thus, the wear and tear of concerts and thousands of performers would not damage the playing surface for track and soccer events.

188  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

and grasses, use of fields (intensity and frequency), and the sport or sports being played on the field. The first two variables are hard to control. If there is not enough money or time to maintain a field optimally, or if space is not sufficient, those who run the facility will be forced to make do.

Soil Soil-based fields are constructed using native-type soil materials, which are able to hold higher water and nutrient levels. Unfortunately, soil-based fields are the most susceptible to compaction; still, when they are well aerated they are very good for all root zone types (Depew and Guise, 1997).

Sand-modified fields are native-based fields to which sand has been added on-site through topdressing and aeration. As more sand is added, the resistance to compaction is also increased. A field is not considered sand modified until the amount of sand is in a 60% (sand) to 40% (native soil) ratio. Apart from the higher level of sand, there are not many noticeable changes in the root zone’s properties until the sand volume is about 80% (Depew and Guise, 1997).

Fields with sand-based root zones are high-end fields as judged by cost and performance poten- tial. Sand-based fields should have high drainage and aeration rates but low water retention rates (Depew and Guise, 1997). By building this type of field over a layer of coarse gravel, the facility can help slow water movement so the root zone has more time to retain draining water.

The latest trend in natural fields is to add artificial substances. The addition of synthetic materials to the root zones can enhance aeration and drainage properties and help stabilize the soil (Depew and Guise, 1997). However, if the roots do not bond or intertwine with the material, this approach is ineffective.

The three basic components of soils are sand, silt, and clay. The proportions of these compo- nents control the factors that constitute field play- ability: infiltration rate, percolation, and degree of compaction (Mrock, 1999). The infiltration rate of soil is the rate at which water is absorbed from the surface into the soil. Percolation is the amount of time it takes for water to pass through the soil and the turfgrass roots. Compaction, as

A◾beautiful◾looking◾field◾is◾the◾goal◾of◾every◾groundskeeper,◾but◾the◾amount◾of◾time◾and◾money◾needed◾to◾ accomplish◾a◾perfect◾look◾is◾significant. Photo◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  189

highlighted earlier, refers to the way in which the individual particles in the soil fit together. In a good growing environment, particles are packed together loosely enough to create pore space for air and water. If air and water cannot pass through the soil, the roots will be deprived of two vital ingredients for growth and will die.

The faster the infiltration rate, the more quickly field surfaces will be ready to be played on, even in rainy weather (Mrock, 1999). On the other hand, a slow percolation rate can create the false impression of a dry field. Although the field surface may appear dry, the soil underneath the surface is still wet and in this softened state is more prone to compaction. A facility manager can determine the percolation rate by taking core samples every half-hour from various sections of the field once infiltration has occurred (Mrock, 1999).

Both infiltration and percolation rates can be improved through processes known as aeration and topdressing. Topdressing is the spreading of new soil over the existing soil to create permanent pore space for the soil over time. Topdressing is often used in combination with aeration and overseeding to generate an effective environment for new grass growth.

Aeration and Aerators Aeration is the process of opening channels in the soil so that air, water, and nutrients can flow through the soil and compaction is avoided (Landry, 1995). The areas that are subject to the most traffic (in front of soccer goals, between foot- ball hash marks) will suffer the greatest amount of compaction (Landry, 1995). A soil probe or stick or even a shovel can be used to test the compaction level. The more difficult it is to sink the device into the ground, the greater the compaction level. Compaction can be reduced through three aera- tion techniques.

◾ Core aerators are vertical-action aerators. Their piston-like action drives hollow metal tines into the ground. Upon entering the soil, the tine scoops out a hole, and as it exits the ground it deposits the soil core on the surface. The core can be broken up with field use or metal drag nets (Steinbach, 2001a). This is the most effective type of aerating but also the most time consuming.

◾ Circular or drum aerators are simply roll- ing drums with spikes. The spikes penetrate the

ground as the drum is rolled over the surface. This is a time-efficient method of aerating fields, but penetrating the soil this way can also cause damage. Unlike what happens with core aeration, nothing is removed from the ground, which makes circular aeration more common during playing seasons.

◾ Slicer or slicing aerators provide the least compaction relief but also create the least amount of surface disruption (Steinbach, 2001a). Slicers use triangular-shaped knives to cut thin slits into the ground while traveling at relatively high speeds.

Turfgrass Maintenance It is not enough to have good grass seed, perfect soil, and the proper blend of nutrients in the soil. A turf needs to be constantly maintained through such means as addition of chemical fertilizers, weed-killing treatments, and appropriate water- ing and mowing schedules. Mowing, fertilizing, and pest control account for the greatest amount of time and money spent on a lawn; other steps involved in turfgrass maintenance include the following:

◾ Leaf removal ◾ Edging ◾ Weed control (preemergent, postemergent) ◾ Core aeration ◾ Mechanical slit-seeding ◾ Lime (if necessary) for soil balance ◾ Dethatching dead grass (if necessary) (Lewis, 1999)

◾ Topdressing the field, which entails adding additional soil or sand to keep the surface level

Mowing Mowing is an important maintenance function that managers must perform to keep a field’s appearance and playability at its best. An over- zealous mowing schedule or a few short cuts can have devastating effects on the field. A neglected field can quickly overgrow and can suffer signifi- cantly from extreme growth when mowing is too infrequent.

Mowers Two different types of mowers are used on sport fields: reel mowers and rotary. Both types come in

190  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

the walk-behind, riding, and pull-behind variet- ies. A reel mower uses a rolling cylinder to scis- sor grass along a stationary bed knife (Steinbach, 2001a). The most popular form of reel mower today is the triplex. This is a riding mower that offsets three reels (two in front of the tractor and one underneath) so that the reels always reach the grass before the tractor’s wheels flatten it (Steinbach, 2001a). Reel mower blades should be sharpened at least twice a week, if not after every use.

Rotary mowers, the most common form of mower, are similar to home mowers. Rotary mowers are able to cut grass at much more vary- ing lengths than reel mowers (Steinbach, 2001a). They are also more time efficient as they can cut well while traveling at higher speeds, and the blades do not need to be sharpened as frequently.

Proper mower maintenance requires check- ing and maintaining all fluid levels (oil, hydro fluid, and water), filters, belts, and tire pressure. Another key maintenance issue is cleaning the equipment when moving from one field or facility to another. Turf diseases can be carried from one field to another if infected grass clippings are not washed off the mower (Trotter, 1996).

Cutting Heights Although cutting height varies from field to field depending on grass types and growing rates, a general cutting height for most fields can be deter- mined. It is vital that the grass not be cut too short, as this can severely reduce its life span. When the blade is cut short, the plant tries to send stored food to the blade to regenerate growth. Once it has started feeding the leaf to create aboveground repair or growth, it tries to balance itself by feeding the roots to generate belowground growth (Trusty and Trusty, 1995). Since the effort is placed on strength- ening the roots, the blades do not grow as well.

The cool-season grasses—bluegrass, perennial ryegrass, and turf-type tall fescue—have a sug- gested cutting range of 2 to 3 inches (5-7.6 cm) (Trusty and Trusty, 1995). Warm-season grasses have much lower cutting heights. A normal height for a warm-season field is anywhere from 0.75 to 1.5 inches (1.9-3.8 cm). See "Maintenance Time- tables for Cool-Season and Warm-Season TurfCare".

Fertilizer Television commercials often show beautiful lawns with families at play. Sport fans also relish the opportunity to see a freshly cut outfield. These

images may make one wonder how such lawns are achieved. More lawns seem to have problems than not. For example, many fields in the South have fire-ant hills. The key to avoiding problems is proper care. Everything has to be analyzed, from the base soil composition to the fertilizer used to the techniques of cutting and chemically treating the grass.

Keys to a great lawn include applying the proper amount of fertilizer and mowing the lawn at the appropriate times with a sharp blade. Fertil- izer can improve grass longevity by 40% to 50% when proper amounts are applied nine times a year rather than five. One study showed that longevity also improved by 20% to 40% when the lawn was mowed twice a week rather than once a week (Martin, 2002). Such statistics highlight that there is a science to quality field maintenance.

Pests Most facility managers at one time or another face the problem of pests, although the species and the severity of the problem vary from region to region. The challenge is how to get rid of the pests while limiting the potential associated safety and political hazards (Dahlgren, 2000a). In some areas, insects such as white grubs and mole crickets get in under the soil and eat the grass’s root system. Even when pesticides are used, white grubs are usually responsible for destroying about 10% of fields each year (Dahlgren, 2000a). Turf managers have started to change the way they attack insects. Instead of using insecticides, managers are using pesticides that alter the insects’ metabolism. If there still is an insect problem, then birds and other animals that feed on these types of insects will be attracted to the fields. Then the issue is no longer how to get rid of the insects, but how to get rid of the insects and the animals (Dahlgren, 2000a). Because individual pest control problems can vary, there is no one best approach to elimi- nating insects.

Another nuisance is geese who leave their drop- pings all over a field and eat at the grass. Various chemicals can be used to help repel geese, but one of the most effective techniques is to use fake wolves and foxes made of cardboard or foam.

Field Preparation If a field is being used for football, soccer, lacrosse, or similar sports, it needs to be lined. Painting lines on the grass using stakes and strings as a

■  191

Maintenance Timetables for   Cool-Season and Warm-Season TurfCare

cool-season turf care

January/February If◾the◾ground◾is◾not◾frozen◾or◾covered◾with◾snow,◾this◾is◾the◾best◾time◾to◾repair◾drainage◾ problems◾and◾low◾spots◾by◾adding◾more◾soil◾underneath◾the◾turf.◾Equipment◾can◾also◾be◾ repaired◾for◾the◾upcoming◾season.

March/april

This◾is◾a◾good◾time◾to◾test◾the◾soil◾(test◾every◾1-3◾years).◾This◾is◾also◾the◾best◾time◾to◾aerify◾ fields.◾In◾the◾North◾it◾is◾also◾the◾ideal◾time◾to◾start◾applying◾weed◾grass◾controls.◾If◾seeding,◾the◾ preemergents◾should◾not◾be◾used◾until◾the◾seeds◾have◾germinated.◾At◾this◾point,◾the◾facility◾ manager◾should◾be◾ready◾to◾apply◾the◾first◾fertilizer◾treatment◾for◾the◾year.◾A◾fertilizer◾should◾ be◾selected◾that◾suits◾the◾field’s◾needs◾based◾on◾prior◾soil-testing◾results.

May/June

Identifying◾broadleaf◾weeds◾and◾selecting◾an◾effective◾herbicide◾are◾very◾important.◾Late◾ June◾is◾a◾good◾time◾to◾apply◾fertilizer◾with◾a◾higher◾potassium◾base.◾This◾helps◾get◾the◾grass◾ ready◾for◾the◾summer◾months.◾As◾the◾summer◾months◾approach,◾it◾is◾useful◾to◾irrigate◾the◾ fields◾frequently.◾Fields◾should◾once◾again◾be◾aerated.

July/august

If◾problems◾with◾diseases◾or◾insects◾occur◾it◾may◾be◾wise◾to◾use◾fungicides◾and◾insecticides◾ to◾help◾reduce◾the◾problems.◾If◾the◾field◾manager◾plans◾on◾using◾this◾time◾to◾overseed◾the◾ fields,◾he/she◾should◾be◾ready◾to◾apply◾more◾fertilizer◾at◾a◾rate◾of◾1/2◾lb◾(0.2◾kg)◾of◾nitrogen◾ per◾1,000◾ft2◾(93◾m2).

september If◾financially◾feasible,◾another◾dose◾of◾fertilizer◾allows◾the◾field◾to◾continue◾growing◾and◾ recover◾from◾the◾excessive◾usage.◾

October In◾some◾areas◾there◾may◾be◾a◾need◾for◾more◾broadleaf◾weed◾controls◾as◾winter◾annuals◾ start◾to◾ger◾minate.

november/ December

If◾the◾facility◾manager◾notices◾damage◾to◾the◾field◾at◾this◾time,◾it◾should◾be◾fixed◾immediately.

Warm-season turf care

January During◾this◾time◾fields◾can◾be◾dethatched,◾and◾drainage◾systems◾can◾be◾repaired.◾The◾soil◾ should◾be◾tested◾and◾fertilizer◾applied◾to◾any◾areas◾that◾will◾be◾overseeded.

February/March This◾is◾a◾period◾when◾turfgrasses◾begin◾to◾grow◾again,◾so◾it◾is◾important◾to◾fertilize◾the◾field◾ with◾a◾balanced◾fertilizer◾(25-3-10).◾Insecticides◾should◾be◾applied◾to◾fields◾in◾the◾South.◾ Once◾the◾turf◾is◾actively◾growing,◾it◾is◾time◾to◾aerify◾again.

april/May Fertilizer◾and◾weed◾control◾need◾to◾be◾reapplied.

June-august These◾months◾tend◾to◾require◾applying◾nitrogen◾at◾1◾lb◾(0.4◾kg)◾per◾1,000◾ft2.

september/October Reduce◾the◾amount◾of◾fertilizer◾to◾1/2◾lb◾(0.2◾kg)◾per◾1,000◾ft2◾while◾increasing◾the◾amount◾of◾ potassium◾in◾the◾applications.

november/December Fertilization◾and◾aerification◾are◾not◾recommended◾for◾turfgrass◾that◾is◾dormant.

From◾Horman◾1993.

192  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

guide for the roller is usually the best method. The following are some tips for painting sidelines or logos:

◾ Cut the area of the grass that will be painted a little lower than the other grass sections. Thus, if the regular playing length is 2.5 to 3 inches (6.4-7.6 cm), the area that will be painted should be mowed to 1 to 1.25 inches (2.5-3 cm) high for best appearance.

◾ The first field painting each year should be done slowly with diluted paint. The same line should be painted from the opposite direction with a less diluted paint mixture.

◾ Subsequent paintings can be accomplished on one sweep with a two-head sprayer.

◾ When painting multiple colors, it is best to paint the area white first, let it dry, and then paint other colors on top, as the white will serve as a good base.

◾ These steps do not cover coloring dirt areas such as the batter’s box or the first or third base line, which is accomplished with a dry line marker using a white powder in a 2- or 4-inch (5 or 10 cm) band (Pioneer Athletics, 1998).

Other field preparation issues include weed- ing and spraying. Weeding is hard to undertake by hand but may be necessary if the field is to look its best. The process is more difficult when the weeds are intertwined with the grass. Some facilities utilize weed and feed granules that fer- tilize the grass and at the same time kill weeds. Spraying can be a good alternative if the proper chemicals are used.

A facility manager or employee without proper licensure cannot undertake the spraying of certain chemicals. For example, laws dictate what chemi- cals can be sprayed if certain trees are located even a mile (1.6 km) away from the field. Other rules indicate whether spraying can occur on a given day based on the weather conditions. For exam- ple, spraying must be postponed if it is raining or windy. Because of complex laws relating to when certain chemicals can be sprayed and where, some facilities outsource the chemical spraying and treatment to professional contractors.

Field preparation can also entail such activities as snow removal. How will snow be removed, and where will it be moved? How can snow be moved without damaging the turf? Will the vehicle used

to move the snow damage the field? What will happen to the painted portion of the field, and can paint be applied in the wintertime? A facil- ity manager needs to prepare for snow removal contingencies, including snowstorms, well before the weather changes; in fact, the best approach focuses on preparation. Having a snowblower does little good if there is no gas or electricity to operate it. Care should be taken not to remove snow too early, which may require additional rounds of snow removal when accumulations increase. However, failing to remove a minimal amount of accumulation can possibly lead to statutory violations or legal liability.

Additional Outdoor Concerns Grass fields are only one of the concerns with outdoor facilities. Other field-related issues have to do with synthetic surfaces, infield dirt areas, baseball and softball fields, outdoor bleachers, and safety.

Synthetic Surfaces Synthetic surfaces can range from grasslike AstroTurf surfaces to rubber Mondo tracks, the premier track surface. Because of the amount of work initially needed to install a track, repairing is usually not a simple process. For patching small tears in a latex surface, a facility manager can get a patch kit of rubber granules and glue from the manufacturer and trowel it into place (Cohen, 2000). Most other repairs, including those for dif- ferent surfaces, should be left to a professional or the manufacturer.

Full synthetic surfaces are being used at all levels of competition (Popke, 2000). The original AstroTurf fields were easy to install and were ver- satile. The synthetic fields could be installed over concrete and were easy to roll out and put away. The first synthetic surface was installed at the Houston Astrodome when the grass was not able to grow. The original design was modified over the years, but several major concerns remained, including loose seams, turf toe injuries, turf burn injuries, and the hard playing surface because of the hard undersurface.

Over the years, additional systems have been developed to address some of these concerns. Brands include AstroTurf by GeneralSports Venue, SofSport by Hummer, and FieldTurf by FieldTurf Tarkett. The oldest synthetic turf in the

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  193

world, AstroTurf is a combination of rubber and nylon fibers mixed with longer polyolefin strands to help reduce compaction and increase drainage and resiliency. SofSport is a sand- and rubber- filled system that is installed over a 10-millime- ter (0.39 in.) rubber pad for added support and durability. It houses more synthetic strands than other synthetic surfaces (Popke, 2000). FieldTurf’s design is similar to that of SofSport but without the rubber padding on the bottom. Regardless of the surface used, the key to a surface is actually what is underneath. Most fields need a layer of gravel under the field to assist with drainage. The gravel’s density and compaction need to meet pre- established standards for drainage and strength.

With any new technology there can be prob- lems. In 2008 significant controversy arose around artificial turf fields. Several studies seemed to indicate that some artificial fields posed a safety hazard because of the amount of lead in the prod- uct, the chemicals released into the water system by these fields, and the chemicals released from the rubber fill in the hot sun. Although there are arguments on both sides, and more studies need to be undertaken, several fields have been disman- tled, and everyone is looking more closely at the possible risks associated with synthetic surfaces.

Infield Dirt Dirt playing areas need as much care as fields do. Baseball players do not want a bumpy infield, as it can cause a bad hop, irregular bounces, and a hazard for those sliding into bases. To minimize these problems, numerous techniques are used to make sure the infield is in proper shape (see "Primary Rules for Infield Care"). The starting point is analyzing the material that composes the infield. Infields can include lava rock, agricultural lime, Stabilizer Pro Red, stone dust, crushed brick, Turface blends, pumice, heavy clay, heavy sand, native soils, and infield blends (Perry, 2002a).

Whatever material is used for the infield, the surface will become hard over time, and different techniques need to be used to make the ground playable. This is especially true if there is too much clay in the field; with only a small amount of clay, the ground is easier to work with. Hardened clay can be as tough as rock when dried in the sun for an extended period. The typical technique used to make surfaces playable includes scoring and dragging. Scoring entails various techniques to break up the ground. Heavy equipment or tools

with nails or claws are often used to penetrate the field 3 to 6 inches (7.6-15 cm). The more common technique is to use smaller equipment that turns over only the top 1 or 2 inches (2.5-5 cm) (“scarify- ing”). Dragging involves using screens, rakes, or other devices to smooth the field. The techniques need to be frequently changed so that there is no rippling or any washboard effect from constant dragging in the same direction (Steinbach, 2002). Raking the buildup by the baseline back into the infield can also eliminate lips that can cause bad hops. After dragging the dirt, the field groomer should apply light moisture to the dirt to help keep dust down (Steinbach, 2002).

Baseball and Softball Fields Baseball and softball fields provide some of the greatest challenges to field managers because of the multiple types of surfaces. Certain areas take more of a beating during games and require extensive attention on an almost daily basis. As with most fields, a regular routine should include daily as well as pre- and postgame maintenance.

The pitcher’s mound and batting boxes are the most seriously abused part of any baseball or softball field. Every play that occurs in the game is initiated from these locations. In addition, the motions and techniques that pitchers and batters use to throw and bat the ball are constantly dig- ging up these areas. The first step in protecting the pitcher’s safety is to construct a quality mound. The mound can be constructed in many ways, with new materials including mound blocks, packing clay, poly-blend soils, two-tiered pitching rubbers, and subsurface pads.

Primary Rules for Infield Care

◾◾ Water◾the◾infield◾before◾working◾the◾dirt,◾as◾ the◾water◾loosens◾the◾surface.

◾◾ The◾top◾1◾to◾1.5◾inches◾(2.5-3.8◾cm)◾of◾the◾ infield◾should◾be◾scarified◾(broken◾apart).

◾◾ The◾ground◾should◾be◾dragged,◾broomed,◾ and◾ leveled◾ back◾ to◾ a◾ clod-free,◾ smooth◾ surface.

◾◾ Rewater◾the◾field◾to◾prevent◾wind-blown◾dirt◾ or◾erosion◾damage.

From◾Perry◾2002a.

194  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

A regulation-size pitching mound in baseball is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter, with the rubber set 10 feet 6 inches (3.2 m) from the home plate side of the circle. Using a leveling device to determine the height, the top of the pitching mound should be 10 inches (25 cm) above the height of home plate (Perry, 1997). The pitching mound itself should be set 60 feet 6 inches (18.4 m) from the apex of home plate and should sit near the front of a level area that is 5 feet (1.5 m) by 34 inches (86 cm). From 6 inches (15 cm) in front of the rubber, the mound should slope toward home plate at a rate of 1 inch (2.5 cm) per foot. The underbelly of the mound should be made from hard-packed clay blocks to a height of 4 inches (10 cm) and then filled in with a mixture of soils that will help keep the clay moisture free (Perry, 1997). In contrast to baseball, the mound in softball is level, but the same basic underbelly should be developed.

The two areas that need the most attention around the plate are the right-handed batter’s box and the catcher’s area. Using clay blocks or a subsurface pad about 1 to 1.5 inches (2.5-3.8 cm) below the surface will help solidify the area. This lessens the amount of damage that occurs during a game. To prevent damage, artificial covering pads are now being used during pregame batting practice (Perry, 1997). Pads or mats help eliminate some of the damage done to the batter’s box on a daily basis. When damage occurs, the fix is simply a matter of removing the covering dirt down to the clay blocks and repacking the area to the desired shape.

The issues regarding baselines and base paths and areas around the bases are similar. A broom or hose can help move infield dirt to prevent high lips. The dirt about 10 feet (3 m) around the base should be softened to help cushion the blow a player sustains when sliding into the base (Perry, 1997).

Outdoor Bleachers The Consumer Product Safety Commission has issued guidelines on how to retrofit bleachers to increase spectator safety (LaRue, 2002). The standards were developed after it was reported that 19,000 people visit emergency rooms every year from bleacher- or grandstand-related injuries. Injuries occur when people slip or trip, fall off bleachers, or fall between boards. The primary concerns with bleachers are gaps between seat boards and footboards, guardrails that are not high enough, bleachers that are structurally unsafe, and aisles that are affected by weather conditions (LaRue, 2002).

Many of the same techniques used for maintain- ing indoor bleachers can be utilized for outdoor structures. The most important step is to set up a schedule of regular inspections. The Consumer Product Safety Commission guidelines suggest conducting inspections no fewer than four times per year, but if the bleachers are in constant use it may be wise to conduct more frequent inspections (LaRue, 2002). All manufacturers’ guidelines for inspections need to be followed. Inspections also need to be documented (with date and signature) for the maintenance program as well as to help with litigation. If problems are found, the bleach- ers should be closed until a structural engineer or construction professional has remedied the problems (LaRue, 2002).

Safety Concerns Outdoor facilities can be potential hazards, espe- cially when children are involved. Playgrounds are notorious for hazards such as inadequate mat- ting or fall protection, pinch points, and choking hazards. In a 1992 study, 31% of inspected play- grounds had surfaces made of cement, packed dirt, or asphalt. In 2002 the number was down to 4.5% (Popke, 2003). Some playgrounds have equipment too high off the ground, swinging hazards, and even wood-based products with pos- sible carcinogens. Thus, playgrounds need to be vigilantly analyzed and maintained to ensure that they do not represent a threat to users. Between 1990 and 2000, more than 147 playground-related deaths were reported. The enhanced safety from utilizing appropriate surfaces can reduce injuries, but the surface is not the only concern. Addition- ally, patrons need to be educated. Thus, there has been significant effort to aggressively educate playground managers, parents, and children on how to be safer. Similar aggressive educational campaigns need to be undertaken for all other outdoor areas to prevent problems and injuries.

Another child-based concern is attractive nuisance—the concept of legal liability for a part of the facility that an operator knew or should have known was dangerous and that an operator knew or should have known a child would want to go to. An outdoor facility that has a pond, for example, has an attractive nuisance. Facility man- agers should know that children may want to play around a pond and can fall in and drown. Thus, any facility with a pond must properly secure it so that children cannot enter the area without authorization.

Facility◾Operations◾ ■  195

Summary Indoor◾sport◾facilities◾present◾various◾unique◾concerns◾typically◾not◾found◾in◾facilities◾ such◾as◾office◾buildings.◾A◾sport◾facility◾manager◾must◾deal◾with◾equipment◾that◾ can◾ cause◾ significant◾ injury,◾ such◾ as◾ weights◾ that◾ could◾ fall◾ on◾ a◾ patron’s◾ foot.◾ A◾ general◾ facility◾ has◾ moving◾ parts◾ such◾ as◾ photocopiers,◾ fax◾ machines,◾ and◾ people◾movers,◾but◾sport◾facility◾equipment◾can◾be◾much◾more◾dangerous,◾and◾ appropriate◾ precautions◾ need◾ to◾ be◾ taken.◾ Sport◾ facility◾ components◾ such◾ as◾ floors◾and◾bleachers◾need◾to◾be◾maintained◾more◾frequently◾than◾office◾flooring◾ and◾seating◾areas.

Although◾a◾traditional◾office◾building◾probably◾has◾landscaping,◾the◾scope◾of◾ the◾environment◾and◾the◾focus◾on◾grass◾turf◾with◾sport◾facilities◾make◾turf◾planting◾ and◾maintenance◾one◾of◾the◾top◾priorities◾for◾a◾sport◾facility◾manager.◾Planting◾the◾

Facility Focus

In 1897 the city of Pasadena, California, purchased 10 acres of land. In 1921 the city decided to build a stadium with the south end left open. This gave the structure a horseshoe-like shape. The stadium was designed to fit as many people as possible as close to the action as pos- sible. When first built, it sat 57,000 people. The stadium was given the name Rose Bowl by a police officer named Harlan W. Hall. The Rose Bowl was officially dedicated on January 1, 1923. The south end of the stadium was closed in 1929, giving the structure its now famous sight line–enhancing elliptical shape. The closing of the south end brought the seating capacity up to 76,000 people (“History,” 2004b).

Today the seating capacity of the Rose Bowl is 92,542 people. The stadium has approximately 77 rows of seats. It measures 880 feet (268 m) from the north to south rims and 695 feet (212 m) from the east to west rims. The circumference of the rim is 2,430 feet (741 m), while the circumference inside at field level is approximately 1,350 feet (411 m). The turfed area inside the bowl measures 79,156 square feet (7,354 sq m). The fence around the Rose Bowl is 1 mile (1.6 km) in circumference. The dimen- sions of the playing field for football are 53 yards (48 m) by 100 yards (91 m) and for soccer are 70 yards (64 m) by 120 yards (110 m). The stadium itself is approximately 830 feet (253 m) above sea level. The Rose Bowl press box is the highest point of the stadium at 100 feet (30.5 m) above ground level. The first PSLs (personal seat licenses) ever sold were sold to build the Rose Bowl. A total of 210 individuals and corporations purchased what were then referred to as “seat subscriptions” to finance the $272,198 building cost of the stadium (“General Information,” 2004).

The Rose Bowl is a longtime partner of the Toro Company, an internationally known lawn care company that produces specialty equipment for turf care. The turf professionals at the stadium have used Toro’s mowing equipment, utility vehicles, turf cultivation solutions, spray- ing equipment, and irrigation control systems for both the playing field and the exterior landscaping and vegetation.

“Our expectations here are higher,” said Will Schnell, the Rose Bowl’s turf superintendent. “We want the best surface in the country, and we want it perfect every time. Even if we’re not on national TV that day, if it’s just a Little League game, you always want the surface to be perfect. Toro’s turf maintenance equipment and irrigation system meet our high standards.” (Toro, 2004).

Facility Focus: rose Bowl

Kevin◾Reece/Icon◾SMI

196  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

right◾ seeds,◾ having◾ the◾ right◾ soil,◾ and◾ mowing◾ at◾ the◾ appropriate◾ times◾ are◾ only◾ part◾of◾the◾process◾of◾maintaining◾a◾well-manicured◾field.◾Facility◾managers◾must◾ determine◾the◾amount◾of◾time◾and◾money◾they◾want◾to◾spend◾to◾make◾their◾fields◾ look◾the◾best◾they◾can.◾The◾key◾is◾to◾develop◾a◾strategy◾and◾then◾to◾follow◾it.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾steps◾can◾be◾taken◾to◾make◾sure◾a◾field◾is◾in◾the◾best◾condition◾before◾

an◾event?

  2.  What◾steps◾can◾be◾taken◾to◾make◾sure◾a◾gym◾or◾grandstands◾are◾in◾the◾best◾ condition◾before◾an◾event?

  3.  What◾would◾be◾the◾best◾grass◾type◾to◾plant◾in◾your◾region?   4.  Walk◾through◾a◾gym◾or◾physical◾education◾facility◾on◾your◾campus◾and◾

examine◾what◾could◾have◾been◾built◾or◾installed◾better◾or◾what◾changes◾you◾ might◾recommend◾to◾make◾the◾facility◾better.

  5.  Consider◾the◾concerns◾raised◾about◾artificial◾turf◾and◾possible◾pollution◾and◾ lead◾contamination.◾Would◾you◾recommend◾using◾such◾a◾field?◾Why◾or◾why◾ not?

9

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Describe◾various◾techniques◾used◾to◾present◾a◾safe,◾clean,◾and◾ functional◾facility.

◾◾ Develop◾a◾maintenance◾plan◾for◾a◾facility◾and◾its◾components.

◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾benchmarking◾affects◾a◾maintenance◾program.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾to◾conduct◾a◾maintenance◾audit.

◾◾ Design◾a◾maintenance◾department◾and◾strategies◾to◾keep◾a◾facility◾ clean.

◾◾ Know◾the◾basics◾of◾facility◾repair◾management.

Facility Maintenance

198  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Mike Sch-neider, and I am the director of campus recre- ation for the 57,000-square- foot (5,300 sq m) David A. Beckerman Recreation Center at the University of New Haven. Before my position at UNH, I was the facility manager of the 296,000-square-foot (27,500 sq m) Mizzou Student Rec-

reation Complex in Columbia, Missouri. The facili- ties I’ve managed have been new or newly renovated, so I consider myself experienced when planning and preparing maintenance plans using today’s industry standards. I’ve learned that people often lack appre- ciation for the unique maintenance needs of a sport and recreation facility. As an industry professional, it has been my job to communicate the considerations needed when designing a maintenance plan unique to a sport and recreation facility. Some of those con- siderations include the following:

◾ The overall use of the building and of each space (think of how different weight room use is compared with a gym floor)

◾ The facility use times (recreation centers are typically open much longer periods than most buildings)

◾ The unique differences in flooring throughout a sport facility

◾ The impact cleaning and maintenance can have on the performance of sport spaces

◾ Special events and facility rentals that call for additional cleaning and maintenance

When the facility appears to be well maintained with minimal impact to the user, you know you’ve done a good job creating a plan. Critical components include daily cleaning, monthly and annual preven- tive maintenance, and a comprehensive communi- cation plan assuring that problems are addressed in a timely manner. One of the keys to ensuring these items is maintaining proper documentation. To date,

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the Beckerman Center is the only building on campus in which custodians are required to turn in a daily checklist of what has been performed. Of even greater importance is documentation during the warranty phase of a new facility. One example of that impor- tance is a roof leak discovered late into the standard one-year construction warranty. After several failed attempts were made to repair the leak, the warranty was soon void. Fortunately, detailed e-mails and punch-list documentation showed that the leak (and therefore any associated damage) was clearly discov- ered during the warranty phase. As a result, all costs to repair the leak and the associated damages were covered by the building contractor even though the repairs were made well beyond the warranty phase.

There are many guidelines and standards that can and should be used when designing and implement- ing a maintenance plan. Keep in mind that every facility is unique, and being proactive and creative are important traits for any facility manager. While being mindful of the unique challenges each facility holds, I have found the following items to be critical before the implementation of any plan:

◾ Always develop performance factors that are agreed on by those charged with the actual cleaning and maintenance of the building. Without agreed-on standards, you will have no success in holding people accountable.

◾ Determine early on how communication will take place. Will you use e-mail, checklists, work orders? (Keep in mind how critical documenta- tion is.)

◾ Be proactive in your budgeting approach. Unforeseen repairs are par for the course, and building appropriate contingencies in the maintenance and repair (M&R) budget is a necessary evil.

Facility maintenance is tedious, boring, unglam- orous, and sometimes just plain annoying. For those same reasons it is often overlooked and underap- preciated. Remember that by doing the “dirty work” early and preparing effectively, you will save time, money, and most likely more than your fair share of headaches.

Facility◾Maintenance◾ ■  199

Think for a moment about a house. Once a house is built and all the amenities are in place, does a family live in the house forever with- out fixing or changing it? Of course the answer is no. They will constantly examine the house and work to make it their home. They may want to redo a bathroom after a couple years, add a deck, or convert a bedroom to an office. A home owner must purchase supplies such as light bulbs, toilet paper, and cleaning agents on a regular basis and constantly maintain the property. The exterior needs to be cleaned, plants need to be pruned, lawns need to be mowed, salt needs to be added to water softeners, and air filter screens need to be replaced or cleaned. In the living spaces, dishes need to be washed, toilets need to be plunged, walls need to be repainted, and other maintenance and repair concerns need to be addressed.

A large sport facility must also be constantly maintained and repaired. Some stadiums and arenas have hundreds of restroom stalls. Constant work is needed to keep locks operating, seats attached, paper seat-cover dispensers stocked, and toilet paper dispensers stocked and operating; it is an ongoing task to maintain sufficient water flow, keep toilets unclogged, and even remove graffiti. The maintenance issues can become even more complex in concession preparation areas and in boiler and chilling mechanical areas.

Maintenance is the key to operating a safe and clean facility. Operation and maintenance activi- ties normally account for 5% to 15% of a facility’s total expenditure (Applied Management Engineer- ing, 1991). However, the human resource time and effort are hard to calculate. The repair center at a major stadium can receive several hundred phone calls during a game for everything from spills to broken door handles. With everything going on in a facility, maintenance can often be pushed aside. The result can be an ugly and unsafe facility. The cost is even greater when routine maintenance is ignored and what could have been a minor repair becomes a major replacement costing thousands of dollars. Think about never changing the trans- mission fluid in a car. Although it might take 20 minutes and $40 to complete the fluid change, failure to change and monitor the fluid could lead to a $2,000 transmission replacement bill.

The hallmark of any maintenance effort is implementation of a comprehensive maintenance and repair (M&R) plan. Such a plan typically starts with an understanding of what needs to

be maintained or repaired, and this can start with an audit. An audit can identify the big- gest concerns and the areas needing the greatest amount of time or money. An audit might lead to the conclusion that a maintenance department should be developed. Of course, maintenance is not always the answer, since sometimes items need to be repaired or replaced. But whether the need is for maintenance or repair, any effort must be tracked through the process of benchmarking, which helps determine if the M&R program is working correctly. Special care needs to be taken regarding certain sport-specific issues such as maintaining gym floors, as discussed in chapter 8. Lastly, the push for environmentally friendly buildings has put pressure on facility managers to maintain their facilities in a more responsible manner.

Maintenance and Repair Program How critical is it to maintain facilities? The answer can be seen when the existing national college infrastructure is examined. Through 2007, the estimated bill to repair the problems on American campuses was close to $40 billion. That does not include the estimated $140 billion to fix public elementary and high schools (Porter, 2007). This represents the largest infrastructure repair bill in the nation. Some repairs are minor, while other facilities might need to be torn down because of neglect. One sport-related example entails the University of Pittsburgh, which had to replace the roof on the $119 million Petersen Events Center only three years after the facility was built (Schackner, 2005). The university sued the architect (and the roof builder), claiming the roof had more than 200 holes, was missing roof fasteners, and caused HVAC problems. The archi- tect countered that the university made numerous changes to the design and drove up the construc- tion cost (Schackner, 2005). No matter who is to blame, a roof should last for 15 to 20 years through proper maintenance and should never last only a few years without a reason. A leaky roof is just one of many facility systems that need constant vigilance to prevent a facility from falling apart.

Although some facilities attempt to limit spend- ing on maintenance, the financial impact of such a decision can be disastrous. Some expenses can be minimized, but other expenses that could have been reduced through normal maintenance

200  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

can in fact increase significantly without regular maintenance. Maintaining a home heating, venti- lation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system may cost $500 a year, but failing to maintain it and then having to replace it earlier than would otherwise be necessary could cost thousands of dollars. In a public assembly facility, the replacement cost could be in the millions of dollars.

Underfunding maintenance can also lead to building code violations, structural failure, safety and health failures, lower productivity, excessive repair costs, service failures, premature loss, higher absenteeism, and other social costs (e.g., poor morale, increased pollution, and harm to employee recruitment and retention efforts) (Cotts and Lee, 1992). Thus, proper maintenance department funding can produce both tangible and intangible benefits for a facility.

The specific keys to an effective M&R system are daily housekeeping, prompt response to needed repairs, installation and execution of a maintenance schedule to prevent premature failures, and completion of major repairs based on the lowest life-cycle costs. Other components include identifying improvement projects, lower- ing energy usage and costs, identifying ways to reduce operating costs, performing accurate cost estimates for future growth, accurately tracking maintenance work costs, properly scheduling necessary work, maintaining historical data, and monitoring the progress of all M&R efforts (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

An effective M&R system entails planning and programming, budgeting, staffing, supervising, and evaluating. This section discusses the components of an M&R system. The steps in a maintenance and repair program are outlined on page 201.

Planning and Programming In planning and programming, a facility examines basic data, plans, existing policies, procedures, and standards to establish maintenance poli- cies. This phase examines what equipment and systems currently exist and how to keep the vari- ous elements operating effectively. The facility management team analyzes the work that will be performed and the benchmarking standards or other criteria it wishes to meet. If a restroom stall can be cleaned in 10 minutes, then a goal might be for a janitor to clean at least five restroom stalls in an hour. Thus, goal setting is a major component within this phase.

Besides examining current equipment and facility needs, this phase examines future needs. Part of the planning process also entails track- ing industry developments to determine if more efficient equipment is available. For example, if a refrigerator is working fine but costs $2,000 a year just for electrical usage, the planning process may involve exploring more cost-effective machines. Although the evaluation phase deals with whether goals can be reached, the maintenance staff needs to know if there are more cost-effective solutions. If $2,000 per year is a reasonable cost and newer machines do not save money, then the equipment should not be replaced.

The planning process classifies work into six basic scheduling categories (Cotts and Lee, 1992):

◾ Inspection and repairs only when absolutely necessary

◾ Cyclical repairs (e.g., replacing the roof every 20 years)

◾ Preventive maintenance, which is maintain- ing the equipment or facility according to preestablished standards (e.g., oiling motors every 100 hours of use); preventive mainte- nance is referred to by some as routine main- tenance if the equipment is regularly main- tained on a set calendar to prevent problems

◾ Breakdown maintenance (e.g., when a light bulb burns out or a machine stops running)

◾ Repair projects, ranging from replacing a broken window to making major repairs

◾ General housekeeping and janitorial services

Preventive maintenance is the prebreakdown work performed on a facility’s equipment and systems to eliminate problems, malfunctions, or breakdowns or to keep failures within prede- termined limits (Lewis, 1999). Thus, preventive maintenance is undertaken after a cost–benefit analysis has shown that more money will be saved through prevention than through replacement of failed systems or equipment. For example, water needs to be moved through the plumbing system to make sure pipes do not become corroded or scaled (a buildup of minerals such as calcium carbonate that slows water movement in pipes and reduces water pressure). Thus, pipes need to be flushed and regularly cleared.

Routine maintenance refers to the day-to-day work required to make sure a facility stays open. For example, an employee must check that toilet

■  201

Steps in a Maintenance and Repair Program

Planning and Programming Taking◾an◾inventory◾of◾the◾facility

Categorizing◾work◾to◾be◾done

Developing◾appropriate◾standards

Analyzing◾the◾facility◾deficiencies

Reviewing◾owner◾manuals◾and◾warranties

Prioritizing◾work◾by◾activity,◾class,◾or◾deficiencies

Developing◾short-◾and◾long-term◾plans

Budgeting Setting◾the◾tone◾for◾all◾M&R◾work◾developed◾from◾the◾work◾plan

Analyzing◾the◾impact◾of◾the◾capital◾budget◾on◾M&R

Developing◾a◾comparison◾with◾prior◾budgets

Developing◾an◾impact◾analysis◾if◾funds◾are◾cut

Identifying◾and◾eliminating◾ways◾money◾is◾overspent◾on◾M&R

Organizing◾all◾materials◾and◾inventory◾to◾save◾money

Allocating◾budgeted◾funds◾to◾resolve◾problems

Managing◾contracting◾strategies

Staffing Developing◾an◾organizational◾model◾of◾the◾M&R◾department

Creating◾clear◾lines◾of◾responsibility◾and◾authority

Hiring◾employees◾with◾technical◾competencies

Training◾workers◾to◾accomplish◾tasks◾and◾improve◾skills

Managing◾both◾in-house◾and◾outsourced◾workers

Possibly◾outsourcing◾for◾specialized◾or◾less◾expensive◾workers

Supervising Providing◾leadership◾and◾monitoring◾workers

Managing◾the◾work◾flow

Providing◾rapid◾responses◾to◾crises

Analyzing◾the◾condition◾of◾repaired◾equipment

Controlling◾budgets◾and◾financing

Managing◾the◾facility◾information◾system◾(FIS)

Ensuring◾accountability

Ensuring◾that◾proper◾documentation◾is◾kept◾and◾managed

Utilizing◾a◾quality◾control◾plan

Administering◾a◾tenant◾relations◾program

Coordinating◾activities◾with◾potential◾unions

Evaluating Evaluating◾prerepair◾and◾postrepair◾condition◾for◾quality

Comparing◾results◾with◾historical◾data

Examining◾customer◾and◾tenant◾feedback

Evaluating◾employee◾performance◾against◾set◾standards From◾Cotts◾and◾Lee◾1992.

202  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

paper dispensers are not broken, that toilets are flushing well, and that faucets are not dripping. Fixtures may need to be checked before, during, and after each game to identify anything that is not working.

Major repairs are hard to classify, as a $10,000 repair might be considered minor at one facility and a $100 repair considered major at another. As a general rule, however, any significant project outside the normally budgeted M&R scope would probably be considered major.

Maintenance plans can be supplemented with additional procedures such as alterations and janitorial care, which do not necessarily main- tain the facility or equipment but enhance its operation. An alteration is a change that allows a facility, system, or piece of equipment to perform a function different from the one it was originally designed for. A restroom can be altered to include a changing table for a baby as a convenience to parents. An improvement increases the functional or productive performance of a facility, system, or piece of equipment (Lewis, 1999).

Janitorial care refers to cleanliness and to pro- viding a facility with needed cleaning agents and supplies. The industry term used to describe this function is housekeeping, which entails various activities from sweeping and mopping floors and cleaning restrooms to replacing toilet paper or removing trash. Housekeeping includes janitorial, ground maintenance, and operating services. Jani- torial services primarily refer to cleaning, dusting, waxing, and furnishing of expendable supplies.

Budgeting

In the budgeting phase, policies are examined, prioritized, and then submitted for budgetary approval. If there are insufficient funds, then all items that are delayed need to be prioritized so they can be completed at some later point. Ordinary, less costly alteration and construction projects are usually excluded. Managers utilize historical comparisons, benchmarking standards, past budgets, and other techniques to help estab- lish an M&R budget. The budget needs to be real- istic and needs to highlight the primary tasks that must be completed immediately. In one analysis of school repair needs in Florida, a school district had 7,100 backlogged safety repairs; 1,800 of the repairs had been on the list for more than three years, and 67 safety concerns had been on the list for more than a decade (“Repair Backlog,” 2003).

Either these projects were very low priority or were too expensive and beyond the scope of any budget developed over the 10 years.

Budgeting is the primary reason why mainte- nance programs and plans are often not imple- mented. However, if senior executives can be shown the return on investment (ROI) from effec- tive maintenance programs, they are likely to be more receptive to allocating necessary funds to support an M&R program. Another approach to proper budgeting is the life-cycle cost analysis. Through identifying the lifetime cost of acquir- ing, installing, maintaining, and repairing a given system or piece of equipment, an executive can determine the life-cycle costs. Once they are known, the executive can appropriately budget and set aside funds for future repairs. For example, an HVAC system might cost $20,000 to install, but the lifetime cost might be $30,000 when the annual repair, maintenance, and new filter costs for the next 10 years (if that is how long the system should last) are added together. To cover the additional $10,000 lifetime cost, the manager can budget $1,000 a year for repairs, maintenance, and filters.

Staffing

The M&R program should be overseen by a man- ager who will be in charge of all M&R activities, including tracking those activities to make sure that work is accomplished properly and in a timely manner. Staffing entails hiring and man- aging the right employees to perform the work required by the M&R program. One of the hurdles often encountered in this regard is unionized workforces. Conflict may arise if employees do not want to undertake any extra work not called for in the collective bargaining agreement.

The heart of staffing an M&R program is to have the right people doing the right job at the right time. This is much more difficult than it sounds. Although routine maintenance can be planned and is easy to organize with computer maintenance programs, the daily routine is often interrupted by emergencies. Thus, signifi- cant time is spent trying to organize workers to accomplish routine tasks as well as respond to emergencies.

One additional staffing option is outsourcing. Independent contractors and tradespeople can be hired to handle one-time issues such as unclog- ging a blocked sewer line, or a long-term com-

Facility◾Maintenance◾ ■  203

mitment can be made with a company to provide services when needed. For example, a long-term contract can be secured with a landscaping com- pany that plows the parking area whenever there is more than an inch (2.5 cm) of snow. The key to hiring the right independent contractors is to thoroughly educate them about the facility and its needs so they know the scope of work required, the quality of work expected, and the price to be paid for the work.

Supervision and Evaluation

In addition to appropriately budgeting and spend- ing the department resources, supervising the M&R program requires the manager to prioritize projects, execute the work plan, and analyze the facility’s general condition. The focus at this point is on the actual work. It is easy to schedule someone to work at a given spot or to perform a given task. It is much more difficult to make sure that the work is actually accomplished—and accomplished correctly. Supervision requires constant monitoring. Timing is also a major con- cern. Projects cannot be undertaken if they will conflict with ongoing events. Unless there is an emergency, repairs are not done on a basketball floor during a game. The repairs could be major, but it is preferable to attend to them before and after events. The goal is to minimize the need to shut down the facility or cancel an event. Two NFL games were cancelled in the 1990s because of exposed seams in the AstroTurf fields in Houston and Philadelphia.

Controlling is necessary in various contexts, from the budget to expenditures to crisis situ- ations. It may be, for example, that a project is budgeted for $20,000, but after some initial work, the contractor discovers the presence of a hidden problem such as dry rot that will double the cost. This type of situation is not unusual for those involved in facility repairs. In fact, most repair projects run over budget because it is often impossible to determine the true condition of a facility, system, or component without actually getting into it and examining it. This is one reason some contractors in the trade areas (e.g., electri- cal, plumbing, security) refuse to give a solid quote until they have examined a system after doing some initial work. Controlling can focus on choosing the right workers who will do the job at the least expensive rate while still provid- ing quality work.

Successful controlling can often produce a budgetary windfall, which can free some funds for repairs on the prioritized list. This can be accom- plished by close monitoring of time and expenses for various projects and tracking of activity to see how quickly the work can be done. For example, the time required to change a facility over from hockey to basketball can be tracked and the process modified to save time and money. After a number of changeovers and revisions, it might be possible to reduce the process from four to three hours; with 20 employees doing the job at night, this might save hundreds or even thousands of dollars.

Evaluation entails examining whether the M&R program has been successful. Work orders can be reviewed to determine the amount of time spent on various projects and where the greatest expenses occurred (Cotts and Lee, 1992). Another focus is evaluating the performance of employees. For example, a facility manager can plant trash in strategic places to see if the cleaning crew will find and remove it. If the cleaning crew is doing a cursory cleaning rather than a complete cleaning, corrective steps need to be taken. Through utiliz- ing a comprehensive M&R program, a facility can hopefully provide a clean and safe facility at the most reasonable cost.

Maintenance Audits Maintenance audits provide the framework and discipline to systematically review, analyze, and recommend performance-related improvements for facility mechanisms (Applied Management Engineering, 1991). Audits help provide the work- ing plan that shows what areas need improve- ment, what corrective actions will rectify potential problems, and how to monitor the outcome of any given action.

As shown on page 204, a maintenance audit starts with establishing priorities. Then an audit schedule is developed. After the schedule is developed, the audit parameters are defined and organized. Either before or after this step, an audit team needs to be established. Some argue that an audit team should be developed at the very begin- ning of the process to make sure that all issues are covered. Others argue for establishing the audit team after upper management has defined what it wants from the audit process. This could save time in that the audit team will not reach decisions that are contrary to the directive established by upper management.

204  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

maintenance must be taken. Thereafter a follow- up report is made to reexamine the process and determine what additional steps may be required.

One of the key elements within any mainte- nance auditing system is measuring effectiveness. Effectiveness can be measured through produc- tivity (how productive is time spent on given projects?), performance (do the employees work well?), work quality (is the work satisfactory?), and priority (is time being spent on the right proj- ects?) (Applied Management Engineering, 1991). Key elements in determining how efficiently and effectively a program is operating are outlined on page 205.

After a thorough facility audit, the maintenance department will need to handle all the various concerns identified in the audit. One person can take care of a small building, but a larger facil- ity needs a large staff of trained tradespeople in such disciplines as plumbing, electricity, and carpentry.

Maintenance Department Although not all facilities have a designated main- tenance department, all facilities have at least one person responsible for maintenance-related issues. Typically a maintenance department is responsible for the following activities (Borsenik and Stutts, 1997):

◾ Performing preventive and routine (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and yearly) maintenance

◾ Ordering, processing, storing, and utilizing parts, inventory, and supplies

◾ Maintaining appropriate records on every- thing from energy usage to requested and completed repairs

◾ Monitoring energy management programs ◾ Performing minor restorative work such as light painting or repairs

◾ Assisting in purchasing large capital assets for facilities or making other major decisions

These categories could be supplemented by many additional activities. For example, the maintenance department at an ice rink may be responsible for securing goals, monitoring and repairing the ice surface, fixing dasher boards and replacing glass, and other specific activities associated with the ice-cooling system. Smaller

Audit Process

  1.  Establish◾ priorities.◾ Do◾ certain◾ systems◾ need◾ to◾ be◾ analyzed◾ first?◾ Senior◾ management◾ may◾establish◾large◾priorities◾for◾a◾future◾audit◾ review◾team.

  2.  Establish◾ an◾ audit◾ schedule.◾ A◾ time◾ frame◾ has◾to◾be◾established◾to◾determine◾whether◾ maintenance◾will◾be◾examined◾on◾an◾annual,◾ monthly,◾or◾other◾basis,◾as◾this◾time◾frame◾dic- tates◾what◾resources◾are◾needed◾and◾when.

  3.  Organize◾ and◾ define◾ the◾ audit.◾ Through◾ acquiring◾and◾organizing◾the◾required◾data,◾ the◾ various◾ affected◾ units◾ or◾ managers◾ will◾ understand◾ the◾ audit’s◾ scope,◾ and◾ a◾ pro- posed◾statement◾of◾scope◾can◾be◾developed.

  4.  Select◾ an◾ audit◾ team.◾ Those◾ who◾ will◾ be◾ affected◾by◾the◾process◾need◾to◾have◾input◾ into◾and◾involvement◾in◾the◾process.

  5.  Perform◾ the◾ audit.◾ Once◾ the◾ scope,◾ param- eters,◾and◾team◾are◾defined,◾the◾audit◾plan◾is◾ developed◾with◾practicality◾in◾mind◾to◾ensure◾ that◾it◾can◾be◾implemented.

  6.  Prepare◾ the◾ report.◾ Once◾ the◾ audit◾ is◾ com- pleted,◾a◾detailed◾report◾highlights◾the◾find- ings.

  7.  Take◾action.◾Management◾needs◾to◾critically◾ analyze◾ the◾ audit◾ report◾ and◾ institute◾ plans◾ and◾ procedures◾ to◾ implement◾ the◾ findings.◾ One◾of◾the◾critical◾points◾is◾for◾management◾ to◾ allocate◾ funds◾ to◾ help◾ accomplish◾ the◾ desired◾results.

  8.  Follow◾up.◾Has◾the◾process◾been◾successful?◾ Will◾the◾maintenance◾plan◾save◾money◾and◾ extend◾the◾useful◾life◾of◾facility◾assets?

From◾Kaiser◾and◾Applied◾Management◾Engineering◾1991.

The audit team sets some parameters but pri- marily performs the audit. The audit examines what occurred from a mainly objective point of view. Subjective issues such as how some- one changed light bulbs are not as important as whether all the broken bulbs were replaced in a timely manner. After the audit is completed, a formal report needs to be presented to upper man- agement. Upper management is then asked to take action. After the audit, actions such as corrective

Facility◾Maintenance◾ ■  205

facilities also need to utilize their maintenance departments differently, perhaps by utilizing these employees to work on construction, move management, janitorial functions, and administra- tive duties.

Facility Repair Management

Although the goal of maintenance is to keep systems and equipment running, repairs are inevitable. Repairs are immediate expenses nec- essary to make a system or piece of equipment operable, and they are done at the expense of previously scheduled maintenance. For example, a facility may have scheduled $10,000 to main- tain a roof, but if the roof leaks too much it may be necessary to make a repair costing $20,000 that was not previously budgeted. This process is completely different from what happens in a marketing department, which can create a budget at the start of the year and then adhere to it since marketing involves few true emergencies. A facil- ity maintenance department has to respond to emergencies daily. Since it is hard to determine when an emergency might occur, there is always a struggle to allocate money, time, personnel, and other resources.

Whatever the maintenance or repair, it involves a process, and that process must be managed. The process can be as simple as seeing a problem and fixing it or as complicated as having to go through a major bureaucratic exercise just to change a light bulb. A typical process for a repair project at a large facility, with the division in the facility responsible for the work indicated in parentheses, is outlined on page 206.

The list illustrates that making repairs is a pro- cess. Any process can run into trouble or bottle- necks. If someone is absent, will the work orders be dealt with, or will they stay on the person’s desk until she returns? As a process, the main- tenance program can be managed so that work is completed more promptly and inexpensively. The process can be streamlined if the form passes directly from one person to the relevant worker or can be completed online. These are both ways in which an existing process can be modified. It is often possible to streamline processes through comparing an existing program with other pro- grams by means of benchmarking and monitoring the repair process.

Key Elements of a  Maintenance Audit

  1.  Organization.◾ What◾ policies,◾ proce- dures,◾personnel,◾and◾organizational◾ structure◾ are◾ being◾ used◾ to◾ assist◾ in◾ implementing◾ the◾ maintenance◾ goals◾and◾objectives?

  2.  Workload◾identification.◾What◾equip- ment◾is◾available◾in◾the◾facility’s◾inven- tory,◾and◾what◾is◾the◾equipment’s◾gen- eral◾ condition?◾ What◾ maintenance◾ system◾is◾currently◾being◾utilized,◾how◾ are◾ work◾ requests◾ processed,◾ and◾ how◾ is◾ inventory◾ ordered?◾ Is◾ preven- tive◾ maintenance◾ undertaken,◾ and◾ how◾ is◾ routine◾ and◾ recurring◾ work◾ handled◾as◾well◾as◾all◾resulting◾docu- mentation?

  3.  Work◾ plan.◾ What◾ priority◾ is◾ given◾ to◾ which◾ projects?◾ For◾ example,◾ when◾ will◾alterations◾and◾improvements◾be◾ undertaken◾ compared◾ with◾ emer- gency◾ repairs◾ or◾ cyclical◾ activities?◾ Specific◾ policies◾ need◾ to◾ be◾ devel- oped◾ for◾ backlogged◾ work,◾ and◾ budgets◾ need◾ to◾ be◾ developed◾ for◾ all◾backlogged◾projects.

  4.  Work◾ accomplishment.◾ Have◾ all◾ the◾ necessary◾ supplies◾ and◾ parts◾ been◾ available◾ for◾ required◾ main- tenance◾ work?◾ Are◾ the◾ employees◾ properly◾ trained◾ and◾ equipped◾ to◾ perform◾ necessary◾ maintenance◾ or◾ repairs?◾ Are◾ employees◾ properly◾ supervised◾and◾provided◾with◾neces- sary◾resources◾such◾as◾transportation◾ vehicles◾to◾quickly◾respond◾and◾reach◾ their◾assigned◾locations?

  5.  Appraisal.◾Is◾a◾management◾informa- tion◾ system◾ (MIS)◾ in◾ place,◾ such◾ as◾ a◾computerized◾maintenance◾man- agement◾ system?◾Are◾ performance,◾ productivity,◾priority,◾and◾work◾quality◾ measured◾ and◾ analyzed?◾ Are◾ all◾ records◾for◾the◾facility◾and◾all◾equip- ment◾properly◾stored◾and◾analyzed?

From◾Kaiser◾and◾Applied◾Management◾Engineering◾1991.

206  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Benchmarking Maintenance can be a complicated issue for a facil- ity; benchmarking makes it simpler. Benchmark- ing is the process of comparing what one facility does to an industry standard. It measures per- formance of a facility’s systems and components against their expected optimal performance. It is in essence a baseline comparison. For example, industry data may show that a motor used under given conditions typically lasts 10 years with utilization of a particular maintenance plan. If a facility buys that motor, management could expect it to last 10 years if the facility adheres to the maintenance plan. Thus, industry standards and best practices are used to help facilities maximize the return on their system investments.

The key to benchmarking is a critical physical analysis and review of the facility with respect to architectural, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, fire protection, energy usage, telephone, data, security, structural, environmental, facility opera- tions, and related systems (Simons, 2002). There is a significant relationship between a facility’s operation and the facility’s physical condition. To make sure the facility is in good physical condi- tion, the operational plans need to be monitored to ensure that operations, policies, and preventive maintenance procedures are calibrated and work- ing together to maximize system effectiveness.

Several surveys track benchmarking standards for maintenance and operations. American School & University conducts an annual survey of schools and universities. The results highlight that the yearly median maintenance and operations cost per square foot of school space was $4.56, with $2.05 of that amount being dedicated to pay- roll and $1.52 spent on utilities (Agron, 2008). Broken down as a percentage, payroll consumed 43%, energy and utilities 34%, equipment and supplies 8%, and outside labor and other costs the remaining 15% (Agron, 2008). At the college level, an average custodial employee maintains 34,084 square feet (3,166 sq m), and an average maintenance employee maintains 69,873 square feet (6,491 sq m) (Agron, 2008). The median salary of a college custodian is $23,004, and the median college employed 15 employees in their custodial department (Agron, 2008). This and similar infor- mation can help a facility manager plan for the future and determine if his maintenance depart- ment is meeting or exceeding industry standards.

Monitoring Repairs Besides benchmarking, numerous facility moni- toring programs exist to optimize facility mainte- nance. As seen in the analysis performed by OR&L in chapter 3 (page 56), some companies focus on providing better maintenance and janitorial ser- vices by offering computer analysis of current pro- cedures. Thus, through benchmarking and using computers a facility manager can more efficiently and effectively manage a facility’s operations.

