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MANAGEMENTOFOCCUPATIONALHEALTHANDSAFTYed8.pdf
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Management of occupational health and safety/ E. Kevin Kelloway (Saint Mary’s University), Lori Francis (Saint Mary’s University), Bernadette Gatien (Saint Mary’s University).
Names: Kelloway, E. Kevin, author. | Francis, Lori, 1974- author. | Gatien, Bernadette, 1978- author. | Montgomery, James, 1932- Occupational health and safety. | Montgomery, James, 1932- Management of occupational health and safety.
Series: Nelson series in human resources management.
Description: Eighth edition. | Series statement: Nelson Series in Human Resources Management | First edition Occupational health and safety/James Montgomery; second edition: Management of occupational health and safety/James Montgomery and Kevin Kelloway. Identifiers: Canadiana 20190218150 |
Subjects: LCSH: Industrial hygiene—Management— Textbooks. | LCSH: Industrial safety—Management— Textbooks. | LCSH: Industrial hygiene—Textbooks. | LCSH: Industrial safety—Textbooks. | LCGFT: Textbooks. Classification: LCC HD7261.M65 2020 | DDC 363.11–dc23
For Debra —E. Kevin Kelloway
With Memories of my Father, Ben. —Lori Francis
For MacKenzie, Sid, Josh, and Ava —Bernadette Gatien
BRIEF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Legislative Framework
Chapter 3: Workers’ Compensation
Chapter 4: Hazards, Risks, and Control
Chapter 5: Physical Agents
Chapter 6: Biological and Chemical Agents
Chapter 7: Psychosocial Hazards
Chapter 8: Workplace Violence, Aggression, and Harassment
Chapter 9: Training
Chapter 10: Motivation And Safety Management Systems
Chapter 11: Emergency Planning
Chapter 12: Incident Investigation
Chapter 13: Disability Management and Return to Work
Chapter 14: Workplace Wellness: Work—Family and Health Promotion Programs
Glossary
CONTENTS About the Series
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 Introduction
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Bullied To Death?
• What Is Occupational Health And Safety?
o Terminology
o OH&S Statistics
• Historical Development of Modern Occupational Health and Safety
o Historical Overview
o Changing Perspectives on Risk and Liability
o Developments in Canadian Legislation and OH&S Programs
• Imperatives for Health and Safety
o Economic Considerations
o Legal Considerations
o Moral Considerations
• The Stakeholders
o Government Employers
o Employees
o Organized Labour
• Barriers
• Partnerships
• Occupational Health and Safety Professionals
• The Role of Human Resources
o Safety Is Integrated in Other Human Resource Functions
o Safety Requires Legislative Compliance
o Safety Decreases Costs
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Production or Safety?
• Case Study 2: Do We Need Health and Safety?
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 2 Legislative Framework
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Creative Sentences for OH&S Violations
• OH&S and the Law
• The Scope of OH&S Legislation
• Occupational Health and Safety Acts
o Stakeholder Duties and Responsibilities
o Joint Health and Safety Committees
o Work Refusals
o Stop-Work Provisions
• Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
• Corporate Liability for OH&S Under the Criminal Code
• Environmental Legislation
o Transportation of Dangerous Goods
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Workplace Tragedy
• Case Study 2: Work Refusal at Regional Hospital
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 3 Workers’ Compensation
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Canada’s Hub for Worker’s Compensation
Information: The Association of Worker’s Compensation Boards
• Introduction
• Historical Roots
• Workers’ Compensation in Canada
o Administration and Responsibilities
o Prevention
o Compensation Rates and Methods
• Medical Aid and Incident Prevention
• Social Goals of Workers’ Compensation
o Provision for Second Injuries
o Rehabilitation
• Occupational Diseases and Workplace Stress
• Assessments
• Experience Rating
• Reporting Requirements
o Noncompliance
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: The Employer’s Duty
• Case Study 2: A Stressful Job
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
PART 2 HAZARDS AND AGENTS
Chapter 4 Hazards, Risks, and Control
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: High Heels Are Workplace Hazards
• Terminology
• Risk Assessment
o Hazard Identification
• Risk Analysis
o Risk Analysis Process 88 Types of Injuries and Illnesses
• Risk Control
o Hierarchy of Control 96 Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Industrial Hazard Assessment
• Case Study 2: Danger in the Grocery Store
• Case Study 3: Hazard Control
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 5 Physical Agents
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: How Is Blue Light Affecting You?
• Physical Agents in the Workplace
• Radiation
o Ionizing Radiation
o Non-Ionizing Radiation
o Controlling Radiation
• Noise
o Types of Hearing Loss
o Noise Control
• Vibration
o Health Effects of Vibration
o Controlling Vibration
• Thermal Stress
o Heat-Related Illnesses
o Cold Environments
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Radiation
• Case Study 2: Expensive Jewellery
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• Appendix: Hearing Protection Types or Classifications
• References
Chapter 6 Biological and Chemical Agents
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Take a Deep Breath
• What Are Biohazards and Chemical Agents?