The systems used to manage maintenance and cleaning are referred to as computerized mainte- nance management systems (CMMS). These pro- grams are designed to streamline the maintenance system by processing critical information and providing solutions to help maintain systems and

Repair Process

  1.  Someone◾sees◾a◾problem◾and◾calls◾it◾in◾to◾the◾ repair◾department◾help◾desk.

  2.  Take◾the◾call.◾(help◾desk)   3.  Create◾work◾order.◾(help◾desk)   4.  Authorize◾work◾order.◾(management)   5.  Define◾scope.◾(planning)   6.  Obtain◾ necessary◾ documentation◾ such◾ as◾

warranties◾or◾blueprints.◾(planning)

  7.  Determine◾which◾trades,◾parts,◾and◾materials◾ are◾required.◾(planning)

  8.  Determine◾cost◾estimates.◾(planning)   9.  Obtain◾approval.◾(accounting)  10.  Schedule◾resources.◾(management)  11.  Purchase◾parts◾and◾hire◾preapproved◾labor.◾

(accounting)

 12.  Perform◾work.◾(maintenance)  13.  Complete◾ work◾ and◾ close◾ work◾ order.◾ (help◾

desk)

 14.  Close◾work◾order.◾(accounting)  15.  Update◾ all◾ files,◾ warranties,◾ and◾ blueprints.◾

(help◾desk◾and◾planning)

 16.  Conduct◾quality◾assessment.◾(management)  17.  Update◾benchmarking◾standards◾and◾mea-

surements.◾(management) From◾Noferi◾2003.

Facility◾Maintenance◾ ■  207

decrease life-cycle costs. They can produce work order printouts, maintenance histories, material inventories, and financial analyses; improve monitoring and inventory management systems; and track utility usage.

A CMMS catalogs all the assets within a facility and their maintenance or monitoring schedules. Utilizing this type of system, facility operations and maintenance staff know when a machine has reached 1,000 hours of service and when it may need to be serviced according to manufacturer specifications. Following these strict guidelines will make the piece of equipment or the facility itself last longer and will decrease the need for major repairs. Guidelines for maintaining automo- biles are a familiar example. Cars purchased today come with manuals that indicate what services are needed at specific time or mileage intervals. At 3,000 miles (5,000 km), very little work may be required, perhaps an oil change. At 50,000 miles (80,000 km), 20 different items may need to be checked, repaired, replaced, or monitored. If the

timeline or mileage milestones are not followed, problems may develop and the car may break down before it should, costing the car owner a significant amount of money.

As any car owner will tell you, one reason for not following the maintenance schedule is a lack of time. People may be too busy to bring the car to a repair shop. Another reason may be money. If a maintenance check costs $100 and the owner does not want to spend the money, the sched- ule becomes irrelevant. All facilities and their equipment have maintenance schedules, but the schedules are not followed for various reasons. Some facilities do not have enough employees to accomplish all the required work. In other cases, staff do not know in what order work should be done, so less important items may receive atten- tion before more important items. A CMMS can provide appropriate reminders and develop calen- dars that maintenance staff can follow, hopefully reducing future expenses and making the facility and equipment last longer.

Behind the Scenes: Benchmarking Standards

Behind the Scenes

Benchmarking numbers help a facility determine how effective its maintenance is compared with other facili- ties. Following are some pertinent statistics from the International Facility Management Association (IFMA) benchmarking survey:

◾ The mean cost per square foot (0.09 sq m) for clean- ing restrooms, offices, work areas, and common areas is $1.29 per year.

◾ Maintenance departments on average respond 14% of the time to emergencies in 6 minutes or less versus 18% within 30 minutes.

◾ The amount of space used per employee declined from 471 square feet (44 sq m) per person in 1997 to 407 square feet (38 sq m) in 2001 (“IFMA Sur- veys,” 2001).

By 2005 these numbers had increased a bit in educa- tional institutions to $1.62 per square foot per year ($0.135 per square foot per month) for educational institutions and $1.20 per square foot per year ($0.10 per square foot per month) for office buildings. On average, custodians are able to clean from 2,975 to 3,300 square feet (276-307 sq m) per hour (Hanson, 2005). However, customer satisfac-

tion should be considered in this benchmarking standard as numerous studies have shown that the more area cleaned by a custodian, the more customer complaints are generated (Hanson, 2005). It is clear that a custodian cannot clean more space without sacrificing quality.

It should be noted that when examining benchmarking standards, it is important to compare the right information. For example, some discrepancies could revolve around the following:

◾ Gross square feet versus cleanable square feet versus rentable square feet as well as how accurate the measurements are.

◾ Cleanable square feet is normally calculated as building gross square feet minus walls (1.5% of gross) minus noncleanable square feet.

◾ Are special tasks included in the analysis such as extra attention to the president’s office and noncleaning activities such as setting up events, changing lights, and recycling removal? These tasks take extra time and must be considered when trying to establish a benchmarking standard (Hanson, 2005).

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Some companies are reluctant to spend money on a CMMS. These companies may be reluctant to change from the older card-based system for tracking maintenance projects. Others may not think that the benefits justify the cost of installing a CMMS. This mind-set has to do with the fact that these systems produce soft dollar savings; more executives are looking for hard dollar savings such as those achieved by terminating an employee. The soft dollar savings of a CMMS come from

◾ minimization of lost productivity, ◾ fewer operational interruptions, ◾ optimized labor costs, ◾ reduction in size of maintenance staff or their hours,

◾ reduction in number of emergencies that need to be handled,

◾ decreased overtime pay for off-hour nuisance alarm calls,

◾ decreased personnel time needed for manual machine inspections (called “rounds and readings”),

◾ reduction in time required to prepare man- agement reports (which can be performed instantaneously), and

◾ reduction in costs for internal staff (Buckley, 2003).

Costs can be reduced by enlisting technical staff from external sources. Through a service contract, a third party can monitor the facility’s CMMS and immediately dispatch repair persons when the program identifies a problem. This is similar to just-in-time inventory management systems in which a supplier and manufacturer know at the same time that a part is needed (Buckley, 2003). Hard dollar savings can result from eliminat- ing costs by selling a facility or terminating an employee, meaning that remaining employees assume more work.

Basic Maintenance Facility maintenance is not just about planning, budgeting, and auditing. Obviously at a certain point the work needs to be accomplished. Trades- people, from carpenters to electricians, and gen- eral maintenance employees must be informed about the work to be done and given the resources (parts and tools). Maintenance work focuses pri- marily on floors and on equipment and surfaces

that can pose a safety hazard, as well as on ensur- ing that procedures do not harm the environment.

Floor Maintenance A shiny gym floor is probably a well-maintained floor. Workers in facilities spend significant time and energy mopping floors, using the right fin- ishing materials, and regularly inspecting and maintaining floors. There is no one best way to take care of a flooring surface since there are so many different types of surfaces. A locker room floor raises water-related slipping and mold con- cerns; a poured urethane or tile gym floor must be treated differently than a wood floor.

If a floor’s finish wears excessively and earlier than it should, the problem could be the result of improper maintenance, which can lead to an increased coefficient of friction (more slippery surface). Steps to help reduce this problem can include placing mats at entrances to reduce dust and regularly mopping the floor with an approved floor cleaner.

A peeling or bubbling finish on a maple wood floor typically means that the floor was not properly screened or cleaned between coats or that substances such as soap were not properly removed between coats. If the peeling problem is inherent in the topcoat, the topcoat can be screened and repainted. However, if the problem exists in lower layers, all coats need to be sanded and then refinished. Finish roughness is often due to contamination in the drying process and requires following the same procedures as for peeling (Cohen, 1998).

The typical maintenance requirements for daily cleaning of a wood gym floor include the following:

◾ Sweeping with a properly treated dust mop (possibly several times a day if there is exces- sive activity or if dirt and other objects are being brought into the gym)

◾ Immediately cleaning any spills ◾ Using an approved floor cleaner to remove marks such as heel marks

◾ Checking the HVAC system to make sure it is functioning properly, as too much humidity can cause wood warp and other problems

◾ Inspecting the floor for any tightening or shrinkage and making sure expansion voids are clear so that the wood can expand (“MFMA Maintenance Tips,” 2003)

Facility◾Maintenance◾ ■  209

Besides wear and tear and other conditions necessitating maintenance, floors can suffer water damage. Overexposure to water can cause wood flooring to swell or buckle, creating a possible tripping hazard. Problems can become acute when liquid leaks are not detected for an extended period. Wood flooring that has been exposed to liquids for several days normally cannot be saved. If the exposure has been shorter, the maintenance staff should try to dry the wood as quickly as possible. This could involve pulling up some of the boards, using a wet/dry vacuum to suction

any remaining water, and placing fans or heaters on the floor to help speed drying (Hamm, 1998).

The following lists the steps required to reno- vate a gym floor.

1. Any colored court marking lines are removed with a paint peeler.

2. Stripping of the floor begins at one end using polyurethane peeler, which will cause the old finish to blister. After it blisters, the old finish is scraped away with a putty knife.

Facility Focus

Most facilities take time to prepare for typical maintenance and supply issues. There might be a stock of extra toilet paper or food in case more people need them on any given event date. There also might be an emergency generator in case the power goes out. However, what happens if a natural disaster strikes a sport facility? Will the facility be able to handle all the people and issues that might arise in such a disaster?

This exact scenario was faced by the New Orleans Superdome after Hurricane Katrina. Despite the planned use of the Superdome as a potential evacuation center, government officials at the local, state, and federal level came under criticism for poor planning and preparation. On August 25th, in anticipation of the storm, many citizens fled to the Superdome. Hurricane Katrina hit on August 28th, causing significant damage to New Orleans as well as the Superdome. That day the Louisiana National Guard delivered three truckloads of water and seven truckloads of ready-to-eat meals, enough to supply 15,000 people for three days. There was no water purification equipment on site, no chemical toilets, no antibiotics, and no antidiar- rheals stored for a crisis. As a result of the storm there was no power, water, sanitation service, waste removal, or other critical life necessities, so the sanitation condi- tions were horrible. This, combined with a 70% failure of the roof system, led to more than 2 inches (5 cm) of water at field level, and human waste and trash filled the facility (Turner, 2005). When evacuations started in early September, many of the residents in the Superdome had not been allowed to leave or to have showers for more than a week. As the evacuation continued, the number of people in the Superdome swelled to 30,000 as people waited around the facility for a ride to Houston. After the hurricane, it took more than a year to repair the facility so it could be used again.

The concern associated with proper maintenance bud- gets is that no facility knows when a major disaster might arise. A fire, earthquake, hurricane, tornado, or terrorist attack can have a major impact on a facility if the occu- pants need to shelter-in-place, meaning that no one can leave the facility. To best deal with these circumstances, a plan of action must be developed before a disaster strikes to prevent the need to respond on the fly. Does the facility have enough drinking water, food, blankets (especially during winter), fuel for generators, and so on? A budget also needs to be established for future repairs. This sinking fund can be critical for any major maintenance or repair needs. For example, after Katrina, the federal govern- ment had to kick in more than $100 million to repair the Superdome. The NFL contributed $15 million for the $185 million repair project. The total repair cost was actually $17 million more than how much the dome originally cost when it was built in the 1970s (Simmelkjaer, 2006).

Facility Focus: new Orleans Superdome after Katrina

Justin◾Sullivan/Getty◾Images

210  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

3. After the finish has been removed from a large section of the floor, stripping begins. Stripping is done with a single-brush floor machine utilizing a steel-wire brush.

4. After the entire floor has been stripped, all the old finish needs to be appropriately disposed of according to EPA guidelines.

5. The floor is thoroughly swept or vacuumed.

6. An 80-grit steel-wool pad is put under the wire brush, and the entire floor is disked (sanded) in the direction opposite to the way the floorboards run. This process normally utilizes several steel wool-disks.

7. The floor is swept in the same direction the floorboards run to remove all sanding dust.

8. The floor is redisked using 100-grit disks in the same direction the floorboards run. This step entails light sanding and removes any swirls created by the 80-grit disks.

9. The floor is swept and then a dry vacuum is used to remove any last dust particles. Care should be taken to make sure that dust is removed from cracks and joints. Before any final cleaning of the floor, all raised areas such as window sills and bleachers need to be dusted. The floor should then be mopped several times with a damp mop containing cleanup solvent.

10. The floor should dry for 24 to 48 hours before the first coat of sealant is applied.

11. Sealant is poured into an application pan, and a lamb’s wool applicator is dipped into the pan. Care should be taken to make sure the sealant is not dripping. The sealant is applied across the wood grain in a U-shaped motion. One person applies the sealant while another person feathers it (smoothes it out). The feathering process follows the grain of the wood.

12. The seal should dry overnight, and then a number 2 steel-wool pad is attached to the single-brush floor machine. The machine is worked with the grain over the entire floor, and the floor is then mopped with damp towels dipped in solvent. The floor should dry for 30 minutes before the second sealant coat is added.

13. After the second coat dries, game lines can be added before application of the final finish.

14. After the lines are added, the floor is wiped with the solvent at least 30 minutes before the finish is applied. The finish is applied in the same manner as the sealant: cross- grain application, with-grain smoothing, and sanding between the first and second coats of finish. The final coat should be allowed to dry for 72 hours, and the floor should not be subjected to heavy wear for at least one week (“Basics,” 1980).

Maintenance and Safety

Maintenance concerns can be prompted by reports from athletes or patrons of conditions such as poor lighting or slippery surfaces. Someone who has been injured may inform a facility manager that she slipped on a puddle caused by a leak- ing faucet, which will start the maintenance or repair process. The failure to properly maintain a drinking fountain can lead to spilled water, which can create a slipping hazard—the same goes for a leaking ketchup or mustard dispenser. Leaking showerheads or sinks in a locker room also create a dangerous environment.

Failing to replace light bulbs can lead to various problems. A parking garage or lot with low light- ing or broken bulbs may be an ideal environment for criminal misconduct. This is why lights need to be constantly monitored. Nonfunctioning lights in a gym or inadequate lighting on a playing field can contribute to player injury.

Other safety concerns include rough edges on bleachers, broken cement in walkways, loose floorboards, missing floor tiles, and a host of other problems that must be addressed. It is also important to take special care in maintaining safety equipment.

Improper maintenance and cleaning can also lead to health issues. If a facility does not properly clean food preparation equipment, there could be both health code violations and potential harm to food consumers. Imagine buying a hot dog that had not been cooked at the right temperature because a cooking machine was broken, or that was dirty because the counter was not properly cleaned. This is not that far-fetched based on the number of health code citations at ballparks. In one survey of health code violations at 11 stadi- ums, the Los Angeles Dodgers had the highest number of violations with 732. Other teams with significant violations include the Oakland A’s

Facility◾Maintenance◾ ■  211

with 493 and the Houston Astros with 107. Most of the teams in the survey had between 30 and 60 violations. The Colorado Rockies had only 16 health code violations (Liebman, 2008). It is impossible to eliminate all health code concerns, but a strong janitorial program within a compre- hensive maintenance program can significantly reduce health-related issues.

Green Buildings Green buildings, which were briefly covered in chapter 6, require special care. For example, a trend in Europe is to plant grass on rooftops to help insulate buildings. This raises the issue of how to maintain the grass. It may be impossible to bring a mower onto a slanted roof, but goats can be put on the roof to eat the grass as a way to keep it short. This type of approach is often referred to as sustainability.

The word sustainability is not new to the field of facility management, but it is one that many managers still do not use when designing facili- ties. Sustainability is a holistic approach to pro- tecting the environment by incorporating design practices and materials that use energy most effi- ciently (Heikkinen, 2001). The theory is that the less energy we use, the less damage we cause to the environment while producing energy. In the past, facility managers have been nervous about taking this approach to their buildings because the up-front building costs are greater. As this practice has gained more momentum, costs have been reduced, and a properly designed sustainable building does not have to cost more. Although green facilities are best planned for when a build- ing is being designed, many conservation projects are being launched to modify and maintain exist- ing facilities as green buildings.

There are three main factors that help create a more sustainable environment: (1) the design or layout of the building, (2) the materials used in the construction, and (3) the materials used to keep the facility clean. A maintenance program can be combined with any remodeling or rebuilding efforts to design new or existing facilities so that they use better materials and are more efficient. For example, an old wood fence may need to be replaced. The wood may have been treated with arsenic to avoid decay and insect infestation, but such wood is bad for the environment. A green approach would be to use treated wood that mini- mizes the impact on nature.

Behind the Scenes: Developing a cleaning

Schedule The following represents a typical breakdown of daily duties for a janitorial or cleaning crew. Most crews work on three shifts: 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., 4:30 p.m. to 10:00 p.m., and 10:30 p.m. to 7:00 a.m.

Pick up all trash on the floor.

Spot clean carpets and floors.

Empty waste and recycling receptacles.

Spot clean glass windows and doors.

Dry mop lobbies, foyers, and hallways.

Mop locker room floor, and pour disinfectants down floor drain.

Make sure runners or mats at entrances are dry and in place. Last shift should shake out mats outside building to remove debris.

Dust furniture in common areas, and rearrange any moved furniture.

Make sure all HVAC vents, grilles, and diffusers are clean and dust free.

Mop up any spills.

Remove any gum or other sticky substances.

Remove any graffiti.

Wipe down water fountains, and make sure they are not clogged.

Test all toilets and sinks to make sure they are working and clean (and disinfected).

Make sure there is enough toilet paper, paper toweling, and soap in their respective containers.

Sweep outside all building entranceways so dirt is not brought into the building.

Respond to emergency situations.

On a weekly basis polish furniture, scrub and buff floors, and undertake more aggressive cleaning such as removing scuff marks from walls.

When looking into building or renovating a green arena, a facility manager should consider many issues before choosing to go forward. Con- siderations include not only the cost but also safety factors, the life cycle of the materials in the building, operating costs, and the effects of the manufacturing processes behind the products being used. An arena can become more sustain- able through use of the following:

212  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

◾ Gray water. Water that has been previously used to wash hands, clothes, or dishes or for bath- ing, as well as collected rainwater, is called gray water. Through creation of a system that not only collects the water but also filters and redistributes it, water can be reused in restrooms, for irrigation of the grounds, and for fire extinguishing (Yaeger, 1998).

◾ Natural light. Using windows in certain areas of the facility will reduce the amount of energy needed to light those areas. One must be careful when using an abundance of natural light so that it does not hinder the ability of the arena to host functions such as concerts and televised games.

◾ Lighting. Using fluorescent or high-intensity discharge lighting to light a facility is the most cost- and energy-efficient option. Another effec- tive tool for reducing lighting costs is to analyze every event separately to determine how much lighting is actually needed; this will prevent wast- ing electricity (Yaeger, 1998).

Through a maintenance program, many of these steps can be developed and implemented. For example, the maintenance department can be sup- plied with fluorescent bulbs instead of standard light bulbs. Instead of draining fluid into a sewer system, hazardous liquids need to be properly disposed of, not just to protect the environment but also to avoid breaking the law. Similarly, cleaning agents used to maintain the facility need to be properly disposed of and monitored.

Green custodial and maintenance operations involve investigating current practices and elimi- nating those that can hurt the environment. For example, if light bulbs and old batteries are just thrown away, then the facility should develop a hazardous waste removal program. All cleaning chemicals need to be carefully examined. Some cleaners contain toxic chemicals that can cause significant bodily and environmental harm. Cleaners should be carefully examined, and environmentally friendly cleaners should be used whenever possible.

Summary A◾clean◾facility◾is◾like◾a◾clean◾home:◾an◾inviting◾place◾to◾be.◾It◾takes◾time,◾energy,◾ and◾resources◾to◾keep◾a◾house◾clean◾and◾functioning◾well,◾and◾the◾scale◾is◾much◾ greater◾ for◾ a◾ sport◾ facility◾ (imagine◾ thousands◾ of◾ people◾ using◾ your◾ bathroom◾ every◾day).◾A◾well-developed◾and◾well-funded◾program◾enables◾a◾facility◾to◾keep◾ sufficient◾supplies◾to◾remain◾attractive◾to◾users◾and◾patrons.

However,◾ a◾ facility◾ that◾ looks◾ good◾ but◾ does◾ not◾ have◾ a◾ good◾ maintenance◾ program◾will◾not◾survive.◾Equipment◾and◾structures◾that◾are◾not◾taken◾care◾of◾will◾ stop◾ functioning.◾To◾ prevent◾ this,◾ a◾ facility◾ needs◾ to◾ allocate◾ appropriate◾ funds,◾ develop◾ and◾ staff◾ a◾ maintenance◾ department◾ and◾ program,◾ and◾ evaluate◾ the◾ results.◾An◾ audit◾ can◾ help◾ determine◾ what◾ needs◾ to◾ be◾ done◾ and◾ then◾ serve◾ as◾ a◾ tool◾ to◾ evaluate◾ the◾ maintenance◾ program’s◾ success,◾ especially◾ against◾ well- established◾benchmarks.◾Special◾care◾should◾be◾taken◾in◾maintaining◾floors◾and◾ specialty◾equipment◾and◾devices,◾as◾well◾as◾in◾striving◾for◾an◾ecological◾focus.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  Why◾is◾maintenance◾so◾important?   2.  What◾are◾some◾of◾the◾key◾issues◾that◾a◾manager◾needs◾to◾examine◾when◾

implementing◾a◾facility◾maintenance◾program?

  3.  Interview◾a◾maintenance◾department◾worker◾and◾a◾custodian◾at◾your◾ university◾or◾college◾to◾see◾what◾they◾do◾on◾the◾job◾and◾how◾they◾do◾it.◾Also◾ ask◾them◾what◾the◾best◾and◾worst◾aspects◾of◾their◾jobs◾are.

  4.  If◾you◾had◾to◾develop◾a◾schedule◾for◾cleaning◾a◾gym,◾what◾activities◾would◾ be◾included◾in◾that◾schedule?

■  213

Facility administration

part iV

Once a facility is up and running, managers need to run the business side of the opera- tions. A facility manager needs to market the facility to numerous constituents, needs to oper- ate within a budget, and needs to follow the law to avoid litigation. Part IV covers these key areas.

Chapter 10 focuses on marketing and sales, first examining the basic elements associated with marketing and the various methods to promote an event or facility. The chapter then analyzes the marketing process, which starts with identifying the customers, positioning the product, and sell- ing the product, then switches to marketing new facilities and attracting tenants and events to a facility. The chapter ends with an analysis of the sales process and securing naming and sponsor- ship rights.

After securing sales, a facility manager needs to document and analyze the money generated and spent at the facility. Chapter 11 highlights the finance and budgeting process. Although this topic is not as exciting for many compared with marketing a facility, finance is just as important and possibly more important. The chapter starts by

analyzing the revenue and expenses generated by a facility, then explores financial analysis through some of the key financial documents such as an income statement and a balance sheet. The text then switches to the budgeting process and how critical it is for a facility to develop and follow a budget. Next the chapter examines capital cost considerations for funding a new or renovated facility. Through establishing a specific standard for success, various financing strategies can be cal- culated and applied to help make a sound decision. The chapter ends with an analysis of how to pay for building a new facility, with a primary focus on various bonds that have been used in the past.

The final administrative element covered in the text focuses on legal concerns. Chapter 12 examines a broad array of legal concerns a facility manager might face. Some of the topics covered include negligence, risk management, contract law, property law, constitutional law, and vari- ous government statutes such as the Americans with Disabilities Act. This chapter uses a sample facility concession contract to help highlight the language used in facility rental contracts.

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10

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾the◾four◾Ps◾interact◾to◾help◾market◾a◾facility.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾to◾effectively◾market◾facility◾and◾sport◾experiences.

◾◾ Know◾how◾to◾sell◾products,◾from◾signage◾to◾sponsorship◾packages.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾impact◾that◾marketing◾has◾on◾a◾facility’s◾profitability◾ and◾long-term◾viability.

marketing and sales

216  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Duke Diaz, and I am an assistant director of athletics at Yale University. My responsibil- ities at Yale are constantly evolving to meet the needs of our students, faculty, staff, administration, and the community at large. I manage several major athletics venues, including indoor and outdoor track

facilities, a soccer and lacrosse stadium, and one of the largest tennis facilities in the world. Addition- ally, I am the director of physical education and the development coordinator for two major sport associations.

My journey into the world of sport management started when I was an undergraduate at Plymouth State College in New Hampshire. There, I was men- tored by two wonderful coaches and professors, who served as role models to me during that time. I admired their active and healthy lifestyles and vowed to take a similar path in my own career. After 8 years of high school teaching and collegiate coach- ing in Massachusetts, I began my current position at Yale, which I have held for more than 20 years.

My primary responsibility at Yale is to manage and market our tennis and track and field facilities. In addition to balancing the needs and priorities of the university community, I must also develop marketing strategies for local community organiza- tions and the general public. This is a challenging balancing act, to say the least, but a rewarding one if done with care and diligence. Because of the con- siderable success I have demonstrated with these enterprises over the years, I have been asked to assist our athletics department with the fund-raising and alumni relations efforts, as well as with coordinating more than $50 million in major facility renovations.

The most effective marketing plan, in my opin- ion, begins with the gathering of information. A manager must be keenly aware of the local and regional marketplace and the demographics of the target market (potential customers). This can be as simple as calling other similar establishments or as complex as compiling the data from surveys within the institution or in the community. There are also a variety of industry resources that can be very help- ful in the compiling of this information, including professional sport and industry organizations.

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After a base of information is established, you must begin to formulate a strategy of familiarity or comfort with your users and potential users. This may be as simple as inviting them to an athletic contest or sponsoring a series of open houses during which free usage of the facility is encouraged. By bringing your target market customers into the facility and making that experience as enjoyable as possible, you not only introduce them to the ben- efits you have to offer but also get an opportunity to gather valuable marketing information that can be used in future promotions. In our society where it seems as though there is a charge for every move one makes, offering something of value or interest with no financial strings attached goes a long way toward garnering valuable loyalty from your custom- ers in the future, especially when competition is the most fierce.

Once a program is under way, it is vital to main- tain accurate usage data so the success of the opera- tion can be clearly measured and evaluated. Often, this takes repeated follow-up and review with the staff. On this note, it is important to maintain close and constant communication with the employees, especially the frontline personnel, as they are the “face” of your operation and have a lasting impact on your customers’ opinions. I have always believed that when marketing athletics facilities, it is vital to maximize your employees’ support for the mission of your programs. I have garnered great rewards by keeping employees well informed and involved in the decision-making process whenever possible.

Customer feedback is also vital. Programs must be constantly evaluated so that appropriate adjustments may be made in order for them to remain meaningful to the end users. I am regularly on site at each of my facilities and eagerly seek feedback from coaches, ath- letes, and all other groups regarding their experience while using the facilities. I believe this has buffered many potentially volatile situations over the years, as a bit of explanation from “the director” often quells the storm of misinformation within someone’s brain.

In my opinion, marketing is one of the most challenging but potentially enjoyable facets of the sport management business. It requires a great deal of organization in the development of strategies, creativity in the packaging and delivery of programs, and keen interpersonal skills in the presentation to the customers. A competent sport marketing pro- fessional will always be in demand and will have avenues open should he or she wish to pursue them.

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  217

A facility should be designed for marketing success and able to sell itself. A major trend over the past decade is the concept of destination locations. A destination location is a place where everyone wants to go to be seen and to experience the festivities. Patriot Place, as discussed earlier in the book, is an example of a destination location attracting fans for more than just a game. How can a facility become such a destination? Through marketing. Marketing is the concept of packaging a product and services in the right way, at the right price, and in the right environment to encourage individuals to buy.

Every facility needs to have a unique marketing approach to sell what goes on within the facility. If there are several health clubs in the same general area, why would a person want to join one versus another? Would there be a difference in price, quality, perceived value, ancillary services, or accommodations? These types of issues need to be analyzed in developing a facility to take advan- tage of marketing opportunities. If a health club is going to cater to affluent clientele, it must be located close to that demographic segment; must be built to the highest quality level with materi- als such as marble and other fine finishings; and must offer exclusive services such as a day spa, manicures, and massages.

Whether a facility is engaged in public relations (free publicity) or advertising (paid publicity), the focus is always to encourage people to buy a product. Although a sales effort is required to get elected officials to support and “buy into” build- ing a facility, most facility sales efforts focus on selling various products (which could be called assets), from tickets to naming rights.

This chapter examines the marketing elements critical for a successful sport facility, starting with the four Ps and then turning to marketing strate- gies, the marketing process, the ways in which a facility sells itself, and the selling of assets such as naming rights.

Marketing Concepts Marketing focuses on getting a customer to purchase goods or services. Goods can be food, novelty items, or a parking space at a facility. A service can include the game, personal treatment such as an usher’s walking someone to her seat, and the nostalgic feel of being in an old stadium or arena.

Marketing includes numerous functions such as advertising and selling, but these activities do not define marketing. It may be defined as a pro- cess of planning and executing the development, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that will satisfy the objectives of everyone involved in the transaction (Zikmund and d’Amico, 1996). Thus, marketing attempts to bring buyers and sellers together so that they can conclude a transaction and both parties will leave the exchange satisfied. Marketing is not successful if a customer buys a ticket to a game and then has a horrible time and vows to never return. This is referred to as buyer’s remorse.

Marketing a facility starts with examining what the facility has to sell. A facility has two types of products to sell—experiences and goods—referred to here as products or assets. Although the term assets is used in the financial realm, the same term can be applied in marketing since an empty seat is a potential financial asset that could generate revenue, and a marketer needs to be able to market that asset. The experience is the joy of attending a game or working out at a magnificent facility. It is hard to place a price on these experiences, but they are nonetheless very valuable to some. Goods can include foam cheese heads, hot dogs, game programs, and the facility itself.

The New York Mets opened a new stadium, Citi Field, in 2009 with an expectation to increase revenue more than 30% (Massey, 2008). Such a revenue increase was anticipated even though the seating capacity was reduced from 57,000-plus to 45,000. The lowest ticket price was increased from $5 to $12, and the highest ticket price jumped from $117 per game to $495 per game. Although the number of luxury suites increased by only a few (from 45 to 54), the price rose considerably to close to $500,000 for some suites. The main reason is that they were moved from the outfield to right above the action. Other major revenue streams included expanding restaurant seating capacity from 500 to 3,100, doubling the size of the stadium store, and building more concession points of sale —all in an effort to generate addi- tional revenue (Massey, 2008).

Before undertaking the process of developing a marketing program, a facility needs to conduct a marketing inventory, which is an examination of all the various experiences and goods the facil- ity can sell or give away. A facility also needs to

218  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

know what is involved in marketing. Marketing is often examined in terms of positioning a product or service according to the four Ps: product, place, price, and promotion. Some marketing experts add a fifth P to the list: public relations (Mullin, Hardy, and Sutton, 1993). Other Ps that are used include publicity, people, position, payback, policy, partnership, and professional connections. Although this text focuses on the four Ps, it is important to note that new strategies are being articulated on a regular basis, such as partnerships in which companies work together to promote strategies. Companies might have been engaged in this approach for years, but only recently have academicians and practitioners started exploring these relationships to best leverage how partner- ships can help both sides.

Product Product is what the facility has to offer to its prospective customers, users, clients, or con- stituents. A product can be an idea, a service, or goods (e.g., the goods that are sold in facility concession stands or a health bar). Products can also include the facility itself, the teams that play in the facility, and the events held by and within the facility. For example, a stadium can be a product, but when several stadiums join together they can become an even stronger product. That is what happened when 11 NFL stadiums formed the Gridiron Stadium Network. The network was created to entice the promoters of major music events and other opportunities to negotiate with 11 possible stops rather than negotiate with each stadium individually.

Unlike consumer goods such as soap, soft drinks, or motor oil, the products offered by sport facilities can change daily. Most sport facility cus- tomers are not comparing two products (like two bars of soap) that may differ only in the packaging (the box and price). Sport facility customers are often comparing significantly different products. A New York Mets game is different each night, whether in outcome, opponent, or atmosphere. Furthermore, many Mets fans are very loyal and would not go to a Yankees game even though the facilities are not that far apart. This refers to brand or team loyalty, which exists in sports as well as other consumer products such as beers and cars. One health club may offer swimming and racquet- ball, while another club is more socially oriented or emphasizes weights and machines. Each club

would market itself differently depending on the target market for the service or goods offered. A target market is the group of potential customers the advertiser is trying to reach, as they will be more inclined to purchase the product. The target market is determined through the market segmen- tation process discussed later, in the marketing process section.

Once the consumers are identified, the product can be grown through product extensions that make it more desirable. Product extensions are additions that enhance or improve a product. Extensions in sport marketing include additions that do not change the basic nature of the product but make it more appealing. This concept is often referred to as the sizzle, whereas the product itself is the steak (the steak and sizzle). For example, some people go to a football game to watch the game (the steak), but some may attend to enjoy the sizzle, which could include cheerleaders, dogs catching flying disks, drunk fans, mascots in the stands, and countless other sights and activities. Thus, someone who may not be as interested in the game could enjoy other activities and still have a good time.

Place Place refers to where the product or service is sold or distributed. It also refers to how the product reaches customers, how quickly it reaches them, and the condition the product is in when it finally reaches the customers. In the facility context, place can refer to how convenient the facility is for customers. A facility that is located next to several freeway on and off ramps is more convenient for fans and users than one that is not. If convenience is a major motivator for the given fans and users, the marketing effort can emphasize this aspect.

Another example of place marketing is con- cession sales. If all fans have to go to permanent concession stands, it may become difficult to sell items if the lines are very long. This has prompted facilities to utilize multiple sale points and roving hawkers. Providing a more convenient place to purchase items generates more sales. With recent technological advances, more patrons are able to order their food and other services right from their seats through cell phones and other personal communication devices. Since many patrons want convenience, the facility can increase sales by making the place where the product is sold more convenient.

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  219

Price

Price can include numerous variables. For example, there may be admission, reservation, rental, program, or concession fees. There are also numerous pricing points, such as per day usage, membership rates, equipment rental fees, and family versus individual rates. Because it can be considered too high or too low at different times, price is always on trial in every marketplace. If a ticket price is too high, people may not purchase a ticket. If a ticket is too cheap, then customers may perceive the ticket as lacking in value. Thus, price is a major concern from a marketing perspective. It should be noted that sport and other recreation facilities are competing against other entertain- ment venues, from theaters to bowling alleys to bars. If someone regards the ticket price for a sport event as high or has limited funds, he may decide to forgo a game and instead go with friends to a bar where beers are $1.00 versus $6.00 at a game. For others the price is not a concern since they want to attend a game almost regardless of the cost. All this being said, marketing demands

are not the only factors affecting price. It is also dictated by contract provisions setting a minimum price, by laws that specify taxes or charges, and most important by financing. If a facility makes its money exclusively from ticket sales, then the ticket price has to cover the cost of opening the doors and putting on the show.

The cost of doing business in sport facilities has soared over the past 20 years. In the late 1980s the Miami Arena was built for $89 million. In the late 1990s the Staples Center in Los Angeles and the American Airlines Center in Dallas were built for more than $450 million each. Around 2009 sev- eral stadiums were opened or being built in New York (Mets, Yankees, and joint Giants and Jets) and Dallas, with price tags around $1 billion each. But stadiums and arenas are not the only facilities facing higher costs. All facilities face higher costs, from construction to payroll to insurance. All these costs lead to increased prices for customers. How- ever, if costs decrease, very few facilities or teams pass the savings on to the ultimate purchaser.

Price is affected by the concept of supply and demand. Supply and demand can create a higher

Behind the scenes: Fan cost index

Behind the Scenes

It can be very expensive to bring a family to an event. Team Marketing Report of Chicago produces a Fan Cost Index, which analyzes the cost for a family of four to attend games played by professional teams. The index showed that the average price for a family of four to attend a Major League Baseball game in 2003 was $148.66. By 2008 the total had reached $191.92, which was still significantly less than the $396.36 average for the NFL. Comparisons in a given market could also be made. For example, in the Baltimore and Washington area, the average price for a family of four to go to various events (including game tickets, parking, concessions, a program, and a souvenir item) was as follows (Carter, 2003; “Fan Cost Index,” 2008):

Team Price in 2003 Price in 2008

Washington Capitals (NHL) $320 $245

Washington Wizards (NBA) $375 $195

Baltimore Ravens (NFL) $350 $426

Washington Redskins (NFL) $372 $441

Baltimore Orioles (MLB) $175 $165

Washington Nationals (MLB) Did not play $196

The highest-priced teams according to the 2008 Fan Cost Index are as follows:

New England Patriots (NFL): $595.25

Los Angeles Lakers (NBA): $453.95

Boston Red Sox (MLB): $320.71

220  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

value for a product if there is a small amount of the product and significant demand for it. This situation is often called a seller’s market since sellers can ask what they want. The market for Super Bowl tickets is typically a seller’s market. Since the supply is limited (only one game), scalp- ers can ask what they want for tickets. Because tickets to some championship events are scarce, the ticket may sell at the box office for one amount but be worth five times that amount the minute it is bought. Scalpers often engage in the supply side of the demand equation by purchasing tickets any way they can and then selling them at the market rate. But scalpers are not alone in their willingness to test the marketplace. Many professional and collegiate teams are now sell- ing tickets on a per game basis, according to the opponent, game date, or significance of a given game. Such a strategy maximizes the demand for key games, with increased prices helping to generate additional revenue for the team instead of allowing the scalpers to benefit. This process is being further refined as teams develop their own secondary market where fans can sell their unused tickets on a team’s auction Web site. This service is in direct competition with second-party online ticket auctions.

Each pricing strategy needs to be specifically formulated to maximize revenue while minimiz- ing potential backlash. The law of diminishing returns states that as prices increase, more cus- tomers may shy away from purchasing. It may be that customers want tickets and that the supply is sufficient but the price is too high, which can cause regular ticket buyers to pass on buying the more expensive tickets. Thus, while the revenue per customer increases, the total revenue will at some point decline because fewer customers will purchase the product.

Promotion Promotion refers to the process of informing people about the product, price, and place. If a wonderful product is available at the right price and the right place, will it sell? What if the customers do not know about the quality of the item or its selling price? What if they want the product but cannot find it? These types of questions affect whether or not an item will sell. Promotion involves the effort required to market a product or service. The pri- mary vehicles used to promote a service or product are advertising, publicity, and public relations.

Advertising Advertising is a paid message designed to inform customers. It can include television, radio, news- paper, magazine, and countless other media. Inter- net advertising has gained popularity over the past decade, but sometimes the ultimate customers do not get the message because of clutter or noise in the communication channel. For example, do people really read or respond to pop-up ads, or do they feel violated by the unwelcome intrusion and purposely avoid doing business with the companies?

Advertising can also incorporate such methods as point-of-purchase displays that place a prod- uct at the end of a grocery store aisle for extra visibility. Thus, a display shaped like a race car, paid for by the product seller, can be positioned at the front of a store to maximize visibility and drive sales before a major race. Advertising can appear anywhere someone thinks a potential customer may be located. Elevators and urinals are two advertising locations that have been used more recently; the idea is that since people often spend close to a minute in these locations and are attempting not to make contact with others, these are great places for an advertising message.

Advertising traditionally has two objectives: (1) to push a product, which encourages consumers to purchase a product; and (2) to pull a product, where consumers are encouraged to ask retailers to stock a given product. Although some advertise- ments are designed specifically to inform people or promote what a company is doing, the ultimate goal of such advertisements is to promote the advertiser in a good light to help sell additional products in the future.

Publicity

Publicity is a facility’s window to the public. It is referred to as “earned media” since it is unpaid and is disseminated based on its newsworthi- ness. Publicity is often derived through word of mouth, news releases, press conferences, editorial comments, and public service announcements (PSAs). (See the list on page 222 for other potential marketing tools for a sport facility.) Each of these techniques is an added benefit that supports the marketing effort and does not cost any money. Word of mouth, for example, is invaluable. Happy customers tell others that they had a great experi- ence, and this can often be the best promotion pos- sible. On the other hand, if customers had a bad

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  221

experience they will communicate their dissatis- faction. It is estimated that those who are happy with an experience will tell 2 people about it; if they are not happy, they will tell 10 people how bad the service or product was.

Publicity works by providing additional cover- age. Some say it does not matter whether publicity is good or bad as long as it is publicity. This is not true. Positive publicity is great and can increase awareness and possibly patronage. Negative publicity can destroy a facility. If a news story documents health concerns at a facility, a person concerned about unsatisfactory conditions will likely stay away from the facility. That is why “spin control” is such an important part of any promotion campaign.

The press will either help or harm a facility, so mastering the press is critical. For example,

numerous facility spokespersons say, “No com- ment,” to a question by the press. This type of response can appear to be an admission of guilt, even if the facility did nothing wrong. If spokes- persons say instead that they are looking into the matter and will contact the media immedi- ately upon learning what happened, this type of response is not newsworthy and will probably not lead to a negative story. Some of the other “secrets” for dealing with the media include understanding publishing deadlines, knowing how to contact key reporters, meeting with report- ers before any problems arise so that reporters know the facility and facility management, being brief with the media, never trying to sell the media tickets to an event, and creating a contact list with the names and numbers of all the facility officials (Wilkinson, 1988).

Facility Focus

The right-field pavilion at Dodger Stadium used to be a barren wasteland with very little fan interest. In 2007 the Dodgers converted the area into a special section, giving around 3,000 fans unlimited hot dogs, peanuts, popcorn, nachos, and sodas. Tickets the first season were sold for $35 in advance and $40 on game day. Not every item is free; beer, ice cream, and candy are sold separately at regular prices. The all-you-can-eat concept is rapidly spreading throughout baseball, allowing fans to buy a ticket and then eat as much food as they want. The ticket includes a buffet-style self-service area for some items. There are some limitations (e.g., the booth opens only 90 minutes before the first pitch and closes two hours after the game begins) (Los Angeles Dodgers, 2009).

For the 2009 season, the team dropped the ticket price down to $25 per game and obtained a sponsorship deal with AM/PM markets to sponsor the pavilion. Several games are not available in the plan, including games against top teams such as the Los Angeles Angels or Chicago Cubs and games with special promotional giveaways.

The team uses two concession counters below the bleachers. Shelves are stacked four high with nacho containers, ready to be whisked to fans’ cardboard trays. At the touch of a red button, melted cheese comes oozing out. Because there is no cash exchange, and fans are limited to four food items per visit, lines move very quickly.

Eating a lot is not relegated just to these all-you-can- eat locations. At Tropicana Field, the concessionaire

Centerplate offers a meal fit for a king . . . if you can eat it. In a takeoff of the show Man v. Food, the facility is now selling an item called Fan v. Food. Florida fans can try to consume a 4.5 pound (2 kg) hamburger that includes four slices of cheese, half a pound (0.2 kg) of bacon, and a pound (0.4 kg) of french fries. The $30 dish is a bargain for those who complete it because they receive two free tickets to a future game, a T-shirt, and their picture on the wall. After 30 games in the 2009 season, only four fans had been able to successfully pass the gastronomical challenge (Muret, 2009).

Facility Focus: dodger stadium all-you-can-eat pavilion

AP◾Photo/Richard◾Lui

222  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Public Relations A blend of advertising and publicity, public rela- tions entails trying to reach out to the public with a positive message. A health club may advertise that it is giving away memberships for free to the elderly to encourage their physical activity. Through TV, radio, or newspaper advertising, and by trying to get a story printed in the paper, the health club is engaging in public relations. If seniors do come, they may bring others who are not qualified for the free membership and encourage them to join also. The purpose is to put forward a good public image and hopefully grow the customer base.

The Marketing Process Everyone has heard the saying that the customer is always right. Customers are the primary focus of any facility, so it is crucial to know who they are. Without members, a gym or health club would have a hard time staying open. A stadium or arena needs fans to generate income. Thus, facility man- agers need to focus on attracting fans or customers to their facilities. Some facilities—sportsplexes, for example—have multiple customers, such as spectators and participants. A sportsplex manager needs to develop multiple marketing approaches to attract these two different types of customers. No matter who is being courted as a customer, a facility manager needs to develop a strategy to reach the right people and get them to the facility. The right customers will hopefully be reached through the marketing process.

Identifying Customers The key to a facility’s marketing efforts is iden- tifying and communicating with a target market. There are numerous potential customers, but there are fewer potential customers interested in a given sport facility. A facility needs to find the customers who are the most likely to attend an event at the facility and can afford to attend. Market segmentation is the process of examining who will want to use or purchase a given prod- uct. Once the people who may want to purchase the product are identified, marketing efforts can focus on advertising or promoting the product to that group. This process is called positioning the product. All products need to be positioned in the mind of the consumer who will use or purchase

Potential Marketing Tools   for a Sport Facility

Publication◾of◾the◾marketing◾vision◾(using◾a◾ slogan◾such◾as◾“Let’s◾sell◾out◾the◾joint!”)

Business◾cards◾and◾company◾letterhead

Brochures

Newsletters

Published◾surveys

Press◾ packets◾ with◾ media◾ credentials,◾ a◾ media◾guide,◾pictures,◾statistics,◾and◾so◾on

Signage,◾including◾logos

Personal◾history◾endorsements◾from◾athletes,◾ coaches,◾or◾fans◾indicating◾why◾they◾love◾ the◾facility

Coupons

Bumper◾and◾other◾stickers

Web◾sites

Customer◾awards

Attempted◾world◾records

Employee-of-the-month◾ awards◾ that◾ intro- duce◾fans◾to◾marquee◾employees,◾such◾ as◾vendors◾who◾use◾tricks◾or◾devices◾to◾ get◾the◾crowd◾involved

Newspaper,◾television,◾and◾radio◾advertise- ments

Fliers

Posters

Bulletin◾boards

Word◾of◾mouth

Public◾service◾announcements

Press◾releases

If a facility plans to close one entrance gate for an event, it is a good idea to communicate this decision to the general public to avoid any confu- sion. The facility may want to produce and post closing signs as well as purchase advertisements in newspapers, on radio, or on TV. Another approach is to ask radio stations to play a PSA about the gate closure. Advertising and publicity, in other words, can communicate this information.

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  223

the product. Sport is normally not a necessity. This creates a challenge for the marketer; it is not as easy to market sport as it is to market a necessity. For example, gas stations rarely adver- tise to encourage people to buy their primary product, gas, because just about everyone needs gas. Instead, gas stations advertise to encourage people to pick one gas station over another based on service attributes or lower prices. Since sport is not a necessity, a sport organization or facility has to position itself to fill a customer need in order to encourage participation or purchase.

Sport can fill the need for art, relaxation, recreation, entertainment, pleasure, loyalty, and companionship. For example, Fenway Park in Boston is positioned as a sport experience. The field is historic. “The Green Monster” is very well known and has an aura all its own. The Boston Red Sox can market to out-of-towners the fact that they are engulfed in history when attending a game. However, this same positioning strategy cannot be used for season ticket holders since they are more interested in enjoyment or in seeing the team win. Thus, in sport facility marketing, numerous positioning efforts need to be under- taken simultaneously. Once a facility determines how it wants to position itself (i.e., its product), it can examine the potential individuals who may fit the newly positioned product. For a smaller facility such as a health club, if the product is a relaxing exercise environment that prohibits skimpy workout clothing, the product is ideally positioned to reach senior or less active segments of the market who might be turned off by reveal- ing or seeing too much skin. This process can be accomplished through market segmentation.

Research One of the keys to successful marketing is research. To successfully market a facility or event, both the event or facility and the intended market need to be analyzed. Thus, the first step requires the facil- ity to examine itself—its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis). The first two elements, strengths and weaknesses, are internal issues; the last two, opportunities and threats, are external. Strengths can include a great facility, good employees, strong events or tenants, a supportive political environment, and possibly good access to transportation. Weaknesses could include the lack of good seating, poor tenant con- tracts, lack of star athletes on tenant teams, poor

sight lines, and few advertisers. Opportunities can include the prospects of attracting new events, community growth, lower potential taxes, and a possible bond to finance building a new stadium. Threats could include a new facility opening in the area, an economic downturn, a players’ strike, or sponsors leaving a facility because of changed marketing strategies.

Although used for planning purposes, the SWOT analysis is just as important for marketing purposes. A facility needs to market its strengths, attack its weaknesses, seize opportunities, and anticipate threats. Concerns and opportunities are identified through research. There are two types of data: primary and secondary. Primary data are obtained by the facility itself through surveys or other means. Secondary data are obtained through research and publications produced by second parties. Both primary and secondary data can help shape how a facility will market itself. Assume that a college is going to build a new fitness center for its students. The athletic director could pos- sibly decide herself what should be in the facility, but involvement of students, especially if they have to pay the bill, is critical. Thus, the primary data could come from surveys of students in the cafeteria and in the current athletic facility to see what they want. It may be determined after conducting several hundred interviews that the students primarily want swimming, basketball, aerobics, weights, and a climbing wall. The col- lege conducts some additional research (second- ary research) and discovers that a recent study reviewed the problems with climbing walls. Based on both the primary and secondary information and the allowed budget, the facility is designed to meet all the major preferences of the students except for the climbing wall.

Positioning A market is a group of actual or potential custom- ers for a given product. These people have various attributes; the primary attributes are the ability to purchase a product such as a ticket to a game, willingness to buy the ticket, and the authority to make the purchase decision. Children may not fit into the ticket purchasing market segment because they do not have the money or authority to pur- chase a ticket. Nonetheless, children can have a major influence on someone who is in the market segment, such as a mother or father interested in taking a child to an event or facility. People who

224  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

fit into the market segment need to be identifi- able, significant in number, likely to respond to a marketing campaign, accessible, and measurable.

Methods of segmenting the market include demographic, psychographic, benefit, and geode- mographic segmentation. Demographics refers to variables associated with people who may want to purchase the product such as age, gender, race, nationality, residency (area the person lives in), and income level. Location, for instance, is a major concern for health clubs. Most health clubs do not anticipate drawing people who live 100 miles (160 km) away, so marketing efforts should not be directed toward those people. Any market segment needs to have a certain size and have the ability to purchase the product. Some companies market exclusively to women with the idea that they may make more purchasing decisions in the house than men. A product that is marketed to children may be difficult to sell if children do not have a say in the purchase decision.

Psychographics refers to people’s actions and thought processes. It attempts to get into the customers’ heads to determine how they make decisions. These decision factors can be used in marketing to motivate similar consumers to buy the product or service in the future. Why does someone buy beer at a stadium—to get drunk, to enjoy time with friends, or because he is succumb- ing to social pressure? These questions and their answers are very important. If the answers show that fans are drinking because it is considered the appropriate activity to engage in during an event, then the product marketing effort will be signifi- cantly different from marketing to those who just want to party. The latter group may purchase beer regardless of the cost. When profits from beer sales can reach 400% at a stadium, the marketing deci- sion can be significant.

Benefit segmentation examines what benefit someone wants to receive from the product or service. If women want to work out without having men around, then they may want a health club for women only. An exclusive all-women’s health club has a benefit that would be attrac- tive to these consumers. If consumers express interest in a given benefit, marketers will find a way to reach and sell to these individuals if they represent a large enough group willing and eager to spend money.

Geodemographic segmentation looks at cus- tomers and potential customers based on where

they live or base their businesses. A team that wants to sell tickets to the wealthiest people in a community can identify the wealthiest neighbor- hoods, look up the zip codes, buy a mailing list that covers those zip codes, and then send the marketing materials to those people.

Regardless of the segment targeted, the market- ing strategy needs to communicate a message that appeals to the potential buyer. In sport the buyer typically does not look for a single result such as a win or not having to spend too much time in the parking lot when trying to get home. In sport a buyer is often looking for an experience.

Selling Experiences

Statistics show that the average family saves for two to three years for a trip to Disney World. The reason people save for so long is that the trip is a memorable experience, and they want to have enough money to derive the utmost enjoyment from it (Coleman, 2000). Experience can include passive participation—just sitting in a seat—or active participation through involvement in a total experience. By marketing toward an active participant, a facility increases its chances of attracting new customers interested in receiv- ing an enhanced experience. A total experience consists of a number of components—aesthetic, educational, escapist, and entertainment.

Aesthetic experiences have to do with immers- ing fans in an environment full of sights, sounds, smells, touch, and tastes. The focus is on the sen- sory thrill of being at an event (Coleman, 2000). The smell of popcorn or hot dogs is an excellent example, as people remember a facility by the smells and tastes they associate with the facility.

Food is only one element in the experience of a facility, game, or event. Everything from high- brow business meeting facilities to Internet access, cigar humidors, unusually comfortable seats, and hard-core cheering sections enhances the facility experience. These elements are offered because the facility is no longer just selling a team or event but is providing an experience.

Sporting events also include an educational element. Fans can see a memorabilia display and learn about the team or how the facility was built. This gives the fans a better feel for the facility in that it allows them to appreciate the hard work that went into building it.

The escapist realm involves immersing fans in the aesthetic and educational components. An

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  225

escapist effect is achieved when fans participate in activities such as in-game promotions, go into batting cages, meet players, and do similar activi- ties that involve them physically in the experi- ence. The last component of the total experience is entertainment, which focuses on making the facility or event the most personal experience

possible. To successfully sell an experience, each experience needs to be customized. For example, themed restaurants such as Hard Rock Cafe or Dan Marino’s use the experience they offer to highlight a theme and a feeling that resonates through the activity of dining (Coleman, 2000). Other strategies include harmonizing impressions with positive

Work Out World (WOW) is a family-owned and -operated chain of fitness centers. WOW is always looking for ways to increase membership and keep current members. In October 2001, a WOW center opened in Freehold, New Jersey. The 25,000-square-foot (2,320 sq m) center opened in a location that had previously housed a movie

theater. WOW Freehold offers fitness services including group fitness classes, strength and cardio equipment, one-on-one personal training, fitness testing, chiropractic services, free child care, and many others. By 2009 there were nine WOW facilities in New Jersey.

A unique feature of WOW Freehold—one that has increased female membership—is a private ladies-only fitness area. Female members can access the ladies- only area directly from the locker room. There are also two private doors that lead into the regular fitness center. Two other special features that have attracted members to WOW Freehold are the physical therapy center and the cardiac fitness rehab center (McDonnell, 2004).

“WOWing” potential members is part of WOW’s market- ing strategy. The marketing plan includes a monthly direct mail program with a seven-day free pass. Internet users can receive a guest pass when they register online. Also, WOW markets itself with in-person promotions at local businesses, community events, corporate health fairs, and other events. Some of the marketing items WOW Freehold uses are coins, glasses, pizza boxes, and dollar bills. When you become a WOW member you are granted, among other benefits, access to all WOW fitness centers in New Jersey, four free personal training sessions, and ongoing monthly fitness evaluations and assessments. WOW also offers many programs to keep members happy and coming back. When members sign up they are given a guidebook about the facility called WOW Discovery. They are also given e-mail coaching, which provides fitness information to help members reach their fitness goals. A monthly newsletter, WOW Squeeze, informs members about club happenings and contests (McDonnell, 2004).

WOW’s success led to the formation of the WOW Foundation, which focuses on helping the local com- munity, giving opportunities to school-aged students and teachers, and writing a health and fitness newsletter for kids throughout New Jersey (WOW, 2009). However, with success comes competition. When someone enters wow and fitness into a search engine, the first listing is not WOW, but a fitness chain in Oregon called WOW Fitness!

Photo◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: marketing and sales for Work out World

226  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

cues (cleanliness, friendliness, fun), eliminat- ing negative cues (dirt, bad smells), mixing in memorabilia, engaging a fan’s senses, and training employees to support the impressions.

Food Although a sporting event in a facility is the main attraction, almost all fans will say that their food experience also influences the quality of the event. In the past, fans were often content with a hot dog and beer. However, as times have changed, the palates of fans have also changed. Product evolu- tion has been growing to match the growing fan sophistication. Fans’ food preferences also vary by region (see a list of culinary curiosities around the United States below). People want the food service to be clean and friendly, and they want their food fast but also of the highest quality. Fans do not want long lines, untrained staff, inadequate numbers of staff behind the counter, confusing or misleading signs, and an insufficient number of service points (Galloway, 2001).

The outfield in Pacific Bell Park in San Fran- cisco, designed so kids could reach the counters, sold packages that resembled McDonald’s Happy Meals with small entrees, fries, a soda, and a small

Culinary Curiosities  Around the United States

San◾Francisco:◾garlic◾fries

St.◾Louis:◾chili◾cheese◾fries

San◾Diego:◾fish◾tacos

Seattle:◾smoked◾salmon

Milwaukee:◾grilled◾bratwurst◾dipped◾ in◾a◾secret◾sauce

New◾York:◾kosher◾deli◾products

Baltimore:◾crab◾cakes

New◾ Orleans:◾ anything◾ Cajun◾ or◾ Creole

Chicago:◾Italian◾sausage◾with◾pep- pers

Cleveland:◾grilled◾salmon

Denver:◾veggie◾wraps

Tampa◾Bay:◾vegetarian◾stir◾fry From◾Whiting◾1993◾and◾Eater’s Digest◾2005.

toy (Finken, 2001). The baseball fans in St. Louis and Kansas City used to be able to buy a ticket behind home plate for $15, but now the cost is $120. However, people sitting in these seats get unlimited food and drinks. The unlimited food craze quickly spread to other clubs and teams, who were able to sell previously hard-to-sell seats at a steep profit by offering all-you-can-eat opportunities. (See the Facility Focus on page 221 as an example.) Research has helped highlight how much a typical fan can eat, and even with an all-you-can-eat menu, the teams have priced the tickets at a point where they are making a significant profit.

Food and other concession items are closely analyzed by facility managers because of the high profit margin from these items. New items are constantly being added at different price points (i.e., $3.99, $4.50, $4.99, and so on) to see what the market will bear. A facility marketer needs to closely monitor food trends to maximize the potential food sales. Thus, if the population switches to special diets such as vegetarian or kosher cuisine, the facility needs to quickly adapt to the changes or face significant lost sales. For example, many concession stands now sell vegetarian food at a significant premium and have added numerous healthy options such as salads, fresh fruit, and skinless chicken. However, although appetites may change, there is a constant need for liquid refreshments such as beer, soda, and water.

Incentives and Giveaways

Fans can also have their experience enhanced through incentive programs. Several companies currently produce swipe cards that allow a facil- ity or team to provide added benefits to frequent fans. When fans enter the facility, they can swipe their membership cards and receive coupons or other discounts based on the number of games they have attended. These programs are often part of a customer relationship management program (McGlynn, 2001). The systems build fan support but also serve to obtain valuable information about fans such as when they visit, what they purchase, and other psychographic elements.

The potential giveaways are limitless. Exam- ples include baseballs, T-shirts, autographed items, bobblehead dolls, beanbag toys, collectible cards, free drinks and food, free tickets, school supplies, and countless other personal or house-

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  227

hold items. The Birmingham Barons, a minor league baseball team, worked with Roto-Rooter to give away special bathroom plungers that bore the Barons and Roto-Rooter logos and phone numbers. This innovative giveaway provided 1,500 homes with plungers and a phone number if the plunger was not able to clear the line (Vertical Alliance’s Sports Marketing Newsletter, 2004).

Facility Marketing In addition to selling and marketing an event, a sport facility must also sell itself in order to grow. A facility must market its tangible and intangible products and assets. Tangible assets can include its floor space, location, and seating configuration. Intangibles can include affiliation with an anchor tenant, being the only large facility in a location, and satisfying a city’s need to have a big-time sport facility.

Significant effort needs to be devoted to mar- keting a facility, not just for the end users or fans but also for those who will support the facility. Supporters can range from politicians to anchor tenants. Through aggressive marketing campaigns, several cities have been able to win an anchor team even though they may not have had the largest potential market. Such was the case with Tampa Bay, which spent years marketing its almost vacant stadium to various Major League Baseball (MLB) teams. Finally, after an aggressive marketing campaign, the city won the rights to a new MLB franchise that was awarded in 1995 and started playing in Tropicana Field in 1998. An enormous effort was made by many in trying to land the future baseball team for the new stadium. Every- one from the mayor to lay civic leaders had a role in marketing the city and community to anyone who could possibly influence the decision to help attract a professional baseball team to Tampa Bay.

Behind the scenes: a Fun guarantee

Behind the Scenes

Although it is very difficult to guarantee a victory, even though some teams have offered such promotions, a facil- ity can guarantee an enjoyable experience. This challenge was faced by the RBC Center, home of the Carolina Hur- ricanes and the North Carolina State University basketball teams. Construction of the facility was started in 1997, and the center opened in 1999. In the 1997-1998 hockey season the Hurricanes had played at another facility and averaged fewer than 10,000 fans per game. After moving in 1999, the team started winning more games and doing better at the attendance gate. To make the fans feel better and enhance the game experience, the Hurricanes devel- oped a contract with fans that included these promises:

◾ Better roadways to the arena ◾ Better parking areas with more paving, lining, and

lighting ◾ Additional parking-related services such as free

jump-starts for dead batteries ◾ Increased benefits for season ticket holders such

as a ticket exchange program for unused tickets ◾ Improved communication with arena management ◾ Allowing fans to exchange tickets for “Canes Cash”

vouchers for food and beverages (Deckard, 2001)

Did these strategies work better than some of the traditional giveaways such as hockey pucks, towels, and

mugs? A review of the team’s progress in the first six months after announcing the contract showed that they had delivered on about 110 of the contract’s 120-plus items. During that time the team increased benefits to suite and season ticket holders, smoothed some kinks out of game-day operations, solved some of the traffic issues, and solved some of the concession issues (e.g., by adding express beer lines) (Nilsen, 2001).