o Biohazards
o Chemical Agents
• Toxicology: An Overview
o Respiration (Inhalation)
o Skin Absorption
o Ingestion
o Penetration
• Characteristics and Properties of Solvents
o Inorganic Solvents
o Organic Solvents
• Control of Exposures
o Engineering Controls
o Administrative Controls
o Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
o Personal Hygiene Practices
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Firefighters and Cancer
• Case Study 2: Unexpected Gas
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 7 Psychosocial Hazards
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Introduction
• Stressors
o Stressors in the Workplace
• Stress
o Stress Moderators
o Strain
o Psychological Strain
o Physical Strain
o Behavioural Strain
o Organizational Strain
• Recognizing, Assessing, and Managing Psychosocial Hazards
o Primary Interventions
o Secondary Interventions
o Tertiary Interventions
• Spotlight on a Stressor: Injustice at Work
o Creating a Fair Workplace
• Spotlight on a Stressor: Technology
• Spotlight on a Stressor: Work–Family Conflict
o Causes of Work–Family Conflict
o Outcomes of Work–Family Conflict
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: A Stressful Job
• Case Study 2: Technology at Work
• Case Study 3: A Toxic Workplace
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 8 Workplace Violence, Aggression, and Harassment
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Workplace Harassment
• Introduction
• Defining Workplace Aggression and Violence
• The Prevalence of Workplace Aggression
o U.S. Prevalence Data
o Canadian Data
• Sources of Workplace Violence
o Prevalence by Source
• Risk Factors for Workplace Aggression
o SAV-T(1) and SAV-T(2): The Risk of Violence
o Imminent Risk
• Prevention
o Type I Violence
o Type II Violence
o Type III Violence
o Type IV Violence
o Organizational Policies and Programs
• Harassment and Bullying in the Workplace
o Investigation of Specific Incidents
o Respectful Workplaces
• Sexual Harassment
o Sexual Harassment as a Health and Safety Issue
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Aggression Policy
• Case Study 2: Addressing Inappropriate Email
• Case Study 3: Offsite Harassment
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
PART 3 INTERVENTIONS
Chapter 9 Training
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: The Need for Training
• Introduction
• The Role of Occupational Health and Safety Training
• Health and Safety Training Programs
o Needs Analysis
o Training Design and Delivery
o Training Evaluation
• Common Safety Training Initiatives
o Safety Orientation
o First-Aid Training
o WHMIS Training
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: The New HR Manager at A1 Manufacturing
• Case Study 2: A Young Worker’s Quandary
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 10 Motivation and Safety Management Systems
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Borger Group of Companies: Safety Comes First
• Introduction
• Safety Behaviour
• Motivating Safety Behaviour
o Reinforcement Theory
o Goal Setting
o Self-Determination Theory
• Increasing Opportunity for Safety Behaviour
o Management Commitment to OH&S
• Organizational Health and Safety Management Systems
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Noncompliance with Safety Standards
• Case Study 2: Safety in the Bakery
• Case Study 3: Working to Change Safety
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 11 Emergency Planning
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Emergency Plans
• Introduction
• Emergency Preparedness
o Precontact
o Contact
o Postcontact
o Getting Back to Normal
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study: Biological Terrorism
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 12 Incident Investigation
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Workplace Fatality Investigation
• Rationale for Incident Investigation
• Critical Factors in the Investigative Process
o Timing
o Severity
o Legal Requirements
• Types of Information Collected
o Human Factors
o Situational Factors
o Environmental Factors
o Who Investigates?
• Investigative Methods
o Observations or Walkthroughs
o Interviews
o Re-Enactments
• Investigative Tools
• Incident Reports
o Incident Analysis
o The Swiss Cheese Model
• The Psychology of Incidents: Cognitive Failures
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Incident Investigation
• Case Study 2: Office Incident
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• Appendix: Incident Report Forms
• References
Chapter 13 Disability Management and Return to Work
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Return to Work: High-Profile Style
• Motives for Disability Management
o Financial Motives
o Moral and Social Motives
o Legal Motives
• Disability Management
o Assessing Disability Management Programs
o Best Practices in Disability Management
• Return-to-Work Planning
o Work Accommodation
o Physical Demands Analysis
o Functional Ability Assessment
• Stakeholders in Disability Management
• Barriers to Return to Work
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Forgotten Orders: A Case of Memory Impairment in a
Restaurant
• Case Study 2: Out of Contact at Widgit
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Chapter 14 Workplace Wellness: Work—Family and Health Promotion Programs
• Chapter Learning Objectives
• Opening Vignette: Snoozing on the Job: Not Such a Bad Idea After
All?
• Workplace Wellness Initiatives
• Work–Family Conflict: Family-Friendly Policies in the Workplace
o Family-Friendly Policies
• Family-Friendly Policies: An Evaluation
• Health Promotion Programs
o Employee and Family Assistance Programs (EFAPs)
o Stress Management Programs
o Effectiveness of Stress Management Training
o Worksite Health Promotion: A Focus on Lifestyle Changes
o Developing a Successful Worksite Health Promotion Program
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Discussion Questions
• Exercises
• OH&S in Action
• Case Study 1: Mandatory Aerobics
• Case Study 2: Evaluating the Benefits of WHPS
• Case Study 3: Job Sharing in a Telecommunications Firm
• Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
• References
Glossary
PREFACE Although occupational health and safety (OH&S) has long been considered the preserve of
safety engineers and technical experts, in most organizations health and safety is housed
within the human resources management function. Therefore, human resources managers must have a solid understanding of health and safety issues, legislation, and programs.
Like the previous seven editions of this text, the eighth edition is intended to give the HR
manager and the HR professional a basic understanding of the elements that combine to
create an effective occupational health and safety program.
We think of the eighth edition as comprising three relatively distinct areas relevant to
health and safety. In the first set of chapters, we set the stage by providing an overview of
and introduction to health and safety with specific reference to historical context, stakeholders, and the human resource function (Chapter 1), the legislative context of
health and safety in Canada (Chapter 2), and the workers’ compensation system (Chapter
3).
The next set of chapters focuses on the types of hazards in the workplace, with special
reference to techniques for recognizing, assessing, and controlling those hazards (Chapter
4). Chapter 5 considers physical agents such as radiation, noise, vibration, and temperature. Chapter 6 focuses on biological and chemical agents in the workplace.
Chapter 7 extends the focus on hazards to include psychosocial hazards in the workplace.
Chapter 8 examines workplace violence as a particular hazard in the workplace. While these are arguably the most technical chapters in the book, we have tried to maintain a
nontechnical focus and to present the information in a way that is most useful to human
resources managers and others who are interested in the management of occupational
health and safety.
The last chapters in the book speak more directly to human resources managers and those
interested in management aspects of occupational health and safety. These final chapters
outline some of the major ways in which human resources managers become actively involved in health and safety interventions and programs in the workplace. Chapter 9
focuses on training, one of the most popular, and arguably the most effective, health and
safety interventions. Chapter 10 focuses on motivating safe working behaviour and workplace safety management, along with a consideration of safety climate and safety
leadership. Chapter 11 presents an overview of emergency planning, while Chapter 12
summarizes incident investigation techniques. Chapter 13 addresses the issues of disability management and return-to-work programs. Finally, Chapter 14 summarizes attempts to
promote employee health and wellness in the workplace.
Throughout the text we have attempted to provide students with current examples, clear
definitions of technical terms, and links to the vast amount of information found on the Internet. The nature of OH&S legislation in Canada, and the existence of jurisdictional
differences, mean that the information presented in this text will need to be supplemented
with (for example) provincial or territorial standards and legislative requirements. We hope students will find this book useful in and of itself and will also use it as a guide to other
resources.
In addition to the new material and updating, the eighth edition retains several of the features that accompanied the previous edition of this book, including opening vignettes,
Discussion Questions, Exercises, OH&S in Action, and Case Studies.
As a part of the process needed to earn a professional HR designation, granted by the HR
provincial associations, applicants must undergo two assessments: one is a knowledge- based exam, and the second assessment is based on experience. Because the
competencies required for the knowledge exams may differ by province, we have not
provided lists or links in this edition. Those interested in obtaining an HR designation
should consult the HR association in their province.