Although the team had only 28 wins in 2004, they averaged 12,086 fans, with a total of just less than half a million fans coming to RBC for games. Thus, it is hard to say that a single campaign such as a fan contract helped establish a core following that would attend games even during a poor season; but a fan contract combined with excellent service and innovative promotions can combine to generate a comprehensive experience. The Canes’ attendance dropped from 17,386 a game in the 2006-2007 season to 16,663 per game in 2007-2008. Thus attendance numbers were fluctuating after the “fun guarantee” promotion.

Even if the guarantee was not a sustained success for the Hurricanes, a number of minor league teams offer guarantees as a marketing tool. Some such guarantees include a guaranteed victory night, guaranteed warm weather night, and guaranteed gift night for all fans. The idea entails reaching out to the fans and showing that the team cares.

228  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Marketing New Facilities In the case of a new sport facility, facility manag- ers must undertake significant marketing efforts to win over those who will be crucial for the project’s success. In the earliest stages, this type of marketing targets existing and potential investors. Investors need to be informed about any changes that could affect the project and their investment. Once a facility is planned or under construction, however, the marketing emphasis switches to those who will use and surround the facility. For example, local residents need to know what is going on and how the facility will affect them. Facility managers do not want to surprise resi- dents with a completed plan, as this will almost always lead to backlash rather than support. Through press conferences, mailers, open houses, and other techniques, the local community can be educated about the facility.

Local politicians also need to be kept abreast of the facility’s progress and plans. Marketing in this regard can include taking politicians on a tour of the facility. Although this is common and is a useful tool for marketing a facility and generating

support, it can also border on unethical behavior. If politicians are influenced by such activity and support a project purely for their own gain, there could be potential legal and political problems. Ethical marketing goes beyond just trying to build a facility and determining whether the decision makers can be bribed to build a certain facility in one county versus another. Ethical issues also affect who may get the facility naming rights, construction contract, and management contract, as well as whether beer or cigarette advertise- ments will be allowed in the facility. Any ethical breach can quickly lead to customer backlashes and voter distrust.

A central focus of a new facility’s marketing campaign is developing the facility’s identity. For example, the Toronto Blue Jays launched a contest to name their new facility. Numerous fans sug- gested the name SkyDome, so these contestants’ names were put into a drawing and the winner received two season tickets for life. A facility’s identity goes beyond just a name, however, often focusing on its image and reputation. How should the community and external entities perceive the facility? Will the facility be known as a health

Behind the Scenes

Behind the scenes: giveaways and safety Although it is important to entertain the crowd, care has to be taken to make sure fans are not injured. There are documented cases of people engaging in the dizzy bat promotions and getting injured when they later stumble to reach the finish line. Fans can also be injured in pro- motional events; a peanut vendor may throw a bag of nuts that hits someone in the head, and people can be injured when hot dogs or T-shirts are shot through air- pressurized cannons. In fact, Billy the Marlin, the Florida Marlins’ mascot, along with the team, was sued by a fan who was hit in the eye by a fired rolled-up T-shirt. The fan sued the team for $250,000, and the jury, after deliberat- ing for nearly two days, ruled in favor of the team (“Billy the Marlin,” 2003).

In a promotion at Bank One Ballpark, some anti- tobacco-campaign squeezable balls were tossed from the broadcasting booth during the seventh inning stretch. Some landed next to an older fan, and in an effort to obtain the balls, the woman was knocked over by a zealous fan. The woman needed surgery on her knees, and the team learned a valuable lesson. Although a promotion might be for a good cause, if there is a chance of injury the promo-

tion should be cancelled or redesigned to eliminate the potential risks.

Additionally, all special events should be carefully analyzed to examine their potential impact on safety. A ball giveaway can possibly arm an entire stadium with projectiles that people can throw at each other or the play- ers. One of the craziest promotions—and one that went far out of control—was the Cleveland Indians’ 10-Cent Beer Night in 1974. More than 25,000 fans showed up for the game, and many were drunk before they even reached the stadium. The team made money selling an estimated 60,000 cups of beer (10 ounces [0.3 L] each). As early as the first inning, an explosion was heard in the stands. In the fourth inning, a nude man slid into second base. In the fifth inning, a father and son team jumped onto the field and mooned the crowd. With the game tied in the ninth inning, fans rushed the field and surrounded Texas Rang- ers slugger Jeff Burroughs, and punches were exchanged. Thousands of drunken fans poured onto the field and battled with police, players, and one another. Ultimately the game was called by the umpire, who himself was hit in the head with a chair (Hruby, 2002).

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  229

club for serious weightlifters or one for older people interested in cardiovascular rehabilita- tion? No marketing effort can be undertaken until the facility can establish or remake its identity. A facility can use market segmentation to position itself within the intended target market. This can be seen with Gold’s Gym, which has heavily pro- moted shirts that show big muscles to highlight their emphasis on free weights and a gym to help people pump up their muscle mass. This strategy contrasts significantly with that of other gyms such as 24 Hour Fitness, which tries to highlight sexy people working on toned bodies with interval and machine workouts.

Attracting Anchor Tenants Facilities also need to constantly market them- selves to attract major tenants. A sport team at a stadium or arena is an anchor tenant. Anchor tenants can leave, or threaten to leave, and this pressure becomes a bargaining chip for better con- tractual terms. A facility can strengthen its position by constantly exploring potential tenant options. Facilities learn about potential new tenants from new owners, those wishing to relocate a team, or leagues interested in expanding into new markets. For example, in 2000 New Haven and Bridgeport, Connecticut, were battling to win a new Arena Football League 2 (AFL2) franchise. The AFL had awarded a franchise to the area, and both markets were actively pursuing the team. New Haven won the bidding battle in part by offering to pay all the marketing expenses for the team. Bridgeport lost the bidding war but designed the arena it was build- ing without a center scoreboard anyway in case the team ever decided to move from New Haven to Bridgeport, about 15 miles (24 km) away. After only two seasons the New Haven Coliseum closed. The AFL2 team, having lost its home, attempted to negotiate with Bridgeport to move the team. Those negotiations broke down, and the team folded.

Current tenants can be kept happy if they are provided with lucrative contractual terms such as controlling a facility schedule or being allowed to keep all the revenue from parking or naming rights. There is no one method to keep a tenant or event promoter happy. However, complying with the contractual terms and keeping the facility in good condition are keys to keeping both parties satisfied with the contractual relationship.

It is not enough just to land a major tenant for a sport facility. The facility needs to keep promoting

and marketing itself to its current and future ten- ants or events. Once a primary tenant is landed, it is usually easier to attract other events and ten- ants, especially if the primary tenant is successful. Some markets are not strong sport markets. For example, minor league baseball and hockey have traditionally had a tough time succeeding in New Haven. A new team would be reluctant to consider coming to New Haven unless an established team or facility had already proven that the market can support the entity.

Attracting Events A facility can make money only if activities are going on in the facility. With a large stadium or arena, revenue can be generated by attracting shows, concerts, conventions, theatrical produc- tions, and sporting events. Small facilities may not be able to draw such events but can hold special events such as fund-raisers, recitals, community plays, and other smaller events that generate revenue and increase exposure without incurring significant cost.

The first step is determining what events should be brought in and what events should be excluded. An arena may be very interested in attracting a circus, for example, but may find the demographics or security concerns associated with a rock or rap concert undesirable. Other events may be rejected because of political pressure, among other factors. A facility on the campus of a religious school would probably be marketed to a significantly different group of potential events than a public facility. Once an acceptable event has been identified, the event needs to be booked.

Booking is the actual contracting of an act or event in the facility. The booking process secures specific space for a specific date and time for an agreed amount of compensation. Booking can occur only if the facility is available, but it entails more than just checking availability. A facility needs to assess an event’s quality, the terms of the contract, a promoter’s reputation, and other variables. A facility can also copromote an event, but such a relationship is unusual.

Scheduling refers to identifying and secur- ing the specific dates and times for the event. All marketing efforts to attract additional events revolve around the scheduling needs of the anchor tenant. No matter how much a facility and event want to work together, if the space is being used by an anchor tenant such as a professional team,

230  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

the event cannot proceed. Typically, facilities utilize diverse scheduling to provide the best mix of events. A facility will have a hard time market- ing 15 concerts in a two-week period compared to different events that attract different crowds each night. Different events bring different spectators. A family event may generate more food sales, while a hockey game could generate more beer sales. Booking leverages the scheduling process to maximize revenue.

A facility manager needs to identify the facil- ity’s goals and objectives to make sure that the marketing and booking efforts comply with those goals and objectives. If a facility is in charge of bringing nightlife to a city, then more night events may be scheduled. However, the tenant often makes such decisions, especially if it is a profes- sional sport team with a broadcasting agreement to air games at night. Competitive seasons and touring schedules also affect a facility manager’s ability to attract certain events. Regardless of what it is, once the event is set, the facility manager and the marketing staff, along with the event’s marketing staff, must coordinate their efforts to maximize ticket sales. These efforts will be directed at individual ticket buyers and often at groups, who represent the greatest opportunity to sell more tickets with the least amount of effort.

Developing Relationships Part of the selling process entails developing relationships. Relationships need to be developed both with teams or acts and with promoters. A pro- motions company such as SFX manages numerous facilities and events and can help determine what events will play in what cities based on booking patterns and dates. This does not mean that a facility will be excluded from potential dates; but if a relationship is developed, event dates can be coordinated to help benefit all facilities. By developing strong relationships, hopefully facil- ity management can schedule competing events such as circuses, which may play at different times of the year and appeal to different patrons (e.g., Cirque du Soleil versus Ringling Bros.).

Often smaller facilities also need to attract new members and retain existing members. In health clubs, especially, customer turnover is a constant concern. Some larger clubs are constantly adver- tising to attract new members but are not market- ing enough to existing customers. This creates a revolving door of clients and promotes little

goodwill or loyalty. Facilities can minimize loss of patrons by developing relationships through surveying and interviewing fans or patrons to determine what they want from the facility and then providing it, within limits. Thus, making patrons part of the process helps create a bond that can make them believe they are respected, which can lead to very loyal customers.

Facility managers need to cultivate numerous relationships. Having an event sign a long-term contract is one of the primary goals for a booking specialist. If events sign only short-term contracts, the facility is constantly working to attract new events. This is much less desirable than knowing that particular events will be coming back every year. Some acts enter into a long-term contract to obtain a better price. A facility may charge an event 10% of the gross receipts if it is a one-time show. In contrast, if a well-known event signs a 15-year agreement, the facility may charge only 5% of the gross receipts.

Sales The purpose of facility marketing efforts typically focuses on selling items or experiences. It is not enough that people know about a facility; the goal is for them to go to the facility as customers. This process involves identifying potential pur- chasers, communicating the value of going to the facility, and then closing the deal by having them buy tickets. The sales process aims at completing the marketing process by having the customer decide that the price and timing are right to make a purchase. Many variables enter into closing the marketing process with a sale. Timing, standings, special events, giveaways, price options, and other variables can help finalize the sale.

For many the marketing process ends with selling a ticket, product, or membership, but most executives would disagree and would argue that the marketing process is only partially completed with the sale. After the sale, the marketing effort needs to continue to make sure that the customer has a good experience, as cognitive dissonance (buyer’s remorse) can kill future buying from the same customer. For example, a fan could have a miserable time at a facility. That fan might never return. However, if management knows the fan had a bad time, management can take a proac- tive step to win back the fan. Maybe the fan can be offered a free ticket to a future game or some

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  231

other incentive. One minor league baseball team executive carries around the stadium numerous single dollar bills. Whenever he hears someone complain about parking, he offers to refund the several dollars it cost to park at the stadium. Even though the city receives the parking revenue, he believes it is more important to make the fans happy so they will come back to another game regardless of the parking hassle. In fact, most fans who receive such funds spend them at the facility and tell others about how the team executive was looking out for their best interests. Such a small act can create intense customer loyalty.

Commercial rights, such as sponsorship and signage, or naming and pouring, which will both be discussed later in this chapter, are all assets that can be sold by the facility to generate funds. Most facilities built in the past 25 years for professional or collegiate teams (and even some high schools) have sold naming rights, luxury suites, or other assets. Some assets, such as the naming rights for a facility or a sponsorship designation, are intangible. Other assets are real, such as tickets, luxury boxes, or even the old basketball floor at a famous arena.

Ticketing Professional and collegiate sport teams generate revenue primarily from broadcast rights and ticket sales. Tickets are a consistent revenue source when a team has a die-hard following. Teams with a weak fan base have a harder time generating rev- enue from ticket sales. This has led to mini season ticket and specialty game packages designed to attract infrequent fans. No matter how many tickets or what types of tickets are sold, facili- ties need to develop a ticket inventory and then sell the inventory. This requires computer-based systems that can communicate between various ticket-selling locations such as team stores and ticket outlets. With new computer-based systems, each ticket seller knows what tickets are available (ticket inventory) and can print tickets.

Ticket sales have changed with new market- ing techniques. For example, years ago the only means to buy a ticket was to obtain a hard copy of a single game ticket. Now fans can buy tickets online (as discussed later), purchase luxury suites that often require tickets, or obtain personal seat licenses (PSLs). With a broad range of seating

One◾of◾the◾prime◾marketing◾locations◾to◾promote◾a◾sponsor◾is◾the◾scoreboard. Photo◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

232  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

options available, a facility has to carefully exam- ine pricing strategies and ticket delivery options.

Seat Pricing

Tickets have increased significantly in cost over the past 50 years. A seat at Dodger Stadium cost $3.50 per game in 1962 and had increased to $31.00 per game by 2000, a 785.7% increase. Major League Baseball tickets averaged $8.64 each in 1991 and had increased to $14.91 by 1999. By 2008 the average MLB ticket price was $25.40. Such increases pale in comparison to some other average ticket prices such as those in the NFL, which increased from $25.21 (1991) to $45.63 (1999) and then to $62.38 in 2008; the NBA, which increased from $23.24 to $48.37 and then slowed down to $48.83; and the NHL, which increased from $32.75 to $45.70 and then to $48.72 during the same time (“NBA Ticket Prices,” 1999; Team Marketing Report, 2009). Baseball has been rela- tively inexpensive compared with other sports because of a larger ticket inventory based on more seats in a facility and a large number of games. In the NFL there are only a few games each year, and every game has potential playoff ramifica- tions. The concept of supply and demand and the law of diminishing returns both affect the price for tickets.

Pricing, though, should not be examined in a vacuum. Many collegiate football programs charge significantly less for student tickets. This is designed to accomplish two primary missions. One is to reward the students who are helping to underwrite the athletic programs through increased tuition or fees. The second is to develop a strong following so that when the students become alumni they will remain dedicated fans willing to pay a higher price for tickets and hope- fully donate back to the program at a later date. Similarly, professional teams often give free tick- ets to fans they want to attract to buy season pack- ages, PSLs, or luxury seats. A small investment in free tickets can generate goodwill and larger future sales. It should be noted that free tickets to events may not necessarily be free if the tickets are taxed and the facility or team needs to pay a set tax per ticket.

Other parties can also dictate ticket prices. If the team or facility sets the ticket price, the pro- cess is called house scale. If a promoter indicates that tickets have to be sold at a given face value, this is called performance scale. Either option is

usable at the box office, but ticket prices also must take into account any surcharges for Ticketron or other outlets and the various taxes that may need to be charged.

Ticketing Methods

The technological advancements of the Internet provide venues and ticket-selling organizations an innovative way to sell tickets. The goal is to make ticket purchasing fast and easy for consumers. Selling online has created a new opportunity to reach consumers and establish relationships. Tick- ets can be printed at home, and some European companies have developed systems that can send a ticket right to a fan’s cell phone. The phone is then placed next to a scanner to open the turnstile.

The ticket companies Paciolan and Tickets. com entered into an agreement with VAST (Value Automated Systems Ticketing) in April 2001. VAST developed the attendant-free automated ticket and teller machine (ATTM). The machine can dispense tickets as well as function as an ATM. The customer has the option of using a credit card or cash to purchase tickets. Machines have been installed inside and outside selected sport venues. The first such machine was installed in Pacific Bell Park, home of the San Francisco Giants, and was a main reason that the Giants won the box office of the year award at a major ticket- ing conference. Another system advantage is the opportunity to collect extra revenue by owning the ATM services rather than giving away ATM rights as part of a sponsorship package. Major League Baseball entered into a deal with Tickets. com in 2001 to increase the amount of marketing data MLB collects. Tickets.com handled the online ticket sales for 15 MLB teams in 2001 (Herrick, 2001). Tickets.com currently sells tickets for 4,000 venues and teams.

Another company, Ticketmaster, created a way for customers to print their own tickets, and by the end of 2001 the service was being used by more than 100 venues. Tickets could be printed from the customer’s home computer, and the venues utilize a system to read the bar code to validate the ticket. With this development, venues could also add more value to the ticket price by includ- ing extra items such as parking and concessions on the same bar-coded ticket.

A new product that is being developed is the “virtual wristband,” which allows fans to purchase tickets before the event goes on sale. This will help

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  233

promoters get an idea of the demand for tickets and how they should be priced. The Internet is expected to be the dominant method of ticket selling in the future. In 1997, Ticketmaster’s first year of selling tickets online, the company sold 1.1 million tickets. In just three years, that number jumped to 19.7 million tickets (Herrick, 2001).

Box Office As already mentioned, tickets can be sold in vari- ous forms. However, the regular paper ticket is still the primary means by which people attend an event or facility. Thus, one of the important managerial components for any facility with a ticketing revenue source is box office manage- ment. The box office represents the connection between the facility and the fans and needs to be managed appropriately to avoid upset clients, disappointed fans, and lost revenue. The box office is responsible for helping to determine what types of tickets will be sold for an event. Will there be general admission, along with all the problems associated with people pushing for the best seat they can find, or will the event have reserved seating? Can tickets be ordered over the phone and picked up at the will-call window? How will entry passes be distributed to the media? Are the box office attendants trained to answer questions beyond those about tickets? How many ticket booths will be used, and where will they be located to ease congestion and reduce lines? Who will establish the appropriate ticket prices and the taxes charged on the tickets?

Resale and Scalping The San Francisco Giants developed a resale system whereby their season ticket holders can resell tickets on the Internet. A season ticket holder can post unwanted tickets on the Giants’ Web site, and people wishing to purchase tickets can buy them online. At the end of the year, season ticket holders will have fewer unused and unsold tickets and hopefully renew for next season. Other teams have developed similar systems to help cut out the middleman or scalper.

Although scalpers are a reality, in most cases numerous laws restrict their activities. Some laws limit the premium that can be charged over the issue price; other laws limit where scalpers can sell tickets. A facility manager needs to work with local law enforcement to enforce the law but still allow legitimate fans the opportunity to sell extra tickets. The online exchanges developed by

teams like the Giants allow ticket holders to sell tickets without risking arrest or losing the right to buy future tickets. One of the most powerful ticket resellers is StubHub.com, which is owned by eBay. StubHub has created numerous strategic relationships, but many teams have established their own reselling networks and bar fans from selling with anyone else.

Luxury Seating Luxury boxes and suites are often several hundred square feet of paradise. Offering scaled-down fur- niture to make the suites look larger, these mini high-tech centers provide luxury for those who can afford it. Besides containing normally 12 to 16 seats, the suites or boxes also offer televisions, fireplaces, pool tables, video games, and premier food services (Dorsey, 2001). Part of the appeal associated with the luxury suites is that they are a place to be and to be seen. With corporate America playing a major role in sport facilities, the amount of money spent on luxury suites and seating areas is one of the “cash cows” for sport facilities. Spectators at an arena or stadium may spend on average $7 to $8 per capita (per person) on food; the per capita average for those in a luxury suite is around $30 (Dorsey, 1999). The cost associated with a luxury suite can range from $50,000 to more than $500,000 annually. The 146 suites at the American Airlines Center in Dallas range in price from $150,000 to $250,000 for five-, seven-, or nine-year leases. The suites come with touch-screen monitors, TV monitors with live feed, wet bars, exclusive restrooms, private concourses, VIP parking, and concierge service (Dorsey, 2001). The suites were an integral component of financing the facility. The initial construction price was projected at $230 million but increased to $335 million due in part to major changes such as expanding the facility by 100,000 square feet (9,290 sq m), which increased the cost by $17.5 million. Dallas was obligated to pay $125 million of the total construction costs from hotel and car rental taxes (“American Airlines Center,” 2001). The new Yankee Stadium was selling suites for as much as $850,000 a year.

Personal seat licenses (PSLs) were first intro- duced in the 1980s at the Palace of Auburn Hills, Detroit; the facility was built with more than 100 suites and a number of club seats. It is estimated that PSLs helped raise more than $500 million for building stadiums and arenas in the 1990s

234  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

(Hall, 2001). However, PSLs provide much more. On average, a new facility is built such that about 16% of the seats are premium seats (Dorsey, 1999).

The major difference in luxury seating is not just the seat location but also how much each seat can earn. Assume that a typical premium seat can generate ticket revenue of $75 versus $25 for an average ticket. The ticket income appears to be three times higher, but the actual number is much greater with the $30 expenditure on food and beverages. This is only the tip of the proverbial iceberg, as the $75 ticket holder will probably also pay for a seat license and is more likely to renew ticket contracts, spend more on merchandise, and have a business relationship with the team or facility. The change in the economy has decreased the demand for PSLs, however. The New Jersey Jets tried to auction their PSLs online before their new stadium opened. Although the team sold 620 PSLs for $16 million, it had been hoping to sell 2,000 (“Jets Earn,” 2008).

One concern with PSLs is that a seat is in fact an asset for the PSL holder. Several major court battles have been fought over the right to control PSLs during divorce cases, and at least one court held that a collegiate PSL was owned by the team, even though the couple had paid thousands of dollars to purchase the rights to buy the PSL seats. Similarly, what happens if the PSL holder runs into financial hardship? Does a team or facility have any mechanism to help sell the PSL for the fan, or will the fan stop paying and the seat go empty? The Denver Broncos actually sued some of their PSL holders for not paying their contractual obligations. Although such a strategy may not be endearing to fans, the team gave the fans several chances to correct the problem, to no avail (“Bron- cos Sue,” 2002).

Commercial Rights

Some of the primary intangible benefits for a facil- ity include the right to put a name on the facility, the right to conduct activities there, and the right to sell drinks. Although commercial rights are primar- ily associated with large facilities at the collegiate and professional levels, a storm of controversy has erupted over the selling of rights at the high school level to put corporate names on buildings or sell only one brand of soda. Because of finan- cial demands, state and federal government units have tested the market for selling naming rights to national monuments, state parks, and airports.

Naming Rights

Naming rights are somewhat controversial. A city or municipality may pay the bulk of the construc- tion expense, and citizens should be recognized for their contributions. That is why so many older stadiums and arenas were named after people from the community as a tribute to their participa- tion in a war. With the building boom of the 1990s, anchor tenants at large stadiums and arenas were asked to contribute funds to the building process. Many municipalities allowed the teams to sell the naming rights and use those funds as part of their contribution to the construction effort. The name was an asset the municipality could have sold to reduce the public obligation; but in order to entice teams to stay, the municipalities were willing to transfer the asset to the teams. However, some facilities such as historic Lambeau Field in Green Bay and Soldier Field in Chicago have kept their names. Other teams believe their stadium name is an asset in itself such as Fenway Park and Yankee Stadium.

Another controversy associated with naming rights has to do with the strength of the sponsor. The Houston Astros’ field was named after Enron, which became a disadvantage when the company collapsed. At the same time, other companies faced similar scandals, and these controversies significantly affected several facilities. Enron had agreed to a deal worth $100 million for 30 years. PSINet Stadium in Baltimore was part of a $105.5 million, 20-year deal before PSINet collapsed. Adelphia Coliseum in Nashville did not last long before the company went bankrupt. Mergers and bankruptcies can also affect naming rights. The TWA Dome in St. Louis was changed to Edward Jones Dome after TWA filed for bankruptcy; TWA had agreed to a 20-year, $36.7 million naming rights contract (Sieger and Patel, 2001).

Selling naming rights is a form of corporate sponsorship. North American companies were expected to spend $8.7 billion on sponsorship in 2000. Before the economic collapse in late 2008, total sponsorship spending in North America was expected to be $16.78 billion (Klayman, 2008). Sponsors provide either cash or an in-kind asset such as advertising in an effort to improve the fortune of the company or product sponsoring the facility. Sponsorship is not philanthropy. The company doing the sponsorship is expecting something in return, whereas philanthropy is a one-way gift without any expectation. Because

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  235

there exists an expectation of receiving something of value in exchange for the sponsorship, the process is more like a business transaction than a gift. Thus, there are numerous tax implications associated with sponsorship.

Naming rights can range from several hundred thousand to millions of dollars (see table 10.1). The value of such deals is based on multiple variables, including the following:

◾ The length of the contract, which normally runs for 20 to 30 years

◾ The type of facility, events, anchor tenants, or teams

◾ Whether the deal involves only cash or also a trade-out of services

◾ What tie-in marketing strategies and cam- paigns will be used (Sieger and Patel, 2001)

Table 10.1 some of the largest stadium naming rights deals

Facility location deal value (millions of dollars) deal length (years)

Citi◾Field New◾York $400 20

Barclays◾Center◾(yet◾to◾be◾built◾ home◾of◾the◾Nets)

New◾York $400 20

Reliant◾Park Houston $300 30◾

FedEx◾Field Virginia◾(D.C.) $205 27

American◾Airlines◾Center Dallas $195 30◾

Philips◾Arena Atlanta $168 20

University◾of◾Phoenix◾Stadium Phoenix $154.5 20

Lincoln◾Financial◾Field Philadelphia◾ $140 20

Invesco◾Field◾at◾Mile◾High Denver $120 20

PSINet◾Stadium Baltimore $105.5 20

Minute◾Maid◾Park Houston $100 30

Staples◾Center Los◾Angeles $100 20

Gillette◾Stadium Boston $95 15

Gaylord◾Entertainment◾Center Nashville $80 20

RBC◾Center Raleigh $80 20

Xcel◾Energy◾Center St.◾Paul $75 25

Compaq◾Center◾at◾San◾Jose San◾Jose $72 18

Savvis◾Center St.◾Louis $70 20

Pepsi◾Center Denver $68 20

Bank◾One◾Ballpark Phoenix $66 30

Comerica◾Park Detroit $66 30

Edison◾International◾Field Anaheim $50 20

Pacific◾Bell◾Park San◾Francisco $50 24

Tropicana◾Field St.◾Petersburg $46 30

Air◾Canada◾Centre Toronto $45◾(Canadian◾dollars) 15

MCI◾Center Washington,◾D.C. $44 13

American◾Airlines◾Arena Miami $42 20

Miller◾Park Milwaukee $41.2 20

Conseco◾Fieldhouse Indianapolis $40 20

CoreStates◾Center Philadelphia $40 29

First◾Union◾Center Philadelphia $40 31

Ford◾Stadium Detroit $40 40

Safeco◾Field Seattle $40 20

From◾Stadium & arena sponsorship,◾2002.

236  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Some deals have focused just on local busi- nesses in an effort to be civic minded. For example, the Heinz Company paid $57 million to name the new stadium in Pittsburgh, where Heinz is headquartered. The amount of $57 mil- lion was appropriate because Heinz is known for its company slogan “57 varieties.” The ownership of the FleetCenter’s sponsoring bank changed in 2008, and while the center was without a name, it auctioned off online daily naming rights. Thus, a fan could bid (starting at $25) to put his name on the scoreboard, the Web site, and the facility’s automated phone system. This gave fans an oppor- tunity to more meaningfully engage the facility and the teams playing in it.

The key to valuing any asset is usually what the market will bear, and the market is often very fickle. During good economic times, naming rights and other assets are often easy to sell. How- ever, during tough economic times they can be almost impossible to sell. Thus, the $57 million may seem gimmicky or appear to be an overpay- ment, but the facility and Heinz had specific

strategies that justified assigning that value to the rights deal.

No matter what the strategy is, rights raise some serious financial issues. For example, an impor- tant commercial rights issue involves how the IRS will classify the sponsorship or advertising revenue. If the facility provides significant benefit to the sponsor, the money received from the spon- sor may be taxed as unrelated business income. The unrelated business income tax is currently around 28%. Ohio State University received more than $1 million from advertisements on its football stadium goalposts from various sponsors. The IRS concluded that the activity of promoting the sponsors on the scoreboard did not support the university’s educational mission and was not related to the nonprofit purpose of the university, so the university had to pay 28% of the $1 million as unrelated business income tax (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

One needs to evaluate many other issues when determining the price of sponsorship. For example, will the sponsor be a name sponsor for

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: giants stadium naming Fiasco Allianz is a German corporation that was the front-runner to secure naming rights to the new Giants and Jets football stadium in the Meadowlands. Allianz acknowledges its historic ties to Nazi Germany, so when the news broke that the insurance and finance company was possibly acquiring the naming rights to the stadium, a public outcry

erupted in New York, where there exists a large Jewish community. Even though Allianz was willing to pay $30 million a year, and there was no other potential naming rights deal in the same financial neighborhood, the teams declined the offer.

To reduce sticker shock for some potential sponsors (Citi has bought the naming rights for the Mets’ stadium for $20 million a year), the Jets and Giants have tried to sell the stadium’s corners to four “cornerstone partners”’ and sell the right to name the entire facility to a “naming partner.” The four cornerstone partners would receive advertising on each of the 5,000-square-foot (465 sq m) corner scoreboards and in the stadium from the field to the parking lot (Kuriloff, 2007).

The Cleveland Browns have followed the same strat- egy, and instead of selling the stadium’s naming rights, they sold the name for each of the four main gates. Tick- ets to a Browns game direct fans to the Cleveland Clinic gate, National City Bank gate, CoreComm gate, or Steris Corp. gate.

AP◾Photo/Mike◾Derer

Marketing◾and◾Sales◾ ■  237

the facility or just have its name on several bill- boards? The price is often based on the number of impressions that can be expected. Table 10.2 lists some of the industry norms for costs associated with each impression received. An impression refers to how many people may be exposed to the message. If there are 1,000 people at a game, it is assumed that everyone would see an outfield sign at least once, which means there would be at least 1,000 impressions. It is assumed that through these impressions a fan may form an opinion to purchase a product.

Pouring Rights Assets can also include the right to conduct busi- ness in the facility such as selling concessions or pouring rights, or facility management rights. Pouring rights are often paid by beer and soft drink companies to gain the exclusive right to sell their product in the facility. Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones created a controversy when he signed Pepsi as the official soft drink for Texas Stadium, even though Coca-Cola was the official sponsor of the NFL. Because of this deal, the NFL–Coca-Cola contract was not renewed, and some teams lost significant money when teams or facilities had entered into individual contracts (Sullivan, 1995). Companies are willing to pur- chase assets in the hope of selling more products. Ogden Facility Management helped build the Arrowhead Pond in Anaheim for the Mighty Ducks. The concession company was interested in being part of the facility since it had a contract giving it exclusive rights to manage the facility and sell concessions for 30 years (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

Since the number of drinks sold at an NFL

stadium or other major facility is immense, it is worthwhile for the sponsor to buy pouring rights to generate a perceived sales volume and also to gain valuable marketing exposure from involve- ment with a professional team. Because of the success associated with pouring rights, a number of other rights have been sold; for example, a company may be the official hot dog or pretzel provider.

Advertising Sales Selling advertising rights can be a major market- ing hurdle. Advertising is easy to sell when the facility can prove a direct correlation between the advertisement and sales. If a given advertis- ing campaign at the facility helps generate sales, there may be a possible direct correlation that can be measured. If the impact can be measured and is greater than the advertising investment, then the advertising buy was worthwhile on a cost–benefit basis. For example, advertisements in a facility promoting a specific hot dog can be valued based on the number of those hot dogs sold at the facility. However, advertising is often purchased for strategic reasons, unrelated to cost– benefit analysis. If a company wants to preclude a competitor from advertising at a venue, it will pay more than the advertisement is really worth just to preempt the competitor.

Advertising is typically priced on the basis of the anticipated exposure. If a baseball team will bring in two million fans and will have 20 games broadcast on national television, the team can estimate what the perceived value of an outfield sign may be on a per exposure basis. Using such an analysis, a team that draws more fans or more broadcasts will typically charge more for signs, and signs will be more expensive based on where they are located. For example, left field signs are seen more on television when a primarily right- handed team is batting, since more balls will be hit to left than to right.

Facilities are always developing new means to generate advertising revenue. Some facilities are starting to use virtual advertising to increase revenue. This advertising can appear in the out- field or behind home plate at a baseball stadium. To those in the stadium the blue background is plain, but an advertisement can be imposed on the background during the broadcast. The same technology has been used in other sports such as football and tennis.

Table 10.2 industry cost norms per impression

activity cost per impression

Public◾service◾◾ announcements

$.0025-.05

Banners $.0025-.05

Printing◾name◾on◾ticket $.05

Logo◾on◾brochure $.0025-.05

Sponsor◾ad Varies

Coupon $.05-.10

Sample◾products $.075-.15

From◾Moler◾2001.◾

238  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Summary Some◾think◾that◾if◾they◾open◾a◾sport◾facility,◾people◾will◾come—as◾with◾the◾fictional◾ baseball◾ diamond◾ in◾ a◾ cornfield.◾ However,◾ an◾ imaginary◾ baseball◾ field◾ does◾ not◾ correlate◾with◾the◾reality◾of◾a◾competitive◾entertainment◾marketplace.◾To◾start◾the◾ marketing◾process,◾a◾facility◾needs◾to◾determine◾what◾assets◾or◾products◾it◾has◾to◾ sell.◾The◾four◾Ps◾help◾define◾the◾product◾and◾its◾attributes.◾The◾facility◾then◾needs◾to◾ determine◾who◾the◾customers◾are◾and◾how◾to◾reach◾them.◾By◾developing◾a◾unique◾ sport◾experience,◾a◾facility◾can◾more◾easily◾market◾itself,◾whether◾it◾is◾a◾new◾facility◾ or◾a◾facility◾trying◾to◾attract◾new◾tenants,◾acts,◾or◾customers.

The◾marketing◾process◾moves◾to◾the◾sales◾area◾in◾which◾tickets,◾memberships,◾ naming◾rights,◾luxury◾seats,◾and◾other◾assets◾need◾to◾be◾sold.◾The◾marketing◾process◾ is◾not◾about◾selling◾a◾ticket◾or◾a◾single◾facility◾use—it◾is◾about◾an◾experience.◾This◾ requires◾ the◾ marketing◾ effort◾ to◾ constantly◾ enhance◾ and◾ modify◾ the◾ product◾ to◾ encourage◾additional◾consumption◾of◾the◾facility◾experience.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  How◾would◾you◾market◾a◾health◾club◾in◾the◾South◾versus◾the◾east◾coast◾or◾

west◾coast?

  2.  What◾additional◾assets◾(both◾tangible◾and◾intangible)◾can◾a◾facility◾sell?   3.  What◾can◾a◾small◾stadium◾do◾to◾market◾itself◾without◾spending◾a◾lot◾of◾

money?

  4.  Develop◾a◾marketing◾plan◾for◾a◾local◾sport◾team◾(high◾school,◾college,◾ professional).◾The◾class◾should◾divide◾into◾groups.◾Half◾of◾the◾groups◾should◾ choose◾a◾team◾with◾a◾winning◾record,◾and◾the◾other◾half◾of◾the◾groups◾ should◾choose◾a◾team◾with◾a◾losing◾record.

  5.  Interview◾the◾owner◾or◾manager◾of◾a◾sport◾facility◾who◾has◾had◾to◾close◾the◾ facility,◾and◾analyze◾the◾reasons◾given◾for◾closing◾the◾facility.

11

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾the◾basics◾of◾sport◾facility◾finance.

◾◾ Know◾how◾to◾prepare◾and◾follow◾a◾budget.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾new◾stadiums◾and◾arenas◾are◾funded.

◾◾ Apply◾the◾concepts◾of◾basic◾time◾value◾of◾money◾and◾capital◾project◾ analysis◾to◾various◾building◾options.

Finance and Budgeting

240  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Ken Wajda, and I am the vice pres- ident of finance for Global Spectrum, a public assem- bly facility management company. Our company is based in Philadelphia, and today we manage more than 80 public assembly facilities around the world, primarily arenas, stadiums, and con- vention centers. I have been

in the sport and building management business for the last nine years. After graduating with a degree in accounting, I started my professional career in public accounting, where I earned my CPA designation. Then, I accepted a position with Global Spectrum’s parent company, Comcast-Spectacor, which allowed me to apply my accounting skills in the sport and entertainment field. I spent my first several years doing tax work for each of Comcast-Spectacor’s divi- sions, including professional teams, arenas, television production, facility management, food and beverage, ticketing, and commercial rights sales. I then entered my current position with Global Spectrum, where I oversee all financial matters of our company.

My responsibilities include the following:

◾ Oversee financial reporting for the facilities Global Spectrum manages

◾ Hire and direct on-site facility finance depart- ments

◾ Set financial policy for the facilities Global Spectrum manages

◾ Review and approve budgets

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As a facility management company, Global Spectrum manages financial reporting for multiple venues. This allows us to benchmark certain finan- cial data and use the data as a basis for expectations for other similar facilities. These data may be useful for evaluating the success of an event in an exist- ing venue, or they may also be used to predict the results for a venue that has yet to be built. When someone is looking to build a new facility, the fore- casted operating cash flow plays a key role in the financing plan and may, in some cases, ultimately determine whether or not the facility is ever built. A facility represents an extremely large investment of capital, and a facility owner is rightfully seeking some financial return on the investment or the abil- ity to use cash flow from operations for debt service.

Evaluating the financial performance of any operation is certainly critical to its success. Financial performance is among the top goals of any facility owner, and that is why budgeting plays such an important role in a facility. The budget serves as a roadmap for where you want to go financially. If things start to stray from budgeted expectations, the facility operators must be quick to react.

As finance professionals, we play a very impor- tant role in the management of a facility. We touch every aspect of the business in some way. We work with all departments—from operations to box office to marketing—and ensure fiscal responsibility among all disciplines. We are not just counting dol- lars. We are business advisors, and it is our financial reporting that drives business decisions. Our report- ing may indicate that we need to tighten the belt on expenses, or it may dictate a need for expansion. That’s the importance of the finance role.

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  241

Facilities cannot function without money. Money is needed to plan, build, open, operate, and maintain facilities. The problem is that there is often no guarantee that money will be avail- able to keep a facility operating. Some facilities, such as government facilities, may appear to have deep public pockets. However, that appearance is misleading, as most public facilities have tighter budgets than private facilities. The major empha- sis in this chapter is on determining what money is available for a facility and how to establish what funds are needed through the budgeting process.

The chapter starts by examining basic financial concepts such as revenue and expenses, used to determine where money comes from and what the primary expenses for a facility are. Financial analysis is then covered in terms of measuring financial progress through income statements, bal- ance sheets, cash flow analysis, and reconciliation statements. The chapter then turns to the basics of budgeting, with a focus on reducing expenditures and increasing revenue generation in accordance with preestablished criteria. A key area within the budgeting process is the capital budget and deciding which new facility option makes the most financial sense. The chapter then examines how to finance building a facility and the various sources of such funds. The final section covers what is often unthinkable—what if the facility fails and has to be sold?

Financial Concepts Finance can be considered a language unto itself. There are very specific financial terms that are not well known. This section presents some specific terms that are important to know to grasp the rest of the chapter.

It should be noted that accounting and finance are completely different fields. Accounting is the process of calculating how much money a facil- ity may have. Revenue, money obtained by the facility from selling assets (see chapter 10), and expenses, payments made by the facility, need to be calculated to see if the facility has made money. This calculation process is very rigid. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) categorize all revenues and expenses. Finance, on the other hand, utilizes the numbers obtained by the accountants to determine the facility’s future direction. The analyses conducted by financial analysts focus on developing a roadmap for the

future based on past financial information and projected financial performance. This process is called budgeting. Thus, a budget is a roadmap for the facility executives to help them reach the facility’s goals.

A budget is not the only document produced by financial analysts. Various types of financial statements are designed to tell the story of the facility. An income statement highlights the profit earned from all sales minus the cost of producing the events, taxes, and other expenses. A balance sheet explains how much a facility is worth and is based on two primary terms, assets and liabili- ties. An asset is something of value such as land, naming rights, and concession items. The greater the assets, the more a facility is worth. Liabilities are debts that are owed to others. A facility may owe money to lenders who purchased bonds to help build the facility or to the gas company for gas used to heat water in the building. If a facil- ity’s debts are worth more than the facility’s assets, then the facility has a negative cash value.

Assets and liabilities are further classified as current or long term. Current assets and liabilities are assets that can be redeemed within a year and liabilities that need to be repaid within a year. Current assets include cash, stocks, and money market notes. Current liabilities include monthly bills and salary obligations. Long-term assets include a building, which has value and could be sold within a year but normally will not be sold within the year. Long-term liabilities include bond and mortgage debts.

Other financial statements examine the flow of cash in a facility or can be used to calculate how much money was made or lost during a given event through the process of reconcilia- tion. These various documents are not analyzed in a vacuum. The documents are compared with information for prior years to determine if the budget was met, if the facility grew monetarily, or if the facility can be compared favorably with other similar facilities.

One of the important points to remember about financial analysis is that it is difficult to examine numbers from a single point in time. If a facility charged $10 for a ticket in 2004 and charges $10 for a ticket in 2009, the facility is in fact not getting $10 worth of value in 2009. According to the con- cept of the time value of money, money does not maintain its value over time. A dollar tomorrow is not worth as much as a dollar today. Because

242  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

of inflation and the demands for money, to get the same dollar value as this year a fan might have to pay $1.05 next year. On the basis of this concept, budgets typically increase every year because the cost to accomplish what was undertaken this year is going to be greater next year.

Revenue and Expenses

Revenue represents funds coming into a facility, and expenses are funds leaving the facility (i.e., to pay bills). Revenue and expenses are listed on financial statements, such as the income state- ment, and can tell a story such as what it cost to open the facility for an event. If an arena cannot open without guaranteeing at least $5,000 in revenue to cover expenses, any event generat- ing less than that amount will not break even and should not be booked unless profit is not a motive. For some events, the facility management may not have a choice; the expenses for a gradua- tion ceremony at a college facility will obviously exceed the revenue, but the event needs to be run anyway.

A facility can generate revenue from numer- ous sources. Some sources, such as ticket sales, parking revenue, concession sales, sponsorship revenue, advertising revenue, and naming rights revenue, are discussed in chapter 10. Other rev- enue sources can be unique for each facility. A facility that has extra cash can put that money into a bank account or invest in securities. Extra cash can also be invested in buying additional assets that can generate more revenue. A health club could use extra cash to buy another club; the combination of the two clubs can then generate even more revenue.

One of the first steps in understanding revenue and expenses is to identify what they are for a given facility. Revenue and expenses for a typical facility are highlighted to the right.

Revenue streams at various facilities can be enhanced through unique marketing efforts and innovations; a health club, for example, may add game rooms, babysitting, a juice bar, and a pro shop. However, all new revenue-generating ideas also entail new expenses. The expenses can include construction work, inventory, new employees, and even the cost of time for planning and developing a new revenue stream. A budget can help indicate how the proposed revenue-gen- erating idea will affect the facility’s bottom line.

One concern in this process is how to define certain revenues and expenses. For example, tickets can be defined differently from one facility to another, and such differences can have major ramifications. For instance, luxury suite revenue was not counted as part of the revenue-sharing agreement between the NFL and its players’ asso- ciation, but regular ticket sales were included. When the collective bargaining agreement was negotiated and signed in 2006, the two parties extended the revenue definition to include most luxury suites but not super suites. To increase revenue, teams charge a significant amount for the suites and then charge people sitting in the suites for individual tickets as well. In addition, rent is a vague term because it can be a flat fee or a percentage of gross ticket sales. However revenue and expenses are defined, a complete picture of revenue and expenses is needed to properly budget for the future.

Public Stadium Revenue  and Expenses

Revenue Expenses Premium◾seating

Ticket◾revenue

Naming◾rights

Advertising

Personal◾seat◾licenses

Parking◾revenue

Concession◾revenue

Novelty◾revenue

Tenant◾rent

Government◾subsidies

Various◾bonds

Ticket◾surcharges

Facility◾rental

Special◾events◾income

Debt◾service

Salaries

Equipment

Maintenance

Supplies

Janitorial

Insurance

Professional◾ expenses◾ (legal)

Taxes

Utilities

Contractual◾ expenses

Capital◾ replacement◾ fund◾(sinking◾ fund)

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  243

As described in chapter 9, benchmarking is the process of comparing one facility or business with another. It is often hard to determine what the pri- mary revenues and expenses are for facilities. Most facilities or teams do not disclose their revenue and expenses. However, several publicly owned facilities are required to publish these numbers. The 2005 revenue and expenses for the Metrodome in Minneapolis are highlighted to the right.

Financial Analysis All facilities require financial planning. Will the facility generate enough revenue to pay all the salaries, cover debt service, and turn a profit to justify staying open? How much should it charge for tickets or memberships? These are the types of questions facility managers face. The questions and the answers lie in financial statements. The two primary types of financial statements are the income statement and the balance sheet.

The income statement and balance sheet are used for various managerial activities. First, they help show a facility’s financial health. Income statements show how much money a facility generated. The balance sheet highlights how much the facility is worth when all the assets are added together and the liabilities are subtracted from the total. The numbers can also be compared with industry ratios to examine how the facility is doing financially relative to other facilities. This process of benchmarking is used as well in spe- cific areas such as maintenance, marketing, and the legal area. For example, if a facility earns $10 per fan from concession sales but other facilities are averaging $15 per fan, the facility is failing to meet industry standards. Finally, the numbers can be used to educate stakeholders, from elected officials to investment advisors, stockholders, the public, and tenants or customers, to help budget for the future.

Income Statements An income statement highlights the revenue and expenses generated over a given period of time, normally one year (see a sample income statement on page 244). Through accounting, all revenue and expenses are calculated and then inserted into the income statement to show whether the facility generated any profit. Assume, for example, that a concession company operates a single drink stand at a facility. The stand sells 1,000 drinks

Metrodome Revenue and  Expenses for 2005

The◾ following◾ are◾ the◾ actual◾ revenue◾ and◾ expenses◾as◾highlighted◾on◾the◾facility’s◾financial◾ statement.

Revenue Concessions◾ $22,172,245

Admission◾tax◾ 7,547,144

Rent◾payment◾ 4,465,850

Charges◾for◾services◾ 3,146,331

Advertising◾revenue◾ 2,396,461

Novelty◾sales◾ 156,625

Parking◾revenue◾ 144,630

Other◾revenue◾ 347,528

Investment◾earnings◾ 523,089

Total revenue  $40,899,903

Expenses Concession◾costs◾ $12,276,504

Tenant’s◾share◾of◾◾ concession◾revenue◾ 6,572,428

Facility◾cost◾credit◾ 7,116,138

Personnel◾costs◾ 3,453,431

Professional◾services◾ 474,359

Contractual◾services◾ 3,965,868

Audiovisual◾costs◾ 234,594

Travel◾and◾meetings◾ 44,238

Repair◾maintenance◾◾ and◾supplies◾ 1,113,391

Utilities◾ 3,237,338

Insurance◾ 539,870

Communication◾ 75,092

Facility◾planning◾and◾research◾ 4,865

Event◾costs◾ 472,767

Marketing◾and◾advertising◾ 484,334

Miscellaneous◾ 163,011

Depreciation◾ 5,198,157

Loss◾of◾disposable◾◾ capital◾asset◾ 753

Total expenses  $45,427,138 Total loss  (4,527,235)

From◾Comprehensive annual financial report◾2006.

244  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

at $5.00 each at an event. After the event, the accounting process adds up all the money the stand took in and then calculates all the expenses to determine if there was a profit or loss. The cost associated with selling the drinks included 50 cents for each drink for the cup, ice, water, syrup, and lid. Another cost was 25 cents for the time to process each order. These are the costs of the goods sold. In this example, the sales would total $5,000, and after subtracting the cost for the drinks ($500) and labor ($250), the gross profit is $4,250. Other expenses include depreciation, which is an accounting term referring to decreasing the value of equipment and property over a fixed period of time (allowing a company to reinvest future money to buy new equipment). Such an expense is normally calculated at the end of the year on all the equipment and property the government allows to be depreciated. Selling expenses are associated with overall marketing efforts such as the thousands of dollars the concession company spent to gain the right to operate the stand. The last major expense faced by the concession com- pany is taxes that need to be paid to the govern- ment. Other expenses that could be included on an income statement are interest owed on money borrowed to build a facility or to use as operational funds. The sample income statement shows the concession stand made a profit of $2,800 after all costs, depreciation, and taxes were accounted for.

Balance Sheets A balance sheet lists the facility’s assets and liabilities on a given day (see a sample balance sheet on page 245). The balance sheet changes

every day because the amount of money owed to the facility and the amounts owed by the facility are constantly changing. A balance sheet contains three categories: assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity. Assets range from the land and building itself (real property) to any personal property such as televisions, computer systems, and ticketing machines. Assets also include moneys owed to the facility such as membership fees or refunds. Liabilities are all the financial obliga- tions that the facility has on the given date. These could include such obligations as repayment of a bond used to finance the building of the facility and salary obligations that have yet to be paid. Owner’s equity refers to the amount owed to investors from their investment in the facility. The assets for our concession example could include cash, inventory (cups, ice, lids, syrup, and so on), and serving carts. The liabilities could be accounts payable (what the concession company owes vendors for supplies) and salaries payable. Owner’s equity is the value the owner has in the business. The sample balance sheet shows that the amount of money the owners owe others is relatively small; the owners have sig- nificant value in the business since they possess the assets rather than owing money to others for them. In a balance sheet the assets always have to equal the liabilities.

Using Financial Analysis Table 11.1 presents a comparison of two sport events held several years ago at a now demol- ished arena. The table indicates how financial numbers can be compared to examine revenue and expenses over various events and suggests the importance of the data in the income statement for future planning. For example, the concession per cap (per cap refers to the average per person expenditure on a given item), was $2.37 and did not change over the analyzed period. However, since there were approximately 1,200 more fans in the first year, the total gross concession revenue was significantly higher that year. Since the aver- age ticket price increased $2.40, though, the total gross ticket revenue did not decrease as much as it might have. However, the data may also indicate that the increased ticket price scared a significant number of patrons away from attending the event.

The financial analysis after an event is important for both the team or act and the facility to ensure that all parties know the correct numbers. The

Sample Income Statement

Sales◾ $5,000

Material◾costs◾ 500

Labor◾costs◾ 250

Gross◾profit◾ $4,250

Depreciation◾ 150

Selling◾expenses◾ 300

Profit◾before◾taxes◾ $3,800

Taxes◾ 1,000

Profit◾after◾taxes◾ $2,800

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  245

process of determining the final numbers, often called reconciliation, brings a promoter or team representative together with the facility’s financial parties to determine the exact expenses and rev- enue for an event. A sample football game report from a major university shows how the financial analysis for an event is completed (see page 246). A postevent financial analysis is conducted for most single events such as a game, an event, or a concert. Typically the promoter and the facility finance director review the revenue and expenses to determine the final amounts owed under the contract. Accuracy is critical during this analysis; if a contract requires revenue to be split 60%/40%, for example, any unaccounted-for revenue or expenses can significantly affect either party.

Sample Balance Sheet

Assets Liabilities Cash◾ $10,000◾ Accounts◾payable◾ $5,000

Inventory◾ 4,000◾ Salaries◾owed◾ 4,000

Carts◾ 30,000◾ Current◾liabilities◾ 9,000

Total◾current◾assets◾ 44,000

Depreciation◾ 4,000◾ Owner’s◾equity◾ 39,000

Total◾assets◾ $48,000◾ Total◾liability◾ $48,000

Table 11.1 Sport event comparison

category Year 1 Year 2

Attendance 4,437 3,219

Average◾ticket◾price $13.38 $15.78

Gross◾ticket◾revenue $59,346 $50,806

Rental◾income $2,578 $9,715

Concession◾per◾cap $2.37 $2.37

Concession◾gross $10,525 $7,635

Concession◾income $6,244 $−1,454

Novelty◾per◾cap $3.10 $2.81

Novelty◾gross $13,738 $9,050

Novelty◾income $3,426 $2,489

Parking◾gross $3,141 $2,013

Parking◾income $2,826 $1,751

Total event income $21,060 $15,084

The information developed through the recon- ciliation process can also be utilized in budgeting for future events. However, before examining budgets, it is important to understand that there is a lot of cash in most sport facilities. Accoun- tants cannot provide accurate numbers to base decisions on if all the cash is not accounted for.

Tracking Cash One of the primary daily concerns associated with financial management for a facility is cash management. Facilities are often overflowing with cash. If 50,000 people spend $10 each on various concession and souvenir items, the total is $0.5 million. There is also cash from ticket sales and parking revenue. At the end of an event, there can easily be more than $1 million in cash. Obviously this does not include all the credit card transac- tions, checks, or electronic fund transfers that might be used.

All cash transactions need to be properly recorded and verified to make sure that money is not lost from the time it is used to purchase an item until it is deposited in the bank. Numerous checks and balances are used to make sure cash is not lost. For example, a facility may have two people at each parking lot entrance. The atten- dants wear aprons that cover their pants pockets to prevent them from sliding cash into their pockets. One attendant processes transactions, and the other counts the cars with a counter. At the end of the event, management attempts to reconcile the ending balances. Thus, if each car had to pay $5 to park and there is a total of $5,000 in cash, the counter should have tallied 1,000 cars. If the num- bers do not match, the reason for the discrepancy

246  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Postevent Financial Analysis

has to be determined. More important over the long run, if the numbers do not match, the facility will never be able to develop accurate forecasts and budgets.

Budgeting Revenue and expenses from a prior year can be used as the starting point to develop a budget. A budget is a roadmap for the future of a facility. Just as people look at a map to figure out how to get where they want to go, a facility manager looks at the budget as a way to reach financial success. After examining a map, people sometimes take

a route different from the one they had planned to take and get lost. After examining a budget, a facility manager may try to follow the proposed plan but find that numerous distractions make it difficult to achieve the intended financial goals. The results can be either negative or positive. Through financial analysis a facility manager can see how close the facility is to the budget. Such regular analysis can help the facility determine if it is necessary to cut costs, generate additional revenue, or even cancel events.

The budget is a tool used by management to utilize resources effectively to reach a predeter- mined goal. If a wealthy investor offers to pay

Tickets available for selling

78,484 Reserved◾seats @◾$15.00

0 General◾admission @◾$7.00◾or◾$3.00◾◾ (none◾available◾for◾this◾game)

Ticket distribution

5,589 Returned◾or◾unsold

5,334 Sold◾by◾opponents @◾$11.00◾= $58,674.00

32 Issued◾to◾press

360 Issued◾comp◾to◾◾ opponent’s◾staff

@◾ 5.50◾= $1,980.00

16,834 Issued◾to◾students @◾ $2.75◾= $46,293.50

690 Sold◾to◾faculty◾and◾staff @◾ $5.50◾= $3,795.00

49,645 Sold◾by◾host◾school @◾$11.00◾= $546,095.00

78,484 Gross◾sales $656,837.50

Less◾cost◾of◾officials ($3,298.00)

Subtotal $653,539.50

Less◾15%◾for◾game◾expenses ($98,030.93)

Net◾sales◾to◾be◾shared $555,508.57

50%◾of◾net◾sales◾to◾opponents $277,754.28

Less◾cash◾retained◾by◾◾ opponents◾5,334◾×◾$15.00

($80,010.00)

Amount◾due◾opponents $197,744.29

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  247

$200,000 to develop an initial site and feasibility study, the budget will work around that sum. If no other moneys are available, then $200,000 is the maximum amount of money available for the study, and total expenses have to come to less than $200,000. If the feasibility study will cost $75,000, then all other elements need to be accomplished for under $125,000 or additional funds will need to be found.

People follow this same process when they buy a car, house, or any other major item. A person would not buy a car requiring $400 a month in payments if she earns $2,000 a month and already spends $1,800 a month on food, rent, and so on. The process of making this determination is guided by a budget. Budgets help guide the financial decisions of most facilities. A facility cannot buy a $1 million heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) unit if the machine is not in the budget. If the existing HVAC system breaks, the maintenance and repair budget may have to be tapped, or the capital improvement component of the budget will need to be examined. If there are not enough funds in the budget, management will need to consider inserting a line item in the next year’s budget or authorizing an emergency expenditure that will possibly throw the entire budget out of sync. Similar to the way in which a major medical emergency can destroy a person’s finances, an emergency can destroy the financial position of a facility.

Management needs to develop an operational budget that details the various expenses expected in operating a facility. Basic elements within such a budget include the following:

◾ Utility expenses such as gas, water, and electricity

◾ Rental expenses such as lease obligations and landlord-related expenses

◾ Planning and design expenses such as con- sultation fees, computer-assisted design and drafting (CADD) expenses, photography, and printing

◾ Maintenance and repair expenses such as preventive maintenance (grounds, roof, electrical, HVAC, and so on), custodial, and repairs and alterations

◾ Future growth expenses such as new altera- tions, noncapital equipment, and grounds improvements

◾ Moving expenses such as direct support for moving from one facility to another

◾ Management expenses (Cotts and Lee, 1992)

Forecasting The revenues and expenses a facility might face cannot be examined only after they have been earned or spent. A facility manager needs to know past numbers and the potential future numbers to properly forecast revenues and expenses and thus to build an accurate budget.

The financial forecast is a bridge to help move the financial plan to the budget. There is no one correct way to forecast the future. Some facilities utilize their sales staff to analyze future condi- tions, based on which customers have entered into long-term contracts, for example. If research shows that customers are not interested in a facil- ity, then such data need to be analyzed in the financial planning process. A facility manager can plan more effectively when he knows that for the next 20 years a given team will play its home games at the facility or that a college or high school is a member of a given athletic conference. If a circus or other event is booked for only two years, the facility manager knows that the third year is not as certain. Other techniques for forecasting are more complicated, such as regression analysis, econometric modeling, the Delphi method, and moving averages, and are not covered in this text (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

The starting point for a budget is typically any prior budgets, which can serve as a roadmap. If the facility anticipates that revenue and expenses will increase 10% next year, a rough budget can be developed by just adding 10% to this year’s budget. But this simplistic approach rarely works because the numbers are never cut and dry. Any revised budgets need to focus on accurate informa- tion being communicated to the right people. If the ticket sales force is having trouble selling tickets, they need to quickly provide such information to those in the budgetary process so they can help modify budgetary projections.

Another option is called zero-based budgeting (ZBB), which requires a budget to be based on a competitive internal battle. All divisions within the facility prepare their budgets as if they had never had a budget before and base their mon- etary requests on what they perceive they can do to benefit the facility’s goals and objectives. The

248  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

divisions that management feels will enhance the facility’s goals the most will receive the greatest proportions of the budget.

One technique entails developing an annual work plan highlighting capital costs (construction, repairs, equipment purchases, and so on), nondis- cretionary annual costs (utilities, operations, cus- todial, moving, and maintenance), discretionary annual costs (alterations, repairs, maintenance), lease costs, overhead costs (salaries, office equip- ment, and so on), and the cost of space needed for future projects (Cotts and Lee, 1992). These figures are used for both mid- and long-range plans. A facility can establish what anticipated repairs may be forthcoming in various ways, ranging from facility inspections to computerized systems indicating that a given component is past its useful life. Thus, if a roof has a 20-year life and has been in place for 24 years, the facility should be budgeting for a new roof. The roof can fail at any time; it has lasted this long because of luck or exceptional maintenance.

The greatest cost in any facility is upkeep. Over the life of a facility, the salaries of those who work in the facility account for 92% of the life-cycle costs. The operating and maintenance costs account for 6%, and the actual design and construction account for only 2% of the life-cycle costs of a facility (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

Paying the Daily Bills Budgeting and financial analysis occur on a daily basis. If a given event does not generate the expected revenue and that revenue was going to pay certain bills, then other revenue sources need to be tapped to pay those bills. Managers frequently have to juggle between current needs, such as bills that are currently due, and future revenue such as that from future events. Manag- ers also have to balance cash flow and streams. If there is $1 million in the bank, should it be put into long-term investments, put into lower- paying short-term investments, or used for capital improvements that will pay bigger dividends down the road? Similarly, with bills, should they be paid immediately, should they be paid after 30 days, or should they be ignored? Although it might be illegal to ignore a bill, many businesses follow this strategy and might pay only when threatened with a lawsuit.