New to this Edition
Every new edition of the book brings changes, and this edition is no different. Each chapter
of the book now includes a cumulative assignment that grew out of our own experiences in
teaching with the book. The assignment puts the student in the role of the OHS manager at
Well-Mart. Each end-of-chapter assignment presents a problem relevant to the chapter topic and requires the student to formulate a response based on the chapter content. The
goal of these exercises is to simulate the work of an occupational health and safety
professional in an organization. Our experience has been that students enjoy these exercises that allow them to apply the content of the course. One practice we use to further
increase realism is to impose the restriction that students must respond within two pages
as a written memo or briefing; this is a realistic constraint based on organizational practice that requires responses to be both focused and concise. In addition, the following lists
some of the new and updated topics and examples that have been included in the eighth
edition.
Chapter 1: Introduction
• A new chapter-opening vignette: Bullied to Death? presents a case
where the link between an injury or illness and the workplace is not
immediately evident.
• The statistics and coverage related to workplace fatalities and
injuries have been updated throughout.
• Coverage of leadership and leadership training programs and
barriers to implementing OH&S programs has been expanded.
• New and updated examples have been added in OH&S Today 1.5,
Young Workers at Risk.
• The discussion of safety training and leadership styles has been
expanded to illustrate how safety is integrated in other human
resource functions.
Chapter 2: Legislative Framework
• Coverage of labour legislation and standards as they relate to
occupational health and safety has been updated throughout.
• A new OH&S Today 2.2, Medical and Recreational Cannabis Use in
Canada: An OH&S Concern? covers how legal cannabis affects
workplace policies and safety.
Chapter 3: Workers’ Compensation
• A new opening vignette on The Association of Worker’s Compensation
Boards (AWCBC) discusses AWCBC as an important source of
Canadian WCB information.
• OH&S Today 3.1has been updated to reflect WCB legislative changes
made across Canada.
• Compensation, premium, and compensation assessment rates have
been updated throughout including OH&S Today 3.2, Workers’
Compensation Rates, OH&S Notebook 3.4, Illustrative Industry
Rates, and OH&S Notebook 3.5, Calculating Injury Frequency and
Severity Rates.
• A new OH&S Notebook 3.6, Calculating WCB Premium Rates, provides
an applied example of how to calculate premium rates.
Chapter 4: Hazards, Risks, and Control
• A new opening vignette illustrates how hazards such as high heels
may pose a risk to those within that environment and the
importance of managing the hazard and the associated risks.
• Expanded terminology, reorganization and discussion of important
topics of hazard identification, risk assessment, and risk control:
Topics reorganized and heading levels and titles reassigned and
revised throughout, resulting in a clearer presentation of topics.
• Hazard Control section renamed Risk Control and a new Figure 4.3
illustrates how risk control is organized according to a hierarchy.
• Reorganized and provided more concise coverage of topics.
Chapter 5: Physical Agents
• More examples added throughout such as engineering controls
under Controlling Radiation and noises in an office environment.
• Revised and renamed OH&S Today 5.1, Vibration Exposure—A
Complex Issue to include coverage of measurement techniques.
• Expanded coverage of HAVS in OH&S Notebook 5.4, Hand–Arm
Vibration Syndrome (HAVS).
• Coverage of exposure limits regulations and Threshold Limit Values
added under Controlling Vibration.
Chapter 6: Biological and Chemical Agents
• A new opening vignette discusses Sick Building Syndrome.
• The description of acids and bases under Inorganic Solvents has
been expanded.
• Coverage of the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) has been
expanded and updated.
Chapter 7: Psychosocial Hazards
• A new opening vignette on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
and new OH&S Today 7.2, Mental Health Interventions: A Look at the
Evidence cover the important issue of mental health at work.
• Introductory coverage expanded and updated to include
information from a study by Morneau Sheppell.
• The new OH&S Today 7.5, The Crunch discusses the important topic
of work–family conflict.
Chapter 8: Workplace Violence, Aggression, and
Harassment
• New coverage illustrating how workplace harassment is experienced
by many individuals regardless of their status within the
organization, and how behaviours that may once have been
considered “normal” or “part of the culture” are no longer
tolerated, are presented in the new chapter-opening vignette.
• A new OH&S Today 8.1, Caregiving as a Risk Factor discusses Type II
Violence and how service providers are among the most common
victims of nonfatal workplace violence.
Chapter 9: Training
• New coverage of the importance of meeting several criteria in
occupational health and safety training is presented in the opening
vignette, The Need for Training.
Chapter 10: Motivation and Safety Management Systems
• A new opening vignette highlights how the Borger Group of
Companies’ organizational structure and values send significant
messages about the importance of safety in this workplace.
• OH&S Today 10.2, Peer Learning and Support to Create Safety Change:
Safety Groups in Ontario and OH&S Today 10.3, Setting a Goal for
Safety: “Nobody Gets Hurt” at Imperial Oil have been revised and
updated.
• Coverage of continuous improvement as a key element of
Organizational Health and Safety Management Systems has been
expanded.
Chapter 11: Emergency Planning
• The importance of businesses to have an emergency plan in place is
presented in the new opening vignette about the 2017 spring floods
in Ontario and Quebec.
Chapter 12: Incident Investigation
• Figure 12.2, The Swiss Cheese Model, has been added.
Chapter 13: Disability Management and Return to Work
• The opening vignette has been revised to include coverage of NBA
player Kawhi Leonard’s injury.
• All work-related injury statistics have been updated as well as
information related to the Accessible Canada Act (2018), Nova Scotia
Accessibility Act (2017), and British Columbia’s Accessibility 2024
initiative.
Chapter 14: Workplace Wellness: Work–Family and Health
Promotion Programs
• Updated and revised coverage of participation rates in workplace
wellness offerings and types of programs offered (vaccination
programs, nutrition and fitness programs, weight control programs,
stress management support, preventive health screenings chronic
disease management).
Instructor Resources
The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA) program delivers research-based instructor resources that promote student engagement and higher-order thinking to
enable the success of Canadian students and educators.
Neta Test Bank
This resource was prepared by one of the text’s authors, Bernadette Gatien. It includes over
350 multiple-choice questions written according to NETA guidelines for effective
construction and development of higher-order questions. Also included are true/false,
short-answer questions, and problems.
Neta Powerpoint
Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for every chapter have been created by Bernadette
Gatien. There is an average of 25 slides per chapter, many featuring key figures, tables, and
photographs from Management of Occupational Health and Safety. NETA principles of clear design and engaging content have been incorporated throughout, making it simple for
instructors to customize the deck for their courses.