Bill tracking is a critical skill for any facility manager. How much did the facility spend on

energy last year versus this year? Is there any reason for the change, such as cooler weather or an increased cost for fuel? Similarly, are repair and maintenance costs increasing? Would outsourcing facility management save money, or would there be a potential problem with union employees if such a step were taken?

Although bill tracking and analysis help determine if the budget is on track, the process is significantly different for the day-to-day man- agement of a facility, as discussed so far, versus the situation in which a facility is being built. The operational budget can be fairly consistent, with the expenses such as payroll and inventory remaining relatively constant. In contrast, build- ing a new facility requires a capital budget that will face numerous changes almost daily. The next section focuses on finances related to building new facilities, including capital cost consider- ations and capital budgeting decision making to help determine which construction option may be the best for a proposed facility.

Capital Cost Considerations Capital costs are costs associated with long-term investments such as buildings or equipment that may last more than 10 years. Capital expenditures in the sport facility area relate primarily to build- ing the sport facility. Since facilities are extremely expensive, most entities building sport facilities utilize capital budgeting to fund construction.

Capital budgeting entails determining the needed space for any given planned activity and determining whether existing facilities can fill those needs. It is not worthwhile to build a facil- ity when other facilities exist that could serve the needs and are not fully utilized. After determining whether existing facilities can serve the planned needs, the capital budgeting process requires management to examine additional options for acquiring any additional needed space, whether by leasing, building, or redistributing space in existing facilities (Cotts and Lee, 1992). If man- agement decides to renovate or construct a new facility, then capital funds will be needed. The decision is influenced by several factors, includ- ing the prevailing tax codes and the impact asso- ciated with depreciating assets. The budgeting process is also affected by the financial market, how easily cash can be raised, and the cost associ- ated with raising the funds (interest rates, bond issuance costs, and so on).

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  249

One of the primary capital budgeting concerns faced by those trying to decide whether to build is the choice between building a new facility and leasing an existing facility. When leasing land, a developer signs a contract indicating that she will pay the agreed-on amount over a certain time period. At the end of the time period, the land- owner has the option of renewing the lease. If the lease is not renewed, the facility must relocate, and the cost of relocation can be very high. In addition to this expense, leasing does not gener- ate any equity for the facility developer. Thus, no money is being saved for the next facility through equity enhancement. On the other hand, advan- tages of leasing are that it allows a developer to limit the amount of commitment to the project and to write off lease payments as a business expense.

The major advantage of purchasing a facility is the ability to build equity and control the facility.

In the future, when the facility wants to expand or relocate, the funds will be much easier to obtain because of the company’s equity. There are two major difficulties with buying land. First, the up-front payment for the land can be so high that the developer may not be able to afford building according to the original plans. Another problem is the long-term loan. If the facility should incur financial difficulty, the owner may be forced to sell the land and building.

The capital budgeting process starts with acquiring appropriate information. The next step entails prioritizing projects. Prioritization occurs through various predetermined methods such as average rate of return, average payback period, annual return on investments, cash payback methods, discounted cash flow, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and the ben- efit–cost ratio (BCR) (Cotts and Lee, 1992). Table

Facility Focus

To fill a projected $16 million deficit in South Bend, Indiana, the city council and mayor were faced with a tough deci- sion: Should the city close its zoo or its recreation centers?

Because of dramatic property tax cuts passed by the Indiana General Assembly, the city may choose to close the state’s oldest zoo, founded in 1902. If the zoo was closed, the city would eliminate at least $917,000 in spending. That’s the amount of property tax dollars that were needed in 2008 to operate the zoo, after its nearly $1.8 million in expenses were subtracted from $883,000 in revenue from gate admissions, gift store sales, program fees, and zoo concessions (Parrott, 2009). The $917,000 savings would mean that the owner of a $125,000 home in Portage Township would pay about $14 less in property taxes a year that previously was used to support the zoo.

The other potential option is to close the city’s two recreation centers, the Martin Luther King Jr. Center and the Charles Black Center. Closing the centers would save a combined $534,000 in property tax money spent last year on their operation. That cost for the same homeowner represents around $8 a year in 2008 (Parrott, 2009). Although someone can measure the cost associated with the tax burden on each option, it is harder to evaluate the associated emotional and community cost. A zoo might bring in numerous out-of-town visitors, while recreation centers improve the well-being of the citizens and encour- age healthier lifestyles.

Facility Focus: South Bend’s tough decision

AP◾Photo/Joe◾Raymond

250  ■  Managing Sport Facilities

11.2 shows projected profits and cash flows for three different projects. Based on this financial planning analysis, different capital budgeting options are available (see table 11.3). A discussion of these options follows.

Using the average rate of return (ARR) method, project C would be the best choice since it pro- duces the highest rate of return—115% versus 107% or 80%. Utilizing the average payback period (APP) method, project C is once again the best choice since it repays the initial investment in the shortest time period. However, with the actual payback analysis, project B would be the best choice because it actually pays back the ini- tial investment in 1.67 years (note that profits are consistent throughout the five years) versus 2.23 years for project A and 2.27 years for project C.

The NPV analysis is based on a current cost of capital of 15%. Using the NPV approach, project A has the highest present value and should be chosen. Using IRR, project B has the best return.

The ARR helps determine the rate of return in a percentage so that various projects can be com- pared with one another. Rate of return is calculated by dividing the net income (after taxes), commonly called profit, by the average cost of the invest- ment. The average investment cost is calculated by subtracting the facility’s salvage value from the construction cost and then dividing by 2. This for- mula is easy to use, is well known and respected, and considers the full time frame for the capital investment decision. Problems with ARR are that it is difficult to calculate profit, the method ignores the time value of money, and arbitrary time frames for a facility’s existence may be required (Cotts and Lee, 1992). The formula is as follows:

average rate of return (%) = profit / average invest- ment

Using project A, this is calculated by divid- ing $128,000 by $120,000 ($240,000 / 2), which equals 106.6%.

Table 11.3 Capital Budgeting Options

Prioritization technique Project A Project B Project C

Average rate of return (ARR) 106.6% 80% 114.5%

Average payback period (APP) 1.44 years 1.67 years 1.29 years

Actual Payback Analysis 2.23 years 1.67 years 2.27 years

Net present value (NPV) × 2 $306,892 $141,694 $203,934

Internal rate of return (IRR) 50.9% 52.8% 51.0%

Adapted from Cotts and Lee 1992.

Table 11.2 Financial Planning Analysis

PrOjeCt A PrOjeCt B PrOjeCt C

Net investment $240,000 $150,000 $150,000

Year Profit Cash flow Profit Cash flow Profit Cash flow

1 $40,000 $88,000 $60,000 $90,000 $20,000 $50,000

2 $60,000 $108,000 $60,000 $90,000 $40,000 $70,000

3 $140,000 $188,000 $60,000 $90,000 $80,000 $110,000

4 $200,000 $248,000 $60,000 $90,000 $120,000 $150,000

5 $200,000 $248,000 $60,000 $90,000 $170,000 $200,000

Totals $640,000 $880,000 $300,000 $450,000 $430,000 $580,000

Averages $128,000 $176,000 $60,000 $90,000 $86,000 $116,000

Adapted from Cotts and Lee 1992.

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  251

The APP analyzes a capital decision based on how long on average it will take to repay the initial investment assuming an average cash flow rather than possibly a more specific rate of cash flow (such as the actual payback period). The net investment is divided by the average annual cash inflow to get the APP. The APP method is easy to use, analyzes cash flows, and can analyze risk. The drawbacks are that it does not consider time value of money, cash flows can be very subjective, and APP does not consider subsequent cash flows (which could drop or increase significantly) (Cotts and Lee, 1992). Many utilize the APP approach because it analyzes the actual time it takes to cover the initial investment in building the facility. This method is similar to the APP but also considers the timing of cash flows.

Net present value (NPV) determines the dollar value of some future series of cash flows, discounted by the facility’s cost of capital. This process examines the time value of money, which means that a dollar tomorrow is not worth as much as a dollar today. Thus, the initial capital investment is subtracted from the net present value of future cash flows to get the NPV. This process requires the use of time value of money tables and considers relevant cash flows. Thus, it is a well understood calculation, but it is also difficult for most people without some financial experience to use.

The IRR is the discount rate assuming an NPV of zero. The initial investment and future cash flows are analyzed to determine a project’s value. This process analyzes cash flows and the time value of money, but it is very difficult to calculate and hard for people to understand. A last evaluation technique for capital investments is the benefit–cost ratio (BCR). This calculation divides the value of a project by the cost. The cost may be fairly easy to calculate, but the benefits are both economic and subjective so they are harder to calculate. That is why the BCR is used only when an experienced staff of economists can help with the calculations.

Although there are numerous tools to compare various projects, these tools are not accurate unless they all utilize the same basic numbers. If two separate formulas use different data for the same project, it will be impossible to compare the numbers. Thus, the capital budgeting process often utilizes a worksheet (see page 252) that highlights the basic costs anticipated with the capital project.

Once the analysis is complete and the numbers are finalized, management needs to choose which project meets the planned needs. Some projects will provide appropriate payback in a set number of years and will be chosen over other projects that might take a longer time to repay the initial investment. This process is referred to as the cost justification process, used when costs are the over- riding concern. However, numerous projects do not meet the predefined criteria. Some projects are accepted because they produce the greatest reward regardless of price, limit or minimize risks, or rank higher on the priority list.

One of the key concerns associated with capi- tal budgeting is that many managers stop at that point. They determine that a facility will cost $200 million to construct and realize that they can raise that amount of money, so they move forward with the project. However, as described earlier, the greatest cost in a facility is upkeep. If the capital budget is not integrated into the operational budget from day one, the facility will probably face some financial hardships. If the operational budget is established while the facility is being built and enough funds are set aside to help operate at least for the first year, the facility should be in a strong financial position.

After the decision has been made to build or lease a particular facility, the construction funds need to be secured. The next section highlights the various financing options available to build a new facility.

New Facility Financing

With costs escalating every fiscal year, it is becom- ing increasingly difficult to finance a major sport facility or complex using funds from only one person or group, including public taxes. There are three major financing options: private financing, public (government) financing, and miscellaneous methods. Each option has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Private Financing Private financing can come from different sources, from stock and bonds issued by private companies to private funds. For example, the Miami Dol- phins used to play in Joe Robbie Stadium (now Dolphin Stadium), which was built with private funds from the Robbie family. The Green Bay Packers are a publicly traded company that issued

252  ■

Budget Worksheet for a New Facility

Preproject Expenses Temporary◾offices:◾ __________

Utilities:◾ __________

Insurance:◾ __________

Moving◾costs:◾ __________

Temporary◾furnishings:◾ __________

Consulting Expenses Feasibility◾studies:◾ __________

Legal◾fees:◾ __________

Design◾fees:◾ __________

Site◾investigations:◾ __________

Marketing◾expenses:◾ __________

Site-Related Expenses Land◾location◾expenses:◾ __________

Title◾search:◾ __________

Site◾appraisals:◾ __________

Site◾surveys:◾ __________

Boring◾tests/Soil◾tests:◾ __________

Zoning◾compliance:◾ __________

Land◾costs:◾ __________

Closing◾fees:◾ __________

Finance◾fees:◾ __________

Utilities◾to◾site:◾ __________

Demolition◾expenses:◾ __________

Development◾fees:◾ __________

Miscellaneous◾assessment:◾ __________

Professional◾fees:◾ __________

Preconstruction Costs Architectural/Engineering◾fees:◾ __________

Models◾and◾drawings:◾ __________

Interior◾design◾costs:◾ __________

Consulting◾fees:◾ __________

Copying◾expenses:◾ __________

Bidding-related◾expenses:◾ __________

Construction Expenses Construction◾contract:◾ __________

Contingency◾fund:◾ __________

Project◾manager◾for◾owner:◾ __________

Insurance:◾ __________

FFE◾(furniture,◾fixtures,◾◾ and◾equipment):◾ __________

Site◾development:◾ __________

Landscaping:◾ __________

Excavation:◾ __________

Parking:◾ __________

Access◾roads:◾ __________

Signage:◾ __________

Security:◾ __________

Lighting:◾ __________

Irrigation:◾ __________

Storage◾facility:◾ __________

Miscellaneous◾fees:◾ __________

Miscellaneous Expenses Bidding◾expenses:◾ __________

Interest◾on◾construction◾loans:◾ __________

Construction◾contingency:◾ __________

Moving◾expenses:◾ __________

Utility◾expenses:◾ __________

Start-up◾staff:◾ __________

Staff◾training:◾ __________

Operating◾expenses:◾ __________

Maintenance◾expenses◾ __________

Sinking◾funds:◾ __________

Total Project Costs Preproject◾expenses:◾ __________

Consulting◾expenses:◾ __________

Site-related◾expenses:◾ __________

Preconstruction◾expenses:◾ __________

Construction◾expenses:◾ __________

Miscellaneous◾expenses:◾ __________

Grand total:  __________

Modified◾From◾Wiggins◾1993.

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  253

approximately $24 million worth of shares to help finance renovations to Lambeau Field. Other facilities, especially smaller ones, are often built with private funds, whether obtained from sav- ings, bank loans, or inheritances. Other facilities have private backers or may be part of a business partnership. Still others are built with corporate funds—corporate gyms, for example.

Collateral Financing New and developing enterprises sometimes face the uncertain and difficult process of obtaining capital to build or grow their business, and lend- ers will require some collateral or equity. Private equity can come from various sources. Equity rep- resents the total value of personal money, stocks, and property (both real and personal). Money can include the actual cash that someone has on hand, stocks, bonds, and anything else that has value. Property is divided into two categories, real and personal. Real property is land and anything secured to the ground, including buildings and houses. Personal property is anything that can be lifted and moved. This can include teams, businesses, equipment, and automobiles. The problem with collateral-based borrowing is that if the borrower fails to pay the loan he can lose the collateral. Houses are a familiar example. A house serves as the collateral for a home loan. If the borrower defaults, the lender can foreclose and sell the house to get its money back.

Private Investors Strategic investors are established companies with similar products that are looking for growth and expansion opportunities. Because strategic investors may lack the experience and ability to expand their own company, investing in another company gives them a low-cost alternative that will improve their company’s value. For example, a large consumer product company may enter into a strategic alliance with a small fitness equipment company. The larger company can provide facili- ties to manufacture a new product, while the small company can lend its fitness product expertise without having to rent facilities or buy equipment.

Another source of private financing is wealthy individual investors or venture capital groups. These investors have dedicated a certain amount of their investment toward private investment opportunities. Most people have heard about venture capital (VC) investors, especially in con- nection with the “dot com” boom and bust. A

VC investor supplies significant cash at the start of a business (or possibly at times of crisis) in exchange for a large percentage of the business. Venture capital investment is a form of private equity investing. Private equity investing can have significant benefits, such as financial flex- ibility, stable costs, and managerial expertise from investors. On the other hand, venture capitalists demand a high rate of return (often more than 40% profit per year) and often a seat on the board of directors.

Corporate Bonds Corporate bonds are bonds that are issued and backed by the issuing corporations. Unlike most government bonds, corporate bonds are not tax exempt. Tax-exempt bonds provide income pro- tection for investors in that the interest payments made by the bond issuer are not taxed when paid to the investor. Otherwise, investors would not receive the total expected return since between 20% to 40% of the interest payment would have to be paid as taxes. However, the downside of tax- exempt bonds is that they pay less interest than corporate or private bonds.

Corporate bonds are issued when a corporation believes it can obtain a lower interest rate than if it borrowed from a bank and wants a longer repayment period. If a facility builder approaches a bank and is offered a loan of $100 million at 9% but could issue a bond paying 8%, the 1% differ- ence could be worth tens of millions of dollars over the bond’s life. The one major caveat is that there must be bond buyers interested in purchas- ing corporate bonds. This problem makes bond issuance an option only for the biggest corpora- tions or for prominent professional teams.

Partnerships Money can also come from other people or orga- nizations working together to build a facility. For example, two or more people can join together to build or finance a facility; two or more govern- ment entities such as a school district and a parks department can join together to build playing fields to be used by both entities. In limited part- nerships, partners put predetermined amounts of money or assets into the project. The obvious downfall is the great amount of risk that this type of arrangement involves. If a partnership fails, everyone involved in the partnership loses money. On the other hand, profits made by the facility are split among partners.

254  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

A strategic partnership occurs when a devel- oper forms an alliance with another company that has congruent goals. This goes beyond a transfer of cash and entails strategic cooperation. A strategic partnership may be pursued when it promotes an effective means to enter the market. Another benefit with partners is geographic loca- tion. Partners can operate in several different areas and start franchises with facilities in the various areas. Health club owners in different areas have used partnerships as a means to merge their clubs into a larger entity and then attempt to expand. While such an option may appear attractive, there are numerous financial and legal concerns that can arise and that make strategic alliances less common in the realm of sport.

Partnerships are practical solutions to finan- cial problems, but they are not advised when it appears that the relationship is going to be very one-sided or when the partners do not have a good working relationship. It is also very important to be able to trust partners. One concern with partnerships is the liability of each partner for the actions of other partners. Thus, if one partner makes a mistake and subjects the partnership to liability, then all partners can be personally liable.

Public Offerings Public offerings involve selling corporate shares to the public in the form of stock. Corporations can raise significant funds in this manner. A number of examples exist in the sport industry, primarily in horse racing, auto racing, and health clubs. Facilities and corporations need money to grow, and a public offering may represent the best way to grow and acquire or build additional facilities. But although a public offering might be a good way to raise a lot of money, it opens the facility to intense scrutiny, first from the Securities and Exchange Commission and state regulators and then from entities in the financing community such as brokerage houses. Another concern is that corporate financial records become public records through annual reports and various government filings. Corporations have another major concern: double taxation of revenue—first, when earned, and then when paid to stockholders as dividends. However, there are significant benefits to a facility’s going public, such as access to more capital, prestige, and the ability to limit the shareholders’ liability for action taken by the corporation.

Public Financing

Whether the money is their own or has come from others, facility developers need enough cash to buy land, build a facility, and then operate the facil- ity. These same funds are needed if a government entity builds a sport facility. The major difference is that government entities can raise money by other means. For example, as highlighted in chap- ter 5, government entities can acquire land through eminent domain. Even though this process costs money, it is often easier than other ways of acquir- ing property. The question becomes one of how the government entity will pay for the land. Funds can come from increased tax revenue, bonds, certificates of participation, or a combination of these. Increasing taxes has been used as a means to finance facilities such as the Alamodome. Even though a bond was issued for the Alamodome, the bond was secured by an increased sales tax. Lenders were eager to purchase the bonds since they were backed by a steady revenue stream that would guarantee repayment.

Over the past decade, most sport facilities have been financed through tax-exempt bonds. Bonds are, in a manner of speaking, a promise that in a specific period of time the borrower will pay back the lender the amount of money bor- rowed along with a specific amount of interest. Government entities often issue bonds to pay for schools, roads, and other construction projects. Most municipalities and school districts, subject to certain restrictions and limitations, have the right to raise capital by issuing bonds. To issue a bond there must be legal authorization from either the voters or a legislative body. Obtaining autho- rization can prove to be difficult, and at times impossible, because project opponents are more likely to show up for the vote than supporters are (Howard and Crompton, 1995).

In 2002 there were 111 major professional sport franchises in America, and 91.9% (102) had moved into new or significantly renovated stadi- ums in the 1990s. The total taxpayers’ price tag for stadiums or arenas built from 1995 through 2000 has been estimated at more than $9 billion (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003). That number has increased by billions of dollars, with four stadi- ums opening in 2009-2010 alone costing more than $1 billion each. Although these stadiums were built using significant private funds, public funds are still the backbone for most major facility

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  255

Facility Focus

In early 1999 an $803 million package was funded to build PNC Park (home of the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball); build Heinz Field (home of the NFL Pittsburgh Steelers), retire the debt on Three Rivers Stadium; and also destroy the stadium, expand the convention center, and construct a new Pittsburgh Development Center. The projects totaled more than $1 billion in financing. Out of necessity, the $1 billion was raised through a strategy that tapped into the existing 1% county sales tax. The Regional Asset District contributes $13.4 million annually to finance $170 million in bonds for the project. The county hotel tax contributes $8 million annually to finance $99 million in bonds. A 5% surcharge on Pirates and Steelers tickets raises $3 million annually to finance $22 million in bonds. A 1% wage tax is levied on players who do not live in the city and contributed $7 million to the project. The state of Pennsylvania contributed $300 million in matching funds. Funds totaling $36 million of the project came from interest earnings; $28 million was tapped from a fund for federal infrastructure improvements; $11 million came from parking revenues for leasing the convention center garage; $45 million was given to the project from a Pittsburgh Investment Capital fund. The Pirates and the Steelers contributed $85 million combined. The Pirates are also expected to cover operating costs (utilities and maintenance) as long as the team receives the revenues from concessions and advertising. Lastly, on August 6, 1998, Pittsburgh-based PNC Bank Corp. announced that it had purchased the right to name the new Pirates ballpark PNC Park when it opened in 2001. Under the deal, PNC

Bank, a financial services company, will pay approximately $1.5 million a year through the 2020 baseball season for the naming rights (Gearhard and Schuler, 2001).

This stadium was built in the heyday of stadium con- struction—the late 1990s and early 2000s. Since then, especially with the economic downturn of 2008, fewer stadiums are being constructed using public funds. The public is balking at spending money on new projects. Thus, projects such as the new Yankee Stadium and the new Cowboys Stadium are built primarily with private funds. Government funds are used primarily for infrastructure costs such as roads and parking and to help subsidize the cost of tax-exempt bonds to help the team raise the necessary funds to build these facilities.

Facility Focus: Pnc Park

Kevin◾Reece/Icon◾SMI

construction projects, and the economic downturn of 2008-2009 put significant squeeze on public contributions. Municipalities interested in luring a new team or keeping an existing team argue that tax dollars should help finance facility construc- tion because entertainment dollars are brought in from outside the community, thus infusing “new” money into the local economy.

Teams are also helping to cover the building expenses. The average level of team contribution to a new NFL stadium is 29%, or $82 million of the typical construction cost for a football sta- dium. Even without any team contributions, some municipalities are willing to foot the entire price of a facility to become a big-league city. Besides

increased economic activity and increased sales, income, and employment tax revenues from those attending games and working at the facilities, proponents argue that the facilities help promote community image (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003). Making the “big leagues” can be expensive and can subject the citizens to paying debt service on bonds for years to come, without the facility’s ever generating a profit. One major study concluded that older arenas with little debt and numerous scheduled events (NBA, NHL, Ice Capades, family shows, circuses) tended to make the highest profit, while new stadiums for outdoor sports were less profitable (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

256  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Bonds As highlighted by the examples presented in this chapter, the thrust of any government financing, whether complete or partial, is on issuing bonds. Unless the government or team has significant cash reserves, it will be necessary to borrow. A bond is a detailed IOU. While a stock certificate

is proof of ownership and can be given to a facil- ity owner, a bond does not represent ownership. A bond represents a debt owed by the facility builder, whether private or governmental. The money obtained from issuing the bonds is used to pay for facility acquisition and construction costs. Bonds are a debt instrument that requires repay-

Behind the Scenes

Behind the Scenes: anatomy of Various Stadium deals ◾ The Colorado Rockies built their stadium with a 1%

six-county-area sales tax, with the team contribut- ing $53 million and Coors Brewing scheduled to pay $1.5 million a year for naming rights. Under the 17-year lease, the city receives 20% of park- ing revenue on game days and 3% of the revenue from a brew pub. The team receives 100% of net concession revenue.

◾ The United Center in Chicago was built in 1994 at a cost of $175 million; 80% of the financing was with funds from private bank loans, and 20% was with funds from the building owners. United Center Joint Venture privately funded the entire project. United Airlines currently pays approximately $1.8 million a year in naming rights.

◾ The Baltimore Ravens have a financially lucrative stadium deal, with the team receiving revenue from seat licenses and 100% of the revenue from concessions, ads, suites, club seats, and naming rights—and the team pays no rent. Ticket, novelty, parking, sponsorship, and advertising revenues are split between the team and government.

◾ Portland’s Rose Garden was built using a complex blend of private and public funding, including a $46 million cash contribution from Portland Trailblazers owner Paul Allen. Three major banks loaned a total of $16 million to the pot. Lastly, nine insurance com- panies purchased $155 million in privately placed bonds paying 8.99% interest over 27 years. The city of Portland paid $34.5 million for street, park- ing, and related improvements. These city-funded projects will be paid for by a ticket tax of 6.5%, which will pay off the city’s contribution in six years and thereafter provide the city with a perpetual return on its investment.

◾ The Gateway project in Cleveland was financed through a tax-exempt county bond offering that raised 45% of the $152 million needed to build the Gund Arena. Liquor and cigarette taxes (sin taxes)

covered another 42%, and private naming rights covered the remaining 13%. Bonds were sold to various investors, and the income stream used to repay the bonds came from state capital improve- ment funds and a countywide sin tax. The sin tax consisted of $3 per gallon of liquor, 16 cents per gallon of beer, and 4.5 cents per pack of cigarettes. These taxes were to be in place for 15 years (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

◾ The Florida Marlins’ plan for a new stadium moved forward in 2009 after receiving 9 of 13 votes from the Miami-Dade County Commissioners in support of building a new stadium. The stadium’s price tag is $634 million, with Miami-Dade County on the hook for $297 million from tourist taxes, another $50 million from a separate bond referendum, and $12 million for road and utility repairs. The City of Miami pledged to spend $94 million on the parking structures, $13 million toward stadium construc- tion, and $12 million for other improvements. The city was also going to operate the garage and pay the yearly debt payment. The Marlins agreed to buy most of the expected 6,000 parking spaces at between $10 and $12 over the 35-year stadium contract. The Marlins would then keep any profits made from selling those spots to their fans (Rabin and Haggman, 2009). The public share of the tab would total $480 million, most coming from tourist tax dollars. The team has committed $120 million toward construction and will repay a $35 million county loan for a 37,000-seat retractable-roof stadium to open in 2012 (Rabin, 2009). The county share of the funds was to be secured through hotel taxes, but they had dropped 17% the month before the vote, and in a down economy those taxes might not be enough to secure a bond. Another major concern was whether or not the government would be able to raise suf- ficient funds with acceptable terms since the bond market was very weak.

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  257

ment of principal and interest over many years. Most bonds are for 10, 20, or 30 years; if a facility is built with $100 million worth of bonds to be repaid over 30 years at 10% interest, the facility will eventually have paid the bondholders in the neighborhood of $300 million.

Bonds are rated based on the strength of the issuing company or municipality and on whether the entity has ever defaulted on prior bonds. Gen- eral obligation bonds (GOBs) and other bonds are rated by independent companies such as Moody’s and Standard & Poor’s based on the issuer’s ability to repay the loan. General obligation bonds are often highly rated since currently existing and future tax revenue sources can be tapped for bond repayment. Bond ratings can be influenced by a multitude of factors, including

◾ the ability to repay the loan with existing revenue streams;

◾ the strength, breadth, and reliability of the tax base;

◾ the historical performance of the revenue stream;

◾ the risk associated with the project; ◾ the underlying economic strength of the sta- dium or arena or the community;

◾ political volatility; and ◾ whether or not the project is economically viable (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

The higher the quality rating, the more likely the bond is to be issued and the lower the inter- est rate will be. To enhance the marketability of a bond issue, a government entity may purchase bond insurance to guarantee repayment. The strength of the tax base to repay the bond is one of the most important criteria for GOBs. A small city with a low tax base may suffer significantly if property values decrease or sales drop markedly. In contrast, a large city with thousands of prop- erties can experience downturns in the economy and still have a large enough tax base that the damage can be minimal.

Municipal entities frequently issue various bonds to fund such buildings as schools, police stations, and sport facilities. The several types of municipal bonds include general obligation, special tax, revenue, and lease-backed financing bonds, as well as certificates of participation. Each bond type is typically distinguished based

on what revenue source is being used to repay the bond. Municipal bonds are often issued to help build new facilities.

Certificates of participation (CPs) allow a municipality to form a corporation to purchase land or build a facility. The corporation then issues CPs to pay for the land or building. The government then leases the building back from the corporation, and the lease payments are used to repay the bonds. Since the bonds are issued by a corporation rather than the municipality, they are not backed by the full faith and credit of the municipality. Thus, they carry a greater risk than traditional bonds. However, during tough times when a municipality may not otherwise be able to borrow money, the CP may be the only way to build a facility.

General Obligation Bonds General obligation bonds are among the instru- ments most commonly used to fund public facili- ties. These bonds are often called full faith and credit obligations as the city, county, municipality, state, or other government unit pledges to repay the obligation with existing tax revenues or by levying new taxes (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003).

Revenue Bonds With a revenue bond, the tax revenue to support repayment may come from the project itself. For example, an entrance tax of $1.50 per ticket could be charged, and all revenues from this tax would first be allocated to repaying the revenue bond. These bonds traditionally have a lower credit rating than other bonds because there are significant financial risks associated with limit- ing repayment requirements to one specific tax or revenue source. The repayment concern arose in the 1998 NBA strike, for example. If games were canceled and admission revenue was lost, some bond issuers might not have had any of their antic- ipated revenue sources to repay bonds secured by attendance taxes. This left the option available for a bondholder to declare an arena builder (team or municipality) in default and possibly foreclose on the property and have it sold to repay the bonds.

Tax-Backed Bonds A public entity can also target a specific tax to finance a bond. Cleveland utilized a sin tax on alcohol and tobacco sales to help finance Jacobs Field and Gund Arena. San Antonio utilized

258  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

a sales tax –based bond issue to help finance building the Alamodome. Special tax bonds are repayable from a specific pledged source and are not backed by the full faith and credit of the issu- ing entity. Thus, if the specific revenue source is inadequate, there may not be enough tax revenue to repay the bondholders. Examples of specific funding sources include the following (Greenberg and Gray, 1996):

◾ Utility taxes. A utility tax is added to an electricity, water, or gas bill to help pay for the bond’s debt service. In the 1990s, the San Fran- cisco Giants were considering a move to San Jose, California. The proposed stadium was to be partially financed by a utility tax. Opponents of the stadium distributed light-switch covers to communicate the idea that every time people turned on the lights they would be paying for the proposed stadium. The stadium ballot measure was defeated.

◾ Car rental taxes or tourist development taxes. These taxes are designed primarily to tax out-of-towners who visit the city. This is a popu- lar technique because it is easy to tell a voting population that out-of-towners will pay for the facility even if local residents are really the most frequent users of rental cars.

◾ Ticket surcharges. A ticket surcharge is an additional amount, such as $0.50 or $1.00 per ticket, that increases the ticket price. The funds go directly to repay the bonds. This option is popular with voters since the people who go to the event pay a larger share than others.

◾ Real estate taxes. All property owners pay real estate taxes unless they have a special dis- pensation authorizing them not to pay such taxes. A municipality may increase the real estate tax obligations to help fund building a new facility. The concept is that the facility can help increase property values, so property owners should help support the facility.

◾ Possessory interest taxes. A possessory inter- est tax is charged to whoever possesses control of the facility and is designed to tax the primary facility user. This type of tax is very popular with taxpayers.

◾ Excise tax. Excise taxes are a general tax added to various products and are often initiated in periods of financial need such as times of war or economic downturn.

◾ Nontax fees such as permits. Nontax fees are special expenses passed on to particular parties. For example, the permit costs for other develop- ers in the city can be raised. Other city expenses that are normally charged to vendors and citizens can be raised, with the extra funds going to pay for the facility.

◾ Lottery and gaming revenue. A municipality can dedicate funds received from special lotteries or games to fund civic growth projects such as roads, schools, and stadiums. Some states have received significant windfalls from Native Ameri- can–owned casinos opening in the state.

◾ General appropriations. General appro- priations are funds that are set aside for various purposes. Through political dealing, a municipal- ity may convince the state legislature or federal government to give a “gift” appropriation to help pay facility construction expenses or to fund bond repayments. The San Antonio Alamodome was built as a bus stop in order to help secure a federal appropriation for interstate transportation. Thus, there are few parking spaces next to the facility, but there are numerous bus stops.

Repayment Sources Whichever type of bond is issued, repayment will always be the key concern for investors. Other fac- tors can also be important to a potential investor, such as whether the bond is tax exempt; whether the government entity purchased bond repayment insurance; and whether contractually obligated revenue (COR), or contractually obligated income (COI), is sufficient to repay the bond. Even with these variables, investors look toward a stable repayment source as an additional assurance that the bond will be paid.

Although these revenue sources or payment guarantees can often support significant repay- ment obligations, CORs can also provide a strong guarantee that a debt will be repaid. Contractually obligated revenues are any contract whereby a party agrees to pay a specific sum for a guaranteed number of years. Typical long-term contracts that form the basis of COR backing include premium seating, luxury boxes, naming rights, pouring rights, signage rights, and parking rights (Fried, Shapiro, and Deshriver, 2003). Contractually obli- gated revenues have two primary functions. They can be used as a source of revenue to guarantee repayment of bonds or other loans. They also can

Finance◾and◾Budgeting◾ ■  259

be utilized as an independent funding source. If the bonds are all covered through other revenue streams, the team or facility may be able to sell the naming rights and use those funds to enhance its bottom line.

Contractually obligated revenue from prepaid membership can help secure a loan to build a facility. Similarly, when anchor tenants are found who are willing to sign a long-term lease, then the COR associated with that lease can help fund the borrowing required to build a facility.

Miscellaneous Funding In addition to the standard funding options such as loans, bonds, or CORs, there are numerous unique strategies to finance a facility. One of the easiest is to have someone donate a facil- ity. Sometimes a facility can be built with a gift. Some colleges, universities, communities, and schools will not even entertain the idea of build- ing a facility unless funds have been donated for that purpose. North Dakota had a $50 million gift from a wealthy alumnus to fund a $100 million arena. The University of Houston had a wealthy alumnus donate the athletic and alumni center and baseball field. Other unique funding options include grants and user funding.

Grants In a strategy that is similar to individual giving, organizations and people can also grant money for projects. Many foundations have large sums of money that they need to give away. Eli Lilly and Company is a large drug manufacturer based in Indianapolis. The Lilly Endowment has granted a significant amount of money to the city to build sport facilities. The process typically starts when the foundation provides nonprofit organizations that are interested in receiving funds with some rough parameters for proposals to be submitted by a specified date. All the proposals are analyzed, and the foundation’s board selects the ones they wish to fund entirely or partially. Most founda- tions receive numerous requests, so the grant pro- cess is highly competitive. However, if a nonprofit organization or school has an innovative idea that the board likes, it may award significant cash to help build a facility.

User Funding There are numerous ways in which facility users can help finance a facility. One of the most fre-

quently seen forms of user support is student fees. A university with 10,000 students may charge an activity fee of $100 per semester to fund a new recreation center. This would represent a $2 million contribution to the facility and could possibly fund debt repayment and operating expenses, depending on the facility’s size. The hazards with such a strategy are that students can resent the fee, especially if they do not use the recreation center, and that revenue is hurt if enrollment declines.

Selling a Facility One financial consideration that is often over- looked with a facility is the financial repercus- sions of selling or otherwise disposing of the property. At a certain point a facility may outlive its usefulness. There are various methods for disposing of a facility, including the following:

◾ Transfer the facility from one operating divi- sion to another at full book value.

◾ Put the facility on the market as a sport facil- ity, and see if someone will pay the value of the facility based on its current usage.

◾ Sell all the equipment and then put the build- ing on the market for any potential use.

◾ Sell the facility to whoever will buy it for any use.

◾ Sell the facility to a lender or financial insti- tution and then lease it back.

◾ Demolish the facility and rebuild a new structure on the same site.

◾ Donate the facility to charity (Cotts and Lee, 1992).

The sales–lease-back strategy is gaining popu- larity with many facility and equipment owners. Someone who owns a building that is worth $100,000 and has $50,000 in equity could sell the building to a lender for $100,000. After paying the $50,000 owed, the former facility owner would have $50,000 to expand or grow the business. He would then make a lease payment of possibly $1,000 a month for 10 years and then could either repurchase the facility or enter into a new lease. This option allows the former facility owner to gain valuable cash and reduce income by paying tax-deductible rent.

260  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Summary Many◾people◾do◾not◾like◾to◾talk◾about◾finance◾because◾they◾may◾not◾understand◾ some◾of◾the◾numerous◾terms◾and◾formulas.◾However,◾for◾facility◾managers◾to◾have◾ any◾ credibility,◾ they◾ need◾ to◾ have◾ a◾ strong◾ grasp◾ of◾ finance◾ and◾ how◾ to◾ run◾ a◾ facility◾ under◾ a◾ budget.◾ A◾ facility◾ has◾ identifiable◾ revenues◾ and◾ expenses◾ that◾ the◾manager◾needs◾to◾determine◾in◾order◾to◾learn◾how◾to◾make◾more◾money◾or◾ reduce◾ costs.◾ Once◾ the◾ dollar◾ value◾ of◾ income◾ and◾ expenses,◾ along◾ with◾ assets◾ and◾ liabilities,◾ is◾ calculated,◾ management◾ can◾ plug◾ these◾ numbers◾ into◾ various◾ financial◾tools◾such◾as◾income◾statements◾and◾balance◾sheets◾to◾determine◾how◾ well◾the◾facility◾is◾doing◾financially.

Financial◾ analysis◾ is◾ used◾ as◾ a◾ tool◾ to◾ forecast◾ the◾ future◾ and◾ develop◾ an◾ operating◾budget◾that◾will◾help◾the◾facility◾reach◾its◾goals.◾If◾the◾forecasts◾or◾budgets◾ are◾wrong,◾it◾is◾almost◾impossible◾for◾a◾facility◾to◾reach◾its◾goals.◾The◾budget◾process◾ does◾ not◾ focus◾ only◾ on◾ day-to-day◾ concerns;◾ it◾ may◾ also◾ include◾ developing◾ a◾ capital◾project◾to◾renovate◾an◾existing◾facility◾or◾build◾a◾new◾one.◾Once◾a◾strategy◾ has◾ been◾ chosen◾ and◾ a◾ building◾ type◾ identified,◾ the◾ money◾ needs◾ to◾ be◾ raised◾ from◾ private,◾ public,◾ or◾ other◾ sources.◾ However,◾ the◾ financial◾ analysis◾ should◾ not◾ end◾when◾a◾building◾is◾built◾but◾should◾continue◾as◾long◾as◾the◾facility◾is◾operating.◾ Financial◾analysis◾is◾also◾needed◾when◾the◾time◾comes◾to◾dispose◾of◾a◾facility.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾should◾be◾the◾primary◾financial◾concerns◾for◾a◾large◾stadium◾versus◾a◾

small◾fitness◾facility?

  2.  What◾bills◾relating◾to◾a◾facility◾are◾the◾most◾time◾sensitive◾and◾require◾fast◾ repayment?

  3.  How◾would◾you◾handle◾a◾major◾financial◾surge◾or◾slump◾that◾might◾affect◾ your◾facility?

  4.  Research◾a◾major◾sport◾construction◾project◾in◾a◾city◾such◾as◾Cleveland,◾ Cincinnati,◾Denver,◾Baltimore,◾Pittsburgh,◾or◾San◾Francisco◾to◾see◾if◾the◾project◾ was◾a◾financial◾success.◾Include◾your◾criteria◾for◾measuring◾financial◾success.

12

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾the◾breadth◾of◾legal◾issues◾affecting◾sport◾facilities.

◾◾ Apply◾basic◾tort◾and◾contract◾law◾principles◾to◾daily◾facility◾ operations.

◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾constitutional◾law◾and◾government◾regulations◾ affect◾stadiums◾and◾arenas.

◾◾ Learn◾how◾to◾apply◾risk◾management◾techniques◾to◾make◾facilities◾ safer.

LegaL ResponsibiLities

262  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Carla Var-riale. I am a partner in Havkins, Rosenfeld, Ritzert & Varriale, LLP, in New York. I have represented M a j o r L e a g u e B a s e b a l l teams and players, minor league teams, and other entities in the recreation and sport industries. I also teach a course in sports law and ethics at Columbia

University School of Continuing Education’s sports management program. I have worked with my cli- ents in the sport and entertainment industries to develop successful risk management practices and litigation strategies. Increasingly, our focus is turn- ing to security measures, both within and outside the venue. Although I am a litigator who thrives in the courtroom, one of the most challenging aspects of my job is to keep my clients on the field or in the boardroom—and out of the courtroom.

In many ways, sport and entertainment venues are microcosms of the outside world, and there are risks of injury to participants and spectators alike. Venues

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do, however, confront unique risks and challenges when seeking to control the action both on and off the field. To maintain a reasonably safe premises, the modern venue operator must address, among other challenges, those relating to alcohol manage- ment, emergency preparedness, and the conduct of spectators, as well as the liability that can arise from each. Moreover, as the line between entertain- ment and sport blurs, venue owners and operators are also confronting the changing nature of the modern spectator experience. This often results in enhanced liability and underscores the importance of understanding the nature and extent of potential liability and obtaining sound counsel regarding ways to minimize or avoid such liability.

An owner, operator, or manager of a sport and entertainment venue should possess a fundamental understanding of the legal elements of potential claims and defenses, particularly with respect to tort actions. Once armed with that knowledge, he or she can craft best practices and risk management strategies in order to avoid liability. Consequently, from counsel’s perspective, a well-informed and responsive owner, operator, or manager is a criti- cal asset.

Legal◾Responsibilities◾ ■  263

The law is one of the more difficult topics to cover appropriately, and it is hard to do justice to the topic in one chapter. Thus, this chapter highlights some of the most important legal concerns facility managers face, primarily tort- and contract-related issues. These two issues are emphasized over others because facility man- agers face these concerns on a daily basis. Issues regarding constitutional and property law are seen less frequently, although their impact can be just as important as that of tort or contract disputes.

This chapter focuses on the main legal issues facing sport facilities. It starts with an overview of the law and then examines several key concerns that all facility managers should understand. Besides tort and contract law, special attention is given to property law issues such as zoning and eminent domain. Next the chapter looks at constitutional law, including First and Fourteenth Amendment freedoms related to public assembly facility management. Finally, government regula- tions such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and smoking and alcohol regulations are discussed.

Basic Law The law is an abstract concept. It is designed to provide guidance and directions for individuals and businesses. The law is designed to benefit society but can also hamper and confuse busi- nesses. For example, some municipalities have outlawed scalping of tickets, while other munici- palities allow scalping to be conducted outside the facility, on public property, or only on private property, or allow resale without any ticket price increase. Thus, what is legal in one area may be illegal elsewhere.

There are numerous legal issues that apply to sport facilities. Some laws are developed by legislative bodies and are called statutory laws. Tax laws, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) legislation, health code regulations affecting concession operations, and legislation related to the tax deductibility of dona- tions to athletic programs and the tax-free status of construction bonds are just some of the statu- tory concerns at the local, state, and federal level. Laws developed outside the legislative process can originate from administrative actions such as hearings and legislation or from federal and state constitutions; the latter may cover free speech,

freedom of religion, due process rights, and the inspection of property such as locker rooms.

Laws are also developed through the court systems. These laws are called common law. For example, someone who is hit by a foul ball may file a claim of negligence (see next section), which is a claim that the team or facility deviated from a duty to protect the fans. Courts have refined this concept over the years. The courts have also developed another concept called assumption of risk, which is a defense that a team or facility can raise to counter a negligence claim.

Among the various types of laws that can affect a facility, the legal issues most frequently seen in these settings involve tort and contract law.

Tort Law Tort law refers to a broad variety of claims based on damage to a person or property. There are both intentional and unintentional torts. An intentional tort against property includes theft of personal property. An intentional tort against a person can include assault, battery, false imprisonment, and defamation. If someone throws a punch that injures another person, the injured person can sue in civil court. Similarly, if someone makes a false statement about another person, the person with the injured reputation can bring a defama- tion claim.

Unintentional torts can occur to property through such instances as nuisance (e.g., when the noise or lights from a facility travel into a neighbor’s house and cause the neighbor to lose the value or enjoyment of the property). This is in essence taking someone’s property without compensation. Another unintentional tort is neg- ligence, which refers to unintentional bodily or mental injury through failure to act in a reasonably prudent manner.

Negligence There are four elements necessary for any negli- gence claim:

◾ Duty. Some of a facility manager’s duties are to provide a safe facility, inspect the facility on a frequent basis, repair any dangerous condi- tions, provide proper supervision, and provide appropriate matching of opponents. One of the primary duties is to act as a reasonably prudent facility administrator would, which requires the

264  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

manager to act similarly to the way other managers with the same amount of training, education, and experience would act in similar circumstances. There also is a duty to take steps to protect facil- ity users when there is a known risk or threat to others that makes an injury foreseeable.

◾ Breach of duty. Facility managers are required to act on their duty and exercise reason- able judgment to prevent a dangerous situation. If a facility manager has a duty to provide a safe facility but does not comply with appropriate fire code requirements, then the manager has breached his duty. The requirement to have a 4-foot-high (1.2 m) fence around a pool’s perimeter to keep children out might be a duty. If the fence is not present, the pool owner has breached a duty. When a breached duty is a statutory duty such as a required fence, the violation is considered negligence as a matter of law, or negligence per se in Latin.

◾ Proximate cause. Even if a duty was breached, that breach of duty may not be the direct cause of someone’s injury. Proximate cause implies that an injury was the direct result of someone’s breach of duty. For example, if a facility owes a duty to provide a safe environment but fails to clean the floor and remove a slipping hazard, the facility has breached a duty. If someone is injured on the slipping hazard, the facility may be found not guilty if there was an intervening act that broke the chain of causation. For example, if the person was injured not as a result of the slippery surface but as a consequence of being

pushed by someone else, then the person who did the pushing would probably be considered the direct cause of the injury. In one famous case, a person was drowning in a pool. During the rescue attempt, the person was being pulled out of the water when his head slipped and slammed into the side of the pool. The court concluded that the proximate cause of the death was not drowning but rather the botched rescue attempt since the swimmer died from his head trauma (Fried, 1999).

◾ Injury or damages. Any negligence claim will require someone to have been injured, whether physically or emotionally.

All four elements need to be present for a valid negligence claim. If one element is missing, then there cannot be a valid negligence claim. Other defenses include contributory or comparative negligence, assumption of risk, and immunity. Depending on the state, either comparative or contributory negligence can be raised as a defense. Such a defense basically claims that the injured party was somewhat or wholly responsible for injuring herself. In a comparative negligence state, the court examines each party’s respective actions and can allocate damages accordingly. If the plaintiff contributed 40% to her own injuries and receives a $1 million verdict, then she would recover only $600,000. In contrast, a contribu- tory negligence state allows the plaintiff’s own negligence to act as a complete bar. Thus, in this example, the plaintiff who was 40% at fault would recover nothing.

Behind the Scenes

behind the scenes: Foul balls One concern with stadiums and arenas is projectiles, such as foul balls and hockey pucks, leaving the playing area. The death of a young Columbus Blue Jackets hockey fan in 2003 started a new trend in examining safety at sport facilities. That trend was expanded with the death of a Tulsa Drillers base coach from a foul ball in 2007. Stadiums normally have a screen behind home plate to protect fans. But how wide and tall should the screen be? Is the most dangerous part of the stands protected? Can additional protection be provided, such as the new screens being placed in front of dugouts to protect players? Can safety be

incorporated throughout stadiums similar to the way Japa- nese parks screen the entire lower bowl to protect fans?

Some fans need more protection than others. In a rare case from 1957, Richie Ashburn, a slugger with the Philadelphia Phillies, fouled a ball into the stands and hit a female fan. The fan was being treated and was put on a stretcher to exit the stands. As she was being moved, play resumed. On the very next pitch, Ashburn fouled the ball again, and guess who was hit by the ball? That’s right, the woman on the stretcher. Thus, on two pitches, Ashburn hit the same fan twice (Nash and Zullo, 1992).

Legal◾Responsibilities◾ ■  265

Assumption of Risk Assumption of risk means that the plaintiff knew about the risk of participating in a given activity, voluntarily assumed that risk, and then was injured. Under these conditions, the injured party should not recover any damages. One of the classic examples of assumption of risk entails foul balls at a baseball game. Various courts have held that spectators can see foul balls entering the stands and should assume that a ball can hit them if they do not sit behind a screen. A facil- ity owner needs to provide enough screened seats for those who may request them, and the most dangerous part of the facility needs to be screened. Spectators can hypothetically ask to sit in a screened seat if they are concerned about being hit by a foul ball. If a person does not sit behind a screen (and if the most dangerous areas are screened) and is hit by a foul ball, then he is normally considered to have assumed the risk and cannot recover damages.

Immunity Immunity is another major defense that can be used by government entities and some nonprofit agencies. For example, the state of Alabama has in its constitution a provision that the state cannot be sued for negligence. Thus, someone who is injured in a public high school gym cannot sue the school. In other states, the immunity protection is more

limited and basically protects government entities from simple acts of negligence but allows suit if that entity acted in a willful, wanton, or reckless manner. Thus, a public facility could be liable if its staff knew about a very hazardous condition but did nothing to eliminate the hazard. Further- more, some states allow the immunity defense to apply to public employees if they are acting in a discretionary manner. This refers to activities such as planning an event at a facility or sched- uling security personnel. The states do not want public employees to be sued for every decision they make, so they are given immunity protection. However, even in these states, the courts are clear that immunity protection is not provided when the employee is engaged in ministerial conduct. Ministerial conduct refers to mechanical execution of a directive. For example, it is a discretionary act when a supervisor develops a facility inspection and maintenance schedule. It is a ministerial act when the custodian follows the schedule. The supervisor can have immunity in the planning process, but the custodians will not have immu- nity for their ministerial act of failing to follow the schedule and inspect the facility in a timely manner. If someone is injured and the facility has breached a duty to provide a safe environment, the supervisor will probably be immune from liability, while the facility (as the employer) can still be liable for the custodian’s conduct since the employee did not follow set regulations.

behind the scenes: Fall Facts

Behind the Scenes

More than 12,000 people die annually from slip and fall accidents. In addition, 17% of all disabling workplace injuries are caused by falls, and 26% of all deaths in public places are attributable to falls (Roderick and Quintana, 1996). In 2008 there were an estimated 2.2 million emergency room visits from falls in businesses and residences. The reasons for the slips, trips, and falls are highlighted below (National Floor Safety Institute, 2009):

Reason Percentage

Walking-surface issue 55

Footwear problems 24

Lack of warning or signs 10

Lack of employee training 8

Fraudulent claims 3

266  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Risk Management and Insurance Although injuries and accidents are always going to occur, various risk management strategies can be used to minimize the potential for injuries and litigation.

Risk management focuses on two major issues: identifying risks and then eliminating or reducing those risks. Identifying risks involves a significant effort to examine current operations and then to systematically generate new strategies and techniques to reduce potential lawsuits. The ECT approach is one strategy to help implement a risk management system. The ECT approach is so named because every element ends with the letters ect.

◾ Reflect. A facility manager needs to determine why he is interested in implementing a risk man- agement program. Is the purpose to save money, reduce insurance obligation, run a safer facility, or a combination of these? Another part of the reflect stage is to rank potential concerns in order of

magnitude and impact. For example, an earthquake is not a major concern on the east coast but could be one of the bigger concerns on the west coast.

◾ Deflect. A facility can possibly improve risk management efforts by deflecting liability onto others. This can be accomplished through pur- chasing insurance that will pay attorney fees and any damages if a claim is filed; inserting clauses in rental contracts that require the renter to have insurance, assume liability, and hold the facility harmless from any claims; and having participants (possibly parents) sign a waiver indicating that they understand the risks of participating in the activity and will not sue the facility if they are injured while participating.

◾ Detect. A facility manager needs to learn how to identify potential concerns or retain people who are knowledgeable in risk management. For example, the National Fire Protection Associa- tion requires larger facilities to conduct annual life safety inspections. Such inspections identify numerous potential concerns.

Behind the Scenes

behind the scenes: ackler v. odessa-Montour Central school District

Risk management can involve simple details such as tape on a floor that may be a tripping hazard or more complex issues such as insurance. The following case highlights a problem that may occur when temporary measures are taken in a facility and are not implemented properly.

A high school student in New York was injured when he fell on a gym floor. The student was trying out for the school’s basketball team. He claimed that during a particu- lar drill his foot hit a sticky substance, causing him to fall and injure his knee. The student sued the school, claiming that the school was negligent for creating a dangerous and defective condition. The dangerous condition had been created when a piece of tape placed on the floor to mark a volleyball boundary line had been improperly removed. After removal of the tape, a sticky residue remained, and the student tripped at the point where the residue would have been. The school district filed for summary judgment, which is an attempt to have the court rule on a case before it gets to a potential jury. But the court concluded that there were sufficient facts to warrant proceeding with the

case, as the facts appeared to demonstrate that the school had acted negligently in handling and removing the tape (Ackler v. Odessa-Montour Central School District, 1997). This particular concern also arises in facilities where elec- trical cords are taped down to prevent a tripping hazard.

This case raises an important issue in that putting tape on a floor is not a negligent act in and of itself. The liability concern is the negligent maintenance, application, or removal of any flooring tape. Once a facility manager undertakes to make a facility safer, she has to implement the safety plan in a reasonable manner. Safety-conscious administrators sometimes place nonslip tape on a stair lip to provide extra traction, but over the years the tape can wear down or peel. It is common to see staircases with poor or missing nonslip tape. Customers do not neces- sarily notice the tape’s condition, but they expect it to be there. If they fall on an area where tape is missing, they may sue. To improve safety related to traction and vision, some facilities have installed permanent tread lips that illuminate in the dark.

Legal◾Responsibilities◾ ■  267

◾ Inspect. It is not enough to identify risks and dangerous conditions; someone has to physically examine the facility and its policies to see if there are any hazards or if any area needs to be repaired.

◾ Correct. Once an area or object or situation has been identified as hazardous, someone has to repair the hazard. This may require completing a work order or other means of communicating the needed repair to the appropriate individuals.

◾ Reinspect. The mere fact that a work order has been completed does not mean that the repairs or required actions were undertaken or were undertaken correctly to resolve the hazard. Thus, the area needs to be reinspected to make sure it is safe.

◾ Reflect. After a set time such as a year, or after an event, the entire risk management process needs to be reevaluated to determine if it was effective and what steps can be taken to make it more effective in the future (Fried, 1999).

Risk management entails more than just follow- ing specific elements from an easy-to-remember slogan such as “ECT.”. Risk management also entails training employees to appreciate and apply risk management principles on a daily basis. Employees need to live risk management. When a napkin is on the floor, a well-trained employee will pick it up even if trash collection is not part of her job, since someone can slip on the napkin if it is not picked up. Thus, risk management flows throughout a facility and its staff and needs to be internalized in order for it to be effective.

In addition to risk management strategies, there are numerous types of insurance policies that a facility manager needs to consider besides the traditional comprehensive general liability poli- cies that cover basic business losses such as fire or liability for injuries on premises. Other necessary policies may include the following:

◾ Workers’ compensation ◾ Automobile ◾ Business interruption ◾ Alcohol sales ◾ Employment practices liability insurance (EPLI)

There are also unique policies that can be purchased for a single event or for rare occur- rences. Recent policies have been written to protect against such losses as natural disasters that in the past may not have been covered losses.

For example, snow-removal insurance policies protect businesses if a snowstorm makes a busi- ness inaccessible for more than a set number of days (Yarborough, 1998). In 1995-1996, Logan International Airport purchased snow-removal insurance; the policy was written to activate after 44 inches (1 m) of snow had fallen. The policy pro- vided a $50,000 payment to the airport for every inch over 44 inches up to 84 inches (2 m). More than 100 inches (2.5 m) of snow fell that winter, and the administrators at Logan were considered geniuses since their $400,000 investment in the snow-removal insurance brought a $2 million return from the insurer. The insurance was neces- sary to help cover the costs associated with snow removal, lost parking, and lost concession revenue due to fewer passengers.

Such narrowly focused policies can be crafted to address or exclude specific circumstances. In the case of snow-removal insurance, the policy can specify what lost business will be covered, during which dates, whether snow removal is cov- ered versus just lost business income, and which days will be specifically addressed as key business

A◾simple◾warning◾sign◾is◾the◾start◾of◾a◾risk◾manage- ment◾program. Photo◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

268  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

loss dates. For example, a football stadium may want snow-removal insurance only for Sundays when home games are played against opponents with a win–loss record over 70%. Any terms can be included in an insurance policy if it is negoti- ated and accepted as a valid contract.

Contracts Most contracts do not need to be in writing to be effective. Numerous transactions occur in a facil- ity without a written contract, such as when a patron pays $5.00 for a beer. When the money and the beer are exchanged, a contract is completed. A written contract merely provides evidence of what the contractual terms were. Some contracts, such as a contract for the sale of real estate or a contract that cannot be fulfilled within one year, need to be in writing. Although it may not be necessary for a contract to be in writing to be legal, every contract needs to have four basic elements to be valid:

1. An agreement includes an offer and accep- tance. If Mr. A offers to paint Ms. B’s house for $1,000, there is an offer. If Ms. B says yes, there is an acceptance and the potential for a valid agree- ment. However, if Ms. B says she will pay only $800, the first offer is terminated, and Ms. B has just made a counteroffer. The contractual terms in the agreement should be as specific as possible to avoid confusion. This can be very difficult in application. Sometimes people or entities enter into a memorandum of understanding. These simple contracts may provide basic terms, with a more detailed contract to follow. Memos of under- standing have been used between a professional team and a city to build a stadium or arena. The memo is used to start the construction project, and then the complex and detailed contract can be completed at a later date.

2. Consideration is an exchange of value or promises. There is no requirement that any consideration have a minimum value as long as one party believes there is value. This point is important because without an exchange of value there cannot be a contract. Assume that a woman promises her grandson that she will give him $1 million. This is a gift that can be withdrawn without any repercussion, since there was not a contract. However, if the woman promises her grandson $1 million if he graduates from college, then a contract exists. The grandson does not have to stay in college or even go; in such a case,

the woman would not be obliged to give him the money. However, if he chooses to attend college and also graduates, she owes the money. His stay- ing in college was consideration for her promise to pay a certain sum.

3. Capacity represents the ability to enter into a contract. Some people cannot be legally bound to a contract because of their age, mental status, or mental state. Those under age 18 cannot be bound to a contract because it is presumed that they do not understand what they are agreeing to, no matter how mature they may be. Thus, although a facility should still ask minors (those under age 18) to sign a waiver to participate, the parents should also sign the waiver to make the contract legally binding. This does not mean that the minor cannot back out of the contract. It also does not necessarily mean that the parents have waived the minor’s right to sue, because in certain states parents can waive their own rights but not those of a minor. Persons who are insane or mentally deficient also cannot bind themselves through a contract, and any contract they enter into can be voidable. Lastly, those who are impaired through drugs or alcohol also do not have the capacity to enter into a contract.

4. Legality is the last element of a valid con- tract. Contracts must have a legal purpose. Thus, a court would not intervene to enforce a contract for selling or buying illegal drugs. Since the drugs are illegal, any contract regarding them is void from the outset and cannot be enforced in any court.

As already mentioned, all four elements of a contract need to be present. However, having a valid contract is not the end of contract law. The contract has to be performed. If all parties perform their contractual obligations, the transac- tion is completed. Contracts are entered into and completed every day. If someone pays to park in a sport facility, a contract is completed via the customer’s paying the required amount and the facility’s allowing the vehicle to park. However, a party that does not comply with its contractual obligations has breached the contract. For exam- ple, if a corporation signs a 20-year naming rights contract for a facility and cannot pay the required amount in a given year, the company has breached its contractual obligation. The facility can ignore the breach and try to settle the dispute, terminate the contract and look for another sponsor, assess damages under the contract, sue to enforce the contract, or take these actions in combination. If a

Legal◾Responsibilities◾ ■  269

contract is breached, the aggrieved party can sue to recover actual losses and possibly other damages.