Image Library
This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables, and photographs used in the
book. Instructors may use these jpegs to customize the NETA PowerPoint or create their
own PowerPoint presentations. An Image Library Key describes the images and lists the
codes under which the jpegs are saved. Codes normally reflect the Chapter number (e.g., C01 for Chapter 1), the Figure or Photo number (e.g., F15 for Figure 15). C01-F15-pg26
corresponds to Figure 1-15.
Neta Instructor Guide
This resource has been prepared by one of the text’s authors, Bernadette Gatien. It is
organized according to the textbook chapters and addresses key educational concerns,
such as typical stumbling blocks student face and how to address them. Other features
include suggested answers to discussion questions, exercises, OH&S in Action, cases, and
cumulative assignments
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For taking the time to review, we thank the following instructors who provided us with
insightful and constructive feedback over the past few editions that led to many changes
and improvements:
Mike Annett, MacEwan University
Bob Barnetson, Athabasca University John Barker, Lambton College
Anna Blake, York University
Michael Byerley, University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Nita N. Chhinzer, University of Guelph Wenlu Feng, Centennial College
Neil A. Fernandes, Concordia University
Catherine Fitzgerald, Okanagan College Lisa Guglielmi, Seneca College
Karen Hamberg, Kwantlen Polytechnic University
Suzanne Kavanagh, George Brown College Martine Legare, Saskatchewan Polytechnic
Edward Marinos, Sheridan College
Richard McFadden, Georgian College
Deborah M. McPhee, Brock University Jody Merritt, St. Clair College
Colleen Morrison, College of the North Atlantic
David A. Morrison, Durham College Bill Reid, Fanshawe College
Carol Ann Samhaber, Algonquin College
Aaron Schat, McMaster University Julie Aitken Schermer, Western University
Kate Toth, Conestoga College
Kate Windsor, University of Waterloo
Anne Zurowsky, Red River College
Your insights are reflected in the current edition of the book, and we are appreciative of
your efforts.
We would especially like to thank Catherine Fitzgerald of Okanagan University College for
her comments and suggestions for exercises to include in the book. We would like to thank
our colleagues at the CN Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (Arla Day, Mark Fleming, Debra Gilin, Chantal Hervieux, Camilla Holmvall, Catherine Loughlin, Margaret
McKee, and James O’Brien) and Valerie Wadman at Saint Mary’s for their support. We
acknowledge our network of colleagues across the country who are making significant contributions to the human resources side of occupational health and safety. These
include Julian Barling (Queen’s University), Kate Dupré (Carleton University), Jane Mullen
(Mount Allison University), Aaron Schat (McMaster University), Mike Teed (Bishop’s University), Sean Tucker (University of Regina), and Nick Turner (University of Calgary). Lori
Francis notes the valuable support of Courtney Merriam at Saint Mary’s University. The late
Rick Iverson (Simon Fraser University) was a colleague, a friend, and a scholar who made major contributions to understanding issues of worker safety. The late Vic Catano (Saint
Mary’s University) was a colleague, mentor, scholar, and friend whose dedication and
contributions to I/O Psychology in Canada have helped to make this book, and indeed this
series, possible. The late Dr. Blair John was a student from whom we learned much about the value of doing the right thing in workplaces and beyond. Their deaths are losses to the
safety community and to us all.
We are also grateful for the support and guidance of Monica Belcourt (York University), Alexis Hood (Senior Publisher), and Elke Price (Content Manager) at Nelson, as well as
those who worked on the book manuscript with us—Shannon Martin (Production Project
Manager), Karen Rolfe (copy editor), and Hemalatha (Hema) Loganathan (Project
Manager).
We also wish to thank James Montgomery, who made important contributions as an
author on previous editions.
E. Kevin Kelloway, Ph.D. Canada Research Chair in Occupational Health Psychology
Saint Mary’s University
Lori Francis, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology
Saint Mary’s University
Bernadette Gatien, Ph.D.
Saint Mary’s University
Fullscreen
INTRODUCTION
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain how occupational health and safety affects us all
• define occupational health and safety, occupational injury, and
occupational illness
• describe the financial and social costs associated with occupational
injuries and illnesses
• discuss the development of modern models of health and safety
management
• list and describe the roles of the major stakeholders in occupational
health and safety
• explain the connection between human resource management and
occupational health and safety
• describe the links between human resource practices and
occupational health and safety
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
Bullied to death?
Eric Donovan of Prince Edward Island died following a heart attack in the Fall of 2013. He
was 47 years old. For many years he had enjoyed his work at a nonprofit residential
services agency. To his coworkers he was a helpful and generous colleague. However, his
wife, Lisa, and his coworkers recounted some of the challenges that Mr. Donovan experienced at work in the time leading up to his death. Following three years of complex
legal proceedings, the Workers’ Compensation Board (WCB) of PEI awarded benefits to
Eric’s family. In that decision, the WCB concluded that Mr. Donovan’s fatal heart attack was
likely linked to experiences of workplace harassment.
Sworn affidavits submitted as part of the legal proceedings described some incidents at Mr.
Donovan’s workplace. In the submissions, his physician noted that Mr. Donovan had
recounted stressful interactions with his supervisor, coworkers commented on the supervisor’s reputation, and Ms. Donovan reflected that Eric felt his supervisor thought he
was faking an injury and that he believed he was not supported by his employer.
The employer in this case denies the allegations and does not believe that there is a connection between a workplace injury and Mr. Donovan’s death. The employer has
appealed the decision with the WCB. In the meantime, the Government of PEI has
introduced The Eric Donovan Act, which, if passed into law, would amend the provincial Occupational Health and Safety Act to clarify employer responsibilities and
protect workers in matters related to workplace harassment.
The awarding of WCB benefits in the Donovan case is groundbreaking in Canada as it
appears to be the first time that a fatality has been linked to alleged workplace bullying. A key point in this case was the WCB’s conclusion that a “work accident” can include
harassment. As the focus on psychological hazards in workplaces—things like bullying,
heavy workloads, or low job control—increases, it is likely that we’ll see more such cases in the future. Employers need to enact effective policies to address workplace harassment
and other psychological hazards. Certainly, the timeline of this case (three years of legal
proceedings to award benefits and an ongoing appeal) illustrates that matters of psychological hazards at work and how they relate to physical illness and injury are
complex.