There are numerous facility-related contracts, from simple ticket purchases or concession sales contracts (see a sample contract on pages 270-271) to complex lease agreements and bond issuance contracts. Lease provisions need to be carefully crafted. During the 2002 football season, county commissioners in Cincinnati sued the Bengals for breaching their lease obligations. The Bengals had lost six straight games at the start of the season, were 10-28 since moving into the newly built sta- dium, and had sold out only 7 of 19 home games. A sentence in the lease stated that the sales tax increase used to fund the stadium was needed to “keep competitive and viable major league football and baseball teams in Cincinnati.” Since the commissioners did not perceive the team as competitive, they were examining the option of suing the team for breach of contract for failing to field a competitive team (“County Probes,” 2002). The case was later dismissed by the courts for being filed in an untimely manner (too many years after the contract was supposedly breached).

One of the important concerns associated with contracts is keeping them current. This is espe- cially important for leases, as provisions written 20 years ago may not be applicable any longer. Sig- nificant bargaining and renegotiating often need to be undertaken when contracts such as leases expire. For example, it may not be worthwhile extending a lease if more favorable terms can be found. If there are numerous vacant buildings, some landlords may go into a reverse bidding war to offer the lowest price and best amenities to attract a tenant. Some of the strategies used when renegotiating a lease include the following:

◾ Finding a “walk-away” alternative facility that could serve the same purpose and would not be difficult to move to (if a landlord knows the facility cannot be replicated, then the landlord has all the bargaining power)

◾ Avoiding unfair escalation clauses that can significantly increase rent obligations

◾ Obtaining the right to audit the books to cal- culate operating expenses

◾ Changing the base year for future increases to the current year to avoid unfair increases

◾ Avoiding holdover clauses that charge large sums for staying just several days over the former lease ending date

◾ Eliminating any personal guarantees that will secure the lease obligations (Perry, 2002b)

Property Law

Sport facilities are affected by property law in various ways. A sport facility represents real property. Real property is any property attached to land. Personal property, in contrast, such as a car or lawnmower, can be moved. Numerous laws, regulations, and ordinances affect real property. For example, as discussed in chapter 4, zoning is a major consideration for any pro- posed facility. Local officials want to protect a neighborhood’s integrity and may allow only residential property in a given area. However, if a community benefit can be derived from the facility, the zoning laws may be bent to allow a JCC or YMCA, for example, to be built in the neighborhood even though the existing zoning does not allow such a facility.

Other property issues previously discussed include the use of eminent domain by a munici- pality to take land for a public use. In one cir- cumstance the city of Baltimore attempted to use eminent domain to try to keep a professional team from moving. The Baltimore Colts were interested in moving, and the city council voted to use eminent domain to keep the team. However, the team packed up its bags in the middle of the night and moved in its entirety in several trailers to Indianapolis. If the team was not in the city, it could not be touched. Some legal authorities also believed that eminent domain would not work on a team since a team is not real property. However, the Colts did not want to stick around to see how the potential legal battle would end.

One of the biggest legal concerns associated with property law is the concept of nuisance. Nuisance is a type of tort in which a party’s use of land interferes with others’ uses. For example, if a facility has outdoor lighting or a sound system that allows light or sound to spill over into adjoining property, the property owners can ask that the lights and sound be reduced. If the facility does not act, the homeowners can bring a nuisance suit to force the lights and sound to be turned down. Thus, a facility that has its own property does not have unfettered use of the property if it violates a law or interferes with other property.

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Sample Facility Concession Contract

THIS◾AGREEMENT◾ made◾ this◾ ___◾ day◾ of◾ ______,◾ ______◾ by◾ and◾ between◾ ________________,◾ a◾ municipal◾ corporation,◾having◾its◾main◾office◾_________________,◾(hereinafter◾“Facility”),◾and◾Facility◾Operator,◾Inc.,◾ whose◾mailing◾address◾will◾be◾___________________◾(hereinafter◾“Operator”).

WITNESSETH:

WHEREAS,◾the◾Facility◾is◾a◾multiuse◾sport◾facility;◾and,

WHEREAS,◾Operator◾is◾qualified◾and◾knowledgeable◾in◾the◾field◾of◾concession◾operation;◾and,

WHEREAS,◾the◾Facility◾desires◾that◾Operator◾provide◾concession◾service◾at◾the◾Facility◾during◾sporting◾ events.

NOW,◾THEREFORE,◾the◾parties◾agree◾as◾follows:

  1. Service◾to◾Be◾Provided.◾Operator◾shall,◾during◾the◾term◾of◾this◾Agreement◾and◾for◾and◾during◾the◾ hours◾of◾operation◾herein◾below◾provided,◾provide◾concession◾items◾as◾mutually◾agreed◾upon◾by◾both◾ parties.

  2. Fees. a.◾Occupancy◾Fee.◾Operator◾agrees◾to◾pay◾a◾concession◾fee◾of◾$___________◾for◾permission◾to◾sell◾

concessions◾at◾the◾Facility.◾This◾payment◾of◾$__________◾must◾be◾received◾by◾_________________◾to◾ be◾valid.

  3.  Term.◾This◾Agreement◾ shall◾ apply◾ from◾ the◾ date◾ hereof◾ through◾ December◾ 31◾ _____.◾The◾ Facility◾ and◾Operator◾may◾by◾mutual◾agreement◾extend◾this◾Agreement◾for◾two◾successive◾one-year◾options,◾ with◾modifications◾to◾this◾Agreement◾subject◾to◾the◾approval◾of◾both◾parties.◾Such◾renewal◾shall◾be◾in◾ writing◾and◾signed◾by◾both◾parties.

  4. Permits.◾Operator◾shall◾be◾responsible◾for◾obtaining◾all◾appropriate◾and◾necessary◾licenses◾and◾ permits◾ for◾ the◾ sale◾ of◾ its◾ products.◾Appropriate◾ and◾ necessary◾ permits◾ and◾ certificates◾ for◾ food◾ ser- vice◾and◾from◾County◾Health◾Department◾must◾be◾obtained◾and◾exhibited◾prior◾to◾serving◾customers.◾ Repeated◾health◾code◾violations◾or◾other◾poor◾performance◾leading◾to◾Health◾Department◾citation(s)◾ shall◾result◾in◾this◾contract’s◾termination.

  5. Insurance.◾During◾the◾term◾hereof,◾Operator◾shall◾maintain◾in◾full◾force◾and◾effect◾bodily◾injury,◾prop- erty◾damage,◾and◾comprehensive◾public◾liability◾insurance◾of◾not◾less◾than◾$1,000,000.◾Operator◾shall◾ deliver◾to◾the◾Facility◾a◾certificate◾issued◾by◾the◾insurance◾carrier◾naming◾the◾Facility◾as◾an◾additional◾ insured.

  6. Indemnification.◾Each◾party◾shall◾indemnify◾and◾hold◾harmless◾the◾other◾and◾their◾respective◾suc- cessors,◾assigns,◾officers,◾directors,◾agents,◾affiliates,◾and◾employees◾from◾and◾against◾all◾costs,◾liabilities,◾ damages,◾expenses,◾claims,◾and◾demands◾whatsoever,◾including◾reasonable◾attorneys’◾fees,◾suffered◾by◾ or◾asserted◾against◾the◾other◾party,◾that◾result◾directly◾or◾indirectly◾from◾any◾negligent,◾willful,◾reckless,◾or◾ wrongful◾act◾or◾omission◾of◾the◾other◾party,◾its◾employees,◾representatives,◾or◾agents,◾under◾this◾Agree- ment,◾or◾from◾any◾breach◾of◾its◾representations◾and◾warranties◾herein.◾If◾a◾claim◾arises,◾upon◾receiving◾ notice◾or◾knowledge◾of◾any◾claim,◾event,◾or◾loss◾for◾which◾indemnity◾is◾sought◾hereunder,◾the◾indemni- fied◾party◾shall◾tender◾the◾matter◾to◾the◾defending◾party◾and◾cooperate◾with◾its◾defense◾as◾that◾party◾ may◾reasonably◾request,◾and◾permit◾the◾defending◾party◾to◾defend,◾try,◾settle,◾arbitrate,◾or◾appeal◾such◾ matter◾as◾the◾defending◾party◾shall◾determine.◾After◾tender◾and◾acceptance◾of◾defense◾have◾occurred,◾ the◾indemnitor◾shall◾not◾be◾responsible◾for◾further◾defense◾costs◾or◾further◾attorneys’◾fees.

  7. Trash◾Removal.◾The◾Facility◾shall◾provide◾trash◾receptacles◾for◾Operator’s◾operation◾at◾no◾additional◾ cost◾or◾expense◾to◾Operator.◾It◾shall◾be◾Operator’s◾responsibility◾to◾empty◾trash◾receptacles◾at◾the◾end◾ of◾each◾day,◾located◾inside◾each◾concession◾and◾eating◾area,◾and◾place◾trash◾outside◾the◾Facility◾for◾ final◾removal.

■  271

  8. Uniforms.◾Operator’s◾employees◾will◾use◾Operator’s◾standard◾uniform◾designating◾them◾in◾a◾manner◾ that◾sets◾them◾apart◾from◾security◾personnel.

  9. Conduct.◾Courteous◾and◾polite◾behavior◾is◾required◾and◾expected◾of◾Operator’s◾employees.   10.  Applicable◾ Laws.◾ Operator◾ shall◾ observe◾ all◾ laws,◾ ordinances,◾ and◾ regulations◾ applicable◾ to◾ its◾ operation◾ hereunder◾ and◾ shall◾ promptly◾ pay◾ when◾ due,◾ all◾ sales,◾ employment,◾ income,◾ and◾ other◾ required◾taxes.

  11. Acts◾of◾God◾and◾Force◾Majeure.◾Neither◾party◾shall◾be◾liable◾for◾damages◾for◾its◾failure◾to◾perform◾ due◾to◾contingencies◾beyond◾its◾reasonable◾control,◾including,◾but◾not◾limited◾to,◾war,◾fire,◾strikes,◾riots,◾ storm,◾flood,◾earthquake,◾explosion,◾accidents,◾sabotage,◾public◾insurrection,◾public◾disorders,◾lockouts,◾ labor◾disputes,◾labor◾shortages,◾or◾any◾other◾acts◾of◾God.

  12. Attorneys’◾Fees.◾In◾any◾action◾to◾construe◾or◾enforce◾the◾terms◾and◾conditions◾of◾the◾Agreement,◾ the◾prevailing◾party◾(as◾determined◾by◾a◾court◾of◾competent◾jurisdiction,◾if◾necessary)◾in◾such◾action◾ and◾in◾any◾appeals◾taken◾therefrom◾shall◾be◾entitled◾to◾recover◾all◾reasonable◾attorneys’◾fees◾and◾costs.

  13. Waiver.◾Failure◾or◾delay◾on◾the◾part◾of◾either◾party◾to◾exercise◾any◾right,◾power,◾privilege,◾or◾remedy◾ under◾this◾Agreement◾shall◾not◾constitute◾a◾waiver◾thereof.

  14. Severability.◾The◾provisions◾of◾this◾Agreement◾shall◾be◾severable,◾and◾the◾invalidity◾of◾any◾provision,◾ or◾portion◾thereof,◾shall◾not◾affect◾the◾enforceability◾of◾the◾remaining◾provisions.

  15. Authorized◾Signatures/Effectiveness.◾The◾persons◾signing◾this◾Agreement◾shall◾have◾all◾legal◾author- ity◾and◾power◾to◾bind◾Operator◾and◾Facility.

  16. Entire◾Agreement.◾This◾Agreement◾constitutes◾the◾entire◾understanding◾between◾the◾parties◾and◾ supersedes◾all◾previous◾agreements◾or◾negotiations,◾whether◾written◾or◾oral,◾and◾shall◾not◾be◾modified◾ or◾amended◾except◾by◾written◾agreement◾duly◾executed◾by◾the◾parties.

  17. Binding◾Agreement.◾This◾Agreement◾shall◾be◾binding◾upon◾and◾inure◾to◾the◾benefit◾of◾the◾parties,◾ their◾heirs,◾successors,◾and◾assigns.

  18. Pricing◾and◾Signs.◾All◾display◾signage◾and◾advertising◾and◾promotion◾located◾in◾the◾Facility◾must◾ be◾approved◾by◾the◾Facility◾prior◾to◾display◾and◾shall◾not◾conflict◾with◾current◾Facility◾sponsors.

  19. No◾Competition.◾During◾the◾term◾of◾this◾Agreement,◾the◾Facility◾agrees◾that◾it◾will◾not◾enter◾into◾an◾ Agreement◾with◾any◾other◾entity◾permitting◾any◾concession◾operation◾at◾the◾Facility.

  20. Security.◾The◾management◾staff◾at◾the◾Facility◾and◾the◾local◾police◾shall◾have◾keys◾to◾each◾con- cession◾location.◾The◾Facility◾is◾responsible◾for◾hiring,◾training,◾and◾managing◾the◾activity◾of◾all◾Facility◾ security◾personnel.◾Security◾personnel◾should◾make◾regularly◾scheduled◾visits◾to◾Operator’s◾sites◾and◾ help◾with◾securing◾money◾deposits◾after◾each◾event.

  21.  Default.◾ In◾ the◾ event◾ Operator◾ shall◾ fail◾ to◾ comply◾ with◾ all◾ the◾ terms◾ contained◾ herein◾ or◾ fails◾ to◾ remain◾open◾for◾business◾at◾the◾times◾provided,◾or◾fails◾to◾abide◾by◾any◾of◾the◾terms◾and◾conditions◾ thereof,◾the◾Facility◾may◾at◾its◾sole◾discretion◾provide◾written◾notice◾of◾any◾such◾breach◾or◾default.

In◾ the◾ event◾ the◾ Facility◾ gives◾ written◾ notice◾ of◾ any◾ claimed◾ breach◾ or◾ default,◾ Operator◾ shall◾ be◾ allowed◾72◾hours◾after◾hand-delivery◾receipt◾of◾such◾notice◾within◾which◾to◾cure◾the◾breach◾or◾breaches◾ specified◾therein.◾If◾the◾breach(es)◾take◾longer◾than◾24◾hours◾to◾correct,◾Operator◾will◾keep◾the◾facility◾ manager◾informed◾of◾the◾daily◾progress◾being◾made◾to◾correct◾the◾breach(es).◾No◾breach(es)◾will◾take◾ longer◾than◾five◾(5)◾days◾to◾cure,◾and◾if◾the◾breach(es)◾cannot◾be◾cured◾the◾Agreement◾will◾automati- cally◾terminate.

IN◾WITNESS◾THEREOF,◾the◾parties◾hereto◾sign◾this◾Agreement◾on◾the◾date◾below◾and◾hereby◾acknowl- edge◾acceptance◾of◾all◾the◾terms◾and◾conditions◾set◾forth◾herein.

________________________________________ Reprinted,◾by◾permission,◾from◾G.◾Fried,◾1999,◾Safe at first◾(Durham,◾NC:◾Carolina◾Academic◾Press).

272  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Constitutional Law Constitutional law exists at the federal level and in all 50 states. Constitutional law applies only to state and federal actors, not to private facilities. The first question to ask when dealing with any constitutional law issue is whether or not a state or federal actor is involved. However, even in a private facility, state action can occur if a public entity, such as a college team, is using the facility for an official event. If a state employee (e.g., the coach) is forcing players to pray before a game with a private university opponent, there could be constitutional issues associated with the First Amendment’s free exercise clause. This section covers several key constitutional issues associated with sport facilities.

First Amendment Freedoms The First Amendment concerns rights such as freedom of religion, free exercise of religion, and freedom of speech. Issues related to freedom of religion and free exercise can arise when religious material is played over loudspeakers, a religious invocation is allowed before an event at a facility, or prayer is allowed in a locker room. In all these cases it may be argued that the state is providing support to or hindering a religion.

Freedom of speech issues occur more fre- quently in sport facilities but can be intertwined with religion-related issues. In one case, a fan brought a religiously oriented sign to a stadium and was expelled. This type of incident may be a blend of free speech and freedom of religion issues. The fan ended up settling the suit with the team, with no admission of any guilt or wrongdo- ing. Other cases involve free speech only (e.g., if a facility does not allow people to picket at the front entrance). Several cases have been raised by persons selling unofficial programs in front of stadiums and arenas. Courts are reluctant to impose a total ban against such activities and often impose what are referred to as reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions. Such restric- tions allow a facility or municipality to regulate speech, not based on content but on other standard criteria. Thus, such restrictions are typically con- tent neutral. Examples include noise ordinances that do not allow amplified sound after a certain time at night, requirements to obtain permits to assemble on public property, and rules precluding people from assembling at given areas or certain

times. Such regulations are designed to prevent disruption to cities or facilities, but they need to be enforced in such a way that they apply to all speech so that content is not an issue.

Although the concept of content-neutral regula- tions is often used, other laws can override these regulations. For example, certain no-assembly rules may need to be enforced in front of a facility but may be relaxed if a union is calling a strike. This example suggests the complexity associated with free speech issues and the reason an attorney needs to be contacted before any attempt is made to regulate any speech. This is especially important if a facility is being leased to outside organizations. It is legal to lease a public facility to a religious organization, but if the facility is open to one group it must be made available to other groups regard- less of their agenda or ideology. For example, if a facility is leased to a church group one week and a neo-Nazi group wishes to rent it the next week, the neo-Nazi group must be allowed to rent unless the facility is already booked or is unavailable for some other legitimate reason.

Fourteenth Amendment Protections Equal protection is another major constitutional concern. Publicly owned sport facilities are state actors (act as agents of the state) pursuant to the Fourteenth Amendment and as such must provide equal protection under the law to all persons work- ing within the facility. This can apply not just to the players and field workers but also to the press. One case highlighting this point was brought by a female reporter against the Yankees. The reporter was not allowed into the locker room and sued, claiming that the Yankees played in a public facil- ity and thus she was owed equal protection under the law to be treated the same as male reporters (Ludtke v. Kuhn, 1978). On the basis of such cases, men’s sports often allow both male and female reporters into the locker room to provide both gen- ders with the same access opportunity. To avoid the issue, women’s sports do not let any reporters into the locker room. Often the press is allowed in only after everyone has showered, or athletes are interviewed only in a separate pressroom.

Government Regulations Government regulations can affect a facility. Bleacher safety received a significant boost in 2002 when the Minnesota legislature passed

Legal◾Responsibilities◾ ■  273

legislation that conforms to the proposed Uni- form Building Code (UBC) 2000. The regulations require bleachers over 55 inches (1.4 m) high to have no more than 4 inches (10 cm) of spacing between the floor and seat boards. Telescoping grandstands in gymnasiums can have a spacing of up to 9 inches (23 cm). Guardrails also must have less than 4-inch spacing at the openings and must not be climbable. Guardrails can be protected using chain-link fencing. The mesh of the chain-link fencing must have a maximum 1.75-inch (4.4 cm) opening if it is reinforced with plastic or wooden slats, or otherwise a maximum

1.25-inch (3.2 cm) opening, to make the fence more difficult to climb. Guardrails should also be installed with vertical spacing bars every 4 inches to prevent children from falling through. Lastly, the regulations require that a building official or design professional certify that the bleachers meet the safety requirements (“Minnesota Leading,” 2003). Other potential code concerns for grand- stands and bleachers include aisle width, access to exits, and structural soundness.

Other government regulations affecting facili- ties include OSHA regulations and taxes. The OSHA regulations affect the work environment

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: Raymond James stadium The Tampa Bay Buccaneers were following a 2005 NFL mandate to conduct searches of all fans entering Ray- mond James Stadium. The policy was designed to prevent a potential terrorist attack and prevent banned items from entering the stands. One season ticket holder objected to the searches, claiming they violated his constitutional rights to be free from unreasonable searches.

The fan argued that pat-downs were an unreasonable invasion of privacy that did little to make fans safer. In fact, he claimed that the lines outside the stadium exposed game patrons to greater danger. A lower court agreed. But a panel of the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals overturned that decision in June 2007, saying the fan had consented to the searches by purchasing tickets. Pat-downs at Raymond James were on hold during the legal battle but resumed October 12, 2007, after the appellate court lifted a stay. Until that point, Raymond James remained the last NFL stadium where the pat-downs did not occur.

The appellate court concluded that there is no consti- tutional right to watch football games and that his rights were not violated solely by the fact that the stadium is a publicly owned facility. Normally the constitution applies in public facilities, but the court concluded that the fan was given sufficient warning about the search and that if the ticket holder did not want to be searched he did not have to go to the football game (Stacey, 2007).

The case went all the way to the United States Supreme Court, which agreed with the appellate court and allowed the stadium to resume the pat-downs (Varian, 2009). The following is the specific language on the stadium’s Web site relating to its policy for searches:

PAT-DOWNS

To ensure the highest level of safety and security, all guests will be subject to a courteous pat-down screening

upon entry into Raymond James Stadium. The pat-down procedure entails an unobtrusive head-to-waist inspection for persons of all ages. Pat-downs will be done expedi- tiously by highly trained individuals of the same gender, done with the back of the hand; women will search women and men will search men. Fans that refuse pat-downs will not be admitted into Raymond James Stadium. THERE ARE NO EXCEPTIONS. We ask for everyone’s coopera- tion as we continue to improve upon the safety at Raymond James Stadium. By tendering your ticket, you consent to such searches and waive any related claims that you might have against the stadium landlord, the NFL, the Buccaneers, or their respective agents (Raymond James Stadium, 2009).

Doug◾Benc/Getty◾Images◾Sport

274  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

and make facilities as safe as possible for workers. Injuries happen frequently in sport facilities. For example, in the first three years during which the Bridgeport Arena at Harbor Yard was open, at least three employees were injured and lost fingertips while working with glass dasher boards used for hockey. All serious injuries need to be reported to either federal or state OSHA offices.

Tax-related issues can include income taxes for employees, collection of taxes on various items sold, collection of a ticket-related surcharge tax, and possibly property-related taxes. The New Haven Ravens approached the city of West Haven in 2002 to reduce the team’s property tax obligation. The Ravens were the only team of the 130 teams in minor league baseball that had to pay property taxes. They paid $25,000 a year in property taxes for using the field (Zaretsky, 2002). The tax obligation was only one of the team’s obligations. They also owed almost $80,000 for back overtime pay for police officers who worked games. The Ravens were required to have three or four officers work the street in front of the sta- dium for every game, regardless of the number of spectators.

Clearly, government involvement in sport facilities has many facets. From zoning regulations to federal legislation affecting the environment, sport facilities constantly have to be aware of new regulations that can affect operations. Some important government regulations are discussed at the end of this section, but the most important law affecting sport facilities is addressed first. The ADA has had and will continue to have a greater impact on sport facilities than any other law ever passed by the federal government.

Compliance With the ADA In a watershed event for millions of Americans, the Americans with Disabilities Act was signed into law on January 26, 1992. The new law prom- ised millions of Americans (more than 50 million according to some estimates) the opportunity to obtain equality in facility usage and employment opportunities (Fried, 1999).

Nowhere can the ADA’s effect be seen more prominently than in facilities. Sport and recre- ation facilities are especially prominent in rela- tion to ADA coverage because of the publicity generated by such facilities and the number of people who attend events or engage in activities at facilities. Sport facilities have become the target

for organizations such as Paralyzed Veterans of America, which has engaged in concerted efforts on behalf of its 17,000 members to challenge new sport facilities that do not meet ADA require- ments. The group filed against several arenas claiming that although spaces were available for wheelchairs, the seating did not offer a clear view of the action when surrounding fans stood up. Regulations under the ADA require all wheelchair seats to be designed so that the wheelchair-using patron is not isolated and has the choice of vari- ous seats and ticket prices; and, in places where fans are expected to stand, facilities must provide a line of sight comparable to the view from seats provided to other spectators.

ADA Requirements for Sport Facilities

Title III of the ADA covers places of public accommodations and commercial facilities such as establishments serving food and drinks, enter- tainment facilities (movie theaters, concert halls), public gathering places (auditoriums, convention centers, stadiums, arenas), public transportation centers, places of recreation (parks, zoos, bowling alleys), places of education (private schools), and places of exercise or recreation (gymnasiums, golf courses). The only exceptions from Title III cover- age are private clubs and religious organizations.

Under the ADA, a place of public accommo- dation must remove all architectural barriers to access if such removal is readily achievable. When an architectural barrier cannot be removed, the facility must provide alternative services. How- ever, any new construction or facility alteration must comply with all ADA accessibility stan- dards. New construction is required to be readily accessible and usable unless this is structurally impracticable.

The primary focus in analyzing sport facilities relates to the public accommodation require- ments. Public accommodations may not discrimi- nate against persons with disabilities. Persons with disabilities cannot be denied full and equal enjoyment of the “goods, services, facilities, privi- leges, advantages or accommodations” offered by all covered facilities. The ADA applies to covered facilities regardless of whether they are owned by the private, nonprofit, or government sector.

Disabilities Covered by ADA

The ADA employment provisions clarify what constitutes a disability under the ADA. Persons

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covered by the ADA include those with signifi- cant physical or mental impairments, those with a record of an impairment, and those regarded as having an impairment. Persons with a record of disability are protected even though they may not currently suffer any impairment. Thus a cancer patient in remission is covered by the ADA. Fur- thermore, persons regarded by any other person as having an impairment are protected even if they have never had any impairment. For example, even though people with dwarfism might not consider themselves disabled, they are protected because other people might think they are. A person has a disability if he has a significant con- dition that substantially limits one or more major life activities. Major life activities as defined by Department of Justice regulations include “func- tions such as caring for one’s self, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning and working” (28 CFR Section 41.31, 2004). To help determine significance, the following factors are examined: the length of time the condition has existed, the number and types of life activities affected, the extent to which the disability limits opportunities, and whether the condition is medically diagnosable.

Common examples of protected disabilities include AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), paralysis, diabetes, arthritis, cancer, epilepsy, asthma, vision impairments, hearing impairments, speech impairments, learning dis- abilities, muscular dystrophy, heart disease, and manic depressive disorder. Conditions commonly regarded as impairments include dwarfism, albi- nism, cosmetic deformities, controlled diabetes, and visible burn injuries. The ADA specifically excludes a host of different conditions or traits such as sexual orientation, pyromaniacs, klepto- maniacs, and compulsive gamblers. Other condi- tions that are not covered by the ADA include colds, broken bones, appendicitis, hair color, hair type, and left-handedness (Fried and Miller, 1998).

Persons with disabilities are not the only people protected by the ADA. The ADA prohibits discrimination against any individual or entity because the person has a known relationship or association with a person who is disabled. Thus, the roommate of a disabled participant cannot be excluded from attending. This does not mean the roommate can get into a stadium for free. But if the roommate and the disabled patron both have

tickets, they should be allowed to sit together. These seats are often called companion seats.

Reasonable Accommodation Reasonable accommodation refers to correcting both architectural and program-related barriers. An architectural barrier is a physical element of a building that impedes access for disabled individuals. Examples of architectural barriers include the following:

◾ Steps and curbs (rather than ramps) ◾ Unpaved parking areas ◾ Conventional doors (rather than automatic doors)

◾ Office layouts that do not allow a wheelchair to move through the space

◾ Deep-pile carpeting, which is difficult for wheelchairs to traverse

◾ Mirrors, paper towel dispensers, and sinks that are positioned too high on a restroom wall

All covered facilities must reasonably modify their policies, practices, and procedures to avoid discrimination. Modifications do not need to be undertaken if they would fundamentally alter the nature of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or accommodations.

Prioritizing ADA Compliance When faced with possible access barriers, facility operators often have to struggle with a prioritiza- tion process. To provide guidance, the Department of Justice has established priority suggestions for removing barriers, as follows:

◾ Removal of any and all barriers that would prevent a disabled person from entering the facility

◾ Providing access to areas where goods and services are made available to the general public

◾ Providing access to restrooms ◾ Removing all barriers to using the facility

Reasonable accommodation for ensuring equal communication can include a multitude of auxil- iary communication aids such as qualified inter- preters, transcription services, audio recordings, speech synthesizers, telecommunication devices for the deaf (TDDs), telephone handset amplifiers, video text displays, written material (includ- ing large print), note takers, assistive listening

276  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

devices, closed caption decoders, and Braille materials. Besides purchasing needed equipment, facilities must keep all equipment in accessible locations and in working condition.

Costs of Reasonable Accommodation Public accommodations are required to remove barriers only when such removal is readily achiev- able [ADA Section 302(b)(2)(A)(iv)]. “Readily achievable” means that the repairs or modifica- tions can be made without significant difficulty or expense [301(9)]. Several factors influence the expense associated with barrier removal, includ- ing the nature and cost of needed remedial action, the financial strength of the facility or organiza- tion that is required to provide the accommoda- tion, and the relationship of the facility to the overall financial picture of the parent company.

Traditionally, landlords are responsible for facility repairs and modifications. Thus, landlords are typically responsible for financing required renovations or repairs. If a lease agreement spe- cifically allows a tenant to renovate a facility, it will be the tenant’s responsibility to pay for ADA-required modifications. If a lease is silent concerning responsibility for required repairs, the Department of Justice could force both the landlord and tenant to pay.

Penalty for Noncompliance The ADA is enforced through several means. Private citizens can file their own ADA claim in federal court. Private claims are entitled only to injunctive relief and attorney fees. Thus, if a bowl- ing alley does not provide reasonable accommoda- tion, a patron can sue to force the facility to build a ramp so a wheelchair user could reach the lanes.

A private citizen can also file a claim with the attorney general. After receiving a complaint, the attorney general can then sue the facility owner and seek injunctive relief. The attorney general can also recover monetary damages and civil penalties.

Practical and Inexpensive ADA Solutions Numerous ADA solutions can be implemented at little or no cost. Although facility renovation costs and repairs are hard to reduce, it is much easier to implement program-wide attitude changes, which can significantly reduce the chance of incurring an ADA complaint.

To discover what potential ADA problems exist, a facility manager should perform a complete facil- ity and program review. This involves six steps.

1. Designate one employee as the ADA expert. This person will have to review literature in the field, become familiar with ADA regula- tions and specifications, and listen to the needs of employees and customers.

2. Conduct a comprehensive facility audit. All facility components should be analyzed and evaluated for accessibility. A written evalu- ation should be prepared to track needed repairs, facility evaluation dates, repair dates, repair costs, priorities, and so on. Such documentation is critical when facing an ADA investigation.

3. Evaluate policies, procedures, and facil- ity practices. All policies, procedures, or practices that may affect persons with dis- abilities need to be addressed. Servers can be instructed to ask each party being served how she can accommodate any special needs that any patron may have. The key to any such effort is co-opting all employees into the process, with the idea that they should not be afraid to ask how they can help or what they can do. For example, a sporting goods store’s normal practice may be to require a driver’s license when accepting a personal check. If someone does not have a license, the sales clerk should not automati- cally reject the check. The sales clerk could ask for other pieces of identification or find another reasonable accommodation to help meet the person’s needs.

4. Acquire and maintain in readily usable fashion any necessary auxiliary aids such as interpreters, taped text, Braille text, and assistive listening devices.

5. Follow up to make sure the plans are acted on.

6. Always check with the accountant to deter- mine if accommodations can be used to receive a tax break.

Cigarettes and Alcohol

Government regulations affect facilities and patrons. Numerous cities throughout the United States have adopted rules banning smoking in restaurants, in office buildings, on beaches, and in numerous other locations. Stadiums and arenas have not escaped the scope of these regulations.

Legal◾Responsibilities◾ ■  277

For example, Chapter V of the San Francisco Municipal Health Code was amended by adding Article 19E, which prohibited smoking in places of employment and certain publicly owned sport arenas. A pertinent part of the ordinance is the following:

No owner, manager, or operator of a sport arena or stadium shall knowingly or intentionally permit, and no person on the premises shall engage in, the smoking of tobacco products in any enclosed or open space at a sport arena or stadium except in

1. concourses and ramps outside seating areas, 2. private suites and corridors to private suites,

and 3. areas designated for parking.

Any portion of a sport arena or stadium used as a bar or restaurant shall be subject to the provisions of this article governing bars and restaurants as places of employment.

The only way a facility could be found innocent of knowingly or intentionally allowing others to smoke would be if steps had been taken to prevent smoking. These steps include posting clear and prominent “No Smoking” signs at each entrance to the premises and requesting, when appropriate, that a person refrain from smoking in an enclosed area. Reasonable actions do not include the physi- cal ejection of a person.

If a facility owner or manager fails to take these reasonable steps, she could be served with a notice from the Director of Public Health. The failure to comply with the notice within the specified time period could result in an action’s being filed by the city attorney to enjoin or enforce the provi- sions of the article and to assess and recover civil penalties. The article also authorizes damages up to $500 a day for each day a violation occurs or is permitted to continue.

Alcohol regulations also need to be consid- ered. The most universal regulations deal with the minimum age to purchase alcohol. However, regulations also affect alcohol advertising. Like their tobacco counterparts, alcoholic beverage manufacturers and advertisers are also regulated in numerous states. One such law in California regulates the type of advertising (signs, billboards, and so on) that can be purchased from on-site retail licensees. An on-site licensee is defined as the owner of either an outdoor stadium or a fully enclosed arena with a fixed seating capacity in excess of 10,000 seats. The regulation (Business and Professional Code section 25503.6) limits

advertising space and advertising time purchased for events at the stadium or arena. Alcoholic bev- erage manufacturers who participate in inducing a breach of the statute can face jail terms, a fine in an amount equal to the entire value of the adver- tising space or time involved in the contract plus $10,000, or both.

The regulatory provisions dictate what signs may be used in a stadium or arena. Signs cannot exceed 630 square inches (0.4 sq m) for interior use in premises where alcoholic beverages are sold for consumption on the premises. Facility owners need to be cognizant of this regulation, especially during special promotions where inflatable beer bottles or other such items are prominently displayed. The regulation (in section 25611.1) limits pictorial advertising—illuminated or mechanized—including, but not limited to, posters, placards, stickers, decals, shelf strips, wall panels, plaques, shadow boxes, mobiles, dummy bottles, bottle toppers, case wrappers, brand-identifying statuettes, tap markers, and table tents, which are not deemed to have “intrin- sic or utilitarian value.” Similar laws exist in other states and in Canada. Great Britain passed a law in 2002 that outlawed tobacco advertising and will make it illegal for even race cars to have tobacco advertising.

To help prevent problems with new laws affect- ing tobacco and alcohol usage, sales, and adver- tising, a facility manager can utilize a two-step contractual approach to minimize the potential effect of changing laws.

1. Every sponsorship contract should contain a clause requiring compliance with all appli- cable laws. The contract should specifically designate which party is responsible for ensuring that all signage complies with local, state, and federal regulations.

2. To further protect a facility’s sponsor- ship and advertising income stream, all sponsorship contracts with tobacco- and alcohol-related manufacturers and dis- tributors should contain escape clauses providing either party with the option of terminating the agreement based on the passage of new regulations or laws. Such an escape clause would allow facilities to attract tobacco and alcohol advertisers and at the same time limit their potential liability exposure.

278  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

Summary Sport◾ facilities◾ can◾ be◾ dangerous◾ according◾ to◾ the◾ activities◾ that◾ occur◾ within◾ them.◾Even◾if◾a◾facility◾such◾as◾a◾gym◾is◾very◾safe,◾someone◾can◾still◾get◾injured◾in◾a◾ freak◾basketball◾accident.◾It◾does◾not◾matter◾how◾safe◾the◾facility◾was◾if◾the◾injured◾ person◾decides◾to◾sue◾to◾recover◾some◾of◾his◾losses.◾Thus,◾facility◾risk◾management◾ may◾ seem◾ to◾ be◾ a◾ losing◾ battle◾ in◾ that◾ no◾ matter◾ what◾ managers◾ may◾ do,◾ they◾ always◾ will◾ have◾ some◾ legal◾ exposure.◾ Nonetheless,◾ it◾ is◾ important◾ to◾ realize◾ that◾ through◾ solid◾ legal◾ planning◾ such◾ as◾ analyzing◾ contracts,◾ property◾ law,◾ and◾ constitutional◾ law◾ and◾ following◾ government◾ regulations,◾ the◾ potential◾ for◾ being◾ sued◾or◾penalized◾is◾dramatically◾reduced.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  Walk◾through◾a◾sport◾facility,◾and◾develop◾a◾list◾of◾the◾top◾20◾safety◾concerns◾

you◾see◾in◾the◾facility.◾Give◾specific◾steps◾and◾suggestions◾to◾eliminate◾or◾ reduce◾the◾risks.

  2.  In◾pairs◾(with◾one◾student◾the◾seller◾and◾the◾other◾the◾buyer),◾write◾up◾a◾ contract◾to◾sell◾and◾buy◾a◾pen◾or◾some◾other◾small◾item.◾The◾idea◾is◾to◾see◾ how◾detailed◾the◾contract◾can◾be◾and◾what◾elements◾each◾pair◾of◾students◾ will◾insert◾into◾their◾contract.

  3.  Research◾a◾facility◾that◾was◾constructed◾in◾the◾past◾10◾years◾to◾find◾out◾what◾ legal◾battles◾arose◾when◾the◾facility◾was◾being◾planned◾and◾what◾tax◾levy◾ was◾being◾voted◾on,◾as◾well◾as◾any◾suits◾that◾arose◾when◾the◾facility◾was◾ being◾built◾(for◾any◾project,◾normally◾a◾number◾of◾suits◾are◾filed◾by◾parties◾ such◾as◾disgruntled◾voters,◾land◾rights◾advocates,◾and◾eminent◾domain◾ opponents).

  4.  What◾is◾negligence,◾and◾how◾can◾it◾affect◾a◾sport◾facility?   5.  Why◾is◾it◾important◾to◾have◾a◾written◾contract?

■  279

EvEnt and activity

ManagEMEnt

part v

After a facility is built, all the systems are oper-ating effectively, and all the administrative components are in place, the facility needs to actu- ally host an event. Part V examines two specific areas for managers: security and running an event.

Since 9/11, security has become an even larger concern for sport facilities. Sport facilities need to protect all fans, players, employees, and other constituents, and planning for their safety does not happen in a haphazard manner. Through reaching out to all constituents, a manager can prepare the facility to host as safe an event as possible. Chapter 13 provides some solid sugges- tions for both a novice and experienced facility manager to implement a security plan.

Chapter 14 examines how to prepare a facil- ity to host an event. The first step is bidding for or contracting to host an event. Once an event is secured, the facility needs to secure proper personnel, arrange the finances, examine legal concerns, implement a risk management plan, purchase insurance, and implement a compre- hensive marketing plan. Management needs to examine every detail, and having appropriate checklists can help a manager determine if the facility is really ready to host an event. The chap- ter examines various issues before an event and also examines these same issues both during and after an event.

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13

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Appreciate◾that◾fans◾need◾a◾safe◾facility◾but◾often◾contribute◾to◾ making◾the◾facility◾dangerous.

◾◾ Apply◾specific◾security◾management◾strategies◾to◾make◾facilities◾and◾ events◾safer.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾crowd◾mentality◾can◾affect◾a◾person’s◾judgment◾ about◾engaging◾in◾inappropriate◾conduct.

◾◾ Describe◾the◾steps◾involved◾in◾implementing◾a◾crowd◾management◾ program.

◾◾ Understand◾how◾alcohol◾affects◾individuals◾and◾crowds.

◾◾ Understand◾the◾steps◾that◾need◾to◾be◾followed◾in◾order◾to◾respond◾to◾ a◾crisis.

iMplEMEnting a SEcurity plan

282  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

My name is Cory Mer-edith, and for me, it all began in college while working with my football teammates as security for local events in the Southern California area. Unexpect- edly, I stumbled on my life’s passion: event staff- ing, security, and audience management services.

I started my own staffing company, Staff Pro (“The Event Staffing Profession- als”), more than 22 years ago and have been success- fully coordinating, staffing, and managing facilities and events ever since. I have created, developed, and implemented thousands of security and nonsecurity staffing plans for events ranging from concerts, fairs, festivals (Coachella, Bonnaroo, Stagecoach), red- carpet award shows (Grammys, Emmys, Academy Awards, BET Awards, American Music Awards, Spirit Awards, Teen Choice Awards, MTV VMAs, Country Music Awards), sporting events (Olympic Games, NFL, NBA, NHL, MLB, WNBA, USTA, PGA, MLS), outdoor events (Red Bull Air Race, Long Beach Grand Prix, ESPN X Games), theater shows, conven- tions, trade shows, distinguished speakers series, Democratic and Republican national conventions, religious gatherings and everything in between. Working for numerous clients and venues, I have the unique experience of creating and overseeing secu- rity plans for arenas, ballparks, stadiums, convention centers, civic auditoriums, theaters, and countless special venue sites and facilities. In addition to overseeing thousands of events nationwide, I have also consulted on events on a global scale and have had the pleasure of working with local, national, and international professionals in the event staffing and security industry as well as local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies.

I have learned and continue to learn with each event and its unique set of dynamics. Over the past two decades one constant remains true: Every crowd is very different, yet very much the same. Sound confusing? Crowds vary in their differ- ences based on the type of event (e.g., hard-core punk band versus a Disney on Ice skating event), the time of day and the day of the week the show is scheduled for, its environment (indoor arena or convention center versus an outdoor festival in 103 °F [39 °C] heat), and the amount of alcohol that is available (time of door opening versus show time, early cutoff time, tailgating allowed before- hand, and so on). How crowds are similar is based on the fact that when you take any large group of people and put them in a confined space, anything can happen.

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◾M e

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ith .

As a security professional, you must think about the mob (aka, the herd) mentality. Herd behavior describes how individuals in a group can act together without planned direction. When developing the security plan, the focus must be clear, realistic, and ensure that anything the “herd” (crowd) does is decided for them. The plan must contain directives as to where spectators or patrons will walk, wait, stand, sit, dance, mosh, and so on. You must always create the end result first and then back into the plan. Proper planning will move the crowd efficiently and, most often, with fewer incidents and exposures.

I find myself asking those involved with the events plan, “How can you know enough about each individual event and crowd to ensure the safety of all involved?” In reality you need to ask yourself a question: How can I control a herd of humans? The answer is to anticipate, preplan, have foresight, and utilize teamwork. Review each geographic loca- tion at your venue to ensure that the correct posts, or security positions, are designated, and decide what the supervisor-to-crew ratio should be. Good supervision is always key! Look at the fundamentals of each event, and take it from there. Continue to ask these simple questions: (1) How many gates or doors will be needed to let the anticipated number of guests enter the venue? (2) What type of search is required for the guests attending (e.g., wanding, pat- down, visual search, metal detector)? (3) Do we have enough lines to expedite the ingress of the crowd?

Here are some other factors to consider: Are there enough restrooms available? Are the types of restrooms appropriate should the crowd you are expecting be 80% female attendees? During egress, where will this herd want to go, and where do we want them to exit? Will it benefit everyone to have merchandise stands in this area? How many security guards and other event staff will you need based on advance ticket sales, on walk-up ticket sales, and most important, on demographics of crowds who have attended this event in other markets?

The preplanning checklist will be extensive and detailed. You need to anticipate the needs and wants of the crowd. Preplan what you want and need to happen, and always have the foresight to plan for things that could go wrong. Work as a unified team with the client, promoter, venue management, local emergency responders, and so on to ensure a safe and enjoyable event for all. Work diligently with the frontline staff to ensure they are adequately trained and prepared to handle what may come their way. Security professionals can spend endless hours working on a plan, but it’s all worthless if the front- line team is not properly trained and informed. Plan for anything and everything, train your staff, take good notes at each event to use for future reference, and enjoy the ride.

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  283

In the 1970s, fans entered the field to congratu-late Hank Aaron after he had hit his 715th home run. Morganna the Kissing Bandit tantalized audi- ences with her on-field shenanigans. Eventually such activities became less benign as fans rushed onto fields or courts to tear down goalposts or steal a memory such as a towel or chair. In the 21st century, the antics became more sinister as fans actually attacked players, coaches, and referees.

As noted in chapter 2, the primary directive for any public assembly facility manager is safety. Safety applies to employees, participants, and guests and spectators. Employee safety is covered by requirements such as Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations or provisions within a collective bargaining agree- ment. Participants are informed of concerns and asked to sign waivers and consent forms; and coaches, players, and officials are often provided significant protection by uniformed officers, for example. Guests and spectators are the group that often requires the greatest effort since they are the most unpredictable. No facility manager can anticipate how anyone or everyone will react. All it takes is one person to possibly set off a mob. This chapter addresses these types of concerns and provides solutions for dealing with crowd- related issues.

Through engaging in specific actions or devel- oping appropriate plans and strategies for particu- lar situations, a facility can prepare for the worst, so people know that if the worst occurs they are ready. The key topics covered in this chapter include the nature of security, the elements of a security program, entry and exit management, fan education, alcohol management, and responding to crisis situations.

What Is Security? Security is the process of safeguarding an item, person, or place. A facility may have many valu- able items that are needed to operate effectively. A typical larger spectator facility may have 200 to 500 televisions. People also need to be secured. Every large crowd presents different security concerns, from pickpockets to drunken brawl- ers. Smaller facilities have the same problems. How does a facility react to a fight in the parking lot over a parking space? How would a facility respond if a health club member stole something from someone else’s locker? Numerous crowd-

related problems have arisen in stadiums or arenas when jubilant or distraught fans got out of control:

◾ Detroit witnessed significant criminal activi- ties in the 1980s involving baseball fans.

◾ Hooligan activities both in and around soccer stadiums are common in Europe.

◾ After the 1986 World Series, rioting fans left one dead, 80 injured, 41 arrested, and more than $100,000 in damages.

◾ After the Cleveland Browns’ last home game in 1995, the infamous “Dawg Pound” erupted as fans vandalized the facility by destroying bleachers to bring home as souvenirs (Fried 2004a).

◾ A street reveler was killed at a Boston Red Sox celebration in 2004 when she was hit in the eye by a projectile filled with pepper spray that was designed to be a nonlethal weapon.

The final category of security needs entails the place or facility itself. Closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs) are frequently used in sport facilities to deter vandalism and graffiti. However, these cameras can also pick up criminal conduct on the part of employees. These devices represent just one technique used to protect a facility. Other techniques that can help secure a facility and its users include the use of security guards, bomb- sniffing dogs, turnstiles, preevent screening, and metal detectors.

Facility managers are not doing their jobs if they prevent security problems inside the facility but fail to prevent violence in the areas outside the facility, such as the street or parking lot, where the results could be more serious. Through proper planning, many of the security and safety prob- lems that have arisen over the years could have been prevented.

Security Management The key to proper security management is foresee- ability. Cases brought against facilities often allege claims such as poor lighting, missing or broken light bulbs, weak locks, no access control, poorly trained guards, or poor management policies (Gordon and Brill, 1996). The civil cases reported to date primarily relate to crowd management and crowd supervision matters. One key case involving the failure to prevent a fan stampede was the 1983 case of Bowes v. Cincinnati Riverfront Stadium,

284  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

which was brought after 11 fans were trampled to death at a Who concert. The court concluded that the facility was liable under negligence and other theories because it was foreseeable that injuries would occur with the chosen seating arrangement. The facility had utilized a general admission arrangement in which the first people into the facility had the first choice of seats.

Almost every facility will have some foresee- able security concerns. These can be as mundane as kids stuffing toilets with paper to flood a floor or as serious as union members sabotaging a facility during a strike. Proper security planning entails appropriately trained security personnel, an appropriately sized security force, understand- ing building safety requirements, utilizing the most appropriate security equipment, and security planning strategies.

Security Staff Training The best means of obtaining appropriate security personnel is to hire people with security train- ing. Some states require security personnel to be trained and even licensed. Many larger facilities need to have police or off-duty police on the premises. Other facilities utilize private security companies and incorporate in the contract a requirement that all security personnel be appro- priately trained.

Regardless of who is providing the facility security, all security personnel should be properly trained to accomplish their specific tasks. There is no one correct method to train security personnel. Security personnel should have significant train- ing in interpersonal communication and dispute resolution. They also need to be trained in the facility’s policies and procedures.

The need for training applies also to nonsecu- rity personnel. In fact, every employee or volun- teer is in essence a security person. Receptionists are normally not considered security persons, but they represent the first line of defense and there- fore also need to be properly trained. Maintenance staff may be a valuable source of information as they are often in a position to observe unusual activity (e.g., someone casing the facility). Thus, all employees and others such as volunteers work- ing at the facility need training.

Training is often undertaken on the job. Security personnel frequently have a minimal amount of formal training but might have real-life experience. Nevertheless, a facility cannot rely

on random life experiences but needs to have a formal education program. Thus, most facilities offer some type of training, whether it involves reading, classes, or hands-on learning. The four phases of training that security personnel should receive are orientation, site-specific, ongoing, and advanced training (Morris, 2004).

Orientation training occurs when a security person or any other employee is hired. The mate- rial covered can include administrative issues such as break times, clock-in and clock-out procedures, overtime schedules, and change of shifts. Orientation training that relates to security can cover workplace violence, the use of pepper spray, protective services policies, and assertive- ness training.

Site-specific training focuses on how to handle specific security protocols, with detailed examples showing how forms are completed. This phase also includes on-the-job training. This phase can include stints working at security gates, entrances, command posts, and other strategic positions.

Ongoing training includes refresher training. Such training may focus on new technology or techniques. Many facilities have weekly meet- ings at which employees are updated on security concerns. Weekly training can be very informal, with people reviewing recent industry articles or news stories about upcoming events and security issues raised at other facilities.

Advanced training may include managerial courses and other programs that may lead to certi- fication. Certification categories include certified facility manager (CFM), crime prevention special- ist (CPS), and certified protection professional (CPP), among many others. These certificates are offered by various trade associations such as the IAAM. Other training options include team- building exercises; tabletop exercises (which analyze how team members would respond in a crisis); functional exercises to test equipment systems such as the emergency backup genera- tor; and simulation exercises where an attack or disaster is simulated in real time or at half speed, and the results are analyzed to improve execu- tion the next time the test is run or for when an emergency actually occurs.

Security Staff Size The number of security personnel or police must be adequate to secure the facility. The force

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  285

must match the needs of the event and the type of crowd that will be present. The Los Angeles Police Department put 4,000 officers on the streets during the 1984 Summer Olympic Games. The 1996 Summer Olympic Games utilized Atlanta’s 1,550-member police force, volunteer security professionals from around the world, and more than 11,000 soldiers to complete the security staff numbering nearly 20,000 (Fried, 2004a).

Having enough security personnel is critical for resolving any disturbance in a large crowd. The Riddick Bowe versus Andrew Golota fight at Madison Square Garden provides an example. The postfight melee, which started in the ring before spreading into the stands, resulted in 22 injuries and 16 arrests (McShane, 1996). Eigh- teen New York City police officers were assigned to patrol outside the arena; but the Garden and event promoter were responsible for internal security, which consisted of 70 security officers and 50 ushers. Some commentators claimed that the melee could have been prevented or would have been less serious if additional security forces composed of uniformed police officers had been used inside the arena.

There is no clear-cut standard for the number of security personnel needed to staff any event or facility. Among the purported industry standards for fire prevention and safety developed by the

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is one that applies to the number of crowd manage- ment professionals. According to the NFPA’s Life Safety Code Handbook (Cote and Harrington, 2003), there should be one trained crowd man- agement professional for every 250 fans in any facility that accommodates more than 250 people. It should be specifically noted that this is not a law or a commonly followed standard, but rather a potential recommendation.

Some of those who commented on the incident in Madison Square Garden pointed to poor train- ing on the part of the security force, arguing that if the security personnel had known their roles the dispute would not have gotten out of hand and would not have lasted as long. Clearly the number of security personnel and the amount and qual- ity of training are both critical. A trained crowd management professional must understand crowd management issues and concepts, which will be discussed later in the chapter.

Technology Proper training and adequate personnel are com- plemented by high-tech security mechanisms. The 1996 Summer Olympic Games utilized more than 1,000 video cameras, technology that scanned handprints of people who wanted to access resi- dential areas, and radio frequency fields that were

Behind the Scenes: Soccer Hooliganism

Behind the Scenes

Hooliganism in sport facilities emerged during the 1960s in Britain. It initially was an outgrowth of social, class, reli- gious, regional, or racial antagonism. However, this flame was also fueled by poorly designed stadiums, inadequate fan segregation, insufficient crowd management policies and practices, and poor ticketing allocation and distribu- tion systems (Goss, 2003). Some researchers think that hooliganism is just a form of patriotism or loyalty taken to an extreme, while others believe it is a portrayal of a class struggle and allows the poor and disenfranchised a means to act out as a group and have safety in numbers. The following quote highlights the typical view of those who track hooliganism:

The behaviour of the hooligans seems to be aimed at gaining prestige. The ability to fight, group solidarity and

loyalty, plus the aggressive defence of culturally defined areas, are all elements of a satisfying masculine identity. Fighting at football is largely about young males testing out their own reputations for manliness against those of other similarly motivated young men. (Adang, 1999)

Because of a fear of such fans, hosts of major soccer tournaments are extra vigilant to deter such bad behavior. At the 2006 World Cup, German authorities set up check points on national borders—that are normally open—to check for hooligans. They welcomed 500 police from 13 countries, including about 80 from Britain and 50 from Poland who had the power to arrest their own nationals. Brit- ish authorities confiscated passports of known troublemak- ers (“World Cup,” 2006). Lastly, holding pens were erected near stadiums to jail potential troublemakers on the spot.

286  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

programmed to scan an employee’s identification card and allow access to an area only if the iden- tification card was approved for that area.

Video security is increasingly deployed to monitor student sections as well as police arrest procedures (Fried, 2004a). Closed-circuit televi- sion systems have significantly advanced since the 1980s and are so refined today that they can take pictures from any part of the stadium and zoom in on any particular fan. This technology is changing rapidly; the photophone, for example, combines CCTV technology with the ability to transfer images anywhere for immediate access and assis- tance. A photo can be taken in a command center and sent digitally to an usher or security person. In the future, these systems might be expanded to include smell, hearing, and touch (Goss, 2003).

Technological advancements have also resulted in new products that would not have been con- sidered years ago. Biometric scanning (scanning a person’s hand or retina) and facial recognition programs and systems are also being deployed more frequently at large stadiums and events such as the Super Bowl. A doctor has recently developed a new weapon in crowd management: a scent-based defensive mechanism utilizing manufactured foul scents to help dispel a crowd. Using scents named Stench Soup, Burned Hair, and Bathroom Malodor, the idea is to spray the foul-smelling material on an unruly crowd, which would then disperse to avoid the odor or the spray itself (“Give ’em a Stench,” 2003).

Other Security Strategies

Animals are being utilized more frequently in crowd management. The animals most com- monly used are horses and dogs. Horse-mounted security details can quickly respond to incidents throughout a facility. Secondly, horses position officers above the crowd so it is easier for them to see. Lastly, when horses are backed into a crowd, fans start moving. It is one thing for a drunk fan to argue with a security officer; it is another thing for the fan to see the derriere of a large horse approaching. There is no way to negotiate with a horse, and if horses kick they can cause significant injury. This is why officers turn horses around in a crowd; it is a highly effective way to get people to move.

Dogs can be utilized for inspecting illegal or unauthorized items. Dogs can intimidate people, so the animals need to be on tight leashes. How-

ever, as with horses, it is hard to argue with a dog, and people tend to think twice about their actions with a dog around. This is true for untrained as well as trained dogs. Thus, facilities may want to let people know that bomb-sniffing dogs are being used for an event. People who see a dog with a handler will automatically assume that the dog is sniffing for bombs when in reality the dog has been trained only for working with the disabled.

To ensure adequate security, the facility admin- istrators must also effectively coordinate the applied technology for all security matters with the local police, sheriff, or other law enforcement entities. Preevent cooperative meetings with all uniformed and nonuniformed security and law enforcement personnel are critical for event safety.

Security Planning Security management cannot be successfully implemented without proper planning. Facility managers need to critically examine the risks they anticipate, as well as those they think can never happen, and then provide a secure environment in which the event can go forward. Planning focuses on identifying the various risks and types of inci- dents that are most likely to occur and that can cause the greatest harm to the facility. Since there are so many potential risks, it is important for the facility manager to have a list to help him identify them. The key is to develop a comprehensive list that employees can use and keep as proof of what is going on at a facility. An example of a security and crowd control checklist is shown on pages 288-290. Planning strategies to provide a more secure environment include the following:

◾ Provide additional security.

◾ Provide refresher training courses (handling bomb threats, fire response, response proce- dures, baggage inspection, and so on).

◾ Check all employees to make sure they are in the proper location.

◾ Coordinate with all appropriate government agencies.

◾ Work with facility users to make sure that plans are in place and everyone knows who is responsible for what security issues.

◾ Distribute keys appropriately to those who require access to critical areas.

◾ Require ushers to watch the crowd rather than the game or event.

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  287

◾ Require all security officials to wear appro- priate identification markings such as badges or coats.

◾ Track people who are photographing the facility or wandering around in a possibly inappropriate manner.

◾ Develop internal communication through meetings, newsletters, and memos addressing security protocols and procedures.

◾ Check the emergency response manual to ensure that it is accurate and up to date.

◾ Conduct on-site mock drills to test response time and accuracy (“San Diego,” 2001).

The key to safety preparedness is to have a plan in place to deal with any contingency that may possibly arise. For example, various lists (from emergency phone numbers to asset lists) could be available to all pertinent officials, including insur- ance representatives. Contingency planning and business continuity planning refer to the need for plans to be developed and followed by all employ- ees when a disaster occurs (Leibowitz, 2001).

The first step in properly managing inappropri- ate conduct entails developing, communicating, and enforcing written guidelines that set forth specific prohibited behaviors and the measures that can be taken when someone engages in these behaviors (Farmer, Mulrooney, and Ammon, 1996). Additional concerns that should be addressed by the security guidelines include developing proper seating arrangements, screening possible projec- tiles, reducing alcohol consumption, educating people about possible repercussions of illegal acts, and increasing police and security presence in and around sport facilities.

Miscellaneous Security Concerns Facilities should refrain from using general seat- ing whenever possible. General seating was the problem at the Who concert in Cincinnati and has been the problem at numerous international soccer matches. Stampedes at various soccer matches around the world led to the banning of standing-room-only seating at some World Cup events. Eliminating general seating can reduce the concentration of fans in certain areas, and fixed seating normally avoids the problem of fans fighting over seating assignments.

Projectiles such as snowballs and bottles need to be considered. Major League Baseball faced significant scrutiny when ball giveaways resulted

in fans pelting the field and players. Similarly, bat giveaways also represent a significant concern. Any hard item meant as a giveaway promotion should be handed out after a game, or fans can be given a coupon to redeem the item at a later date (Fried, 2004a). Special attention has to be paid to checking people entering a facility to prevent the entry of bottles, cans, and fruit. Even something as seemingly innocuous as marshmallows can pose a problem. At the University of Wisconsin, the university president wanted to stop students from throwing batteries, coins, CO

2 cartridges, and

other items at opposing players, so he suggested using marshmallows, which resulted in a huge cleanup problem (Fried, 2004b). In addition to preventing projectiles from entering a facility and not distributing any projectiles, managers must take special care to ensure that the facility is free of certain natural elements such as accumulated snow, which can lead to snowball fights.

Crowd Management One of the biggest risks that any facility or event faces is patrons getting out of hand. A crowd can become violent for various reasons, such as a controversial call or a close game. In another scenario, crowds are passive throughout the event but quickly get out of hand when an incident occurs or when a small group decides to rush the field. Once the crowd starts moving, it may be impossible to break up without causing seri- ous injury. Crowd management is the process of taking proactive steps before a crowd gets out of hand. Crowd control is what happens once the crowd has become unmanageable and police, dogs, sprays, or other solutions need to be used.

Movement Theory

A facility manager needs to know how and why people move—questions that are addressed by movement theory. There are three basic move- ment characteristics: density, speed, and flow. Density refers to the number of people in a given space. Speed refers to the distance covered by moving people in a given unit of time. Flow refers to the number of people that pass a given reference point in a given time frame. These elements come together in a formula to determine how quickly people can exit a facility:

flow = speed × density × width

288  ■

Emergency Action Plan Checklist

The◾following◾items◾should◾be◾completed◾in◾preparing◾for◾any◾event◾that◾a◾crowd◾might◾attend.

Event◾date:◾ ______◾ Event◾time:◾ ________◾ ◾ Primary◾facility◾used:◾ ____________

Secondary◾facility◾used:◾ _____________________________

Anticipated◾number◾of◾spectators:◾ _____

Anticipated◾number◾of◾security◾personnel:◾ _____

Anticipated◾spectator◾profile:◾ _____________________________

Number◾and◾type◾of◾associated◾events:◾ _____________________________

Spectator◾history◾from◾prior◾events:◾ _____________________________

Anticipated◾or◾known◾rivalries:◾ _____________________________

Competing◾events◾affecting◾the◾crowd:◾ _____________________________

Contact◾with◾police◾department:◾ _____________________________

Contact◾with◾fire◾department:◾ _____________________________

Contact◾with◾ambulance◾provider:◾ _____________________________

Facility’s◾policies◾and◾procedure◾statement◾for◾security:◾ __________________________

Describe◾the◾signage◾communication◾protocol:◾ _______________________________

Describe◾the◾audiovisual◾communication◾protocol:◾ _____________________________

If◾external◾security◾company◾is◾used,◾identify◾the◾contact:◾ _________________________

Describe◾the◾steps◾taken◾before◾people◾arrive◾at◾the◾facility:

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Describe◾facility◾security◾protocols◾(door◾access,◾perimeter◾patrols,◾beverage◾policy,◾camera◾policy,◾ pat-down◾procedures,◾and◾so◾on):

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾policies◾for◾handling◾lost◾people◾(primarily◾children)◾or◾property:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾what◾first◾aid◾assistance◾will◾be◾available:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾what◾first◾aid◾training◾is◾required◾for◾each◾type◾of◾employee:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾what◾communication◾system◾will◾be◾used:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾how◾the◾exit◾routes◾will◾be◾communicated◾to◾patrons:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

■  289

Describe◾parking◾configuration◾(geographic◾characteristics,◾parking◾lot,◾security◾areas,◾attendant◾ location,◾police◾presence,◾and◾so◾on):

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾protection◾strategies◾for◾VIPs,◾athletes,◾and◾officials:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾protection◾strategies◾for◾employees◾and◾spectators:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾special◾circumstances◾affecting◾protection◾strategies:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾ specific◾ steps◾ taken◾ to◾ reduce◾ criminal◾ activity◾ (vandalism,◾ theft,◾ stealing◾ cars,◾ locker◾ room◾break-ins,◾crimes◾against◾women,◾workplace◾violence,◾and◾so◾on):

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾crowd◾rushes◾the◾field◾or◾court:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾fight◾breaks◾out◾in◾the◾stands:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾fight◾breaks◾out◾in◾other◾areas:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾fight◾breaks◾out◾outside◾the◾facility:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾handle◾intoxicated◾fans:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾spectators◾need◾to◾be◾evacuated:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾fire◾occurs:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾bomb◾threat◾is◾reported◾or◾a◾bomb◾is◾found:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾terrorist◾situation◾arises:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

continued ▶

290  ■

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾hazardous◾materials◾are◾found:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾tornado◾warning◾or◾watch◾is◾issued:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾a◾winter◾or◾lightning◾storm◾warning◾is◾issued◾or◾sounded:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾use◾if◾the◾facility◾is◾picketed◾by◾demonstrators:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾comply◾with◾all◾applicable◾fire◾code◾regulations:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾comply◾with◾all◾applicable◾NFPA◾regulations:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾comply◾with◾all◾applicable◾constitutional◾and◾legal◾rights:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾comply◾with◾all◾applicable◾OSHA◾code◾regulations:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾implemented◾to◾reduce◾risks:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾how◾a◾command◾post◾will◾be◾established◾and◾manned:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾policies◾and◾procedures◾to◾be◾used◾by◾those◾in◾the◾command◾post:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Describe◾strategies◾to◾document◾incidents◾and◾retain◾evidence:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Attach◾a◾copy◾of◾the◾“panic”◾statement◾to◾be◾used◾by◾the◾public◾address◾announcer◾and◾others.

Attach◾a◾copy◾of◾the◾insurance◾policy.

Attach◾copies◾of◾the◾contracts◾with◾independent◾vendors◾(such◾as◾security).

Attach◾phone◾list◾for◾all◾emergency◾personnel.

Emergency action plan checklist (continued)

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  291

For example, flow will be minimal if the exitway width is minimal or the density is high. Speed is also dependent on density. If there is a lot of space between people, they can move very quickly. However, if there is very little space between people, then no one can move quickly. This analysis can be expressed quantitatively. When the people density is 21 square feet (2 sq m) per person, people can move freely at the rate of 4.1 feet (1.2 m) per second. If the density level increases, the movement rate decreases to a standstill of 2.1 to 2.6 square feet (0.20-0.24 sq m) per second (Society of Fire Protection Engineers [SFPE], 2002). Speed is significantly reduced on stairs, where even a fit person in low-density situations can average only 3.3 feet (1 m) per second. This leads to an optimal flow condition in a 44-inch-wide (1 m) stairway of descending one floor every 15 seconds (SFPE, 2002).

Critical density for pedestrians is less than 1.5 square feet (0.14 sq m) per person, which leaves basically no room between individuals. In such a situation, the crowd can involuntarily move a person as much as 10 feet (3 m) laterally. The force can be so strong that it can be impossible to resist the combined force of people pushing in a given direction. This force can cause asphyxia or the collapse of steel support structures or railings. In fact, the pressure in several crowd-rush disasters was so severe that it could bend steel railing with a diameter of 2 inches (5 cm), which requires 1,100 pounds (500 kg) of pressure per square inch (SFPE, 2002). However, these numbers are never absolutes, because they are dependent on such variables as age, disabilities, clothing, and family groupings. Thus, in every facility the event staff must examine all exitways, impediments to travel, and fan characteristics to help determine crowd movement concerns.

Scottish scientist Keith Still concluded, based on the science of complexity, that crowd move- ment is not random, but more like a pattern similar to how birds fly (Connor, 1998). According to computer models he developed, Still was able to show that fans exhibit a self-organizing movement pattern. The analysis was tested using an entry- way with no barriers and then an entryway with a handrail in the middle. The first entryway had a flow rate of 150 fans per minute. Each patron had her own programming for reading and react- ing to others and the environment. The second group, using the entryway with the railing, moved

through the same size opening, but the number of people who were able to move through increased almost 30% to 190 per minute (Connor, 1998). It was assumed that the difference was due in part to how people think and interact rather than the physical barriers. One of Still’s conclusions was that in a crowd, a person loses his freedom of movement, and the geometry of the location has a greater impact than the fan’s individual psychology.

Ingress and Egress (Entering and Exiting) Once it is understood how people move, the facility can establish specific steps to make it safer for patrons to move in and out of a facility. The reason it is important to analyze movement in and out is that when patrons are in their seats they do not pose as great a threat of surging as a crowd. However, when people are anxious to get into a facility or eager to exit, they can push and shove. This can lead to a struggle or to people’s being pushed down and possibly trampled, as shown in the Camp Randall Stadium occurrence (see pages 292-293).

To get patrons into a facility, the facility needs to monitor and manipulate their movement in relation to the parking area. When people are parked far away from the entrance, it takes them longer to reach the facility, which can slow the rush toward the gate. Entrance areas need to be designed with screening locations, will-call win- dows, ticket-taking locations, accessible entry- ways for the disabled, VIP and media entrances, and group entrances. Entrances can be spread out over several gates so everyone is not congregat- ing in front of one entry point. Although it may be impossible to move structural impediments to ease traffic flow, these structures need to be incorporated into the movement plan to serve as a barrier to block access to areas or help slow pedestrian movement. No matter what function particular structures have, they need to be inte- grated into the crowd management plan.

In addition to knowing how people get in, managers need to calculate how people will leave. Not every patron knows where the nearest exit is located. Unlike the situation in an airplane, where the cabin crew points out the locations of all exits, most facilities do not have a communica- tion and education effort pertaining to exitways. Most people enter a large stadium or arena at the entrance closest to their cars and leave at the exit

292  ■

Facility Focus

Facility Focus: camp randall Stadium Camp Randall Stadium is home to the University of Wisconsin Badgers football team. The stadium was built between 1895 and 1967, and in 1993 it seated 77,745 fans. There were 11,800 fans in the student section on October 30, 1993, when tragedy occurred. A crowd surged to the field at the end of the Michigan versus Wisconsin game, pinning a number of students against railings and fences, which collapsed under all the weight and resulted in numerous injuries. The following are highlights of some key security facts:

◾ On average, 65 security personnel worked each football game.

◾ On average, 125 to 180 ushers worked each game, and the security contract required 100.

◾ The security company provided 175 to 250 employ- ees per game, with 200 employees for the Michigan game.

◾ The security company provided 19 security person- nel for the student section (a ratio of 1 to 621).

◾ University regulations required four walking patrols (8 people), 45 beverage/container duty personnel, and 29 portal guards.

◾ The Madison police assigned 9 supervisors to the event, 4 officers to the command booth, 67 officers at posts, five vehicular patrols, five squads, and a mounted patrol for the game.

◾ The police assigned 16 officers to work the area in and around the student section.

◾ The university conducted only physical inspection of fans; no pat-downs were conducted to prevent people from sneaking alcohol in.

◾ Track access near the student section was fenced in to allow athletes to leave the field.

Some very specific facts influenced the crowd behavior that fall day, including the following:

◾ There had been past incidents of fan misconduct (e.g., drinking, throwing batteries, fan passing, fan surfing, scalping).

◾ The fans were celebrating Halloween. ◾ It was daylight savings day—the time to change

clocks. ◾ It was Parents’ Day on campus. ◾ The weather was cold and dry. ◾ Wisconsin and Michigan were rival schools. ◾ The game had a morning start time, 11:30 a.m. ◾ The game was nationally televised.

◾ The student newspaper had run a full-page adver- tisement earlier in the week encouraging students to rush the field.

On the day of the game, the gates opened 90 minutes before game time, and by 10:30 a.m. the student section was completely full. During the game, between 800 and 2,000 fans migrated to the student section. Security and police attempted to clear the filled aisles but were unsuc- cessful. The following timeline helps highlight the activities surrounding the crowd surge toward the field.

Time Comments

10:30 a.m. An hour before kickoff, student section appears full.

12:51 p.m. Aisles in student section are still visible.

12:54 p.m. Student section is packed, and students are throwing marshmal- lows.

12:55 p.m. Students in costumes are seen celebrating a touchdown by throwing beach balls and toilet paper.

12:57 p.m. Students point at field, shouting, “Rush the field!”

1:00 p.m. Everything looks fine at field level.

1:02 p.m. Michigan players start returning to locker room for halftime.

1:04 p.m. Band plays during halftime.

1:36 p.m. Students can still get through aisles to portals.

1:39 p.m. View of aisles in part of student section is clear.

2:00 p.m. Fans seen climbing up and down side of vomitory entrance.

2:02 p.m. Commotion occurs in stands when students try to impress cameraman.

2:05 p.m. Police are seen on the field; the field fence and padding are vis- ible, and fans are moving freely in the area between the stands and the field fence.

2:08 p.m. Band members star t moving toward field.

2:12 p.m. Fans are moving freely between field fence and first row.

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  293

2:17 p.m. Body passing is seen in student section.

2:26 p.m. Fourteen minutes before game ends, aisles in student section start to fill.

2:29 p.m. Students chant, “Rush the field!”

2:31 p.m. Camera shows ecstatic fans.

2:32 p.m. Security personnel are seen freely opening and closing gate to allow people through.

2:36 p.m. Fans start crowding around field fence.

2:37 p.m. Fa n s s ta r t d e s c e n d i n g t h e bleachers.

2:38 p.m. Police start forming ring around field, and band starts moving to field.

2:39 p.m. Badgers mascot and cameraman near students are encouraging them. However, no movement is seen in student section.

2:40:50 p.m. Fans from upper row start push- ing with force, and fans are being pushed against red safety rail- ing. Students count down final seconds on clock and yell, “Rush the field!” and “Storm the field!”

2:40:52 p.m. Red safety railing in student sec- tion collapses.

2:41:05 p.m. With six seconds remaining, UW team takes a knee to end the game.

2:41:11 p.m. Gates are closed as Michigan players start exiting the field.

2:41:50 p.m. The top of the student section is almost completely empty as fans descend.

2:42:26 p.m. Chain-link fence in student sec- tion comes down.

2:42:50 p.m. Additional fencing collapses, and students stream across people underneath for another 50 seconds before they realize that people are being trampled.

As a result of the collapse and the crowd surge, 70 fans required hospitalization, and 4 required extended hospitalization. Five hours after the rush, the university police established a command post, which operated until November 4, 1993. As a result of the injuries, 51 notices of claims were filed with the state, and 18 injured parties filed 15 lawsuits against the university and other defendants. The university and its employees were removed from the suits several years later based on sovereign immunity. This case shows that even if numerous steps are taken to make a facility safer for patrons, accidents and tragedies can occur, and the results can be devastating (Fried, 2004b).

closest to their seats. Fans often do not look at all the exiting options and locations. After a 2003 night club tragedy in Rhode Island that killed more than 100 people, Connecticut passed a law requiring all assemblies of more than 100 people to be stopped at the beginning of an event for instruction on exiting the facility.

Evacuation Process Evacuation time involves two major components: (1) the delay time until the beginning of the start of the evacuation (2) and the time needed to travel to a place away from danger. Both these elements focus on patron reaction and education. A sequence of events occurs in a disaster, and education helps patrons exit safely. Education is

critical to address patron delay relative to starting an evacuation.

The delay refers to the time span from when a device or person detects the problem until move- ment begins. If the perception is that a disaster is imminent, crowd-related problems greatly increase. Thus, all efforts should be undertaken to ensure that the delay time is minimized through education of both patrons and event personnel. This can be accomplished by educating people about warning signs, sounds, sights, and symbols. Fire drills allow employees and patrons to hear a siren and put their knowledge to the test. However, facilities can also play sample siren sounds over the public address system to help teach patrons about the emergency communication system.

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Exiting a facility should be a process rather than a series of random acts. Some observations not mentioned so far that relate to the evacuation process include the following:

◾ Panic is very infrequent even during fires, as normal behavior patterns and route choices stay constant.

◾ People’s behavior tends to be reasonable. ◾ People often ignore initial warning signals. ◾ When faced with little time to respond, people tend to exit by the most familiar route.

◾ People tend to evacuate as a group and with people they have emotional ties to.

◾ If a problem such as communication or way-finding difficulties exists before an emergency, that problem will be exacerbated during an emergency (SFPE, 2002).

Fan Education The best-trained and best-equipped security staff has very little value if fans do not know how to respond and care for their own safety. Education often focuses on ways to exit buildings, as just discussed, with facilities communicating infor- mation about exit procedures and about warning sounds that patrons should listen for. Fans are also being educated to be proactive in identifying potential problems. By 2009, 29 of the 32 NFL teams have either text messaging or phone systems where fans can anonymously report inappropriate fan behavior.

Fan education should address other areas as well, such as crime prevention and general safety. The National Crime Prevention Council produced and distributed more than 50,000 brochures and posters on crime prevention and general safety procedures for visitors and athletes at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. People need to be told that their conduct could lead to criminal liability and, often more importantly, that continued unac- ceptable conduct could force a team or program to cease operations (Fried, 2004a). Some people might change their behavior only if they know that failure to do so might force their team to forfeit the game. Coaches and referees have used this type of information effectively by announcing that the home team will forfeit a game if inappropriate conduct continues.

Another key aspect of fan education is alcohol awareness. Arrests at sport events often have to do with alcohol abuse or intoxication. Fans under

the influence of alcohol sometimes throw items on the field, which is not only disruptive but also dangerous. At a Disco Demolition, alcohol helped turn an unwise promotion into a disaster. Special precautions need to be deployed when- ever alcohol is being served or consumed. Various sport facilities have designated certain areas as alcohol-free family areas or eliminated alcohol sales after a specified time. Also, alcohol servers are trained to refuse service to those who are vis- ibly intoxicated.

Alcohol Policy Sport events are unique in that the infusion of alcohol into the event can generate significant revenue but also significant risks. This is not true for most other types of events. A night at the symphony is usually not marred by brawls among drunken attendees. In contrast, people often expect to see several drunk and obnoxious fans when they attend sport events. Why is there such a difference in perceptions? It might be based on numerous issues, from the social status of attendees to the fact that alcohol seems to be an integral part of the sport experience but not of the symphony experience. In any case, the two primary problems related to alcohol at sporting events are aggression and impaired driving.

A 1982 study concluded that between 4% and 7% of fans at a sporting event consumed enough alcohol to be legally impaired. At a large stadium or arena, this could represent more than a thousand people. The authors of the study also concluded that the severity of the problem was directly related to the length of the sporting event. If the event was relatively short, there was less likelihood that fans would be drunk, whereas at a doubleheader in baseball, the likelihood was much greater that fans would drink more (Single and McKenzie, 1991). Canada has taken some spe- cific steps to address this concern and reduce the risk of alcohol-related problems. Effective alcohol management techniques include the following:

◾ Developing alcohol-related regulations for specific sports representing the greatest like- lihood of problems

◾ Providing “dry” areas where alcohol is not served or allowed

◾ Ensuring compliance with all age limits and laws to prevent underage alcohol sales

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  295

◾ Limiting each person to a maximum of two alcoholic beverages at any given purchase time

◾ Starting alcohol sales no more than one hour before the beginning of the event, and stop- ping at a specific time before the end of the event to give people less time to buy alcohol and some time to possibly sober up before leaving the facility and driving

◾ Developing and promoting designated driver and other fan education programs with input from staff, fans, and local authorities

◾ Requiring all servers and managers to under- take TEAM (Techniques for Effective Alcohol Management) or SIP (Server Intervention Program) training, which has been success- ful in reducing alcohol-related problems and increasing overall income (these training programs focus on teaching servers how to identify appropriate IDs, already intoxicated fans, and other danger signs)

◾ Requiring each facility to have an adequate security staff, post informational signs, provide alternative beverage options (such as reduced-alcohol and nonalcoholic bever- ages), and develop safe transportation strate- gies such as taxis and public transportation (Single and McKenzie, 1991)

◾ Separating alcohol sales from food sales so customers have to wait in two different lines

◾ Posting signage indicating when alcohol sales stop and how many drinks each patron can buy at one time

◾ Not selling bottles or cans ◾ Preventing alcohol sales in family areas ◾ Placing signage to indicate where beer cannot be consumed

◾ Having security patrol the facility and look for alcohol-related concerns

◾ Monitoring service areas and consumption areas with CCTV

Alcohol has played a significant role in fan- related violence. Drunken fans at a Chicago Cubs game stole a hat from a Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher, and the ensuing altercation brought 16 Dodgers into the stands. The players were sus- pended for 84 games and fined $72,000 for their part in the incident, but the fans were primarily to blame. In response to the incident, Wrigley Field changed its policy on when to stop selling beer to the middle of the sixth inning rather than the

top of the seventh inning (“Touched,” 2000). The New York Yankees are even more strict; they have cut off all beer sales to the bleacher area.

Some of the policies and procedures appli- cable to alcohol management have originated, as with crowd management strategies, in Europe. In Scotland there has been a complete ban on alcohol sales at rugby and soccer matches since 1980 (Frosdick, 1998). Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) rules also prohibit both alcohol sales and possession at the World Cup and other FIFA-sponsored events.

Other Safety Concerns Safety should not be analyzed only in terms of the spectators or facility users. The annual cost of vio- lence in the workplace is estimated at $3 billion, stemming from 2 million physical attacks, 6.3 million threats, and 6.1 million harassment inci- dents (“Safeguarding Employees,” 2001). In fact, in a nationwide study of security threats in the United States, many of the top 10 risks involved crime or violence in the workplace:

1. Workplace violence

2. Business interruption/Disaster recovery

3. Terrorism

4. Computer crime

5. Employee selection/screening concerns

6. Fraud/White collar crime

7. Unethical business conduct

8. General employee theft

9. Property crime (vandalism)

10. Drugs/Alcohol in the workplace (“Top Secu- rity Threats,” 2002)

Although times change, this list is basically the same several years later. Some risks are more common to sport facilities. Vandalism often occurs at unsecured areas such as parks and high school athletic facilities. A car driven on a wet field can cause thousands of dollars in damage or even destroy the field.

Crisis Management Management needs to know how to deal with a crisis. This concern is the foundation for the dis- cipline of crisis management. A crisis is any event that threatens people, tangible assets, or intangible

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assets. Crisis management refers to how to return to normal as soon as possible after a crisis occurs. If someone drowns at a pool, for example, how long will it take for the facility to investigate the situation, for the authorities to conduct an investi- gation, for any corrective actions to be taken, and then for users to be allowed to return?

Since 9/11, the need for security has grown at all large sport facilities. So has the cost, including everything from specialty security personnel and off-duty police officers to insurance. For example, in 2001 the Milwaukee Brewers paid $225,000 for property and liability insurance. The next year, after the 9/11 attacks, they purchased the same insurance policy for $2.25 million. The price had increased because sport facilities are among the prime potential spots for terrorist attacks given the large number of people in a small area (Ryan, 2002).

Crisis management focuses on identifying the multitude of concerns that can affect a facility. When analyzing the concerns, the facility manager should focus not just on attacks but also on other activities that can result in damage. Having an event that offends community leaders or releasing sensitive data to the media exemplifies a crisis that can destroy a facility without an attack or natu- ral disaster. Some of the areas managers should review to prevent a crisis include many that relate to communication:

◾ Press releases ◾ Marketing information ◾ Web-based materials ◾ Community outreach programs ◾ Public emergency response plans ◾ Sensitive material not destroyed through shredding

◾ Facility signage ◾ Building plans filed with public agencies ◾ Information provided to vendors, contractors, consultants, and the like

◾ Information produced in litigation or by expert witnesses, consultants, and so on (Baybutt, 2003)

Any one of these communication vehicles can backfire and turn a good idea into a disaster. All these items can be important tools for a facility, but sensitivity dictates that not all information should be disclosed. For example, a press release

should never indicate the number of security per- sonnel at a given site or all the techniques being employed to secure a site. When some information is withheld, it is more difficult for anyone plan- ning to circumvent security to gain knowledge about how the event will be protected.

Crisis Planning Facilities often start the crisis management pro- cess by building a crisis team that may include politicians, authorities, lawyers, the media, and others who can provide assistance. The crisis management team needs to examine and rank potential threats to prioritize response options. A threat matrix weighs the probability of a risk versus the potential magnitude of the results that would occur if the risk indeed happened. The facility needs to develop specific plans of action through such means as defining the role of vari- ous departments, preparing training schedules to rehearse appropriate response strategies, and developing a proactive crisis response culture (Trest, 2003).

The number and types of crises that can occur are almost limitless. Numerous crises are man- made, such as terror attacks, legal disputes, employee misdeeds, and patron sabotage. Other potential crisis situations are natural—tornados, hurricanes, floods, lightning, earthquakes, and so on. Such crises can also be classified as internal, external, and even computer-based threats.

Management can plan for each of these events or situations. Emergency plans need to be devel- oped before a facility is ever open to the general public. Such a plan is as important as a budget or insurance policy. No fans or customers should be allowed into a facility that has not developed and written plans for, and trained employees in, proper crisis response. One of the typical emer- gencies that will occur at almost any facility is a heart attack. No matter how much time is spent in preventing other crises, heart attacks will happen. The question is how the facility will respond. If the facility has developed appropriate plans to handle medical emergencies, required employees to read the plan, and taught employees what to do, then employees should be able to provide appropriate assistance to prevent the attack from turning into a death.

Employees also need to be trained on the loca- tion and usage of equipment such as automatic external defibrillators (AEDs). Employees also

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  297

should receive hands-on first-aid training with mock drills to see how they would handle an emergency. Even if someone has CPR certifica- tion, it does not mean they would feel comfortable providing CPR during an emergency and that is why mock drills are critical.

Emergency Action Plan The International Association of Assembly Man- agers (IAAM) established the Center for Venue Management Studies, which produced a guide called Safety and Security Protocols: Best Prac- tices Planning Guide for Security at Arenas, Sta- diums, and Amphitheaters. The protocols address concerns such as fire, medical, power, bomb, and terrorist emergencies (Fried, 2004a).

These protocols describe specific elements within an emergency action plan. The first com- ponent of the plan entails choosing a team that will handle the emergency. The team members can range from police and fire personnel to facility managers, security providers, and state officials. These persons should have a vested interest in the project so that they are fully committed to it and can help attract personal and institutional support.

Management can help the team by undertak- ing a vulnerability analysis to identify what events are most likely to occur. Vulnerability can encompass historical incidents (fires, earth- quakes, tornados); geographic, technological, and human conditions; physical elements; and regulatory requirements. The various vulnerabili- ties need to be ranked based on probability after an analysis of the potential human, property, or business impact.

The team should first identify the plan compo- nents, which are traditionally broken down into the categories of regulatory, human, building, and business components. The regulatory component applies to the governmental agencies that may dictate how emergencies need to be handled. From a local fire department to OSHA officials or the Department of Homeland Security, the facility needs to know what emergency preven- tion, response, and recovery concerns must be addressed.

Regarding the human component, the facility must examine the staff, tenants, artists or athletes, patrons, sponsors, media, and anyone else that may be in the facility and how they may respond to an emergency. Based on the populations using

the facility, the emergency plan may need to be customized. The building component of the plan examines how the building would respond in an emergency, specifically with respect to the fol- lowing elements:

◾ Building structure (resistance to fire, wind, water, and so on)

◾ Fire element (detection, containment, and suppression systems)

◾ Notification systems (alarm, power, and public address systems)

◾ Ingress and egress points (opening width, load capacity, signage, lighting, traction, and so on)

◾ Building security (access control, surveil- lance equipment, alarms, and so on)

◾ Transportation systems (vehicles, elevators, escalators, and so on)

◾ Emergency systems (smoke control, emer- gency power, fire control room, and so on)

◾ Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (secure intake, zone controls, quality manage- ment, and so on) (Fried, 2004a)

The business component examines the poten- tial impact an emergency may have on a business’s ability to keep functioning. This requires analysis of financial implications, marketing implications, communication concerns and techniques, inven- tory control, records management, insurance assessment, and potential contract or legal rami- fications. Plans also need to be made in case an emergency occurs and the event needs to utilize a different facility.

Once the planning team has studied the basic components, each component should be critically analyzed to determine what steps can be taken to prevent a disaster.

◾ Some actions may prevent the risk from occurring; what are they?

◾ Early detection of risks in their infancy can prevent a small incident from becoming a major issue.

◾ Once an emergency has been identified, appropriate officials and key constituents need to be contacted.

◾ Strategies must be developed for possibly evacuating or relocating patrons, if such action is the most appropriate step to take.

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◾ Control and mitigation systems are designed to identify and eliminate the cause of an emergency and help protect against the effects of the emergency.

◾ Documenting emergency efforts before, during, and after an emergency is critical for litigation and for management’s use to change policies and procedures in light of results.

◾ After an emergency, the facility must try to return to normal.

◾ Especially with sport facilities, perception can become reality; if patrons think a facility is not safe, they will avoid it.

With this knowledge base, an emergency response management team (ERMT) can be formed. The team members should have the authority, knowledge, and decision-making capabilities to implement the emergency plan. Following are some of the key elements the plan should address:

◾ Emergency power for lighting and public address systems

◾ Distribution of the emergency plan to per- sonnel

◾ The ability to contact ERMT members at all hours

◾ Proper firefighting equipment such as fire extinguishers and sprinkler systems

◾ Proper signage ◾ Adequate doorways and corridors for ingress and egress

◾ Prepared and recorded evacuation messages ◾ Ability to record phone calls when a bomb threat is made

◾ Public address systems that broadcast inside and outside a facility

◾ Cellular phones to communicate with other employees and ERMT members

Once the analysis is performed, the next step is coming up with a plan. Part of this plan should include securing necessary documentation and equipment in the event of a crisis. Documenta- tion that would be critical in preparing for or responding to a crisis includes property contracts, operational records, accounting and tax records, current personnel records, client records, critical

reports, necessary manuals, and any specially developed software that cannot be easily repro- duced (Carlisle, 2003).

Finally, implementing a crisis management plan requires funding. Senior managers often do not find the dollar value in crisis management to warrant significant expenditures on a possibly remote occurrence. In fact, 24% of companies do not initiate a crisis management program because of a lack of funds, while 37% of those who have a plan need more money to effectively implement it (“Gartner: Businesses,” 2003). Clearly a plan will not be successful unless the facility can find the funds to implement it. Often the best means to obtain the funds is to garner support from gov- ernment officials and facility owners through an aggressive educational campaign.

Continuity Management One of the often overlooked components of any crisis management plan is continuity manage- ment. In any business, continuity management focuses on how to keep the business operating even if a disaster occurs. For example, if the roof of an arena collapses, facility managers cannot just pack their bags and leave since there may be valid contractual obligations. The facility manager can establish a relationship with another venue such that if an emergency occurs at either facility, the other facility is made available, if possible, to assist in continuity. Thus, if a roof collapses, the facility manager could call the other facility and shift events there.

Some of the elements inherent in a continuity management program include risk management, disaster recovery, supply chain management (with vendors), health and safety management, knowledge management, emergency management, security protocols, and crisis communication and public relations (Smith, 2003). All these elements need to be integrated so that when an emergency happens, the facility is prepared to keep going. No one element is more important than another; but without money, a facility will have a difficult time staying open. Although it is often difficult to put money away for an emergency, a “rainy day” fund is critical even if the facility has insurance, since bills will need to be paid now and not sev- eral months down the road when the insurance issues are settled.

Implementing◾a◾Security◾Plan◾ ■  299

Summary Safety◾is◾the◾most◾important◾element◾for◾any◾facility.◾No◾one◾wants◾to◾go◾to◾an◾event◾ or◾a◾facility◾if◾there◾is◾the◾threat◾of◾a◾terrorist◾attack◾or◾even◾the◾risk◾of◾serious◾injury.◾ However,◾there◾are◾so◾many◾potential◾safety◾concerns◾that◾patrons◾and◾employees◾ are◾constantly◾exposed◾to◾risks.◾The◾extent◾to◾which◾such◾risks◾may◾in◾fact◾become◾ a◾hazard◾is◾controlled◾by◾the◾facility◾management.◾Even◾if◾there◾is◾a◾possibility◾of◾ a◾crowd◾surge◾that◾could◾injure◾fans,◾facility◾management◾can◾take◾specific◾steps◾ such◾ as◾ redesigning◾ seating◾ arrangements◾ and◾ using◾ more◾ security◾ personnel◾ to◾ reduce◾ the◾ risk◾ of◾ serious◾ injuries.◾Through◾ appropriate◾ safety◾ planning,◾ most◾ facilities◾can◾be◾reasonably◾safe◾and◾can◾survive◾most◾serious◾incidents.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  How◾would◾you◾deal◾with◾a◾hostile◾crowd◾at◾your◾facility?   2.  How◾should◾a◾facility◾deal◾with◾canceling◾an◾event◾several◾hours◾before◾the◾

event◾is◾to◾be◾held◾and◾there◾is◾a◾huge◾crowd◾starting◾to◾descend◾upon◾the◾ facility?

  3.  Research◾a◾major◾crowd◾management◾problem◾that◾occurred◾in◾the◾United◾ States,◾and◾determine◾what◾was◾done◾right◾and◾wrong◾in◾handling◾the◾ problem.

  4.  Research◾a◾major◾sport◾facility◾disaster◾anywhere◾in◾the◾world,◾and◾determine◾ what◾was◾done◾right◾and◾wrong◾in◾handling◾the◾problem.

  5.  Try◾to◾complete◾the◾following◾threat◾matrix◾based◾on◾the◾likelihood◾of◾ occurrence◾of◾the◾incident◾or◾situation◾and◾the◾magnitude◾or◾seriousness◾of◾ the◾potential◾damage.

Place◾ each◾ of◾ the◾ following◾ threats◾ on◾ the◾ matrix◾ in◾ the◾ area◾ where◾ you◾ think◾ it◾ should◾go:

A: A bad case of athlete’s foot is reported in the locker room. B: A player has been stealing from other players. C: A hailstorm hits during a tournament. D: Cars are broken into in the parking lot during an event. E: A person breaks her leg during an event. F: A spectator slips on the sidewalk and is injured.

riSk oF occurrEncE

Seriousness of injury/damage

likely possible unlikely

Minor

Medium

Significant

beckyh
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14

Chapter Objectives ◾◾ Understand◾the◾various◾steps◾involved◾in◾obtaining◾an◾event◾for◾a◾ facility.

◾◾ Know◾the◾specific◾steps◾required◾to◾prepare◾a◾facility◾for◾an◾event.

◾◾ Appreciate◾the◾multitude◾of◾issues◾that◾go◾into◾planning◾to◾prevent◾ major◾disasters.

◾◾ Recognize◾how◾quickly◾something◾can◾go◾wrong◾at◾an◾event◾and◾ how◾to◾come◾up◾with◾solutions.

◾◾ Develop◾strategies◾to◾make◾even◾unhappy◾patrons◾into◾future◾ customers◾by◾providing◾quality◾service.

◾◾ Understand◾the◾importance◾of◾concessions◾to◾a◾facility’s◾bottom◾line.

◾◾ Appreciate◾how◾even◾the◾small◾details◾included◾in◾or◾missing◾from◾the◾ planning◾process◾can◾affect◾the◾event.

◾◾ Learn◾what◾is◾involved◾in◾analyzing◾an◾event◾after◾it◾is◾over.

◾◾ Understand◾survey◾techniques◾to◾determine◾what◾is◾needed◾to◾ improve◾an◾event◾or◾facility.

◾◾ Understand◾why◾the◾planning◾process◾for◾future◾events◾starts◾ immediately◾after◾an◾event◾ends.

Facility PreParation and event

ManageMent

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My name is John Burnap. My career in the live entertainment business started while I was still in college earning a degree in business with a double major in marketing and management. A friend was president of the student government, and he recruited me to be the social activities chairperson—meaning the guy who booked all the bands for the weekly “mixer” parties and for the Spring Fling concerts. I never intended to have a career in the entertainment business, but I spent the next 25 years as a booking agent for rock ’n’ roll bands; a producer of festivals; the creator and producer of Nickelodeon’s live touring game shows Double Dare, GUTS, and Wild ’n’ Crazy Kids; a talent buyer and concert producer for Six Flags Great Adventure; a special talent consultant for Easter at the White House for President Clinton in ’93 and ’94; a worldwide booking and marketing consultant for Madison Square Garden’s production of the Broadway show The Wizard of Oz, starring Roseanne Barr as the Wicked Witch and Mickey Rooney as the Wizard; and finally, the general manager of New Haven Coliseum for SMG facility management company.

Located in downtown New Haven, the coliseum was a 10,000-seat sport and entertainment arena with an attached 24-hour parking facility, two professional sports teams, three operating unions, and 250 part-time and 23 full-time employees. I remember when a friend naively said, “Wow, it must be great to be the GM and not have any bosses.” I responded with, “Huh? I have a million bosses: Every ticket holder, the mayor of New Haven, my supervisor at SMG, both of the pro sports team tenants, and every single show that performs at the facility.” They all depend on me, and the coli- seum staff, to exceed their expectations every time, because if we did not perform exceptionally, acts, teams, and patrons would not return. The ticket holders have many other ways to spend their leisure time; pro sports teams can move to other facilities and cities; and touring shows can skip New Haven to play surrounding facilities, cities, or states. Also the mayor and SMG count on us to keep the facility

booked with popular shows that bring visitors to New Haven and generate significant revenue. Pres- sure? No, just lots of “bosses.” Yes, it was often a ton of work and stressful, but it was also very rewarding. And I learned a lot along the way.

I learned a great deal from Kenneth Feld, owner of Feld Entertainment and producer of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, Disney on Ice, and many more wonder shows. Talking about his company, Kenneth said, “We don’t produce shows. We make memories.” And that is absolutely right. Think of the first time you saw the circus, or an amazing concert or musical, or a comedy show, or anything else live. And you remember what a (hope- fully) great time you had.

The most important thing I learned was from Walt Disney. Answer this question correctly and you’re on your way to understanding what it takes to be successful in any aspect of the live entertainment business—professional sports, facility management, concert production—because to your audience mem- bers, or the attendees, or the ticket buyers, these are all entertainment events. These activities are how people choose to spend their leisure time.

Here’s your question: If you work at Disney World or Disneyland (or any other live facility owned by Disney), what are you called? (Hint: The answer isn’t employee.) If you said “cast member,” please stand up right now and take a bow. Walt Disney “got it.” He understood what you absolutely, unequivocally have to understand, believe, and embrace in every single job you have: At any type of live event, in any kind of facility, every single staff person an attendee comes in contact with has the ability to influence the quality of the guest’s experience. From the ini- tial call for ticket info, the box office representative who sold the tickets, the security officer when the guest approached the facility, the ticket taker who collected or scanned the ticket, the usher, and the popcorn vendor to the restroom attendant and the custodial staff, every single staff person is part of the guest experience, and therefore part of the show. Are they all smiling, looking professional, and exuding a positive, helpful attitude?

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The text so far has reviewed numerous issues and topics related to facility management. This chapter gathers all the previously discussed information together so that the reader can see what is really involved in facility management— taking the reader through an actual planning process to bring an event to a facility. Since public assembly facilities (PAFs) exist to put on events for the public commensurate with their mission and goals, this chapter of the book deals with the heart and soul of PAFs.

The process of developing and attracting events is one of the most important components within any facility’s marketing efforts. Numerous facili- ties compete to get the same event because of the potential impact a large event can have on the local tourism market. Once an event is secured for a facility, the real planning begins for every- thing from marketing to securing enough parking attendants to work the event.

Elements followed to help attract events include the bid and selection process, facility scheduling, developing policies and procedures, checking the facility for safety, and marketing the event. An inattentive employee or a careless fan can disrupt all these steps in one minute. For example, the facility can develop risk manage- ment protocols and train employees to pick up trash or clean spills as soon as they happen, but these procedures and training are worthless when an employee fails to act as instructed. Frequently employees know what they are supposed to do but procrastinate or become caught up in other tasks. As an example, suppose that to save time and money a facility has switched from pump- dispensed condiments to little plastic packets. A fan takes several packets of ketchup and drops one on the floor. No one picks it up, and before long there’s a mess. This may generate the feeling among fans that the facility is not well kept up and can also represent a slipping hazard. It is not that the facility is irresponsible or has failed to plan. Rather, facilities need to reevaluate themselves constantly according to what happens during use. A facility may believe, based on this scenario, that the condiment area is the riskiest slip location and use nonskid paint or install metal grates to make it safer and more attractive.

Everything learned and considered in the planning process needs to be acted on. The hot dogs ordered in anticipation of the event need to be located in a convenient storage and cooking location, cooked, stored, served, and then reor-

dered. The topics this chapter covers include event analysis, postevent surveys, marketing for the future, and facility analysis. These topics are covered in relation to what occurs during an event, immediately after the event, and at some later time.

After an event, most people go home and do not think about the event. A facility manager does not have this option. The facility manager needs to prepare for the next event, which could be several hours away. He must again be ready to deal with issues such as trash removal, changing merchandise in the concession areas, or changing over a floor from basketball to hockey. The issues are the same after an event as they are during the planning and running of an event.

For example, during the planning process, all insurance options need to be examined. During the event, the event must be monitored to make sure nothing violates the terms of the insurance agreement. After the event, management needs to determine if any claims were raised—and later, whether the insurance company handled the claims, how the claims were handled, and if the policy provided appropriate coverage.

Revisiting Planning A facility manager needs to develop a business plan to provide direction for the facility. The plan should outline the challenges for the coming year and ways to meet those challenges while reflecting on performance and achievement for the previ- ous year. The following key elements should be included in the business plan:

◾ Vision and values. This aspect relates to how the facility sees itself and how it wants to be perceived by others. It provides the frame- work for goals and expectations.

◾ Last year’s accomplishments. Reviewing the previous year’s business plan tells the facility manager what has been accomplished and how the new objectives should be formulated to repeat the successes or avoid the failures.

◾ Lessons learned. Understanding where mis- takes were made in the previous year helps avoid the same errors and shows whether the expectations are too high or too low.

◾ Overall objective. This is the main goal the facility will focus on for the coming year or event.

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◾ Key strategies. Five or six strategies are selected that will help the facility achieve the overall objective.

◾ Tactics. The strategies are broken down to outline ways to complete each key strategy (i.e., specify how the work will get done).

◾ Performance measurements. Measurements are used to rate the facility’s performance to ensure that the goals are being met success- fully. Measurements should be both quantita- tive and qualitative (Hunter, 2001).

These goals and objectives should be monitored throughout the year and updated as needed. This process gives staff a clear picture of the business objectives and provides an understanding of what is expected from each employee to help accom- plish the facility’s goals.

Business plans can be developed for the long term (years out) or for the short term (monthly plans). The business plan should be reviewed at least quarterly to account for any unanticipated market changes. The plan should not exceed 20 pages because then it becomes too complex. Also, all levels of the organization should be involved in creating the plan so that employees feel their thoughts and ideas are being heard.

Although many textbooks highlight the need for goals and objectives, most larger companies utilize more concrete policies and procedures rather than vague and abstract goals and objectives. Policies and procedures highlight what activities the facility approves and the steps needed to reach the intended outcomes. Thus, if the policy is to schedule three events per week, the procedures will include specific activities to help attract or create the events. Regardless of whether goals and objectives or policies and procedures are used, the key is for the facility to incorporate the business plan into an actionable strategy. Existing tenants and future event promoters under contract need to be involved in the planning process to make sure they are willing to work toward the same goals.

Attracting Events A facility exists to host events. A vacant building serves no purpose and costs money in terms of upkeep, insurance, and even opportunity costs. Thus, facilities need to explore hosting events and teams that will help them achieve their goals. Some facilities with permanent tenants

do not need to attract events. Other facilities must constantly compete with others to attract the best events, since the best events hopefully produce the greatest financial return on a facil- ity’s investment. Madison Square Garden, one of the most respected arenas in the world, hosts numerous events every year (such as Knicks and Rangers games) that will undoubtedly continue to be held. This limits the number of potentially available event dates. If dates are available, a large number of events are probably willing to play at the Garden because this would show that the event is in the big time. Madison Square Garden man- agement is swamped with proposals for events and can choose which events to take based on the potential financial return or other variables.

In contrast, many smaller facilities are fighting for traveling acts such as the Ice Capades, circuses, or the Harlem Globetrotters. Facilities are often trying to win the rights to host such events as National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) events and Amateur Athletic Union youth cham- pionships. Other small facilities such as health clubs also hold events. The primary tenants at a health club are the members who work out at the club. The club may also host an event such as a weightlifting tournament or a community-wide fund-raiser. Any such event should not conflict with existing usage unless the users are told in advance or are participants. Even if most existing users agree, there will always be some members who will object to losing their workout time.

The process of trying to win larger events is very competitive. Local chambers of commerce or convention and visitors bureaus often aggres- sively compete to win these events to increase the number of people staying in the host city and spending money to stimulate the local economy.

Organizational Structure One of the first questions asked by a facility man- ager is who is sponsoring, underwriting, or bring- ing the event to the facility. This might seem like a simple question, but the answer can be highly political. The politics can stem from factors such as the desire to raise money and the prestige of hosting the event. For example, a major NCAA championship would be a feather in the cap of anyone involved. Perhaps a large university has an arena and the city has a larger facility, and the two fight over who should back the event and be the primary host.

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No matter who takes the lead, some person or institution must resolve the political issues early on to prevent scandals or disruptions. At times it is impossible to prevent political fighting, while at other times a political leader such as a mayor or university president may step in to avoid the fighting and secure an event. Whoever facilitates bringing an event to a facility, the facility needs to have at least one person or a group to serve as the point person(s) to finalize the event’s coming to the facility.

Some large facilities are able to dedicate one individual to attracting and booking events, while other facilities have a department that manages the process. Smaller facilities often rely on the manager to attract events. Others, especially public or nonprofit facilities, may have to uti- lize either a paid or a volunteer group called a planning committee. In these cases the planning committee addresses any needs of the event, from the types of trophies to be awarded to how to attract potential volunteers. Just as it may be desirable for a building planning committee to involve opponents in the design process, it is often worthwhile to bring marginal persons or opponents into the event planning process to win their political support. It is especially important to obtain support if there are controversial regu- lations that could affect the event. For example, the Marlboro Grand Prix of New York, which was scheduled for 1993, was canceled because of opposition, including lawsuits alleging that New York City failed to follow the required envi- ronmental reviews. There also was significant opposition to having a major tobacco company sponsor the event (Haven, 1992).

Bid Process

The bid process starts with either a mass mail- ing or an advertisement in publications such as Sports Travel, NCAA News, or Athletic Business. The announcement indicates that one or more facilities are needed for a given event on specified dates. The process normally occurs several years in advance, so bids may be solicited in 2009 for an event in 2012. The bid process for the Olym- pic Games usually starts more than 12 years in advance since there is a 6- to 8-year time lag from when a city is selected until the Games are held. A typical bid request asks for detailed information such as the following:

◾ A facility’s size, such as seating capacity and parking capabilities

◾ The number of hotel rooms in the immedi- ate area

◾ What other events have been held in the facility or the region

◾ The experience of employees and volunteers ◾ How the event will be integrated with other activities in the area

The bidding process may be dictated by a formal bid package. Assume that the United States Badminton Association (USBA) is searching for a host site for the national championships in three years. The USBA may send those who inquire about the event a package with forms that need to be completed. The forms may request the fol- lowing types of information:

◾ Facility dimensions, locker rooms, spectator seating, lighting configuration, and so on

◾ Past events hosted at the site ◾ Transportation issues such as the closest airport and available public transportation

◾ Skills and background of the people who will manage the event

◾ Experience working with the media sources in the area

◾ Accommodations for fans and athletes ◾ Proposed budget for the event

The package also usually contains numerous specifications such as the playing court size, broadcasting requirements, number of seats that will be needed, and number of free passes that will need to be given to USBA board members.

A facility manager interested in bidding for the USBA event will review the submission guidelines, research the local community to find facilities and housing that comply with the bid, and complete the bid response. Time is also spent contacting the USBA for clarification, aligning political support, and finding sponsors. It can take weeks to months to gather all the necessary materials and information.

Bidding for an event can be a major undertak- ing requiring significant time and energy. It is not uncommon to spend months on a bid. The process also costs a considerable amount of money. For example, the bids to host an Olympic Games can cost millions and require numerous meetings,

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facility tours, site visits, attendance at confer- ences, advertising campaigns, and significant travel to meet with officials and sell the city. The process is more informal for other events when the planners know which facility they want to go to; they just call to see if the date is available. If the date is available, the parties merely need to agree on contractual terms.

Before the expense of bidding is undertaken, it is critical for the bid committee to examine its existing schedule and the process of booking dates and times to avoid conflicts. However, even if there is a conflict, some events are just so attractive that the facility is willing to face the conflict in order to possibly win the bid. This could occur with a major event such as an NCAA championship—a facility might bump an existing event if it wins the bid. Of course, if a facility moves another event there may be some contractual penalties, but this is a concern that should be examined when submitting the bid.

For purposes of this discussion, assume that there is no conflict between the proposed date for an event and the currently booked events. The facility manager will need to book or reserve the date for the event she is bidding on in case the bid is successful.

Personnel An important aspect that needs to be covered is the key people backing the event. Have they hosted similar events? Do they have the political clout and experience to make things work when there may be a large number of bureaucratic land mines?

With any bid, there are numerous people who will need to have their names lent to the process. It is always important for the facility to gather some big-name supporters, especially if the bid is very competitive.

The facility also must have enough people to work on the bid. An Olympic bid may require 5 to 10 people working for several years. Most bids for smaller events are completed by one person, such as a facility manager, with the help of some volunteers or a combination of employees and volunteers. Even if only one person is writing the bid response, he needs to show that there will be appropriate support if the bid is won.

Administrative Bid committees often put several city officials, local civic or business leaders, and former or cur- rent star athletes on the committee. For example,

when Houston was trying to secure the 2012 Olympic Games, the committee included a city employee who worked full time on the bid for more than three years, a city council member noted for his work in sport, and several athletes in sports from basketball to track and field.

Besides big names backing the bid, the bid reviewers also like to know the names of the support staff that will be used, from secretaries to lawyers, accountants, and even mechanical and structural engineers. Sometimes someone associ- ated with the event wants to contact the accoun- tant or another administrator, and providing these contact names, along with their phone numbers and e-mail addresses, is a helpful gesture.

Before holding an event it is vital to consider all possible employment and volunteer needs (Farmer, Mulrooney, and Ammon, 1996). It is imperative that facilities employ enough people to adequately serve patrons, whether they are full- time employees, part-time employees, volunteers, or a combination of these. Employees could be required for the following duties:

◾ Ushers ◾ Food service ◾ Novelties ◾ Ticket sales ◾ First aid ◾ Security ◾ Event staff ◾ Housekeeping ◾ Management

Youth and families typically require more atten- tion—looking for lost or separated children, being alert to mischievous adolescents, and performing continuous housekeeping are just a few of the extra activities involved when young people are present. Also, events that families and children attend are often high-energy, action-packed events (e.g., the circus, Disney on Ice, rock concerts), so the staff should be physically and mentally able to handle a high-energy crowd. Employees should be properly trained in people management—how to politely answer questions, give directions, and provide immediate assistance, as well as how to ensure a positive experience at the facility.

Management Management policies, procedures, and protocols need to be in place to make sure the event and facil-

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ity will run smoothly if a bid is won. For example, how will purchasing be completed? Is the process complex? Who signs the form, and where are the forms located? What needs to be signed when the item is received? The answers are fairly simple for a small facility. However, a large public facility may have numerous bureaucratic levels that need to be understood and streamlined by management to make sure that the bid and the event planning processes are as smooth as possible.

One example of the ability to smooth the bureaucratic process is the film and movie divi- sions in some city halls. These units are respon- sible for working with movie and film producers interested in shooting films in the city. The staff help navigate potential problems relating to matters such as permits and the use of police to block traffic. If a producer who plans to do film- ing has to devote a lot of time, energy, and money to making the arrangements, the city may not appear as attractive. It becomes more attractive if one or more people are designated to streamline the process. Management can provide the same assistance to a potential event at a facility by des- ignating one person who can make arrangements for such issues as security and crowd management and finalizing the menu from the concessionaire.

Financial The financial component of a bid involves every- thing from what price to charge for renting the facility to how much revenue the event could generate. Financial projections associated with the rough budgets and expected income are affected by numerous variables. Thus, most events have multiple budgets that rely on a best-case, a most likely, and a worst-case planning scenario. A financial analysis for a proposed event is shown to the right, and table 14.1 highlights what one of these budgets might look like for a college bas- ketball game at a local gymnasium. This is a very simplistic model designed to show what a smaller facility might take into consideration. Larger facilities often use complex modeling, algorithms, and computer programs to crunch numbers and develop appropriate projections.

On the basis of these numbers, it appears that the event is a good one to bring to the gym because there is a most likely projection of $7,500 profit ($12,000 − $ 4,500 in expenses). Even in the worst-case scenario, the event will still make a profit of $3,250.

Financial Analysis for  Proposed Event

Seating◾capacity:◾ 2,000

Cost◾for◾bringing◾teams:◾ $3,000

Marketing◾costs:◾ $1,500

Total◾Costs:◾ $4,500

Ticket◾price:◾ $4.00

Average◾spending◾on◾food◾◾ based◾on◾past◾experience:◾ $3.00

Average◾revenue◾from◾parking:◾ $3.00◾per◾ car◾(normally◾3◾or◾4◾people◾in◾each◾car)

Table 14.1 Best- through Worst-case Scenario

analysis

category Best case Most likely Worst case

Tickets 1,800 1,500 1,000

Ticket◾revenue $7,200 $6,000 $4,000

Food $5,400 $4,500 $3,000

Parking $1,800 $1,500 $750

Total◾revenue $14,400 $12,000 $7750

Legal During the bid-writing process, the facility must address specific legal concerns. The preevent legal concerns can be significant. The primary legal aspects that affect events include contract issues, potential government or industry concerns, risk management, and purchasing insurance.

Contracts As discussed in chapter 12, there are four elements for a valid contract: agreement, consideration, capacity to enter into a contract, and the contract must be for a legal purpose. Thus, if the facility is bidding for an event but does not win, there is no contract. In fact, the bid is an invitation to make an offer, and if the offer is rejected, a contract never existed since there was no acceptance.

Additional contract concerns that should be examined include waivers (especially waivers

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signed by children), renewable contracts, and future consideration. Children often sign waiv- ers, or parents sign waivers to allow children to participate in an event. For example, a youth marathon would have a waiver requirement, and the event organizers would want the facility to get all the participants and their parents to sign waiv- ers agreeing not to sue if injured. It is essential to examine the law in the state where the event will be held to make sure that the waiver will be valid and to determine who has to sign the waiver.

Some contracts are entered into in a particular year and then kept open. These open-term con- tracts often allow an event to return to the same facility in the future. Frequently such contracts are forgotten and the terms are not fulfilled. In one case, a gym let a basketball league use the facility every year. During the first several years under the contract, the league complied with the contract and provided proof of insurance coverage. The contract was renewed on a regular basis without the league’s being asked for proof of insurance. Several years after the league had stopped providing proof of insurance, someone was seriously injured at the gym during league play. That person sued, and during the litigation process it was discovered that since the league had not been asked for proof of insurance for sev- eral years, it had stopped purchasing insurance. Thus the gym was the only deep pocket, and the protection that the gym had intended to obtain via the contractual requirement for insurance did not exist.

Consideration is required for new or revised contracts. The preevent preparation process involves numerous changes to the initial con- tract terms as new issues arise. For example, the number of reserved seats or personnel needed to work an event can change quickly. It is imperative to specify who is authorized to modify the contract and whether any new consideration is required. If new consideration is required, then any modi- fication will in fact become a new contract, and this can become cumbersome. To prevent this problem, most contracts provide for modification, in writing, signed by both parties.

Government and Industry Regulations Many governmental concerns need to be addressed before an event. Permits are a major issue, as some activities may not be allowed in certain facilities or certain parts of the city. The police, fire, and emergency units within the local, regional, state,

or federal government units that may have juris- diction, or may have a say in the event or facil- ity, need to be contacted. Some events not only require contact with a government agency but also require personnel to be at an event. For example, the Arena at Harbor Yard in Bridgeport, Connecti- cut, has a special room with double cement walls to store fireworks for indoor shows. The state fire marshal sends someone to the facility on the event day to do a test run. Thus, each time fireworks are used, they are fired twice: once in the morning and then at the event itself, with specified fire and safety officials present both times.

Risk Management Risks abound during an event. People can fall, run into others, get hit by projectiles (foul balls, pucks), and sustain numerous other injuries. Many injuries can be prevented if risk manage- ment principles are adopted and practiced before an event. Ultimate responsibility for event safety needs to be determined from the very beginning of the contractual process. The facility needs to have a precontract or preevent walk-through to make sure the facility is safe. Special care needs to be taken to check playing surfaces, bleachers, equip- ment, and other components to ensure that they do not represent a risk to potential users. Once the facility has been examined, photographs can be taken to document the facility’s true condition before the event started.

Insurance Insurance must be examined from several differ- ent perspectives. A facility that is leasing space out to other users or to a tenant must make sure that a current policy for at least $1 million in liability protection has been purchased. The insurance contracts should be examined on a yearly basis to make sure they are still current and that there have not been any major changes in the coverage. The event or team using the facility needs to purchase an appropriate insurance policy regardless of whether the facility requires one or not. The failure to purchase insurance coverage leaves the event or team owner or promoter open to so much potential liability that it does not make sense to run the event without insurance. Never- theless, countless events and games occur each year without insurance coverage, and countless facilities run events without coverage. Although many will never face a suit, the few that do are devastated financially.

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Marketing As covered in chapter 10, a facility or event needs to identify the target audience for a potential event and determine whether there are enough people in the greater demographic area who may wish to attend. A circus draws a family type of crowd, whereas a wrestling event draws a different type of crowd. Are there enough families in the area? Do the families have available time—for example, is the event during the school year or over a three- day weekend? Do the families have enough money to afford the event? What could be the potential per cap sales for concession items? These are the types of issues a marketer needs to examine to determine whether or not to hold an event.

Numerous ancillary activities can be offered by a facility to market an event. These activities are offered to make the bid more attractive but can be so diverse that grouping services, perks, and attractions together can make the package more appealing. Family-oriented facilities are one example. Some facilities have family restrooms that several people can enter together. Other facilities separate the rowdy fans from the family groups and tell families when they are buying tickets that they are being offered seats in areas that prohibit swearing. Other special services or amenities include the following:

◾ Nursery or day care

◾ Picnic areas

◾ Swimming pools and hot tubs

◾ Special dining areas accommodating children

◾ Slides, playgrounds, inflatables, and other play structures

◾ Preferred family parking

◾ Special Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) facilities that do more than what is required by law

◾ Special facility tours

◾ On-site banking, dry cleaners, and other such services

◾ Specified autograph areas

◾ Special post offices for events to get stamps canceled

◾ Latest communication technology (e.g., Wi-Fi, video on demand)

Advertising and Promotion The primary marketing concern is typically bring- ing people to the facility as users or spectators. How will the event be communicated to these people? Is there an advertising or promotions budget? Will that budget allow for television,

A◾protective◾screen◾needs◾to◾be◾wide◾enough◾and◾high◾enough◾to◾protect◾the◾most◾dangerous◾parts◾of◾the◾ball- park. Photo◾courtesy◾of◾Gil◾Fried

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newspaper, or radio advertising? Will word of mouth be successful? Is there a sponsor or pro- moter who can help draw a large crowd? There are numerous techniques to sell tickets. An event can use trade-outs whereby a newspaper may give $10,000 worth of advertising space for $13,000 worth of tickets. Although this does not neces- sarily translate to ticket sales, it does put people in the seats and generates significant exposure through contests and giveaways.

Sponsorship One of the critical elements within any market- ing effort is obtaining sponsorship. Sponsors can range from name sponsors to minor sponsors who provide trade-outs or a minor cash payment. Name sponsors, as the term implies, pay a certain sum to be the primary sponsor of the event, and their name is used to promote the event. This exchange of value provides the sponsor with visible recog- nition or community support. Examples include companies that have put their names on stadiums or arenas and on events such as bowl games or major golf tournaments. The focus is on whether someone will receive just a promotional plug or rights. Commercial rights refer to options such as naming rights. Owning a right gives someone control. In contrast, a sponsor may not have as much in the way of rights and may be relegated to secondary status unless granted exclusivity.

Booking and Scheduling Once all the pieces for the bid are in place, the bid is submitted. After the bid is submitted, it may be weeks to months, and in the case of the Olympics, years, before a decision is reached. Most cities and facilities do not bid on only one event; rather they are constantly bidding on various events, and they win some and lose most of the events they are trying to win. However, if they do win an event, they need to book it into their schedule to avoid any disruptions. Booking is the process of contractually finalizing an event on the schedule. When all the forms or contracts are completed, the event is recorded in such a way that all par- ties know the who, what, where, when, and why. The process requires more than just completing paperwork. The facility or the event may have to contact the media, local hotels, local attractions, the police, security companies, concessionaires, and a host of other parties to make sure everyone is ready for the event.

Scheduling requires examining how events interact with one another to avoid potential conflicts. The term booking and scheduling is often used in the industry, but the scheduling should always come first, as an event should not be booked if there is a scheduling conflict that cannot be corrected. In fact, the booking process may uncover some wonderful symmetry between existing events and the proposed event that may enhance the value of the event and the credibility of the bid. On a college campus, for example, if Parents’ Day and Homecoming Day occur on the same date as a night event that has been bid on, there may be a natural audience for the night event.

Event Preparation Once the event is scheduled, contracted for, and planned, the process of preparation begins. The facility must be ready for every event. For example, if a pool will be used, the chemicals must be checked; the water temperature needs to be adjusted (which means that all the heaters must be functioning); the filters must be operat- ing; all safety equipment needs to be in place; all lifeguards need to be trained and ready; and the facility must be clean. Similar concerns apply to all facilities, regardless of the size or the event. Are there enough supplies such as toilet paper? Are all building systems functioning properly? Is the equipment properly maintained? Is the field or playing surface in good shape? These types of issues must be examined during preevent opera- tions and addressed before and during the event.

Facilities The facility must be examined on a regular basis, but especially before a major event. Will the struc- tural integrity of the facility be compromised by the addition of the weight of thousands of fans? Can the facility process enough air to be at an appropriate temperature and humidity level while allowing enough air exchanges per hour? Getting a facility ready can be as simple as cleaning the floor or much more complex, involving activities such as mowing lawns, painting lines, and prepar- ing the infield.