Sources: CBC News, “P.E.I. Widow Awarded Benefits After Husband’s Death Linked to
Workplace Bullying” (March 30, 2017). Found at: https:// www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince- edward-island/pei-workplace-bullyingharassment- workers-compensation-board-lisa-eric-
donovan-1.3959704 (accessed July 7, 2019); CBC News, “Widow Thrilled Her Lobbying Paid
Off with Anti-Bullying Legislation” (November 9, 2018). Found at: https:// www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-eric-lisa-donovanworkplace-
bullying-legislation-1.4900031 (accessed July 7, 2019); S. Neatby, The Guardian. “P.E.I.
Introduces Legislation to Tackle Workplace Harassment” (November 14, 2018). Found at: https://www .theguardian.pe.ca/news/local/pei-introduces-legislation-to-
tackleworkplace- harassment-259216 (accessed July 7, 2019); C. Wendel, Canadian
Occupational Health and Safety Law, “Bullied to Death? PEI WCB Awards Benefits to Widow
After Finding a Link Between Workplace Bullying and Fatal Heart Attack” (April 18, 2017). Found at: http://www .occupationalhealthandsafetylaw.com/bullied-to-death-pei-wcb-
awardsbenefits- to-widow-after-finding-a-link-between-workplace-bullyingand- fatal-
heart-attack (accessed August 23, 2019); J. Cottr, OHS Canada, “Fatal Heart Attack May Have Resulted from Years of Workplace Bullying: WCB Ruling” (April 4, 2017). Found at:
https://www.ohscanada.com /fatal-heart-attack-may-resulted-years-workplace-bullying-
wcb-ruling (accessed July 7, 2019); J. Cottrill, Canadian Occupational Health & Safety News, “Fatal Heart Attack May Have Resulted from Years of Workplace Bullying: WCB Ruling.”
Found at: https://www.cohsn .com/2017/04/03/fatal-heart-attack-may-resulted-years-
workplacebullying- wcb-ruling (accessed July 7, 2019); (Bill No. 42), PEI Legislative
Assembly, “Eric Donovan Act (An Act to Amend the Occupational Health and Safety Act)” (2018). Found at: http://www.assembly.pe.ca/bills /pdf_third/65/3/bill-42.pdf (accessed
July 7, 2019).
What Is Occupational Health And Safety?
Most of us go to work each day expecting to return home in more or less the same
condition as when we left. However, for a distressingly high number of workers, this is not the case. Workplace incidents continue to occur, with consequences ranging from minor
property damage to death. In some cases, the link between an injury and a workplace
factor is immediately clear—a roofer with a broken leg after a fall from a roof, a data entry
clerk with arm strain from repetitive motion, a nurse who suffers a needle stick injury. In other cases, the link between an injury or an illness and the workplace is not immediately
evident. Eric Donovan’s case from the opening vignette is an example of such a case. Other
examples might be a person who suffers noise-induced hearing loss after years of working as a bartender, a school custodian who develops dermatitis, or a retired firefighter who
develops leukemia. In these cases, factors such as the time between the exposure to
workplace hazards or the other types of activities as person takes part in can make it
trickier to make the direct link between a workplace factor and an illness.
Terminology
This chapter is the start of your journey of learning about occupational health and safety.
Let’s lay the groundwork by considering some of the core terminology that you’ll see used in this book and more broadly in discussions workplace safety. Occupational health and
safety (OH&S) is the recognition, assessment, and control of hazards associated with the
work environment. A hazard is any source of potential adverse health effect on or damage or harm to something or someone under certain conditions at work. In this book we will
discuss chemical, biological, physical, and psychosocial workplace factors that can be
hazards across a range of industries. Perhaps you have the sense that OH&S is pertinent to
only high-risk industries where obvious hazards abound. After all, we can easily identify the hazards associated with jobs such as fishing, logging, transportation, or radiation therapy.
OH&S Today 1.1 details a well-known case in the Canadian rail industry.
OH&S Today 1.1: Rail Disaster At Lac-Mégantic
In July 2013 the Quebec town of Lac-Mégantic, located 250 kilometres west of Montreal,
was brought to its knees. Sixty-three driverless railways cars filled with crude oil derailed in
the town’s downtown area, leading to massive fires and explosions. Residents compared the explosions to an atomic bomb. The aftermath was unimaginable. In the end 47 people
were dead. Much of the town was destroyed, leaving many evacuated.
How does such an event happen? Even in the immediate aftermath, people questioned railway safety. In particular, people questioned how the train’s brakes had been secured in
Nantes, a town 12 kilometres from Lac- Mégantic. There had been a fire on the train in
Nantes that night, before it began its downhill run into Lac-Mégantic.
The Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) investigated and concluded that several
precipitating factors contributed to the incident. The Safety Board’s investigation was far
reaching and thorough. It considered what caused the fire on the locomotive in Nantes; the
braking force on the train; the type of rail cars involved; the safety culture at the operator, Montreal, Maine & Atlantic (MMA); Transport Canada’s monitoring of rail safety; and safety
regulations around single-person rail crews.
The TSB concluded that in total 18 different factors contributed to the disaster at Lac- Mégantic. These 18 factors can be grouped as originating with the locomotive, the tank
cars, Transport Canada, the train securement process, the derailment, and the operating
company. Specific factors highlighted in the report include a weak safety climate at MMA, ineffective handbrakes, an improper test of the brakes, limited auditing and follow-up on
safety deficiencies by Transport Canada, and unremedied mechanical problems with the
locomotive.
The train engineer from the night of the derailment, the operations manager for the rail company, and the railway traffic controller stood trial on 47 counts of criminal negligence
causing death, but were found not guilty on all counts in early 2018. Years later the people
of Lac-Mégantic still feel the effects of this unprecedented disaster. Many have lasting
psychological effects such as post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and persistent fear.
There are concerns about the lasting environmental effects on the soil and water.
The tragedy at Lac-Mégantic spotlights some core issues in occupational health and safety.
The importance of safety systems and oversight in the workplace and the potential for
horrific outcomes when there are failures in those processes become very clear in light of
this disaster.