No matter what elements are required to pre- pare a facility for an event, the process needs to be carefully planned. At one track and field

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competition in the Midwest, it appeared that all the issues had been covered. However, when participants arrived, it was discovered that the long jump pit had not been loosened; after several rainstorms and compaction, the pit was hard as rock. The event had to be delayed while a roto- tiller was rented to loosen the sand. Although these types of problems may appear minor, they are a major concern for participants who have paid money and want the best available facility. How can preparation of a portion of a facility fall through the cracks? Without checklists identifying everything needed to get the facility ready, it is very easy to make a mistake. In fact, for the event in question, the jumping pits had been forgotten because the event administrator had been busy with five other facilities where ancillary events were going on and did not realize that the pits

were in such poor condition. A checklist could have reminded the event administrator about the small details. The sample event safety checklist on pages 312-313 includes some concerns a facility manager should be aware of before, during, and after an event. The original document from which these questions were pulled is more than 30 pages long. A shorter pregame checklist that can help remind a facility manager about critical details to attend to is shown on page 314.

Sanitation

Every event produces waste in the form of water or sanitation or garbage. The facility should be examined to determine if there are any prob- lems with drains or the septic system. A typical exercise involves bringing as many volunteers or employees together as possible and having them

Facility Focus

In 1997, Disney opened a sports complex designed to help attract more families to Disney World. Components of the sports complex include the following:

◾ A field house ◾ A baseball stadium ◾ A baseball quadraplex ◾ Two youth baseball fields ◾ A track and field complex ◾ A softball quadraplex ◾ An 11-court tennis complex ◾ Four sport fields

The entire facility was designed for comfort and enjoy- ment; for example, the seats for the baseball stadium are 21 inches (53 cm) wide versus an average of 18 to 19 inches (46-48 cm) for most other stadiums in the United States. The facility is so nice that it has attracted several major events. Pop Warner Little Scholars moved its football championships to Disney, which brought thousands of families and kids to Disney-owned hotels and the theme park (“Disney’s Wide World,” 1998). Since its opening, the complex has grown to encompass 40 square miles (104 sq km) of land. It has served more than 1.7 million fans and in 2008 hosted 170 events. Besides the events that attract families to the Disney parks, an admission fee of $12.75 is charged for adults and $10.00 for children just to

get into the facility. A strong list of clients utilize the facility such as the aforementioned Pop Warner Little Scholars, the Amateur Athletic Union, NFL Youth Football, the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), the Atlanta Braves, and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. By developing these rela- tionships, Disney can grow its revenue stream because it already owns the entire destination location around the sport facility. Thus, through hosting sport events, Disney can generate additional revenue for its hotel and theme park industry.

Facility Focus: disney’s Wide World of Sports complex

AP◾Photo/Peter◾Cosgrove

312  ■

event Safety checklist Date: _______ Name: _________________________ Title: ________________ Number: __________

Preevent Protocol

1. Who is responsible for providing security measures? ____________________

2. If security is outsourced, are there indemnity and hold-harmless provisions in the contract to protect the facility? Y N

3. Have an adequate number of security personnel been reserved for the event? Y N

4. Is all safety equipment in place, such as padding behind basketball baskets? Y N

5. Are the playing surfaces ready for their intended usage? Y N

6. Are ancillary facilities (restrooms, locker rooms, parking lots, concession areas, and so on) inspected before the event to detect problems? Y N

7. Do you have a regularly updated security plan? Y N

8. Do you modify the security plan for different types of events? Y N

9. Do you have any emergency communication procedures in place? Y N

10. Will staff members and volunteers need CPR certification? Y N

11. Will an on-site defibrillator be used? Y N

12. Who is trained to use the defibrillator? _______________

13. Are there enough trash receptacles and recycling containers? Y N

14. Are trash cans emptied properly and in a timely fashion? Y N

15. Are pictures taken of the facility before an event (both general areas and key problematic areas)? Y N

Event Protocol

16. Is a command center established for larger events? Y N

17. Is the command center staffed during larger events? Y N

18. Are weather conditions tracked, especially if inclement weather or lightning is expected or reported in the vicinity? Y N

19. Is adequate supervision provided throughout the event (before, during, and after)? Y N

20. Is adequate supervision provided for participants, including officials? Y N

21. Is adequate supervision provided for spectators? Y N

22. Is there a system in place to track keys? Y N

23. Is there a system in place to prevent theft of office equipment and other property? Y N

24. Will identification systems (such as photo IDs) be used at the event? Y N

25. Will doors be monitored (by individuals or technology)? Y N

26. Will some doors have limited access? Y N

27. Will event staff wear identifiable clothing or hats? Y N

28. Will there also be plainclothes event staff members circulating among the crowd? Y N

Postevent Protocol

29. Do you hold postevent safety meetings to discuss what occurred? Y N

30. Do you have a relatively injury-free record concerning reported patron injuries? Y N

31. Do you respond to patron complaints about safety concerns in a timely manner? Y N

32. Do you take pictures of the facility after the event? Y N

33. Do you analyze all incident and injury reports after an event? Y N

34. Do you properly store and preserve reports after an event? Y N

■  313

Parking Lot Safety

35. Is there a parking lot attendant for lots greater than 300 spaces? Y N

36. Do you utilize video monitoring of the parking area? Y N

37. Do you regularly change the angles of the cameras to avoid creating identifiable patterns? Y N

38. Do you record images in a storable and retrievable manner? Y N

39. Are fake cameras also used (but not too many)? Y N

40. Is the parking lot attendant(s) trained in risk management? Y N

41. Is there adequate line of sight for any attendant to see the lot? Y N

42. Does the attendant regularly patrol the lot? Y N

43. How frequently is the parking lot patrolled before an event? _____

44. How frequently is the parking lot patrolled during an event? _____

45. How frequently is the parking lot patrolled after an event? _____

46. Are lighting concerns addressed by having the light strength (in foot-candles) measured on a regular basis? Y N

47. Are there police and emergency contact boxes at the far reaches of lots (if applicable)? Y N

48. Is there adequate signage directing people to the facility and other locations? Y N

49. Is there adequate safety signage and “park at your own risk” signage? Y N

50. Is external access limited by fences or other means? Y N

51. Is additional security provided when the parking lot is in a neighborhood with a high crime rate? Y N

52. Do you track crime in the parking lot? Y N

53. Do you track accidents in the parking lot? Y N

54. Do you respond and make any program changes in response to increased crime or accidents? Y N

55. Do you monitor intoxicated fans heading to their cars? Y N

56. Do you provide assistance if someone has car trouble? Y N

57. Are there adequate accessible parking areas and clear travel routes for people with disabilities? Y N

58. Are there adequate bus parking and safe movement areas for those leaving buses or waiting for buses? Y N

Comments

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

I attest to the fact that the completed checklist is true and correct and signed by me on this ________ day of ___________.

_________________________________________________________

Signature Reprinted,◾by◾permission,◾from◾GIL◾FRIED◾&◾ASSOCIATES,◾LLC,◾Bringing◾risk◾management◾into◾the◾21st◾century◾[Online].◾Available:◾http://www.gilfried.com.◾◾ Copyright◾©◾2004-2009.

314  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

simultaneously flush the toilets. This exercise is designed to test the water pressure and to simulate what will occur during a major event, especially during intermissions.

An interesting exercise is to go to a facility and count the trash cans. In stadiums and arenas, tons of trash are produced by the fans. Preparation needs to be made to address the trash receptacle needs, recycling needs, and postevent trash needs. A significant amount of trash will not make it into the trash cans. Thus, the event planning process must include making sure there are enough trash

cans, enough cleaning people, and enough sanita- tion supplies such as trash bags and brooms.

Ancillary Accommodations

Ancillary accommodations can range from additional office space to dorm rooms for par- ticipants. These facilities need to be secured, managed, and monitored to make sure they are functioning correctly. Ancillary facilities include living quarters, parking areas, dining areas, medi- cal and first aid stations, outdoor restrooms, and postal facilities.

Pregame Checklist

  1.  Is◾parking◾available◾for◾VIPs,◾athletes,◾officials,◾entertainers,◾and◾spectators?◾ Y◾N   2.  Are◾security◾personnel◾in◾place◾both◾inside◾and◾outside◾the◾facility?◾ Y◾N   3.  Are◾restrooms◾clean◾and◾well◾stocked?◾ Y◾N   4.  Are◾locker◾rooms◾well◾equipped◾and◾clean,◾with◾all◾team◾supplies◾properly◾secured◾to◾prevent◾

theft?◾ Y◾N

  5.  Are◾the◾will-call◾windows◾and◾other◾ticketing◾operations◾staffed◾and◾opened◾in◾a◾timely◾ manner?◾ Y◾N

  6.  Are◾all◾entrances◾properly◾marked,◾staffed,◾and◾conveniently◾located?◾ Y◾N   7.  Are◾ special◾ accommodations◾ made◾ available◾ to◾ those◾ who◾ might◾ need◾ them,◾ and◾ are◾

employees◾trained◾to◾recognize◾when◾someone◾might◾need◾assistance?◾ Y◾N

  8.  Is◾there◾an◾appropriate◾amount◾of◾change◾for◾ticketing,◾parking,◾and◾concession◾ operators?◾ Y◾N

  9.  Is◾the◾field◾or◾floor◾cleared◾from◾the◾last◾event?◾ Y◾N  10.  Has◾all◾the◾trash◾been◾removed◾so◾the◾facility◾does◾not◾look◾like◾a◾dump?◾ Y◾N  11.  Did◾the◾grounds◾crew◾arrive◾on◾time◾and◾complete◾all◾their◾tasks?◾ Y◾N  12.  Are◾all◾the◾security◾personnel◾accounted◾for◾and◾properly◾positioned?◾ Y◾N  13.  Is◾the◾press◾box◾clean,◾equipped◾with◾phone◾and◾data◾lines,◾and◾monitored◾by◾security◾to◾

prevent◾unauthorized◾access?◾ Y◾N

 14.  Has◾food◾been◾ordered◾and◾delivered◾to◾the◾pressroom◾or◾designated◾area◾for◾the◾press◾ and◾officials?◾ Y◾N

 15.  Have◾the◾scoreboard◾and◾public◾address◾system◾been◾tested◾to◾make◾sure◾they◾are◾ operating◾correctly?◾ Y◾N

 16.  Are◾ all◾ concession◾ stands◾ (food,◾ novelties,◾ programs)◾ properly◾ stocked◾ and◾ situated◾ to◾ maximize◾revenue?◾ Y◾N

 17.  Are◾service◾trays◾for◾roving◾vendors◾prepared◾and◾ready◾to◾circulate?◾ Y◾N  18.  Are◾enough◾garbage◾cans◾in◾place?◾ Y◾N  19.  Are◾flags◾raised,◾and◾is◾all◾ceremonial◾material◾ready◾for◾activities◾such◾as◾the◾first◾pitch◾or◾

national◾anthems?◾ Y◾N

 20.  Have◾lights◾been◾turned◾on◾with◾enough◾time◾to◾reach◾maximum◾efficiency◾when◾ needed?◾ Y◾N

Facility◾Preparation◾and◾Event◾Management◾ ■  315

Each facility that will be used needs to be examined to make sure it is functional, clean, and not dangerous. Security may be an issue in some areas, whereas other areas may require greater vehicular access for emergency vehicles or mail trucks. All facility areas used in an event must meet the event requirements.

Emergency Planning At any facility, an emergency action plan must be researched and developed before a disaster occurs. Since no one knows when a disaster may occur, a disaster plan must be developed before every event. Managers must look into all potential threats and plan what actions would happen if they were to occur. A risk evaluation matrix can help establish this. The risk evaluation matrix is a chart that identifies the most realistic threats to a business and helps prioritize a response and backup plans. A group of emergency coordinators including man- agement, human resources, information technology staff, and security should be appointed or assigned to develop the matrix. After the coordinators and matrix are in place, a recovery plan can be devel- oped. A backup plan with backup personnel needs to be created in case any emergencies arise that alter the primary plan. The plans should be docu- mented. After the local fire and police personnel are informed about the emergency action plan, it should be tested as a means to appropriately train personnel (Bassett, 2002).

Equipment and Warehousing One of the often overlooked components of an event is making sure there are enough supplies and that the supplies are stored in an easily accessible location. It is difficult to store several thousand rolls of toilet paper in a convenient loca- tion. Thus, space needs to be set aside for storing supplies that will be used during the event and for items that need to be placed out of the way. For example, in an arena, significant storage space is required for extra chairs, dasher boards, portable floors, forklifts, trucks, carts, tractors, refrigeration units, mechanical equipment, spare parts, and a host of other items. If you ask most facility manag- ers what they would like more of in any facility, the invariable answer is additional storage space.

Communication and Technology Systems Although a significant amount of wiring is now included in buildings as they are being built,

many smaller or older facilities are not properly wired for communication or technology needs. If a facility is wired, then all the connectors and junc- tion boxes need to be examined to make sure that outlets and phone lines are working. Although the bid process for larger events may require proper wiring, most facilities wait to install any such wiring, if needed, until after they have won the bid because then they can justify the expenditure. Wi-Fi can address some wireless communication needs, but cables are still needed for many video and broadcasting applications.

The sound system and scoreboard need to be tested before an event. Are any lights burned out? Are all speakers properly aligned? Does the PA announcer have a prewritten script for announcing emergencies? Can the system become overloaded? What backup system is in place if power is lost or there is an emergency? These are the types of questions that need to be researched and answered before an event.

Media One of the primary concerns with the media is making sure they have access to the facility. Media kits and credentials should be developed for the invited press. Uninvited press also need to be considered, along with the steps that will be taken if uninvited media representatives attend the event. Every event should expect both invited and uninvited press.

A pressroom needs to be developed with appropriate communication outlets and computer hookup stations. There also should be an area for serving food, since providing food for the press is an industry standard. There should be refrigera- tion, outlets for coffee makers, and possibly a sink to help serve the food and allow for easier cleanup.

Another preevent concern is appropriate lighting. Lighting for still photographs is not too critical because of flash cameras. However, televi- sion broadcasts require very specific lighting that sometimes means it is necessary to purchase or rent additional lights. Also, some seats need to be “killed,” or kept empty, because of camera platforms and line-of-sight requirements to get the best shots.

Box Office and Ticketing Tickets can be distributed through phone sales, ticket windows, the Internet, ticket brokers, mail orders, or even kiosks or sales buses. Although

316  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

preevent ticket sales are often part of the event marketing efforts, the facility also needs to be aware of various concerns affecting ticket distribu- tion and sales on the day of the event. For exam- ple, what rules regulate scalping in and around the facility? Is there to be a will-call window, and which tickets will be placed there? What identi- fication or other procedures are used to monitor ticket distribution at will-call windows? Will event-day tickets be sold, and how? Will there be ticket lines in front of the ticket windows, and will these lines interfere with people entering the facility? These are the types of questions about ticket operations that arise before an event.

The answers to these questions depend on the municipality and the facility. For example, if there are numerous will-call tickets, it may be neces- sary to set up several will-call windows, perhaps outside the entrance gate to avoid overcrowding near the entrance. Screening that slows people down at the front gate may minimize lines at ticket windows since all patrons have to wait in line to be searched before entering the facility.

Security The need to protect assets, money, participants, and fans is paramount for any event. A successful security plan must be developed months or years before an event. The threat of terrorist activities at the Olympics forces organizers to spend years developing security systems and a security force. Preevent security issues are primarily associated with crowd management and can include the following:

◾ When will the event start? Crowds do not have as much time to drink before early events, whereas an evening weekend event can lead to more problems resulting from preevent drinking.

◾ Will traffic patterns affect how crowds arrive?

◾ Will the event be on a holiday such as Easter, when a different crowd can be expected?

◾ Have there been prior problems with the event? Is the event a touring event that had problems at a prior stop?

Behind the Scenes

Behind the Scenes: emergencies at the Meadowlands The New Jersey Meadowlands is a premier sport facility. Right off highway I-95, the facility is located on a major thoroughfare to New York, the biggest city in the United States. Thus any emergency in surrounding cities (such as accidents, derailments, or energy blackouts) will affect the facility, and an emergency at the Meadowlands will also affect traffic into cities.

When an event is canceled, all roadway graphics must flash appropriate messages to passing vehicles. Signs need to be posted at each toll plaza; toll plazas need to be blocked; toll collectors and parking lot attendants need to distribute preprinted cancellation notices and instructions; and the Port Authority needs to be notified. Management must also stop all ticket sales. Fans must be told to get refunds from the place where they purchased their tickets; any financial settlements need to be reviewed; and extra phone operators need to be hired to handle calls from fans and the media. The event security office must make sure that there is a force of security personnel to monitor the Meadowlands’ perimeter.

Timing is critical when an emergency or an event can- cellation occurs. For example, if an event is canceled right

before it starts, all employees still need to be paid for a minimum of four hours. Thus, employees need to be told about a cancellation at least two hours before they were supposed to report to the facility. Even with ample notice, a number of fans will still show up at the gates. They must be told that the event is canceled, but some may want to use restrooms or phones. Some people can be let in to the facility for limited purposes, such as use of restrooms, if the facility is safe. Otherwise, people should be directed to portable toilets on the perimeter.

The event cancellation notice can read as follows:

Ladies and gentlemen, we regret that for reasons beyond our control, tonight’s event has been canceled. For further information regarding these events and refund procedures, please look for announcements in tomorrow’s newspaper or listen to local stations. Parking vouchers will be distrib- uted to each driver at the plaza as you exit the parking lot. (Perkins, 1998)

Such a notice will not prevent fans from getting upset. Even with a notice, additional security and precautions are needed to prevent distraught fans from taking their frustrations out on the facility.

Facility◾Preparation◾and◾Event◾Management◾ ■  317

◾ Are event participants known for getting a crowd riled, such as a rock band that encour- ages mosh-pit activity and crowd surfing, even if such activities are not allowed in the facility?

◾ Will the crowd be large, and will it exceed the facility’s capacity?

◾ What experience does the event administra- tor or facility manager have?

◾ What experience does the security company have?

◾ What are the weather conditions, and what will happen if rain forces fans to scurry for cover?

◾ Can the will-call and press areas be moved away from the front entrance to avoid crowd- ing?

◾ How will alcohol sales affect the audience?

Parking and Transportation Before an event is scheduled, all parking options must be examined. For example, will patrons park on surface streets or in a garage? Will there be an impact on local traffic or neighborhoods? Some

neighbors do not mind a major event since it is an opportunity to sell parking spaces in front of their houses or on their property. Other residents may be annoyed about the traffic and complain to local officials.

Is the parking lot area fenced in? Is there a significant amount of crime in the neighborhood that may spill into the parking area? Will there be tailgate parties in the parking lot? When will people show up for tailgate parties? How many accessible parking spaces are there, and how many will be needed? Parking attendants will need to be hired and in place several hours before the event begins. Since traffic-related concerns fre- quently lead to disgruntled fans, a facility should emphasize proper signage and ease of movement to accelerate parking and exit strategies.

Buses and shuttles are often used to transfer spectators and participants from one area to another, particularly with large or remote parking lots to help people get from the parking lots to the facility. Buses and shuttles are often used to trans- port participants and officials from their hotels to a facility. At Ohio State University, buses trans- porting both the home team and the opponents for football games drove down a fraternity- and

Facility Focus

Candlestick Park (more recently known as 3Com Park) is a well-known sport facility in San Francisco. San Fran- cisco is a major earthquake area, and the facility is not far from the San Andreas fault. San Francisco has had a number of large earthquakes, including a major one in 1909 that destroyed a large part of the city. In a historic incident, an earthquake interrupted a 1989 World Series game between the San Francisco Giants and the Oakland A’s. When the quake struck, the power was lost in large portions of the San Francisco area, including Candlestick Park, where the game was being played. The game was being nationally televised, and the chaos in the stands was shown across the country. Executives rushed to turn on the emergency generator, but it was out of gas. Furthermore, the public address system was not even connected to the generator. To communicate to the fans in the stands, police cars with loudspeakers were brought onto the field. However, the speakers were able to reach only the

first several sections, and word of mouth was required to convey directions to those farther up in the stands.

Facility Focus: candlestick Park

Otto◾Greule◾Jr/Getty◾Images

318  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

sorority-lined street where the fans could cheer and boo the players. This created an event within an event and a significant amount of tradition. The trip also was a logistical challenge, since all cars had to be moved from the street, police escorts had to be in place, and crowd management strategies had to be implemented.

Concessions and Food Service Numerous regulations must be followed in order for food to be served. Health and safety regulations are dictated by local, state, and federal govern- ments; and if these regulations are violated, there are significant penalties. All food vendors need to have proper licensing from all pertinent regu- latory agencies. For example, municipal health departments need to be contacted to make sure the concession areas comply with all local regu- lations. This may require compliance with fire, plumbing, electrical, and health-related codes and compliance protocols. For instance, sinks are required whenever raw food is being handled, and local codes can dictate how far away the sink can be from the preparation area. Private businesses and venues are also governed by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regula- tions and rules concerning children working with sharp objects and dangerous equipment pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act.

Issues that affect operating a concession area include the location of the stand, the spatial dimensions, the equipment being used, and the type of food served (Sherman, 1998). The loca- tion of a concession stand can be anything from a table to a permanent location within a venue. A table or temporary stand may be used in high schools, community centers, colleges, and even small venues. Tables and stands can be used to serve bottled drinks, prepackaged foods, and in some cases prepared sandwiches. On the other hand, venues that have built concessions into the physical structure have the opportunity to sell fresh and hot food more conveniently through the ability to utilize electrical outlets rather than the generators required for mobile carts.

Spatial dimensions of concession areas help determine the food served at a venue. Concession stands should have a sanitary prep area, a cooking area, and a warming area. Also, if there is any raw food preparation, there must be a sink for hand washing. In the larger stands, fire codes and the amount of power allocated to the area define the

safe level of equipment usage. If the equipment that will be used requires a greater electrical load, different equipment or new wiring or transformers may be needed.

Planners should remember that concessions can make or break an event depending on the organization, location, and foods served (Sher- man, 1998). Every organization has its own unique food-related issues. Whether regarding menus or training of employees, policies and procedures must be developed. Is the primary focus revenue generation or service? Is the organization more interested in ease and convenience or in compli- cated, expensive items that generate more income? For example, the revenue from food in luxury suites is much greater on a per person basis than that from spending by average fans. Thus, the facility needs to determine where the emphasis will be for its concession program.

Additional concession policy concerns include training employees to use hairnets, gloves, slic- ers, and other equipment. Alcohol management, from knowing when to cut off beer sales to how to spot fake IDs, also requires significant employee training.

Most employers do not promote the fact that they use inexperienced or cheap labor. Facilities often have numerous young employees who are eager to work at certain events. However, experts suggest asking employees under age 15 to work a maximum of 20 hours a week to avoid high turnover numbers (Emmons, 2001). There also are a number of state and federal laws that limit how many hours teenagers can work, how late they can work on school nights, and what types of jobs they can undertake.

Food-related concerns can also become policy- related concerns. For example, should condiments be provided in pumps, which are cheaper to pur- chase than other types of containers but are messy and hard to clean? In contrast, packets, which are more expensive, are easier to store and manage but are often wasted when people take too many, and they can be a hazard when people drop them on the ground. Similarly, although it may be more convenient to offer only two drink sizes, statistics show that having four drink sizes generates the greatest profit level (Emmons, 2001).

The food preparation and service areas should be built based on the proposed menu (Emmons, 2001). When buying the equipment for a conces- sion area, the facility manager should ask the

Facility◾Preparation◾and◾Event◾Management◾ ■  319

salesperson for 50% off the list price. The facility should ask for references to see who else uses the equipment in order to find out if others have any trouble with the equipment. Care should be taken to make sure that the reference is not getting a kick- back from the equipment seller (Emmons, 2001).

Food service locations should be designed for speed and flexibility. The more quickly food gets from the preparation area to the service and sales area, the lower the chances of having problems. Outdoor locations present unique challenges such as rodents and bugs. Therefore outdoor food areas are inspected more frequently than indoor facilities. Food kept outdoors needs to be covered, and the refrigerator has to be cold enough and the heater hot enough to comply with all applicable health codes.

Food-related concerns before an event often center around what food to sell. Every facility has a unique menu based on the type of facility, the region, the local fans, and even the event itself. A health club, for example, typically offers a health- oriented menu because of its clientele. A ballpark in New York may have to offer more variety to handle the broad array of fans than a park in Kansas City or Pittsburgh, which may have more traditional fare. Interesting recent food and conces- sion trends in North America are listed to the right.

Before an event, the facility marketing staff needs to survey what foods may bring the best sales results with the least amount of work. All food items should be either packaged or interchange- able. Packaged products reduce preparation time, and items such as nachos can now be purchased in individual packets requiring only that the cheese be microwaved. Even if convenience food is used, the process should be examined to make sure that food is not wasted. For example, not every 50-pound bag of popcorn is the same; some types of kernels pop more thoroughly, which generates additional revenue (Cohen, 1994b). Interchange- able foods are crossover foods that can be used in several dishes. Ingredients become expensive and hard to store if they are not used for several different dishes. Thus, if lettuce cannot be used for multiple dishes served at the event, it should not be used at all since it is expensive and does not have a long shelf life.

Alcohol If liquor will be served, proper procedures must be in place, including obtaining a liquor license.

Employees need to be trained on how to know when a customer is visibly intoxicated and how to spot underage drinking; they should be able to tell when spectators bring in their own beverages and should be familiar with ejection policies. Two nationally recognized alcohol training organiza- tions are Training for Intervention Procedures (TIPS) and Techniques for Effective Alcohol Management (TEAM). Having either of these orga- nizations train alcohol servers and management will help create a more successful alcohol strategy and serve as a useful risk management tool for all events. Beer distributors can be a good source of additional help in developing an alcohol sales program. Their clout in the area can be used to help the facility through proper training, advertis- ing, their knowledge of government regulations, and their extensive political contacts.

Emergency Services A facility cannot respond to an emergency if it does not have enough of the necessary emergency

Recent Food and  Concession Trends Across 

North America

◾◾ Foods◾ and◾ drinks◾ targeted◾ to◾ spe- cific◾purchasers,◾such◾as◾low-calorie◾ or◾nonalcoholic◾drinks

◾◾ Children’s◾menus◾and◾portions ◾◾ Food◾sections◾or◾days◾for◾those◾who◾

have◾food◾allergies ◾◾ Low-fat◾ food◾ for◾ health-conscious◾

fans ◾◾ Bundling◾various◾food◾items◾such◾as◾

a◾ drink,◾ a◾ hamburger,◾ and◾ fries◾ at◾ one◾low◾price

◾◾ Greater◾ emphasis◾ on◾ marketing◾ before◾ the◾ event◾ so◾ people◾ know◾ what◾ types◾ of◾ foods◾ are◾ available◾ in◾advance

◾◾ Theatrics◾ such◾ as◾ open◾ kitchens◾ where◾customers◾can◾see◾their◾food◾ being◾cooked

From◾Trends driving foodservice at sports and entertainment venues◾ 1997.

320  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

response equipment. A facility also needs to have properly trained employees capable of implement- ing the emergency plan.

Before an event, the facility should examine local fire and police departments, as well as ambulance companies, to evaluate response times and the medical attention they can provide. Local emergency crews should be familiar with the venue in order to make an efficient response. Often an emergency medical technician (EMT) crew visits a site before an event to familiarize themselves with the location and to become knowledgeable about the quickest routes around the facility and to local hospitals, as some roads may be blocked for the event. Major injuries that require transportation to a hospital should be taken to the closest hospital. All medical situations, regardless of their severity, should be recorded in either the security log or a medi- cal log. There is the possibility of lawsuits with any medical injury, and documentation will be crucial to help defend against such claims. The documentation should focus on the injury, facts about the incident, witness statements, and the actions taken.

In the event of a major injury, communication is the key to getting a quick response. Facility staff and security need to be able to communicate by two-way radios, walkie-talkies, Nextel systems, or cell phones. Instructions for medical personnel and patrons should be posted to indicate medical stations, emergency phones, and emergency exits.

Medical Services

Before an event, a medical response team must be in place. All levels of medical response should be included in the development of an emer- gency action plan. Starting with first respond- ers, facility staff should be certified in first aid, CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), and AEDs (defibrillators). A medical station should be set up in a common location, possibly next to the security command post. With some basic first aid materials, first responders, and a triage program in place, an event is ready for basic cuts, bruises, and minor injuries.

Postevent Analysis Policies and procedures developed before an event must be monitored during the event to ensure that

they are being followed. The checklists presented earlier in this chapter contain items relating to security, concessions, parking, scoreboards, and other concerns. During the event, all these items need to be revisited. Although concessionaires might have had enough cash and change before the event started, they may run out of small bills and must be able to communicate with someone that they need change. They probably cannot leave their stations, so a manager or other employee will need to bring the change to them. Financial analysis is needed to track where the change is going and to make sure all money movement is properly recorded so that final settlements can be calculated at the end of the event.

It is during an event that management has the best opportunity to praise or to note the per- formance of employees. Although an employee responsible for acquiring sponsorship revenue will be judged before an event begins, conces- sionaires and ushers, as well as security, opera- tions, and mechanical workers—among numerous others—can be evaluated in their work environ- ments to determine if they are performing their duties.

Thus, managers cannot just sit back when the event begins and think the worst is behind them. The event or facility manager must ensure that all the right steps are being taken by subordinates and front-line personnel. For example, a disaster plan has been developed, but how would everyone act when a disaster really occurred? Would people move as rehearsed? At such times, management earns its stripes by being able to lead effectively given the information, resources, and time avail- able.

Checking the Contract One of the issues that must be carefully analyzed during and after an event is compliance with any contract, lease, or rental terms and conditions. For example, a facility rental agreement may require a tenant to comply with all applicable local laws and regulations. What happens if the municipality where the facility is located has a noise ordinance that prohibits a facility from generating loud noise after 9:00 p.m.? Hopefully management would have known about the law, but sometimes man- agers are unaware of laws that could impact the event. If management does not know about the law and problems arise during the event, they have two options—comply with the contract terms

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or violate the ordinance and risk problems with government, the landlord, and possibly the public.

Another contractual concern is the number of employees. Lease and event contracts often require a minimum number of employees to work in areas such as concessions, entry management, security, and box offices. Numbers can also be established based on management research in areas such as ticket sales, type of event, antici- pated crowd, the day of the week, the time the event begins, and whether other events are being run on the same date. If the contract calls for 700 ushers, how can management ensure that a suf- ficient number of ushers are present and doing what they are supposed to do? What if too many ushers show up for the event? What if only 600 show up? Under such conditions, managers have a difficult choice to make. They can cancel the event and violate the contract, or they can proceed with the event, knowing in this case also that they are violating the contract, and try to use other man- agers and concession workers as an ad hoc staff. If too many ushers show up, they can be placed around the facility for training purposes and be paid for their time.

This concern has significant ramifications in terms of liability, but it also can show whether or not management can accomplish the job. If the manager has trouble meeting contractual require- ments, this can lead to trouble renegotiating the contract or lease at a later date.

If there is a dispute between the facility and the event, and the parties cannot resolve issues in the contract, both parties should first try alternative dispute resolution such as mediation or arbitra- tion. The contract should have a mediation or arbitration clause or both. Mediation can allow the parties to work out the dispute and hopefully come to a conclusion that will be mutually ben- eficial and then allow the relationship to grow. If mediation is not successful, the parties can go to arbitration to resolve the dispute. If the dispute is more adversarial and cannot be resolved through arbitration, litigation is the next option.

Evaluating the Employees A performance appraisal for employees and sub- contractors is one of the most important poste- vent activities. Did the employees do what they were supposed to do? Did they provide quality services? Did the salespeople sell tickets or mer- chandise aggressively? Did the ushers perform

their job well and with a positive attitude? It is difficult to evaluate an employee unless there are objective criteria such as the number of tickets sold or the number of complaints handled during a given event. Most positions have only subjective performance criteria such as whether the usher acted appropriately and watched the crowd rather than the event. But even if evaluating employees is difficult, it has to be done. The most effective method is to have their immediate supervisors evaluate them based on preestablished criteria discussed with the employees when they are hired or promoted.

Another employment evaluation concern is liability for acts of others who are not directly employed by the facility. If third-party vendors provide ushers, security, and concessionaire ser- vices, can the facility be liable for their conduct? The answer may be yes. A facility can be liable if the vendor discriminates in hiring, since the facility should have examined the employment practices of the vendor before assigning that vendor the contract (Fried and Miller, 1998). Thus, if a vendor terminates an employee for the wrong reason, the facility can be sued after the event for the wrongful termination. This type of issue can be resolved through including appropriate language in the contract indemnifying the facility from all acts by the vendor.

Evaluating the Financial Success After an event, the facility manager must evaluate its financial success. Rental and lease contracts often require payment of a given amount before an event to guarantee that the facility owner will be able to cover expenses. A facility knows in advance the cost of opening the facility to the public and will charge at least that amount as a preevent payment in case gate receipts are low. Thus, if it costs $5,000 to open the facility, the facility owner would ask for at least this amount.

Management must carefully examine the financial viability of an event as it is going on. If concession sales are not doing well because of low turnout or bad weather, can the manager change prices or offer a new item to generate rev- enue? For example, on hot days, facilities often sell more bottled water than traditional drinks. In the hot opening weekend of the 2001 pro football season, stadiums posted significant sales for bottled water—40,000 units were sold at the Buffalo Bills’ Ralph Wilson Stadium, and 20,000

322  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

bottles were sold at the Baltimore Ravens’ PSINet Stadium (Muret, 2001). By vigilantly monitoring sales throughout an event and over a season, a facility manager can identify new strategies to help increase sales.

If the rental agreement calls for revenues to be shared, are there any problems with calculating the revenue after the event? For example, would press passes count against the attendance totals? Although the agreement may cover such issues, the postevent evaluation is designed to determine whether the agreement can even be enforced or whether provisions need to be changed for the future.

The postevent evaluation may show that an event should not be allowed back in the facility even if it was financially successful. Some events might generate significant media and public out- rage, even if the event generates revenue. These reactions need to be critically reviewed to deter- mine whether an event should be accepted again.

The major task in postevent financial analysis is balancing the books. For each employee respon- sible for generating revenue, are all revenues accounted for? A ticket booth attendant might have been given 1,000 tickets to sell at $5 each. If the attendant has 400 tickets remaining after the event, then she sold 600 tickets and should have $3,000. If the person has only $2,500, then management needs to investigate why there is a $500 discrepancy.

Facility lease agreements often contain provi- sions for allocating income derived from ticket sales and concession revenue. Since the facility normally collects the money, the event producer or team relies on the facility to provide accurate and detailed records. Chapter 11 includes a sample reconciliation from a major football game. If a promoter collects the money, the facility should be careful to obtain all moneys owed before the event leaves town to avoid a possible collection problem. Facilities have lost significant amounts of money when a promoter left without paying bills; in cases like this, the facility may never see its share. Similarly, a problem arises when the facility, after paying all the suppliers, vendors, and employees, does not have enough money to pay the amount it owes the event. If this occurs, the facility may have to borrow money, try to renegotiate the debt, or, in extreme cases, file for bankruptcy.

If an event or facility is not successful, the final decision for management may be to close. Closing

may generate contractual issues such as breach of contract. Many new facilities are constructed with provisions that the anchor tenant or team must use the facility for 20 to 30 years. If the team leaves earlier, it must pay a penalty. Similarly, if a fitness center located in a shopping mall has a 10-year lease and decides to terminate the lease after 5 years, it will be responsible for another 5 years’ rent. Normally it is incumbent on the landlord to find another tenant, if possible, to mitigate the damages. However, if the landlord tries and does not find another tenant, then the original tenant will be responsible for all the owed rent.

Evaluating Liability After an event, management needs to review all incident reports to determine if there is a likeli- hood of litigation. Most insurance policies require notification within 24 hours after an event of any incident that could possibly lead to a claim. Thus, any injury resulting in an ambulance ride or a visit to a hospital should be documented and the information shared with the insurance company. All facts should be documented, the area where the injury occurred should be photographed, and everyone in the area should be interviewed. The insurance company may want to be involved in this process. Furthermore, depending on the type of injury and who was injured, government officials such as Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) investigators may want to review the accident scene.

Risk management issues covered in the lease contract need to be analyzed before the event. For example, was the proper certificate of insurance issued with the requisite amount of coverage? Was the facility named as an additional insured? Does the policy cover attorney fees and costs? Although a contract may require these provisions, the policy needs to be examined to make sure the proper cov- erage was purchased and is in place for the event. Also, are waiver forms available for participants, and are all necessary signs in place to educate spectators? These simple steps are regularly dis- cussed before an event but sometimes forgotten when the event is held. Thus, all employees need to make sure all risk management strategies are implemented during and after the event.

Another insurance-related task after the event is reviewing the number of claims associated with a particular type of event or facility. If there are very few injuries, then the claims experience would

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be low, and the premium cost should decrease in the future. However, above a certain number of claims, the insurance rates will increase.

During and after the event, management should also look at the relationship with the insurance company. Some insurance companies provide personnel to work events as risk managers. If an insurance company takes proactive steps to make an event and facility safer, this is a strong indica- tion that the company is dedicated to protecting its investment and maximizing safety.

Postevent Surveys

Postevent evaluation is another key management task. Did all the strategies work? Were employees successful at their assigned tasks? Did the mechan- ical systems work as intended? Did the marketing campaign bring enough sponsors or ticket sales? Did the event make or lose money? Did the event generate goodwill in the community? These types of questions are paramount for any manager. If the facility did not live up to expectations, tenants can be upset, owners can be furious, and patrons can decide to not attend again. One bad facility expe- rience is often enough to dissuade people from attending a future event at that facility. If a patron spends several hours in the parking lot trying to leave after an event, can that patron be persuaded to attend another event? If the parking issue is not corrected, the patron will be hesitant to come back or will want there to be other options for reaching the venue such as a shuttle service.

If a facility is having a problem with parking but management does not know about it, man- agement cannot do anything to make the facility experience better. Management needs to know about problems and then take action. If there is a problem, management needs to be up front. It is essential to let people know that the postevent surveying process has uncovered a problem and then to indicate what specific steps are being taken to solve the problem.

Customer Satisfaction Postevent surveying is often undertaken to deter- mine the degree of customer satisfaction. But even during an event, management often is forced to examine the little things. For example, if a ball lands in the stands, was anyone hit? If so, what condition is the person in? Did a kid get stomped

on during the battle for the ball? Did an elderly fan get pushed by a drunken fan who was trying to get the ball? Was someone’s food or beverage spilled in the process? Is the ball a memorable ball that should be retrieved? By paying atten- tion to these small but often overlooked issues, management can take advantage of opportunities to develop relationships. Relationship building is just as important for spectators and facility users as it is for employees. If a fan loses his food or otherwise is not having a good experience, can management do anything to make it better? The fan can be offered other food, a coupon for a free ticket, or possibly even an opportunity to meet a player. People who receive this kind of attention can become lifelong supporters and will commu- nicate their positive feelings to others.

In a Major League Baseball game in 2004, a four-year-old boy was about to catch his first foul ball when a man sitting behind him took the ball away after it landed on the ground. While the man jumped up with ecstasy, the little boy was crying. The scoreboard showed both the man and the boy, and fans started shouting at the man to give the boy the ball. The man refused to give the ball to the child. Team officials went out of their way to comfort him, and a star player gave the boy a game-used bat. At the end of the day the youngster received significant media attention, several pieces of memorabilia, and some free game tickets (“Boy Will Get Foul Ball,” 2004). Such reactions turned a very negative experience into a lifelong memory that might make the boy a loyal future baseball fan.

Every effort should be made to discover what people are thinking. It is well documented that happy customers will tell 1 or 2 others about their good experience. In contrast, dissatisfied customers will tell 8 to 10 others about their poor experience (Zikmund and d’Amico, 1996). However, many dissatisfied customers never men- tion their feelings to the facility management for fear of retribution, a perceived lack of interest on management’s part, or a lack of time. Manage- ment has to remove obstacles to allow customers to freely indicate their concerns as well as their satisfaction.

A critical task for management is surveying spectators and facility users. Information is most easily obtained from written, phone, or focus group questioning or from surveys. Surveying is undertaken to plan for the future. It is impossible to plan without proper information. One common

324  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

strategy is to survey season ticket holders since their names are already in a database and they represent the most frequent facility users. Fans are often sent a survey and offered a discount or premium item for responding. A suggestion box is another way to allow people to give good and bad feedback.

A sample customer satisfaction survey is shown on page 325. There is no one correct survey instru- ment. The key is to determine what information the facility wants from the survey before writing the questions. The facility also needs to determine how to distribute the survey to obtain a well- rounded sample representing the broad array of patrons who may be at the facility.

On-Site Surveys Another way to obtain valuable information is for facility managers to shop the facility themselves. The manager should drive to the facility from different directions to see firsthand what traffic issues exist. The manager should also be a “regu- lar” fan and buy a ticket, go through the parking lot, enter through the front gate after waiting in the crowd, observe security and directional signage, obtain directions to the seat, buy concessions, use the restrooms, try to complain about service, fake an injury, pretend to be intoxicated, get lost in the parking lot after an event, and engage in countless other activities to test the employees. Since many employees will recognize the facility manager, a “secret shopper” can be more effective in the information retrieval process during an event.

Once an evaluation is completed, it should be documented and shared with others in order to gain their perspective. If action needs to be taken, management needs to see what changes are nec- essary and what can be done to accomplish those changes. Some changes may be easy to make with a minimal financial expenditure or with minor modifications in policies and procedures. Other changes can be very costly or will take a significant amount of time to complete. Thus, the facility man- ager needs to know his budget and time restrictions before undertaking any renovations or repairs.

Marketing for the Future The postevent time is not just for evaluating the planning and execution of the event; it should also be used to market the next event. If a sponsor

provided money or services, how was the sponsor acknowledged? Was there an official thank-you in a publication? Was someone within the sponsor company personally thanked? Significant value can come from postevent recognition and market- ing. It is recommended that a thank-you note be sent to each sponsor and all major participants in the event. Following up with sponsors com- municates to them that the event or facility is genuinely appreciative.

If information about the event’s success is included, the relationship can be strengthened for the following year. For example, if attendance increased 20% over the past year, this information could be critical to a sponsor and should be com- municated. Other items that can be sent include newspaper clippings, event photos, signed photos of a star athlete standing next to the sponsor’s sign, a thank-you plaque, sample tickets, and video of the event showing signage location and appearances on broadcasts. These and a host of other items can help show sponsors that they made a wise decision. Such information should also be sent to organizations that were solicited for sponsorship and who appeared somewhat interested but declined sponsorship. A potential sponsor who realizes that the event or facility was a good investment may try to set aside funds the next year to become a sponsor.

Marketing Efforts and Costs Facilities need to examine how they have mar- keted the game experience. If the experience is wonderful, the patron will become a valuable customer and move up the marketing escalator to become a more frequent purchaser. The marketing escalator represents a spectrum of facility users, from nonusers to frequent users. Most facilities focus their efforts on converting the casual users to frequent users.

After an event, managers need to analyze the entire marketing effort to determine what worked and what needs to be changed. Such an analysis can be complicated. If an event used only word of mouth to generate interest, it would be easy to determine whether or not the marketing effort worked. However, most events and facilities utilize multiple campaigns at the same time, and it is often difficult to determine which campaign worked. For example, a circus may utilize billboards,

■  325

Sample Customer Satisfaction Survey

What◾is◾your◾zip◾code?◾___________

Is◾this◾the◾first◾event◾you◾have◾attended◾at◾this◾facility?◾ Y◾N

How◾did◾you◾hear◾about◾the◾event?◾ ________________________

Did◾you◾enjoy◾the◾event?◾ Y◾N

Did◾you◾purchase◾tickets?◾ Y◾N

Where◾did◾you◾get◾the◾tickets◾from?◾ ______________________

Did◾you◾drive◾to◾the◾facility?◾ Y◾N

How◾was◾the◾traffic◾coming◾to◾the◾facility?◾ Good◾ Bad◾ Okay

How◾was◾parking?◾ Good◾ Bad◾ Okay

Did◾you◾use◾the◾restrooms?◾ Y◾N

Were◾the◾restrooms◾clean?◾ Y◾N

Were◾there◾enough◾supplies◾such◾as◾toilet◾paper◾and◾towels?◾ Y◾N

Did◾you◾purchase◾any◾food?◾ Y◾N

Was◾the◾food◾served◾quickly?◾ Y◾N

Was◾the◾food◾tasty?◾ Y◾N

How◾much◾do◾you◾think◾you◾spent◾on◾food◾at◾the◾event?◾ _____

Did◾you◾purchase◾any◾concession◾items?◾ Y◾N

What◾did◾you◾buy?◾ _________________________

Were◾you◾satisfied◾with◾the◾quality◾of◾the◾item◾you◾purchased?◾ Y◾N

How◾much◾did◾you◾spend◾in◾total◾on◾concession◾items?◾ ______

What◾could◾the◾facility◾have◾done◾to◾make◾the◾event◾better?◾

Other◾suggestions◾or◾comments:◾

If you would like to be added to our mailing list, please write your name, address, phone number, and e-mail address below.

326  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

newspaper advertisements, supermarket give- aways, radio, and even televised commercials. It is not easy to decide which communication medium was most successful and should be used in the future or whether to continue using all the mediums.

Television and other media coverage, which can be publicity, needs to be monitored to ensure that no negative publicity is aired. Management should be careful with all media relations, but this concern is much greater after an accident or tragedy. The facility should have a designated person to handle press-related matters. Only one person should speak on behalf of the facility to the press. That person should be trained in how to deal with media inquiries. For example, if a question is asked and management does not have an answer, it is inappropriate to answer, “No com- ment.” Such a statement suggests implicitly that the facility has something to hide. Instead, the facility spokesperson should say something like, “We do not have an answer yet to that very good question, but as soon as we conclude our investi- gation, I will contact you to tell you the results.” Such a statement is not newsworthy and will not be replayed on the evening news.

Facility Analysis Operational issues abound during an event. What if the facility is too hot? Can the heating, venti- lation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system be modified, and if yes, how? What happens if the lights go out, and how long will it take to bring them back to their required illumination level? What happens if the rink ice begins to thaw? These situations are all related to the facility operations side of running an event or facility.

Operational issues inherent in any facility can range from sanitation problems to HVAC break- downs. A facility and its management team will be judged by how they respond and how quickly they respond to a problem. It is anticipated that problems will occur at every facility and at every event. Facility users understand if the lights go out or if there is a problem with the blowers. However, if the problem is not corrected quickly, even understanding people can become irate. In order to ensure continuous operations with the fewest problems, the facility manager needs to have a maintenance staff in place that includes the various tradespeople who may be needed.

In a smaller facility, the manager should have appropriate independent contractors available to come within a one-hour period. Normally a facility senior engineer helps direct several trades- people—in plumbing, electric, crafts, and other areas—who are responsible for maintaining and repairing systems during an event.

To avoid a major tragedy such as the stands collapsing, the facility structure itself is the first concern. Thus, the facility structure needs to be reviewed not just before the event but also during and after. Systems may be monitored for sounds, heat, pressure, or related potential clues that there may be a problem. Most larger facilities have a call center or an electronic monitoring system or both. A call center can receive several hundred phone calls during an event for problems such as a broken toilet seat or a malfunctioning refrigerator at a concession stand. The call center dispatches appropriate personnel to make necessary inspec- tions and corrections, if possible. An electronic monitoring system identifies when a problem occurs and automatically indicates where the problem is located and what steps could be taken to correct it. Some systems are so thorough that they can identify whether the facility tradespeople can complete the work, and a system may even contact outside vendors if the work needs to be outsourced to a third party.

A facility needs to be carefully examined after each event to make sure that no structural damage was caused by the event or the crowd. For exam- ple, a bleacher could have been broken or come unbolted. Structural problems could arise such as weakening of cement from years of use or possible misuse. A roof does not collapse after most events, but if it does, the results can be disastrous if anyone is in the facility. Some of the components that need to be inspected are the following:

◾ Light bulbs (change as needed) ◾ Emergency generators (weekly inspection of all gauges, connections, batteries, fluid levels, and so on; monthly load testing)

◾ Elevators (weekly inspection) ◾ Burglar alarm system (monthly inspection) ◾ Trash chutes (quarterly inspection) ◾ Site drains (quarterly inspection) ◾ Sprinkler system and sensors (quarterly inspection)

◾ Smoke detectors (semiannual inspection)

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◾ Irrigation system (semiannual inspection)

◾ Facility envelope (annual inspection)

◾ Roof (annual inspection)

◾ Fire alarm system (annual inspection)

◾ Water heaters (annual inspection) (Lewis, 1999)

All aisles, restrooms, stairwells, walkways, and food counters and related areas need to be cleaned immediately after an event. Cleaning of the food preparation area needs to be carefully reviewed. Failure to properly clean kitchen equipment can lead to numerous health code violations and can also make future cleanup jobs that much more difficult.

Where does all the garbage go after everyone leaves? With recent innovations and technology, sport venues are integrating recycling into conces- sion sales. Recycling containers for cups, paper, and bottles are appearing more and more often. Even though the costs of a recycling program are greater than those for traditional garbage removal, society has changed, and facilities need to become more environmentally concerned. For a recycling program to work, employees and signage should be placed near the containers to remind people, and announcements about the recycling program should be made throughout the game. Sport venues are also using recycled materials to make napkins, cups, and towels for use at a later time (Berg, 1992).

Special attention also should be given to gen- eral maintenance for things like broken seats, clogged drains, dripping faucets, and broken dispensers (both soap and condiments).

The lighting system should be checked to make sure all the lights work well and to deter- mine whether any lights need to be replaced or redirected. The HVAC system should be checked to make sure the heating and cooling units work effectively and whether any oiling, screen clean- ing, or other services are required.

The playing surface should be examined. For example, muddy outdoor areas may need to be drained or resodded; indoors, gym floors may be peeling. Checking the playing surface is espe- cially important in cases in which the facility will be changed over from one event to another in minimal time. Skipping a problem because of time constraints can lead to bigger problems later on.

Equipment and Warehousing

All equipment not being used for the event needs to be properly stored so it does not get damaged. Seats, barricades, extra concession booths, and other similar items need to be moved before an event and properly stored to avoid getting damaged or creat- ing a hazard. A potentially dangerous item such as a trampoline can represent an attractive nuisance and needs to be properly secured so that children cannot use it. If necessary, doors should be locked or a security person should be stationed in the area. Most storage areas can be properly monitored with a closed-circuit TV (CCTV) system, which saves the cost of a security person. Regardless of the strategy used, the storage area should be secured.

Special attention is usually warranted at cham- pionship-related events. Some events have a final awards ceremony that may require a platform. Platforms normally need to be stored away from the competition and then put in place at the end of the competition. There should be a clear and direct path for moving the platform. Trophies also represent a potential concern during an event. Steps must be taken to prevent damage and theft. Additionally, someone must be designated to pres- ent the trophies, and arrangements must be made to deliver them. If a team does not win a game, it may be necessary to make arrangements to send the trophies to another site.

After an event ends, the items utilized for that event may need to be stored until they are required for a future event. Madison Square Garden has numerous overlapping events. If the New York Rangers are playing on Friday night, the facility must find storage for all the novelty items, nets, dasher boards, and even the Zamboni so that the floor can be converted to a basketball surface and the concession stands stocked with primarily Knicks gear. This process is repeated the next day if a collegiate competition is scheduled. After an event it is also necessary to clean storage areas. Fire hazards can be created when storage areas are not properly cleaned. The accumulation of debris can represent a tripping hazard as well.

Storage areas are typically built into facilities, but they often are full or difficult to manage. Significant storage room is needed to ensure proper access to needed supplies. A regular spring cleaning can be a useful activity to help get rid of clutter that may reduce the amount of storage space in a facility.

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Box Office and Ticketing Most larger facilities utilize computer-based ticketing systems that streamline the purchasing process, but numerous ticketing concerns can occur during the event. For example, multiple tickets might have been sold for the same seat, or ticket takers might have accepted forged tickets. Other issues typically dealt with by the box office include providing armbands for people who can purchase alcohol and giving out special discount vouchers to buy items in the facility.

Another concern is the amount of cash that may be stored at the box office. Precautions need to be taken to make sure the money is secured. Some facilities regularly collect money from the con- cession areas, parking lot attendants, and others and then bring these funds to the ticket office to be counted and processed, either through a safe drop or an armored car pickup.

The box office’s books need to be examined to determine if anyone is skimming money or failing to report all sales. The computer system needs to be reviewed to determine if there were any glitches such as double printing of tickets for the same seats. If the computer malfunctioned, then the program needs to be examined for program- ming glitches or hardware problems. Speed is of the essence, since tickets often must be printed for the next day, and the system cannot be down too long without causing major difficulties.

The event and facility also need to examine the relationship with any ticket brokers to deter- mine how tickets sales are going. Are third-party vendors succeeding in selling tickets? Is the phone-based sales system working well? How many tickets are sold over the Internet, and how are those sales managed? Is the facility ready to handle people buying e-tickets? Those are just some of the questions that need to be examined not just after an event but also during the long- term planning process.

Event Security Command posts must be staffed with properly trained personnel. Almost every larger facility faces security problems at each event. A facility must be prepared to handle security problems from pickpockets to auto thefts to lost children. Chapter 13 deals with numerous security con- cerns that should be addressed to provide a safer facility. However, the proof is in the execution.

No matter how well trained the personnel may be, facing a live emergency is different from any textbook analysis. Although tabletop exercises and live drills help educate and train the staff, only a real disaster can provide the most compre- hensive training.

Staff members should continuously monitor the CCTV system and scan the crowds to see what activities are occurring and whether it is neces- sary to send ushers or security personnel into any given area. If there is no CCTV system, security personnel rely on their own observations. Security needs to be provided to monitor areas inside and also outside the facility (e.g., in parking areas or adjoining city streets where some fans may be celebrating).

After an event ends, the security personnel and ushers cannot leave the facility until all patrons have left. In one case during the 1990s, it was rain- ing as an event ended. While fans remained in the stands awaiting the award ceremony, the security personnel were nowhere to be found. They had probably moved to out-of-the-way places in order to stay dry. This resulted in a situation in which several fans were injured. If the security personnel had been at their assigned stations, the incident probably would never have happened.

Besides protecting fans, the security person- nel protect players, officials, administrators, the media, mascots, cheerleaders, and others who are involved in producing the event. There are numerous examples of fans chasing after officials to challenge a call. Security companies have gone so far as to clothe police officers in officials’ uni- forms to serve as decoys while the real officials are leaving the facility.

Parking and Transportation During an event, the parking area must be moni- tored for criminal behavior. Break-ins are the primary concern, but sometimes cars are stolen from lots. Other concerns include tailgate par- ties that are continuing and hot or burning areas where barbeque grills have been used. Monitors also keep an eye on the parking lot in winter to see when it needs to be plowed so that people do not have difficulty leaving.

Another situation in lots is drunken fans trying to get to their vehicles. Sometimes intoxicated fans leave a game early because they are not feel- ing well. These fans can represent a concern to others. Several suits have been brought by patrons

Facility◾Preparation◾and◾Event◾Management◾ ■  329

who were injured when a drunk fan fell on them while walking in the parking lot (Fried, 1999).

After an event, the action moves to the parking area. Upset fans can take out their frustration on opposing fans or their vehicles. Intoxicated fans can cause problems by urinating on people or property, crashing vehicles, or falling down in the middle of a lot and disrupting traffic. Secu- rity personnel should be redeployed to the exit gates and parking areas while fans are exiting the facility.

After most of the cars are gone, there are nor- mally several cars left in the lot with mechanical problems. There is usually a significant amount of trash in the lot as well. Management has to have personnel or third-party providers clean the lot and examine the area for problems such as potholes, broken lights, and holes in security fences.

Concessions and Food Services Concessions is one of the largest activities going on behind the scenes during an event. One reason is that concessions is sometimes the biggest single profit center. Concessionaires strive to receive about 80% profit to cover their expenses. Thus, if an item costs $0.20, the goal is to sell it for $1.00 (Cohen, 1994b). Profit margins on specific foods are listed in table 14.2.

Drinks can be sold either in cans or as a mixture based on a syrup. A syrup-based soda generates more profit than cans or bottles. A 5-gallon (19 L) bag-in-the-box (BIB) of fountain syrup should deliver 3,800 fluid ounces (112 L) of soft drink and costs around $40. About 15 ounces (0.44 L) of liquid is poured into a 20-ounce (0.6 L) cup on top of ice. Including the cost of the cup, ice, straw, and lid, the total cost should be approximately $0.25. If

the drink is sold for $4.00, then the profit is $3.75 per drink. In contrast, if a distributor sells cans or bottles for $0.50 each to the facility, and the facility sells the drink to a fan for $4.00, the profit margin is reduced to $3.50 per drink (Holtzman, 2001).

Other profits can be derived from premium food and novelty items. For example, the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game generated $40 per head in revenue from concession and merchandising sales. The breakdown was $18 in retail sales, $13 from concessions, and $9 from premium dining (“All-Star Fans,” 2002). A significant chunk of the revenue came from any- thing that bore the word All-Star, such as caps, shirts, and balls. These financial results need to be constantly monitored during and after an event to ensure that the right products are being offered at the right prices.

Since management has to focus on profits, anything occurring during an event that can harm profits needs to be remedied. Long lines, warm beer, few options, dirty conditions, and poorly prepared products can all hurt profits for years to come. Management has to focus on providing customer satisfaction in the quickest time possible and at a relatively inexpensive price. Fans are accustomed to paying more for food at a ballpark or stadium than they would in other settings, but they demand high quality and quick service. Thus, consultants are often retained to show how the menu can be enhanced, how employees can be trained to be more effective, and how the facility can be laid out to maximize speed in placing and processing orders. Management should monitor when, where, how, and how often fans purchase foods. For example, because most sales occur early in an event rather than close to the end, more sales staff are needed earlier in an event.

After an event, the concession area needs to be thoroughly cleaned. Various government regula- tions cover the temperature required to clean certain food preparation equipment. Utensils nor- mally need to be cleaned in extremely hot water. Employees must be trained on using cleaning equipment and avoiding injuries. Management should check that the equipment is working properly so that the concession area will be in working order at the beginning of the next event.

Food needs to be properly stored. Some foods can be refrigerated and some can be frozen; others cannot be stored for use at a later date and must be discarded. Leftover food can be eaten by

Table 14.2 concession Profit Margins

Food Bulk cost Sales price Profit margin

Hot◾dogs $0.30 $1.75-$2.50 80-83%

Popcorn $0.18 $1.75-$2.00 90%

Nachos $0.48 $2.50-$3.00 80-85%

Soda,◾syrup $0.25 $3.00-$4.00 120-150%

Soda,◾bottle $0.50 $4.00-$5.00 80-100%

Beer $0.40 $5.00-$6.00 125-150%

From◾Cohen◾1994.

330  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

employees, thrown out, or donated to a charity. Many soup kitchens are willing to take leftover food, and this is an option worth pursuing since it can result in a tax deduction for charitable giving and also help develop positive public relations.

The concessions inventory is another postevent concern. A complete inventory needs to be made at each concession area to determine what drinks, snacks, and food items must be ordered. Is there enough room in the freezer? How long will it take to order more food? Is there enough room in the storage area to store all the necessary drinks, cups, plastic utensils, and condiments?

Medical Services Medical issues can be delegated in part to external providers such as emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and the local fire department. However, not every medical issue is an emergency. Athletic trainers or other qualified persons are needed to operate a triage unit at a facility. Does a bee sting require medical care? What if a fan is hit by a foul ball or hockey puck? What if someone is injured slipping on a walkway? Each injury and the effect on the person are different, and the event or facil- ity must respond appropriately. The issues may be more difficult when participants or employees are injured.

◾ Will the team physician take over? ◾ What will the media say? ◾ Will the injured party sue? ◾ If an employee is injured, will there be an OSHA investigation? Is the facility safe?

Bloodborne pathogens are among the medical issues that must be addressed during an event. If someone has been injured and is bleeding, facility

employees cannot just wipe up the blood and put it in the trash. Because of the threat of MRSA, hep- atitis B, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and other bloodborne illnesses, OSHA mandates that facilities implement a risk management plan to deal with blood spills (Vivian, Daugherty, and Dunn, 1994).