Sources: Transportation Safety Board of Canada, “Lac-Megantic Runaway Train and
Derailment Investigation Summary.” Found at: https://www.tsb .gc.ca/eng/rapports-
reports/rail/2013/r13d0054/r13d0054-r-es.html (accessed August 23, 2019); The Globe and
Mail, “Lac-Mégantic Derailment: Anatomy of a Disaster.” Found at:
http://www.theglobeand mail.com/news/national/lac-megantic-derailment-anatomy-of- a-disaster/article20129764 (accessed July 7, 2019); National Post, “One Dead, Many Missing
as Explosions Demolish Part of Quebec Town Following Train Derailment. Found at:
http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/fiery-explosions-rock-quebec-town-as-train- carrying-crude-oil-derails-hundreds-evacuated (accessed July 7, 2019); National Post,
“Hope Fading for 40 Missing in Quebec Train Disaster, Officials Confirm Five Dead.” Found
at: http://news.nationalpost. com/news/canada/we-know-there-will-be-more-deaths-
death-toll-climbs-to-three-in-quebec-train-explosion (accessed July 7, 2019); CBC News, “Lac-Mégantic Residents Still Suffering 2 Years After Deadly Derailment.” Found at:
http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/lac-megantic-studyfindings- feb4-1.3433215
(accessed July 7, 2019); The Globe and Mail, “Study Shows High Pollution at Lac-Mégantic: One Carcinogen 394 444 Times the Limit.” Found at:
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/study-shows-high-pollution-at-lac-
megantic-one-carcinogen-394444-timesabove- limit/article13749318 (accessed July 7, 2019); CBC News, “All 3 MMA Rail Workers Acquitted in Lac-Mégantic Disaster Trial.” Found
at: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/lac-megantic-criminal-negligence-verdict-
1.4474848 (accessed July 7, 2019).
There are hazards associated with just about every job. Part of our goal in this text is to help you think about how hazards present and can be managed across all types of jobs.
Here are some examples to get you thinking. A hormone-mimicking chemical called BPA is
present in some types of cash-register receipts and may present an unexpected chemical hazard for store clerks and customers.1 Daycare workers may be concerned about
exposure to various germs as a biological hazard. Tax accountants may be exposed to very
heavy work overload during tax season, which can present a psychosocial or psychological,
as it’s sometimes called, hazard. Office workers may be concerned about the physical hazard of unsecured shelving that houses office supplies. Hair stylists might be concerned
about the physical toll of repetitive hand and arm motions and chemical exposure from
hair care products.
OH&S programs incorporate efforts to identify potential workplace hazards and to control
workers’ exposure to them. The goal of an organization’s health and safety program is to
reduce occupational injuries and illnesses. An occupational injury is any cut, fracture, sprain, or amputation resulting from a workplace incident. So, a broken arm after falling
from a ladder is one example of an occupational injury. Keep in mind that injuries can also
result from repetitive motions. For example, a data entry clerk may be at risk for hand and arm injuries. An occupational illness is any abnormal condition or disorder caused by
exposure to environmental factors associated with employment. For example, firefighter
might develop cancer following exposure to chemicals in fire retardants or a solider may
experience post-traumatic stress disorder, a psychological condition, following active deployment. As the opening vignette implies, the scope of occupational illness and injury is
broad. Workplace experiences, such as bullying and stress, can contribute to a range of
psychological and physical symptoms. For instance, workplace experiences have been linked to suicide and depression.2 Certainly, claims relating to psychological factors and
injuries are on the rise in Canada. A recent report from the Nova Scotia WCB shows that
claims involving mental health–related factors have more than tripled since 2014.3
OH&S Statistics
Figure 1.1 illustrates the number of workplace fatalities in Canada. The most recent
published national data suggest that between 2007 and 2017, somewhere between 850
and 1100 workers in Canada each year die as a result of workplace incidents. That’s about
three people per day. As one might expect, workplace fatalities are concentrated by
industry. In Canada, construction, manufacturing, and transportation are the most -
dangerous industries in terms of workplace fatalities.4
People also face serious injuries at work. In 2017, there were 251 625 injuries serious enough to warrant missing time from work—in occupational health and safety terms,
a lost-time injury.5 Figure 1.2 illustrates the numbers of these injuries across the 12
workers’ compensation jurisdictions in Canada. These raw numbers need be interpreted with the size of the total workforce of each jurisdiction in mind. Provinces like Ontario,
Quebec, and British Columbia have substantially larger populations than provinces or
territories such as Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, and Yukon. An additional consideration when interpreting the numbers of lost-time injuries across the
country is that each provincial and territorial board may differ in its processes and
procedures for compensating lost-time injuries. For example, the number of days an
injured worker must be away work before a claim can be submitted varies across the
country.
Historical Development of Modern
Occupational Health and Safety
Historical Overview
Occupational injuries and illnesses have been with us throughout history. Documented
cases of work-related illnesses go back as far as ancient Egypt, when stonemasons and potters experienced respiratory problems. As societies became more technologically
advanced, cases of vomiting, copper-induced dermatoses (skin diseases), and hepatic
(liver) degeneration began to occur. Labourers who worked with iron and in various
alloying operations risked symptoms such as high fever, coughing, and headache, as well
as diseases like lung cancer.6
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, machinists and others working in the new industries were exposed to oils used for lubrication during the cutting and removing of
metal. These oils, in conjunction with poor personal hygiene practices, resulted in serious
dermatoses, such as acne and skin melanomas. When the spinning and weaving industries
were mechanized, the resultant dust from hemp and flax caused byssinosis (brown lung).
Changing Perspectives on Risk and Liability
For much of their long history, occupational illness and injury were considered to be
exclusively workers’ problems. Until the early 20th century, the dominant model of dealing
with hazards in the workplace was the legal doctrine of assumption of risk. In essence, the
assumption of risk stated that when a worker accepted employment, he or she also
accepted all the normal risks associated with that occupation. For example, under this philosophy, if a person accepted a job as a press operator in a tool and die company, that
worker also accepted all the risks and potential for injury and illness that came with the
job. Whether a hand injury from being caught in the press, or a back strain from repeated
motion, all responsibility fell on the worker. Under this doctrine, employers bore little or no responsibility for worker health and safety. Extending the example above, the tool and die
company would not be held responsible to help to prevent injuries to the operator by
providing safer equipment or better training. Indeed, employers were not responsible for
providing compensation to injured workers unless the accident was solely the fault of the
employer. Given that workplace incidents rarely have only one cause, it is not surprising
that cases in which workers were compensated were few.
Associated with the assumption-of-risk doctrine was the belief that occupational injuries
were caused by worker carelessness. In its most extreme form, this notion was expressed
as a belief in the accident-prone personality. The concept of accident proneness was a
focus of research for most of the 20th century; it was based on the assumption that some individuals are inherently more likely to be involved in accidents than are others and that
therefore most workplace accidents are caused by a small proportion of workers. Because
workers in dangerous occupations or workplaces do tend to have more accidents than others, the belief in accident proneness appears to be supported. But this is like saying that
Ontario drivers are the worst in Canada because of the high number of accidents on
Highway 401. When we consider that the volume of traffic on the 401 exceeds that of all other highways in Canada, the higher number of accidents can be seen in perspective. It is
now recognized that the concept of accident proneness has little empirical support.