All facilities should have a designated OSHA compliance representative (either a manager or an employee). This representative needs to imple- ment the following medical-related rules:

◾ Develop a written exposure-control plan. ◾ Develop a comprehensive precaution policy. ◾ Properly train and educate employees. ◾ Keep appropriate records. ◾ Examine engineering- and work-related practices.

◾ Purchase appropriate protective kits and equipment.

◾ Purchase vaccines and exposure follow-up protocols.

◾ Utilize appropriate labels and signs. ◾ Develop and implement appropriate house- keeping practices and procedures (Vivian, Daugherty, and Dunn, 1994).

Besides having kits to handle spilled blood, a facility must have a standard first aid kit with splints, bandages, and wound cleaners. The kit should be replenished each time material is used. In addition, some states are starting to require sport facilities and even high schools to have defibrillators.

Numerous insurance-related concerns arise with medical services and require careful atten- tion. One that is crucial is proper documentation

Behind the Scenes

Behind the Scenes: an opening to remember Although you might assume that an experienced facility manager knows how to run a facility, screwups occur on a regular basis. On April 9, 1913, the Brooklyn Dodgers opened Ebbets Field, or at least they tried to. The owners forgot the keys to the front door, and fans had to wait in line for more than an hour while an employee went home

to get a spare key. Since the builders had forgotten to build a press box, the press had to watch the game from the grandstands. The owners even forgot the American flag that was supposed to be raised during the opening ceremonies (Nash and Zullo, 1992).

Facility◾Preparation◾and◾Event◾Management◾ ■  331

of every injury, all treatment received, and all ambulance usage. All photographs and incident reports should be immediately submitted to insurance companies to prevent rejection of a claim.

When someone has been injured, the manage- ment staff needs to show compassion and concern. If a patron went to the hospital, did the facility send someone along to make sure he was all right? Did the facility cover the medical bills? Was the insurance company notified? Was an autographed item given to the fan in order to create positive

feelings? Small gestures such as these may make someone think twice about suing.

Inventory of medical supplies must be checked in case small adhesive bandages, ice packs, Ace bandages, and so on were used during an event. Management should also evaluate how the ath- letic trainers, fire department personnel, and EMTs coordinated their services. Sometimes medical service providers do not cooperate with one another, and management needs to evaluate personnel to make sure that all those involved in medical care work as a team.

Summary The◾process◾of◾competing◾to◾bring◾events◾to◾a◾facility◾can◾be◾cutthroat.◾Facilities◾ with◾existing◾tenants◾and◾a◾solid◾reputation◾do◾not◾need◾to◾struggle◾the◾way◾smaller◾ facilities◾ do.◾The◾ battle◾ to◾ land◾ events◾ is◾ not◾ unique◾ to◾ sport◾ facilities;◾ convention◾ centers◾ have◾ to◾ fight◾ the◾ same◾ battles.◾ Facilities◾ can◾ reduce◾ the◾ time◾ and◾ cost◾ associated◾with◾the◾bidding◾process◾if◾they◾develop◾a◾template◾that◾responds◾to◾ most◾information◾requested◾in◾typical◾bid◾packets.

Once◾a◾bid◾is◾pursued,◾a◾facility◾needs◾to◾garner◾all◾the◾appropriate◾personnel,◾ resources,◾and◾strategies◾to◾help◾win◾the◾bid.◾Once◾the◾bid◾is◾won,◾a◾facility◾needs◾ to◾deliver◾on◾everything◾that◾was◾promised,◾from◾having◾appropriate◾personnel◾to◾ ensuring◾ marketing◾ and◾ financial◾ success.◾A◾ facility◾ manager◾ spends◾ a◾ majority◾ of◾her◾time◾finalizing◾all◾the◾details◾before◾an◾event.◾The◾most◾important◾area◾that◾ cannot◾be◾left◾to◾last-minute◾planning◾is◾security.

The◾planning◾process◾for◾hosting◾an◾event◾and◾then◾preparing◾the◾facility◾for◾the◾ event◾are◾time-intensive◾activities,◾but◾the◾event◾itself◾can◾raise◾various◾concerns.◾ Has◾the◾facility◾complied◾with◾all◾its◾contractual◾requirements?◾Are◾the◾employees◾ doing◾their◾jobs?◾Will◾the◾event◾be◾a◾financial◾success?◾Will◾the◾event◾raise◾legal◾ issues?◾These◾are◾just◾some◾of◾the◾questions◾the◾facility◾manager◾needs◾to◾ask◾and◾ answer◾when◾evaluating◾an◾event.

The◾facility◾manager◾also◾needs◾to◾spend◾a◾significant◾amount◾of◾time◾analyzing◾ future◾ marketing◾ opportunities◾ based◾ on◾ the◾ event’s◾ success◾ and◾ the◾ patrons’◾ experience.◾Through◾ surveying,◾ the◾ facility◾ should◾ understand◾ what◾ patrons◾ liked◾ and◾did◾not◾like◾about◾a◾facility.◾The◾facility◾manager◾then◾needs◾to◾turn◾his◾focus◾ toward◾ the◾ facility◾ and◾ evaluate◾ whether◾ or◾ not◾ the◾ facility◾ performed◾ as◾ it◾ was◾ supposed◾ to.◾This◾ review◾ includes◾ not◾ only◾ the◾ facility◾ structure◾ but◾ also◾ specific◾ elements◾such◾as◾ticket◾operations,◾transportation,◾and◾concessions.

Discussion Questions and Activities   1.  What◾would◾be◾the◾key◾steps◾to◾consider◾if◾you◾are◾thinking◾about◾renting◾

your◾facility◾to◾a◾potential◾user◾for◾an◾event?

  2.  What◾would◾you◾recommend◾as◾a◾potential◾new◾concession◾item◾that◾might◾ be◾the◾next◾big◾rage?

  3.  What◾steps◾would◾you◾take◾to◾prepare◾a◾facility◾for◾an◾event?

332  ■◾ Managing◾Sport◾Facilities

  4.  What◾steps◾would◾you◾take◾to◾attract◾fans◾to◾a◾new◾event◾you◾are◾about◾to◾ host◾at◾your◾facility?

  5.  Develop◾a◾sample◾bid◾package◾specifying◾what◾you◾would◾want◾a◾gym◾or◾ arena◾to◾offer◾in◾order◾to◾host◾a◾boxing◾competition.

  6.  Examine◾the◾bid◾process◾undertaken◾by◾the◾Salt◾Lake◾City◾Olympic◾ Organizing◾Committee.◾What◾steps◾did◾they◾have◾to◾take◾to◾win◾the◾event?◾ What◾ethical◾concerns◾arose◾from◾the◾event?

  7.  What◾are◾some◾of◾the◾key◾concerns◾that◾need◾to◾be◾analyzed◾during◾an◾ event?

  8.  What◾is◾management’s◾role◾during◾an◾event?   9.  Contact◾a◾facility◾manager◾and◾try◾to◾follow◾the◾person◾during◾an◾event◾to◾

see◾what◾he◾or◾she◾has◾to◾do◾as◾the◾event◾proceeds.◾Note◾in◾percentage◾ form◾how◾the◾person’s◾time◾is◾spent◾(e.g.,◾40%◾of◾the◾time◾spent◾is◾on◾ personnel◾matters).

 10.  After◾an◾event,◾stay◾in◾the◾parking◾lot◾to◾see◾how◾people◾leave◾and◾how◾ long◾it◾takes◾various◾people◾to◾leave.◾This◾exercise◾will◾help◾you◾learn◾how◾to◾ be◾a◾secret◾shopper◾and◾identify◾good◾and◾bad◾policies,◾procedures,◾and◾ execution.

 11.  What◾do◾you◾think◾are◾the◾biggest◾concerns◾that◾need◾to◾be◾examined◾after◾ an◾event?

■  333

Glossary

additional insured—Another person or entity who will be covered by an insurance policy.

advertising—The use of paid sources to generate interest in a product or service.

aeration—Cutting or punching holes in the soil to help air, water, and nutrients filter down to the roots.

air exchange—Circulating air into a building from the outside and exhausting air from the building.

airborne sound—Sound made by people that travels through the air from their activities (such as yelling or stomping on the floor).

alteration—A change in a facility, system, or equipment to make it better or more responsive to people’s needs.

ambient light—Naturally occurring light such as sunlight coming through a window.

ambient sound—Naturally occurring sound. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)—Law that ensures

equality for disabled Americans and includes equal rights to employment and access to facilities.

architectural barrier—Design barriers that prevent some- one from fully enjoying a facility; such barriers need to be modified, if feasible, to comply with the ADA.

arena—An enclosed playing area with fixed seating capacity. asset—Something that has value and can be converted

quickly to cash. assumption of risk—Defense to a negligence claim based

on the injured person’s knowing the risk of injury and voluntarily continuing even though it is dangerous.

attractive nuisance—A hazard that can attract and then injure a child.

audit—A detailed study designed to identify problems such as lost cash or poor management.

automatic external defibrillator (AED)—A device used to help resuscitate a person having a heart attack; can be operated by someone without significant training.

balance sheet—Highlights how much a facility or company is worth at a specific time by examining its assets, liabilities, and shareholder’s equity (ownership value).

benchmarking—The process of establishing industry norms or standards by which a facility can compare its operations to make sure it is efficient; can be undertaken to review everything from ticket sales and concession revenue to maintenance standards.

bid process—Used by public entities to evaluate different vendors to determine which company can perform the required work at the best cost.

biometric scanning—References body parts from eyes to handprints to authenticate known individuals and to allow them to access the facility.

bloodborne pathogens—Diseases passed by blood. blueprint—A technical drawing showing how a facility

will be built. bond—A promissory note stating that the issuer (whether

a government or private corporation) will repay a loan with interest.

booking—The process of entering into a contract to secure a date and event for a facility.

breakdown maintenance—Maintenance undertaken as soon as an item breaks.

building area—The area 5 feet (1.5 m) around the proposed building’s exterior walls to provide enough room for building the facility.

building load capacity—How much weight the roof or rigging can support.

business plan—The road map for any facility that helps identify the product and market as well as the legal and financial outlook.

capital budgeting—Evaluating and determining long-term needs of the facility and whether new facilities need to be built or leased.

capital costs—Costs associated with long-term investments over many years.

capital planning—Examining and implementing programs that will help a facility and equipment last longer.

certificate of insurance—A form that shows that insurance coverage has been purchased.

changeover—The process of transforming a facility from one event surface such as basketball to another event surface such as ice hockey.

Civil Rights Act of 1964—Act that provided the framework for many key employment rights laws such as sexual harassment and discrimination under Title VII or gender equity under Title IX.

closed-circuit television (CCTV)—Self-contained video systems that record conduct to use as evidence or to investigate crimes.

collateral—Funds or assets used for securing a loan. collective bargaining agreement (CBA)—The contractual

agreement developed between an employer and a union that sets terms and conditions associated with the work environment.

commercial rights—Assets owned by a facility that can be sold, leased, or borrowed by others for a price; includes naming rights and pouring rights.

common law—Law developed and interpreted by the courts.

common space—Hallways, foyers, concourses, and general open areas for people to move around in.

334  ■  Glossary

compaction—Pressure on the soil that pushes sand and soil together.

computer-aided drafting (CAD)—Designing buildings on a computer for ease of operation and making changes.

computer-aided facility management (CAFM)—A software system that allows a facility manager to monitor needed repairs and adjust temperature and humidity controls.

computerized maintenance management system (CMMS)—Monitors a facility and the equipment and systems in it to optimize their performance and mini- mize repair and replacement costs.

consideration—An exchange of value; required for a valid contract.

constituents—The people (such as patrons, athletes, and employees) who use a facility.

contingency planning—Alternative plans used in response to the closing of a facility or the cancellation of a show.

continuity management—How a facility can continue operating after a disaster occurs.

contract—An agreement between at least two parties to complete a transaction.

contractually obligated revenue/income (COR/COI)— Money guaranteed by a contract that can be used in obtaining a loan.

core drilling—Drilling to see what lies underneath land such as rocks or water tables.

corporate bonds—Loans undertaken by a corporation for long-term purchases such as a new stadium; the new facility is used as collateral to secure repayment.

crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)—Using architecture and landscaping to pro- vide added protection against crime.

crisis management—How to respond to and prepare for a potential crisis.

crowd management—Specific steps or strategies taken to prevent a tragedy involving patrons; can include structural, signage, and personnel strategies.

customer—A person who purchases or receives services at a facility.

cyclical repairs—Repairs conducted at predetermined times, such as yearly or monthly.

demographics—Data about a given population such as age, gender, or income level.

design/build contract—Allows the future owner to provide the land and some control over the construction pro- cess, but the developer designs and builds the facility.

diffuse lighting—Lighting directed all over the facility to spread the light throughout the facility.

direct costs—Costs to build the facility; includes material and equipment costs and workers’ fees.

direct lighting—Lighting that shoots down directly from a fixture on the area where light is intended to go.

displacement—The fact that some hotel rooms and diners would be present regardless of whether or not a facility is holding an event, which reduces the total economic impact of an event.

dragging—Going over the infield dirt with a screen to make sure it is smooth and without rocks and clumps of dirt.

economic impact—The net economic change in a com- munity based on hosting an event.

ECT approach—Technique to help reduce the chance of injuries and lawsuits.

emergency medical technicians (EMTs)—Emergency first aid and transportation to help injured patrons or athletes.

emergency response management team (ERMT)—Persons dedicated to respond immediately to an emergency at a facility.

eminent domain—Ability of a government entity to pur- chase private land and convert it for public use.

energy audit—An attempt to find all uses for energy and help eliminate any waste.

equity—The total value of personal money, stocks, and property.

evacuation—The process of removing people from a facil- ity in a safe manner.

expectancy theory of motivation—Managers will choose the option that will generate the outcome employees want.

expenses—Obligations that need to be paid, such as bills and salaries.

external constituents—A group of individuals who have an interest in the facility, such as stakeholders, lenders, and government entities.

facility management—The art and science of managing a facility to help meet the facility’s objectives, goals, and mission.

Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)—Federal regulations for the workplace, such as minimum wage and overtime regulations.

feasibility study—Helps determine whether a project is worth pursuing from a marketing, legal, and community perspective.

financial forecast—An attempt to plan for future financial needs based on expected revenues and expenses.

foreseeability—The process of utilizing all the facts to know whether a specific event is likely to occur.

four Ps—The four key elements of marketing, which are product, place, price, and promotion; some add an additional P, public relations.

front-of-the-house—An activity taking place in front of the audience, such as the game itself, versus back-of- the-house, which refers to areas used for staging and running the facility.

functional plan—A plan that helps define what the opera- tional plan will try to accomplish; includes marketing or safety plans.

furniture, fixtures, and equipment (FFE)—Chairs, tables, televisions, paint on the walls, pictures hung on the walls, and other such items in a facility that help complete it.

Gemba Kaizen—A Japanese concept referring to knowing what is going on at the point of production.

general admission—An event where there are no reserved seats and the first people into the facility have the first choice of where they will sit or stand.

Glossary  ■  335

general obligation bonds (GOBs)—Bonds backed by the full faith and credit of the issuing (borrowing) munici- pality, which promises to repay the bonds with general tax revenue.

glare—A point of light that affects a person’s eyes.

grading—The process of smoothing over the land to build the foundation of a building.

green design—A facility built to be energy efficient; can lead to the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environ- mental Design) certification.

ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs)—Help interrupt the flow of current to electrical outlets to avoid elec- trocution when water is in contact with an electrical appliance.

growth space—Unused space that could be used for future expansion needs and is attached to the existing facility.

grubbing—The process of removing brush, trees, and underbrush to clear the site to start building.

heat load—The number of people, the types of equipment in a facility, and the amount of heat they generate, such as heat from people’s running and sweating.

heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)—Allows cold and warm air to circulate within a facility.

horizontal space dividers—Components that separate areas in a building horizontally, such as floors, ceilings, and floor heating systems.

hostile or offensive work environment—Sexual talk, actions, or photos that materially affect someone’s ability to work.

immunity—Defendants who will not be responsible, even if they would otherwise be liable, since they are protected by the government or some other legal or statutory protection.

income statement—Highlights the revenue and expenses for the prior year and factors in taxes and interest pay- ment to determine whether the facility earned a profit or loss.

independent contractor—A person who performs work for a facility but is not an employee of the facility; a facil- ity cannot control a contractor’s activities, resources, and assignments, whereas a facility can control these aspects of an employee.

indirect costs—Costs for a construction project including printing costs, attorney fees, and profit.

indirect lighting—Lighting that is directed against other objects, such as a wall or ceiling, so the light does not go directly into people’s eyes.

induced effect—The ripple effect throughout an economy based on additional expenditures that filter throughout an economy.

infiltration rate—Rate water is absorbed into the soil.

internal constituents—Persons inside the facility, such as employees, patrons, owners, and athletes, who could have an effect on the facility.

job analysis—Determining what activities need to be accomplished to reach a specific goal.

job description—Specific skills required for accomplishing the goals set forth in the job analysis.

landscaping—Using plants, dirt, water, and rocks to make the exterior of a facility more attractive.

liability—A financial obligation to pay someone; current liabilities are debts owed now such as salaries and util- ity bills; long-term liabilities typically refer to bonds or other borrowing instruments.

life-cycle costing—The total cost of a building or equip- ment over its life; includes initial construction, energy costs, maintenance, and repairs.

light intensity—How bright a light is; measured in foot- candles.

luxury boxes and suites—Sold for those wishing to attend games or events in the best environment or location.

management—The art of getting people and resources to work together efficiently to achieve the goals of the facility.

management by objective (MBO)—Managers and employ- ees can work together to develop realistic and achiev- able objectives that make both parties happy.

market—A group of actual or potential customers who will be interested in the product.

marketing—The process of packaging a product or ser- vice and setting the right price, manner, and strategy to sell it.

marketing escalator—Theory that some people will not use a product while others will use it more frequently. The more often a person purchases the product, the faster that person moves up the escalator to become a frequent user.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs—Helps a manager identify what possibly will motivate an employee to perform better.

millwork—Customized finishes, such as wood, plastic, or metal.

mission—The overall ideal the facility wants to achieve; it focuses on general terms such as profitability, quality service, and workplace.

move management—Focuses on how a company can plan for and execute a full or partial move from one area or facility to another.

movement theory—The science of crowd movement; focuses on density, speed, and flow.

multiuse facility—Facility that can be used for different events.

naming rights—Allows a company to put its name on a building for a specific contractual amount.

needs assessment—Focuses on whether or not a commu- nity really needs a proposed facility.

negligence—The failure to act in a reasonable manner; that action is the proximate cause of someone’s injuries.

objectives—Help people focus on reaching specific goals. occupancy permit—A form completed by a government

building inspector indicating that the finished building can be occupied and meets applicable building code requirements.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)— Establishes rules for workplace safety and investigates workplace accidents and hazards.

336  ■  Glossary

open-term contract—A contract that has no specific ending period and keeps renewing unless terminated by one of the parties.

operational plan—Highlights what specific steps are required for accomplishing either a strategic or a func- tional plan.

organizational flowchart—Highlights the line of command within a facility and indicates who reports to whom for direct supervisory responsibility.

outsourcing—The act of hiring an external party to manage the entire facility or parts thereof such as security, clean- ing, or maintenance.

owner’s representative—Acts on the owner’s behalf to monitor the construction process and protect the owner’s investment.

percolation—The amount of time it takes for water to pass through the soil to reach the roots.

personal seat licenses (PSLs)—A contractual right a person acquires for a fee that allows the person to purchase tickets for a specific seat; others cannot acquire tickets for that seat as long as the PSL contract is in effect.

personal transportation system—Vertical transportation such as elevators and escalators and horizontal trans- portation such as people movers.

personnel management—The process of managing or inspiring people to work together to achieve the goals of the facility.

place—The location in which a product is being sold or enjoyed.

planned approach—Forces a facility developer to examine what is needed and then develop a facility pursuant to some predetermined guidelines.

planning—The strategic process of identifying what the facility wants.

preventive maintenance—Undertaken on a predetermined basis to help prevent equipment and systems from breaking and to increase their longevity.

price—How much someone is charging for a given product. product—The item (whether a service or goods) that is

being marketed. progressive disciplinary approach—The progression from

a warning, written warning, formal complaints, and then termination; a manager can be more confident in terminating an employee knowing that the employee was given a chance to correct behavior on several occasions.

promotion—The activity being used to help sell a product. property law—A variety of laws that affect the use of

property, from buying and selling property to how the property can be used.

proximate cause—Refers to the fact that a facility man- ager’s actions are the direct cause of an injury versus an intervening incident that really caused the injury.

psychographics—The reason behind people’s action to determine how or why they decided to purchase or not purchase a given product.

public accommodation—Facilities in which people con- gregate or attend events, such as theaters, arenas, and stadiums.

public assembly facility (PAF)—Any facility in which the public can enjoy an event, such as stadiums, arenas, the- aters, convention centers, and performing arts centers.

publicity—Earned media since it is unpaid and is dis- seminated based on its newsworthiness.

public offering—Occurs when a stock is sold to the gen- eral public.

public relations—Uses free sources such as newspapers and word of mouth to help sell a product or service.

punch list—Itemizes all the repairs required for finishing the construction process of a new building.

reasonable accommodation—Repairs or reconstructions that need to be done in order to comply with ADA.

reconciliation—The process of calculating the total rev- enue and expenses for a given event.

redirected spending—Money that would have been spent on other activities in a community (such as movies or bowling centers in a given area) if the money had not been spent at a sport facility.

renovation—Taking an old facility and modernizing it.

request for bids (RFB)—A completed proposal in which the purchaser receives fixed bids in order to choose the most experienced company who has submitted the lowest bid to perform the proposed job.

request for proposals (RFP)—A request from external companies to suggest strategies to resolve a problem or develop a new program.

request for qualifications (RFQ)—A request for different companies to prove they have the skill or experience to complete the proposed job.

restoration—Refurbishing a facility to its former appear- ance and replacing deteriorating and broken elements consistent with historical accuracy.

return on investment (ROI)—The financial return an investment generates.

revenue—Money received primarily from selling goods or services.

revenue bond—Utilizes revenue from specific sources (such as sales taxes or ticket surcharges) to repay the bond.

rigging—Trusses and beams to support items such as score- boards and ropes from the ceiling and walls.

ripple effect—Similar to how water spreads in a ripple throughout a lake from when a stone is thrown into the water, a dollar spent in a community will likewise have an impact throughout the community.

risk management—The art of reducing the potential of someone’s being injured by a hazard that could have been avoided or minimized.

root zone—The area around grass roots that needs to have the proper amount of water and minerals to keep the grass strong.

sales–lease-back strategy—Allows someone to sell an asset (equipment or building) to an investor who receives lease payments from the seller and the seller obtains a cash infusion.

Glossary  ■  337

sand-modified fields—Fields that use native soil combined with sand to help prevent compaction. To qualify as sand modified, the field needs to be at least 60% sand and 40% native soil.

scale model—A miniature model of the facility built to scale.

scoring—The process of breaking up the infield soil so that it is not hard or bumpy.

security—The safeguarding of an item, person, or place.

seeding—The process of spreading grass seeds to start a lawn instead of rolling out pregrown grass, which is called sodding.

site plan—A rendering of the facility with various subplans such as the master plan, grading plan, landscaping plan, and traffic plan.

sky glow—Light that is directed or reflected upward and is wasted in space; it is seen as an orange haze over a city when one is flying in a plane at night.

soil testing—Tests to ensure soil is not contaminated.

soil-based fields—Fields that use native soils and materials that have a high water retention level.

space management—A focus on effectively organizing the space in a facility; scheduling, maintenance, and related concerns are often part of the process.

sport complex—A facility or group of facilities centrally located for ease of access and use.

sport facility—A facility in which sport activities are played or viewed.

sportsplex—A multiuse facility combining different activi- ties on various fields or courts.

stadium—A large bowl or square- or rectangular-shaped playing area with spectator seating that can have either a sideline or a full concrete grandstand.

stakeholder—Anyone who has an interest in the facility, such as neighbors, fans, or government officials.

steak and sizzle—The steak is the primary feature of a product, such as a football game, whereas the sizzle entails ancillary features of the product, such as cheer- leaders or a halftime show.

strategic goal—Goal set by the highest-level managers to help run a facility and determine its future direction.

strategic plan—Focus on trying to achieve the facility’s strategic goals; is often called the master plan.

structural load—The weight of the building and all the items in it.

structure-borne sound—Sounds made by the facility, such as exhaust fans or squeaky floors.

substructure—The entire building from the ground to the foundation, including the basement or underground parking structure.

superstructure—Everything above ground level, such as beams, frame, and structure.

support—The outside of the building, which helps support the building and protect it from the elements.

sustainability—Developing and running a facility that minimizes the impact on the environment and uses energy more efficiently.

swing space—Any space available to be used during reno- vations or alterations to an existing facility.

SWOT analysis—A focus on a facility’s strengths, weak- nesses, opportunities, and threats in order to plan for the future.

tabletop exercises—Safety training using models or maps indicating where trainees would go and what they would do during a real emergency.

tactical goals—Developed by midlevel managers to reach a strategic goal of a facility.

target market—The intended group of people (market) that an advertiser is trying to reach.

topdressing—Occurs through spreading additional soil over the existing soil.

tort law—A variety of claims against people for their actions (whether intentional or unintentional) toward another person or a person’s property.

trespass—Light that spills over beyond the area intended, such as neighboring businesses or homes.

turfgrass—Grass on a playing field that is specifically planted to hold up to excessive use.

turnkey contract—A situation in which a construction company builds a facility with very little input from the owner and then turns over the complete facility to the new owner.

unintentional tort—Includes negligence and is not planned.

value-based engineering—Forces a developer to examine shortcuts that could save money but not compromise the looks or safety of a facility.

variance—A document from building inspectors or other government officials that states that a facility can be built in violation of established regulations.

venture capital (VC)—Initial funding from investors for a facility or company, but investors demand a signifi- cant return on the investment. The investment is risky because most new facilities and businesses normally do not generate enough funds to interest most investors.

vertical space dividers—Components that separate areas in a building vertically, such as walls and columns.

vulnerability analysis—Examines situations in which the facility is most vulnerable; can include economic, natural, and manmade disasters.

waiver—A contract whereby someone agrees not to sue for a future claim the person might have if he or she were to be injured at a facility or event.

workers’ compensation insurance—A no-fault system designed to provide coverage for any employee injured at work, regardless of who is responsible for causing the injury.

zoning—Laws designed to prevent unsightly or unorthodox buildings in a given neighborhood.

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■  347

Index

Note: The italicized t following page numbers refers to tables.

A accessibility and site selection 109-110 ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act ADEA (Age Discrimination in Employ-

ment Act) 70 Adelphia Coliseum, Nashville 234 advertising and promotion

advertising rights 237 of an event 309-310 marketing and 220

AEDs (automatic external defibrillators) 296

AEG (Anschutz Entertainment Group) 58 aeration and aerators 189 Age Discrimination in Employment Act

(ADEA) 70 AGIR (a gang in a room) 79 air exchanges 156, 157 air quality 156, 158 Alamodome, San Antonio 254, 258 alcohol

government regulations concerning 277-278

policy for security 294-295 preparation for an event 319 training employees to monitor con-

sumption 295, 319 Allianz 236 American Airlines Center, Dallas 115,

118, 120, 219, 233 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

bleachers and 183 compliance solutions 276-277 disabilities covered by 275 ethics and adherence to 53 facility renovation considerations

and 140 impact on sports facilities 274 noncompliance penalties 276 personal transportation systems and

168 reasonable accommodations standard

275-276 requirements for sports facilities 66,

68-69, 274-275 site selection and 107

anchor tenant attraction 229 animal use for security 286 Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) 58 Anschutz, Phil 58 APP (average payback period) 250 Aramark 57

Arena at Harbor Yard, Connecticut 15-16, 152

arenas and stadiums 5, 87-88 Argos theater 8 Arizona Cardinal’s stadium 89 Arizona Diamondbacks 12 Arizona State University 181 ARR (average rate of return) 250 Arrowhead Pond, Anaheim 237 Arrowhead Stadium, Kansas City 166 artificial turf versus grass 137 Aselin, Don 78 assumption of risk and tort law 265 Astrodome, Houston 13 AstroTurf 134, 135, 192-193 Athens Olympics (2004) 20 Atlanta Olympics (1996) 21, 170, 172,

285 attracting events

bid process 305-306 booking and scheduling 310 financial analysis 307 legal issues 307-308, 309f marketing and 229-230, 309-310 organizational structure and 304-305 personnel management 306-307 process of winning large events 304

attractive nuisance 194 audiovisual systems 166, 167 audits

energy 153, 161 maintenance 199, 203-204, 205

automatic external defibrillators (AEDs) 296

average payback period (APP) 250 average rate of return (ARR) 250 Aztecs 20

B Baker Bowl, Philadelphia 11 balance sheets 244 Baltimore Colts 269 Baltimore Ravens 256 Barnum, P.T. 18 BANANA (build absolutely nothing any-

where near anything) 83 Bank One Ballpark, Arizona 14 baseball

field construction example 129-130 field drainage 187 field maintenance 193-194 first lighted field 12 gain in popularity in 1850s 10 oldest active stadiums 12t

basketball goals in gymnasiums 184

batter’s box maintenance 194 BCR (benefit-cost ratio) 251 Beebe, Thomas 124 Beijing Olympics (2008) 156 benchmarking 199, 206, 207 benefit-cost ratio (BCR) 251 bid process for events 305-306 biometric scanning 286 Blanchard, Kenneth 50-51 bleachers

in gymnasiums 182-183 outdoor 194 safety regulations 273-274

bloodborne pathogens 330 blueprints 120-121 BOMA (Building Owners and Managers

Association) 66 bonds for facility financing

construction 128 corporate 253 description and ratings 256-257 general obligation 257 repayment sources 258-259 revenue 257 tax-backed 257-258

booking and scheduling events 229, 310 Boss Ice Arena, University of Rhode

Island 26 Boston Red Socks 223 Bowes v. Cincinnati Riverfront Stadium

283-284 box office and ticketing

postevent analysis 328 preparation for an event 315-316

box office manager 60, 62 Brazil 21 Bridgeport Arena at Harbor Yard 274 Bridgeport football stadium 229 Bridgeport Sound Tigers 15 broadcasting systems 167-168 budgeting

capital costs 248-251 cash management 248 facility maintenance 202 forecasting 247-248, 250t purpose and uses 246-247

build absolutely nothing anywhere near anything (BANANA) 83

builders 126, 127 building and grounds 169-170. See also

maintenance of a facility Building Owners and Managers Associa-

tion (BOMA) 66 Burnap, John 302 business plan 37-38, 96-98

348  ■  Index

crisis management areas to review 296 emergency action plan 297-298 planning 296-297

Crosley Field, Cincinnati 12 crowd management

alcohol policy 294-295 college football game example 292-

293 emergency action plan 288-290,

297-298 evacuation process 293-294 fan education 294 ingress and egress 291-293 movement theory 288, 291

cuju 10 customers

expectations for a facility 31 fan cost index 219 marketing to. See marketing postevent surveys 323-324, 325

D Daktronics 167 Dallas Cowboy’s stadium 167, 237 dasher boards in gymnasiums 184 data networks 168 David A. Beckerman Recreation Center

17, 124, 198 Delphi theater 8 Denver Broncos 234 designing a facility

ancillary facilities 117, 119 blueprints 120-121 building systems 117 considerations for the site 116 expert’s advice 100 layout 119-120 site plan 116-117 steps involved in new facility realiza-

tion 115-116 destination location 217 Diaz, Duke 216 Disney’s Wide World of Sports 311 divider curtains in gymnasiums 184 Dodger Stadium, Los Angeles 14, 221 dogs used for security 286 Dolphin Stadium, Miami 13, 14 domes 13, 88-90 dragging a field 193 Drucker, Peter 36

E Ebbets Field 330 ECT approach to risk management 267-

268 Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis 84, 234 EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission) 71 emergency action plan 288-290, 297-298 emergency medical technician (EMT) 320 emergency planning for an event 315 emergency response management team

(ERMT) 298

construction artificial turf versus grass 137 baseball field example 129-130 common pitfalls 146 completion and analysis 145-146,

147t cost comparison of two sportsplexes

147t discussion questions and activities

148 expert’s advice 124 field renovation example 132-133 foundation materials 131, 133 green design 135, 140, 142 interior components 136-139 phases overview 125 planned approach 125 planning 126-128 preconstruction phase 128-131 project costs 143-145 restoration and renovation 139-140,

141 roofing 134 substructure and load 133 superstructure 133-134 turf 134-135, 137 watering system 136

construction bonds 128 Consumer Product Safety Commission

194 contracts

checking post event 320-321 for an event 307-308 legal concerns 268-269 options for construction 127-128 sample concessions contract 270-271

contractually obligated income (COI) 258 contractually obligated revenue (COR)

258 controlling facility management 40 cooling. See heating, ventilation, and air

conditioning cool-season turfgrass 185, 191 COR (contractually obligated revenue)

258 core drilling 108-109 corporate bonds for facility financing 253 costs. See also budgeting; finance

buying vs. leasing 112-114 capital 248-251 construction 143-145, 147t of deferring maintenance 199-200 of event management 324, 326 fan cost index 219 life-cycle 142 of Olympic facilities 20 per square foot estimates 144 repair management 206-208 site 111-114 to tax payers for new facilities 254-

255 cricket 10 crime prevention through environmental

design (CPTED) 171

Butler, Terry 26 buying vs. leasing and site selection

112-114

C CAFM (computer-aided facility manage-

ment) 49-50, 158 Calgary Olympics (1988) 20 Camp Randall Stadium 291, 292-293 cancellations 316 Candlestick Park 317 capital costs and budgeting 248-251. See

also finance cash management 248 catcher’s area maintenance 194 CBA (collective bargaining agreement) 59 CCTV (closed-circuit television) 172 Center for Venue Management Studies

297 changeover management 178 Chelsea Piers, New York 90 Chicago Cubs 295 China 10 cigarettes and alcohol regulations 277-

278 Cincinnati Reds 12t Circus Maximus, Roman 9 Citi Field, New York 13, 217 Civil Rights Act (1964) 66 Cleveland Browns 236 closed-circuit television (CCTV) 172 CMMS (computerized maintenance man-

agement systems) 162, 206 Coca-Cola 237 COI (contractually obligated income) 258 Coliseum, Roman 8-9 collateral financing 253 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) 59 Colorado Rockies 256 commercial rights 81, 84, 231, 234-237,

310 communication and technology for an

event 315 communities and facilities 83, 103,

105, 107 community sport centers 88 computer-aided facility management

(CAFM) 49-50, 158 computerized maintenance management

systems (CMMS) 162, 206 concessions and food service

alcohol policy for security 294-295 all-you-can-eat idea 221 concessions manager 59 marketing process and 226 postevent analysis 329-330 pouring rights 237 preparation for an event 318-319 profit margins 329t sample contract 270-271 site design considerations 119

Connecticut Sportsplex 66, 176 constituents of a facility 31-32 constitutional law 272-273

Index  ■  349

emergency services for an event 319-320 eminent domain 102, 269 employee management. See also human

resources; management theory and practice

evaluations 64-65, 321 for events 306-307 monitoring 63-64 motivating employees 46 motivational techniques 63, 64 termination 65 training 65-66

EMT (emergency medical technician) 320 energy audit 153, 161 energy systems

energy conservation 161-162 energy usage 158, 161 green design and 140, 142 lighting 158-161

Engelstad, Ralph 32, 33 Enron Corporation 21, 86, 234 Epidauros 8 Equal Employment Opportunity Commis-

sion (EEOC) 71 equipment and warehousing 315, 327 ERMT (emergency response management

team) 298 ethics 53-54 evacuation process 293-294 event management

attracting events. See attracting events business plan element 303-304 cancellations 316 discussion questions and activities

331-332 expert’s advice 302 facility analysis

box office and ticketing 328 concessions and food service

329-330 equipment and warehousing 327 maintenance and housekeeping

326-327 medical services 330-331 operational issues 326 parking and transportation 328-

329 security 328

marketing efforts and costs 324, 326 marketing for the future 324 postevent analysis 320-323 postevent surveys 323-324, 325

event preparation alcohol 319 box office and ticketing 315-316 communication and technology 315,

317 concessions and food service 318-319 emergency planning 315 emergency services 319-320 equipment and warehousing 315 facilities 310-311, 314-315 media 315 medical services 320

parking and transportation 317-318 pregame checklist 314 safety checklist 312-313 security 316-317

expectancy theory of motivation 48 external constituents of a facility 32

F facilities engineer 60, 63 facility administration. See budgeting;

finance; legal concerns; market- ing; sales

facility management areas of needed research 30 computer-aided facility management

49-50 controlling 40 description and focus 27 discussion questions and activities 41 employee evaluation post event 321 implementing 40 manager. See facility manager mission statement 34 organizing 38, 40 personnel management versus 45-46 planning. See planning in facility

management preparation for an event 310-311,

314-315 facility manager

constituent awareness 30-32 personnel management. See employee

management safety and legal issues to consider 30 sample day 39 scope of responsibilities 28-29 skills required 30 specific duties 29-30

facility operations baseball and softball fields 193-194 bleachers, outdoor 194 discussion questions and activities

196 expert’s advice 176 grass fields establishment 185-187 grass fields maintenance 188-192 gymnasiums 181-184 ice hockey sheets 184-185 infield dirt maintenance 193 locker rooms 179-181 safety concerns 194 space management 177-178 synthetic surfaces 192-193 turfgrass. See turfgrass weight rooms 178-179

facility planning for existing facilities 80-81 expert’s advice 78 fundamentals of 79 for future facilities. See future facili-

ties planning facility systems

air quality 156, 158 audiovisual systems 166, 167

broadcasting systems 167-168 building and grounds 169-170 data networks 168 discussion questions and activities

174 energy systems

energy conservation 161-162 energy usage 158, 161 lighting 158-161

expert’s advice 152 HVAC

cooling 155-156 heating 154-155 overview 153-154 ventilation 156, 157

parking and public transportation systems 170-171

personal transportation 168 pest control 173 plumbing

fire suppression systems 163-164 laundry system 164-165 wastewater systems 163

roofing 169 security systems 172-173 sound control 166-167 transportation systems 170 waste management 173

Fairfield University, Connecticut 15, 83 Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) 60,

67, 318 fan cost index 219 fan education 294 feasibility studies

economic impact analysis 93-94 financing section 91-93 inputs required 91 other areas in expanded phase 95 outputs obtained 92 preliminary phase 93 purpose 91 redirected spending 94-95 ripple effect/multiplier 94 site plan and 95-96 SWOT analysis 91

Fédération Internationale de Football Amateur (FIFA) 295

FedEx Field 14 Fenway Park, Boston 223, 234 fertilizer 190 FFE (furniture, fixtures, and equipment)

117, 136, 138 fields. See grass fields establishment;

grass fields maintenance; turfgrass FieldTurf 134, 135, 192, 193 finance. See also budgeting

attracting events and 307 balance sheets 244 concepts 241-242 discussion questions and activities

260 expert’s advice 240 feasibility studies. See feasibility

studies

350  ■  Index

hippodromes and theaters 7-8 hiring process 61-63 history of facilities

arenas and stadiums 5 changes in professional facilities 12-13 discussion questions and activities 22 evolution of collegiate 11-12 evolution of professional 11 famous private facilities 14 first domed stadium 13 first lighted baseball field 12 government ownership 13-14 Greece and the Olympic Games 6-7 hippodromes and theaters 7-8 managerial concerns 10-11 middle ages to 1800s 9-10 oldest active baseball stadiums 12t perspective needed to run a private

facility 14 political fights over facilities 14 public assembly facility 5 religion and 10 Roman Circus Maximus 9 Roman Coliseum 8-9 sports facilities defined 5 timeline 6t transition to private financing 13 trends affecting future facilities 21-22 trend towards building innovations

20 typical uses 5

horse racing 10 horses used for security 286 hostile or offensive working environ-

ment 70 housekeeping. See maintenance of a

facility Houston Astrodome 32, 89, 192 Houston Stadium 85-86, 234 human resources. See also management

theory and practice discussion questions and activities 73 employee management 63-65 employment options 60-61 hiring process 61-63 legal concerns. See legal concerns outsourcing. See outsourcing sports facilities jobs 59-60

HVAC. See heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

I IAAM (International Association of

Assembly Managers) 30, 59, 66, 297

IAQ (indoor air quality) 156 ice hockey sheets 184-185 iceSheffield Arena 154 IFMA (International Facility Management

Association) 29, 59, 66, 207 immunity and tort law 265 implementing facility management 40 incentives and giveaways 226-227, 228 income statements 243-244 independent contractors 60

finance (continued) financial analysis use 244-245 income statements 243-244 new facility finance. See new facility

finance postevent analysis 321-322 revenue and expenses 242-243 selling a facility 259 tracking cash 245-246

fire suppression systems 163-164 First Amendment 272 First Union Center, Philadelphia 84, 178 Flavian Amphitheater 8-9 FleetCenter 236 flooring

facility construction and 138-139 facility maintenance 208-210 in gymnasiums 181-182, 183

Florida Marlins 13, 256 FLSA (Fair Labor Standards Act) 60,

67, 318 folk football 9 Fonte Nova Stadium, Brazil 21 food. See concessions and food service football field drainage 186-187 foot-candle requirements for sports 159 Forbes Field, Pittsburgh 11 Ford Center, Oklahoma City 167 forecasting a budget 247-248 foundation materials 131, 133 Fourteenth Amendment 272-273 France 20 Freedman, Nancy 100 Friedman, Thomas 47 functional plans 35 furniture, fixtures, and equipment (FFE)

117, 136, 138 future facilities planning

business plan 96-98 community impact considerations 83 constituent analysis 81 construction pitfalls awareness 97 demographics-based concerns 86-87 developing and selling the future

plan 96 discussion questions and activities 98 feasibility studies. See feasibility

studies financial plan need 98 Houston Stadium process 85-86 needs assessment 84, 86-87 planning committee creation 83-84 questions to ask 82 steps in 81 types of facilities to consider 87-90

G a gang in a room (AGIR) 79 Gateway project, Cleveland 256 Gemba Kaizen 49 general obligation bonds 257 general seating issues 287 Georgia Tech University 140 Giants Stadium, New Jersey 13, 185,

187, 236

Gillette Stadium 14, 79 Global Spectrum 2, 26, 57, 240 G-Max level of turf 137 Gold’s Gym 229 government and facilities

ADA compliance. See Americans with Disabilities Act

alcohol policies and 277-278 bleacher safety 273-274 cigarettes and alcohol 277-278 facility managers responsibility

towards 32 history of government ownership

13-14 public financing. See public financing taxes and 274

grading and site selection 109 grants for new facility financing 259 grass fields establishment

artificial turf versus grass 137 challenges of 185 cool-season turfgrass 185 drainage 186-187 warm-season turfgrass 185-186

grass fields maintenance aeration and aerators 189 field preparation 190, 192 soil 188-189 timetables for grass types 191 turfgrass 189-190

Greece and the Olympic Games 6-7, 172, 187

green design energy systems 135, 140, 142 facility maintenance and 211-212

The Green Monster 223 GreenTech sod system 187 Gridiron Stadium Network 218 growth space 81 grubbing 134 gymnasiums

basketball goals 184 bleachers 182-183 dasher boards 184 divider curtains 184 flooring 181-182, 183 flooring maintenance 208-210 types 88 wall padding 184

H Hartford Civic Center 169 Harvard 11 Havkins, Rosenfeld, Ritzert & Varriale,

LLP 262 heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

(HVAC) air exchanges 156, 157 air quality 156, 158 cooling 155-156 heating 154-155 overview 153-154 ventilation 156, 157

Herzberg, Frederick 48 hierarchy of needs, Maslow’s 47-48

Index  ■  351

indoor air quality (IAQ) 156 infield dirt maintenance 193 infiltration rate 188-189 ingress and egress 291-293 insurance

for events 308 legal responsibilities 267-268 post event analysis 322 workers’ compensation 69

intercollegiate sports 11-12, 13t internal constituents of a facility 31-32 internal rate of return (IRR) 251 International Association of Assembly

Managers (IAAM) 30, 59, 66, 297 International Facility Management Asso-

ciation (IFMA) 29, 59, 66, 207 International Stadium, Yokohama 20 IRR (internal rate of return) 251

J Japan 10, 20 Jets stadium, New York 13 jobs. See human resources Joe Robbie Stadium, Miami 251 Johnson, Spenser 50-51 Jones, Jerry 237 jousting 9-10

K Kaizen 49 Kebric, Robert B. 9 Kingdome 13 the koilon 7-8 Korea 10, 20 Kraft, Robert 79 the Krypte 7

L Lambeau Field, Green Bay Packers 14,

234, 253 land and environmental considerations

accessibility 109-110 core drilling 108-109 grading 109 land features to review 107-108 soil testing 108 utilities 110 water, drainage, and sewer 110-111 wetlands and endangered species 109

landscaping 169-170 Land Shark Stadium 14 Lane Stadium, Virginia Tech 187 laundry system 164-165 Lay, Kenneth 21 leadership

ethics 53-54 by example 53 hiring well and 52 new leader strategies 52-53 qualities and skills needed 51-52

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 142

leasing 112-114, 269 legal concerns

ADA compliance 68-69

basic law 263 basic legal issues 67 constitutional law 272-273 contracts 268-272 discussion questions and activities

278 event management and 307-308, 309f expert’s advice 262 federal regulations 66, 67 government regulations. See govern-

ment and facilities insurance 267-268 liability evaluation post event 322-

323 managers responsibilities toward 30 property law 269, 272 risk management 266-268 sexual harassment 70-72 slip and fall accidents 265 tort law 263-265 unions 67-68 workers’ compensation 69-70

Life Safety Code Handbook 285 life-cycle costing 142 lighting systems 158-161 locker rooms 119, 179-181 London Olympics (2012) 172 Los Angeles Dodgers 295 Los Angeles Olympic Games (1984) 285

M Madison Square Garden, NY 18, 285 maintenance of a facility

audits 199, 203-204, 205 budgeting 202 cleaning schedule 211 cost of deferring maintenance 199-200 department responsibilities 204-205 discussion questions and activities

212 expert’s advice 198 flooring 208-210 green design 211-212 percent of facility budget spent on 199 planning and programming 200, 202 postevent analysis 326 repair management

benchmarking 206, 207 costs 206, 207-208 monitoring 206-208 process 205-206

safety and 210-211 staffing 202-203 steps in 201 supervision and evaluation 203

management by objective (MBO) 36 management theory and practice

challenges in personnel manage- ment 46

computer-aided facility management 49-50

discussion questions and activities 73 expert’s advice 44 facility versus personnel management

45-46

leadership and 51-54 management defined 45 management theorists 47-49 meetings 51 motivating employees 46 objectives and 36 strategies for people management

50-51 time management 51

Maple Leaf Gardens, Toronto 19 marketing. See also event management;

sales advertising and promotion 220 attracting events 309-310 concepts 217-218 destination location idea 217 discussion questions and activities

238 efforts and costs for events 324, 326 expert’s advice 216 of the facility

attracting anchor tenants 229 attracting events 229-230 identifying assets 227 new facility 228-229 relationship development 230

of food 226 for the future 324 identifying customers 222-223 incentives and giveaways 226-227,

228 place definition 218 positioning and segmentation 223-

224 postevent analysis 324, 326 price and 219-220 product definition 218 promotion and advertising 220 publicity 220-222 public relations 222 research 223 selling an experience 224-226, 227 tools to use 222

Marlboro Grand Prix in New York 305 Maslow, Abraham 47-48 Mayans 20 Mayo, G. Elton 47 MBO (management by objective) 36 McKenzie Arena, University of Tennes-

see 26 Means Building Construction Cost Data

144 media preparation for an event 315 medical services

postevent analysis 330-331 preparation for an event 320

Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles 11 Meredith, Cory 282 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus

aureus (MRSA) 180 Miami Arena 219 Miami Dolphins 13, 251 Mighty Ducks, Anaheim 237 Milwaukee Brewers 296 ministerial conduct 264

352  ■  Index

wastewater systems 163 PNC Park, Pittsburgh 255 political fights over facilities

attracting events and 304-305 history of facilities 14 impact on future facilities 21-22 marketing new facilities and 228 regarding site selection 101-102

postevent surveys 323-324, 325 pouring rights 237 pregame checklist for an event 314 private funding 251-254 private investors for facility financing

253 private management companies 57 progressive disciplinary approach 65 project bids 126-127 promotion and advertising 220 property law 269, 272 PSINet Stadium, Baltimore 234 PSLs (personal seat licenses) 233 psychographics 224 public assembly facility (PAF) 5 public financing

bonds 256-259 costs to taxpayers 254-255 funding options 254 team contributions 255

publicity for a facility 220-222 public offerings for facility financing 254 public relations and marketing 222

Q Qualcomm Stadium 140

R Ralph Engelstad Arena 32, 33 Ralph Wilson Stadium 321-322 Raymond James Stadium 273 Reliant Stadium 89 request for bids (RFBs) 126 request for proposals (RFPs) 126 request for qualifications (RFQ) 126 restoration and renovation of facilities

139-140, 141 return on investment (ROI) 202 revenue and expenses. See budgeting;

finance revenue bonds 257 RFBs (request for bids) 126 RFPs (request for proposals) 126 RFQ (request for qualifications) 126 Riddick Bowe versus Andrew Golota

fight 285 Right Stuff Consulting 44 risk management

during events 308 legal responsibilities 266-268

Robbie, Joe 14 Robison Field, St. Louis 11 Roman Circus Maximus 9 Roman Coliseum 8-9 Roman People (Kebric) 9 roofing 134, 169 Rose Bowl, Pasadena 195

Minnesota Twins 13 Minnesota Vikings 13 Minute Maid Field, Houston 86 mission statement 34, 102 Mondo tracks 192 move management 80 movement theory 288, 291 mowing 189-190 MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylo-

coccus aureus) 180

N Naisbitt, John 47 naming rights 84, 234-237 National Crime Prevention Council 294 National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA) 285 National Intramural-Recreational Sports

Association (NIRSA) 119 National Stadium, Beijing 187 National Stadium, Malaysia 166 needs assessment for a new facility 84,

86-87 negligence and tort law 263-264 net present value (NPV) 250, 251 New England Patriots 14 new facility finance

budget worksheet 252 collateral financing 253 corporate bonds 253 grants 259 partnerships 253-254 private funding 251-254 private investors 253 public financing. See public financing public offerings 254 stadium deals 256 user funding 259

New Haven City-Wide Field House, Con- necticut 89, 229

New Haven Ravens 274 New Jersey Jets 234 New Jersey Meadowlands 316 New York Yankees 295 NFPA (National Fire Protection Associa-

tion) 285 NIMBY (not in my backyard) 83 NIRSA (National Intramural-Recreational

Sports Association) 119 NPV (net present value) 250, 251 nuisance 269, 272

O Oakland A’s 13 Oakland Raiders 13 Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum 13 objectives for a facility 36 Occupational Safety and Health Admin-

istration (OSHA) 67, 158, 274, 318, 322, 330

Ogden Facility Management 237 Ohio State University 236, 317 Olympic Games

in ancient Greece 6-7 Athens (2004) 20

Atlanta (1996) 21, 172, 285 Beijing (2008) 156 Calgary (1988) 20 cost of facilities 20 Greece and 6-7, 172, 187 history of facilities 6-7 London (2012) 172 Los Angeles (1984) 285 Sydney, Australia (2000) 20, 156

one man on a mountain (OMOM) 79 One Minute Manager 50-51 open-term contracts 308 operations. See facility operations OR&L Facility Management 57 organizational flowchart 38f, 40 organizing in facility management 38, 40 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration) 67, 158, 274, 318, 322, 330

outsourcing advantages of management compa-

nies 55 ancillary service companies 57-59 cons of 56 decision to use 54, 56 private management companies 57 pros of 55-56 types of services provided 54-55

owner’s representative 126

P Pacific Bell Park, San Francisco 14,

226, 232 Paciolan 232 PAF (public assembly facility) 5 painting sidelines or logos 190, 192 Palace of Auburn Hills, Detroit 233 Paralyzed Veterans of America 274 parking and transportation

postevent analysis 328-329 preparation for an event 317-318 systems for 170-171

partnerships for facility financing 253- 254

Patriot Place 14, 79 Pepsi 237 percolation 188-189 personal seat licenses (PSLs) 233 personal transportation systems 168 personnel management. See employee

management; human resources pest control 173, 190 Petersen Events Center 199 Petra Construction Company 17, 124 planning in facility management

business plan 37-38 categories of plans 35 described 34-35 goals and objectives 35-36, 37 long-term 37 policies and procedures use 36 short-term 36-37

plumbing fire suppression systems 163-164 laundry system 164-165

Index  ■  353

Rose Garden, Portland 256 Ross-Ade Stadium, Purdue University

140 RSMeans Square Foot Costs 144 Russo, Frank 2, 17 Ryan Center, University of Rhode Island

26

S safety

bleachers and 273-274 checklist for an event 312-313 crowd management and. See crowd

management event checklist 312-313 facility maintenance and 210-211 foul balls and tort law 264 giveaways and 228, 287 managers responsibilities toward 30 of outdoor bleachers 194 parking and 170-171 security and. See security plan slip and fall accidents 265

Safety and Security Protocols 297 sales. See also marketing

advertising rights 237 box offices 233 commercial rights 231, 234-237 discussion questions and activities

238 luxury seating 233-234 pouring rights 237 process 230-231 resale and scalping of tickets 233 ticketing and seat pricing 231-233 ticketing methods 232-233

San Francisco Giants 233 sand-modified fields 188 sanitation 311, 314 Sasaki Associates Incorporated 17, 100 Saunders, Tom 152 Schneider, Mike 198 scoreboards 166, 167 scoring a field 193 seating requirements 138 seat pricing 231-233 Seattle Kingdome 89 security plan

animal use 286 crisis management 296-298 crowd management. See crowd man-

agement discussion questions and activities

299 expert’s advice 282 facility systems 172-173 general seating problems 287 planning 286-287 postevent analysis 328 preparation for an event 316-317 projectiles from giveaways and 287 safety systems and 172-173 security defined 283 security management 283-284 soccer games and 285

staff size 284-285 staff training 284 technology use 285-286 violence in the workplace 295

segmentation of a market 223-224 selling a facility 259 Server Intervention Program (SIP) 295 sexual harassment 70-72 Shea Stadium, New York 168 Sheffield International Venues (SIV) 154 Shibe Park, Philadelphia 11 Silverdome 13 SIP (Server Intervention Program) 295 site selection

affordability considerations 111-112 buying vs. leasing 112-114 community impact considerations

107 considerations for 101 considerations for the site 105-106 discussion questions and activities

121 factors overview 114 handling opposition 105 inclusion in feasibility study 95-96 issues involved 101-102 land and environmental consider-

ations 107-111 location 106 potential sites examination 103 promoting the plan 103, 105 site planning steps 102 size of the parcel 103, 104t user needs 107 zoning and other regulations 106-107

SIV (Sheffield International Venues) 154 sizzle concept 218 the skene 7 slip and fall accidents 265 SMA (Stadium Managers Association) 59 smoke detectors 164 smoking and government regulations

277-278 Smythe, Conn 19 SODA (Sportsplex Operators and Devel-

opers Association) 58-59, 78, 88 SofSport 192, 193 soil 188-189 soil-based fields 188 soil testing 108 Soldier Field, Chicago 139, 141, 234 sound control 166-167 South Bend Zoo, Indiana 249 space management 80 Space Planning Guidelines for Campus

Recreational Sport Facilities 119 sponsorships of an event 31, 32, 93, 231,

234-236, 277-278, 310, 324 sports facilities history 5 Sportspark of New York 78 Sportsplex Operators and Developers

Association (SODA) 58-59, 78, 88 sportsplexes 88 Squires, Bill 44 the Stadia 6-7

Stadium Managers Association (SMA) 59 stadiums 87 staffing, maintenance 202-203. See also

employee management StaffPro 282 Staples Center, Los Angeles 58, 178, 219 steak and sizzle concept 218 Still, Keith 291 strategic goals 36 strategic plans 35 StubHub.com 233 substructure and load 133 Sun Tzu 47 Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana 13,

88, 209 superstructure 133-134 sustainability 211 swing space 81 SWOT analysis 52, 91, 102 Sydney, Australia Olympics (2000) 20,

156 synthetic surfaces 192-193

T tactical goals 36 Tampa Bay Rays 12 Taraflex Sport M flooring 183 Target Field, Minnesota 13 target market 218 tax-backed bonds 257-258 taxes and land purchases 112 tax-related regulations 274 Taylor, Frederick 47 Techniques for Effective Alcohol Manage-

ment (TEAM) 66, 295, 319 tennis 10 termination of an employee 65 Theodosius 7, 10 3Com Park 317 ticketing 231-233, 315-316, 328 Ticketmaster 232 Tickets.com 232 TIPS (Training for Intervention Proce-

dures) 319 Titus 8 topdressing 189 Toronto Skydome 89, 228 tort law

assumption of risk 265 immunity 265 negligence 263-264

training in alcohol serving awareness 66,

295, 319 of employees 65-66 security staff 284

Training for Intervention Procedures (TIPS) 319

transportation systems 170 Tropicana Field, Tampa Bay 227 turfgrass. See also grass fields establish-

ment; grass fields maintenance facility construction and 134-135, 137 maintenance 189-190, 191 turf operations manager 60, 63

354  ■  Index

Westfall, Don 176 wetlands and endangered species and site

selection 109 White City Stadium, London 11 Who concert 284, 287 workers’ compensation 69-70 Work Out World (WOW!) 225 World Cup 20, 21, 285 Wrigley Field 184-185, 295

Y Yale Field, Yale University 11, 90, 216 Yankee Stadium, the Bronx 13, 234 Yankee Stadium, the Bronx (new) 120

Z Zambonis 156, 158 zero-based budgeting (ZBB) 247 zoning and site selection 106-107

TWA Dome, St. Louis 84, 234

U unintentional torts 263 Union Course, New York 10 Union Grounds, Brooklyn 11 Union Station, Houston 86 unions 59, 61, 67-68 United Center, Chicago 256 United States Badminton Association

(USBA) 305-306 University of New Haven 17 University of Phoenix Stadium 110-111 utilities and site selection 110

V Value Automated System Ticketing

(VAST) 232 value-based engineering 142-143 Vancouver Grizzlies 14

Varriale, Carla 262 ventilation. See heating, ventilation, and

air conditioning venture capital (VC) investors 253 Vespasian 8 Vietnam 10 Vroom, Victor 48 vulnerability analysis 297

W waivers 307-308 Wajda, Ken 240 wall padding in gymnasiums 184 warm-season turfgrass 185-186, 191 waste management 140, 142, 163, 173 water, drainage, and sewer 110-111,

136, 187 Weber, Max 47-48 weed control 192 weight rooms 178-179

■  355

About the Author

Gil B. Fried, JD, is a professor at the University of New Haven in Connecticut. He has taught sport facil- ity management for more than 15 years and has written numerous articles, books, and book chapters on sport facility management issues. Fried speaks across the country on issues ranging from building and financing facilities to dealing with risk management concerns.

He served as the director of risk management for OR&L Facility Management, which manages several million square feet of space. He has also worked with the International Association of Assembly Man- agers (IAAM) and developed the curriculum and materials for the IAAM’s Academy for Venue Safety & Security.

In his leisure time, Fried enjoys playing badminton, being with his wife and kids, and traveling.

Photo courtesy of Gil Fried.

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  • Title page
  • Copyright page
  • Dedication
  • Contents
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgments
  • Part I: Introduction to Sport Facility Management
  • Chapter 1: History and Future of Sport and Public Assembly Facilities
  • Chapter 2: Facility Management
  • Chapter 3: Management Theory and Human Resources
  • Part II: Facility Development
  • Chapter 4: Facility Planning
  • Chapter 5: Facility Site and Design
  • Chapter 6: Facility Construction
  • Part III: Facility Systems and Operations
  • Chapter 7: Facility Systems
  • Chapter 8: Facility Operations
  • Chapter 9: Facility Maintenance
  • Part IV: Facility Administration
  • Chapter 10: Marketing and Sales
  • Chapter 11: Finance and Budgeting
  • Chapter 12: Legal Responsibilities
  • Part V: Event and Activity Management
  • Chapter 13: Implementing a Security Plan
  • Chapter 14: Facility Preparation and Event Management
  • Glossary
  • References
  • Index
  • About the Author
  • Ad