Modern health and safety programs have moved beyond these early beliefs, having
recognized that enhancing occupational health and safety requires cooperation among
multiple stakeholders, such as government, employers, and employees.
Developments in Canadian Legislation and OH&S
Programs
In Canada, concern for occupational health and safety was first evident in the late 19th -
century, when Ontario passed legislation that established safety standards—for example,
by mandating guards on machines. Quebec soon followed suit, and by the early 20th
century every jurisdiction in Canada had passed factory laws to regulate heating, lighting, ventilation, hygiene, fire safety, and accident reporting. Factory inspectors were appointed
in each province and territory to enforce these standards and to conduct regular
inspections of workplaces.
The Royal Commission on the Relations of Capital and Labour in Canada (1889) had an important influence on the development of health and safety regulations. First, the
commissioners made several recommendations for improving health and safety by
establishing standards and mandating regular inspections. Second, the commissioners were the first to recommend a system for compensating victims of industrial accidents,
regardless of who was at fault. Finally, the commissioners recommended that a labour
bureau be created to oversee these activities.
The 1960s and 1970s were an important time for health and safety in Canada. Those
decades saw the implementation of the Canada Labour (Standards) Code and the Canada
Labour (Safety) Code. In 1974, the Ontario government formed the Royal Commission on
the Health and Safety of Workers in Mines. Chaired by Dr. James Ham, this commission was
the first to articulate the three principal rights of workers. These are:
• the right to refuse dangerous work without penalty
• the right to participate in identifying and correcting health and
safety problems
• the right to know about hazards in the workplace
These three rights are still enshrined in current legislation and are the basis for many of Canada’s health and safety programs. In 1988, for example, legislation was passed that
established the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS). Through
federal and provincial cooperation, WHMIS has been established in every jurisdiction in Canada. In every jurisdiction, it is based on the fundamental right of workers to know
about potential hazards in the workplace.
There continue to be developments in occupational health and safety. These changes have be prompted by many different factors, including the legal, moral, and economic concerns
we highlight later in this chapter. However, often change comes following serious
workplace incidents involving fatalities that draw broad attention to matters of workplace
safety. Sometimes, a single incident leaves such an impression that it prompts major change. One such case is the Westray mine disaster described in OH&S Today 1.2. The
inquiry report called for more accountability for company officers and directors in occupational health and safety incidents. As we’ll discuss further in Chapter 2, changes to
federal criminal law resulted, allowing individuals to be prosecuted criminally for OH&S
violations.7
OH&S Today 1.2: A Predictable Path To Disaster At Westray
It is a day that shaped a community, impressed on the occupational history of a province,
and prompted major changes in how occupational health and safety violations are viewed in Canadian law. On May 9, 1992, at 5:20 a.m., the Westray coal mine in Plymouth, Nova
Scotia, exploded. Despite extensive rescue efforts involving more than 170 mine rescue
workers, 26 miners died in the mine. Charged with investigating the cause of the disaster, Justice Peter Richard titled his final report The Westray Story: A Predictable Path to
Disaster, emphasizing that the disaster that rocked the community had been entirely
preventable.
Justice Richard documented many causes of the disaster, but he focused in particular on a management style that emphasized production over safety and that showed disdain for
safety concerns: workers were not provided training in safe mining procedures; supervisors
did not have the authority to correct unsafe conditions; and dangerous shortcuts were taken in the performance of mine tasks. Work procedures (e.g., the use of 12-hour shifts for
miners) were also in violation of safety regulations. Despite excessive levels of gas and coal
dust in the mine, unsafe procedures (e.g., the use of torches) were condoned, if not encouraged. No meaningful dialogue existed on safety matters at the Westray mine—the
joint health and safety committee did not function effectively. As Justice Richard noted,
the operation of the mine defied every principle of safe mining.
The explosion at Westray provides a cautionary tale for human resource managers—it illustrates what happens when management does not make safety a priority and does not
promote a culture of safety. We’ll consider the lasting impacts of the Westray mine disaster
on Canadian OH&S laws in Chapter 2.
Source: Government of Nova Scotia, “The Westray Story: A Predictable Path to Disaster.”
Found at: https://novascotia.ca/lae/pubs/westray (accessed July 7, 2019).
Other times, it is a generalized concern following a series of workplace events or
suggestions that serious workplace incidents and fatalities in a particular sector or region
are on the rise that brings about change. For example, in 2010 an expert advisory panel
appointed by the Ontario Minister of Labour conducted a review of Ontario’s occupational
health and safety system. In Ontario, people were concerned about workplace fatalities, particularly regarding issues such as regulatory compliance and enforcement and how to
prevent workplace incidents. The panel consulted diverse stakeholder groups across the province. The panel’s final report offered numerous recommendations for the province,
including creating a prevention-focused organization within the Ministry of Labour, tough
enforcement after willful contravention of occupational health and safety laws, and incorporating occupational health and safety into the grade school curriculum.8 An
increasing focus on prevention efforts is one of the major trends of OH&S today.
The current scope of occupational health and safety incorporates a focus on mental as well
as physical health in the workplace. Canada now has a voluntary national standard on psychological health and safety in the workplace (CSA-Z1003-13). The standard can help
employers realize a workplace that promotes workers’ psychological well-being.9 There
have also been groundbreaking trends in workers’ compensation claims for disability resulting from psychological injury.10 You can learn more about the integration of physical
and psychological safety promotion as part of the healthy workplace movement, as shown
in OH&S Today 1.3.
OH&S Today 1.3: The Healthy Workplace Movement
Occupational health and safety is increasingly seen in a broader context of establishing an
overall healthy workplace. The World Health Organization defines a healthy workplace in terms of four elements: (a) health and safety, (b) the psychosocial environment, (c)
personal health resources, and (d) enterprise community involvement.
The healthy workplace movement recognizes that workplaces have wide-reaching effects on worker health. Moreover, the healthy workplace movement is based on the belief that
organizations must go beyond simply not harming individuals to the active promotion of
workers’ health and well-being. While this sounds like a laudable but idealistic goal, the
available data increasingly suggest that there is a very real “business case” for this belief. Organizations that implement healthy workplace programs can derive substantial
economic benefits from their investment. For example, one study illustrated that every
dollar spent on workplace wellness programs saved organizations $2.73 in lowered
absenteeism costs alone.
There are many resources available to help Canadian organizations that wish to join the
healthy workplace movement. In fact, Healthy Workplace Week was launched in Canada in 2001 and has now grown into Canada’s Healthy Workplace Month® (CHWM). The CHWM
program is managed by Excellence Canada, an organization that helps promote and
recognize excellence in Canadian organizations. Celebrated in October, Canada’s Healthy
Workplace Month promotes awareness of comprehensive efforts for workplace health. Its
programming reflects four elements for a healthy workplace, including healthy lifestyles,
workplace culture and mental health, physical environment, and corporate social
responsibility. You can read about their healthy activity ideas and their showcase of
successful initiatives on the website.
Sources: J. Burton, WHO Healthy Workplace Framework and Model: Background and Supporting Literature and Practice (Geneva: WHO, 2010). Found at:
http://www.who.int/occupational_health/healthy_workplace_framework.pdf (accessed
July 24, 2019); K. Baicker, D. Cutler, & Z. Song, “Workplace Wellness Programs Can Generate Savings,” Health Affairs 29 (2010), 304–311; Canada’s Healthy Workplace Month.
Found at: http:// healthyworkplacemonth.ca/en/about/about (accessed July 24, 2019);
Excellence Canada. Found at: https://excellence.ca (accessed July 24, 2019).
Imperatives for Health and Safety
Effective OH&S programs have important and far-reaching benefits for both employers and
employees. Employers, employees, and the public should care about occupational health and safety for economic, legal, and moral reasons. The Institute for Work and Health in
Ontario conducted a series of case studies looking at the major influences that prompted
“breakthrough changes” in occupational health and safety improvements in four workplaces. The influences that led to these intentional and sustained safety improvement
map nicely onto the economic, legal, and moral categorization of imperatives described
here. One organization engaged in change when the owner became very concerned for the
safety of young workers in a retail setting. A manufacturing environment engaged in OH&S improvements after it failed a safety audit. A social services organization recognized the
economic costs of injuries and focused on safety improvements in pursuit of organizational
excellence. Sector requirements pertaining to safety prompted changes in a manufacturing workplace that had been highly focused on productivity.11 Let’s consider each of these
imperatives.
Economic Considerations
Worker health is an important business consideration. Recent work in finance illustrates
that a firm’s value can decrease with increasing worker injury rates.12 The economic costs
associated with work-related injury are both direct and indirect. The example given in
OH&S Today 1.4 shows some of the direct and indirect costs that can result from a work- related injury. Note that the costs illustrated in this one example are repeated hourly
across the country. Cost calculations for specific injuries and workplaces can be estimated
using an online calculator provided by WorkSafeBC (see OH&S Today 1.4).
OH&S Today 1.4: Direct and Indirect Costs of Injury
A construction worker falls 3 metres off an unguarded scaffold and lands on the main floor,
breaking his ankle and forearm. The direct costs of the injury include the time spent in investigating the incident, damaged equipment, and the finding/training of a replacement
worker, and are estimated at $2530. This estimate does not include the indirect costs, which include things like a potential increase in Workers’ Compensation Board assessment
and the potential fines and legal costs associated with allowing an unsafe condition in the
workplace. These indirect costs can be more than 10 times the direct costs of the incident. Note as well that these costs come right from the bottom line—every dollar in cost is a
dollar lost in profit. The direct costs of this one incident will take 25 days’ profit from the
firm.
There are other costs to consider. A significant one is an injured worker’s lost-time injury claim to the Workers’ Compensation Board. Such claims are paid by all employers through
their assessment rates. Of course, the injured worker experiences many costs in the form of
pain and suffering and the possible long-term effects of the injury. This fictitious claim’s cost was derived by inserting fictional facts and data into the WorkSafeBC Safety
Calculator. The actual cost of a claim may differ owing to variables such as time involved
and the hourly rates used in the calculator. You too can experiment with injury costs by
looking at the other scenarios provided at the website and inserting your own details.
Source: https://www.worksafebc.com/en/resources/health-safety/interactive-
tools/workplace-incident-cost-calculator?lang=en (accessed July 7, 2019).
Worldwide, in the range of 2.78 million workers die each year from work-related causes. The majority of these deaths (2.4 million) are related to work-related disease, with the
remaining due to workplace injury. These staggering figures come with a remarkable
economic toll. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that the global economic costs of workplace injuries and illnesses runs at 4 percent of the world’s gross
domestic product (GDP) (that is a dollar amount in the range of $US2.99 trillion).13 Serious,
non-fatal injuries due to things like falls, overexertion, and repetitive motion cost American
employers $US1 billion per week. Consider Ontario as a specific Canadian jurisdiction. The economic burden of workplace injuries reported to the province’s Workers’ Safety and
Insurance Board was estimated at $6 billion for the year 2011.14
These estimates of direct and indirect costs must be considered underestimates of the true costs of workplace illness and injury. First, there is considerable evidence that workplace
injuries are not accurately reported. Indeed, studies have suggested that the number of
reported injuries may represent as few as one-tenth of actual injuries. A report on Manitoba WCB claims concluded that about 30 percent of workers who experienced a lost-time injury
lasting more than five days did not claim WCB benefits.15 Recall the staggering dollar values
above; those figured are based on reported workplace injuries only and did not include
those injuries that go unreported. Second, in Canada, workplace injury statistics are typically tracked via workers’ compensation boards, and therefore do not include injuries
experienced by those not covered by workers’ compensation. Third, the available
occupational injury statistics do not adequately capture the extent of illnesses that are caused or exacerbated by exposure to workplace conditions. Deaths that might be
attributable to occupational illnesses are not typically accounted for in statistical analyses
of occupational fatalities.
It is clear that safety problems cost every person in Canada hundreds of dollars annually
based on the direct and indirect costs of occupational injuries. But these figures represent
costs associated with an injury only once it has occurred. Other costs to the employer can
include work stoppages and or labour strikes due to unsafe working conditions.
Another indirect cost to companies is that of negative publicity when a death, accident, or
serious health problem becomes public.16 It is easy to generate scenarios where a highly
public workplace incident could influence a company’s reputation in the community.
Would you choose to eat at a restaurant or shop at a store that is known for having a poor
safety record or experienced a high-profile workplace incident? Would you choose to work for a construction company that is facing legal charges for safety violations? However,
managers who are committed to safety can turn adverse publicity into a marketing and
recruitment advantage by advertising their commitment to employee safety.
Employers who are not concerned about the health and safety of their employees affect other employers and taxpayers. Workers’ compensation rates are determined by industry
sector and a negligent employer can force others in the sector to pay higher rates. Unsafe
working conditions cause insurance premiums to escalate and health expenditures to
increase. Clearly, organizations have an economic interest in lowering the number of safety
incidents and providing a safe working environment.
Legal Considerations
Legal considerations have been identified by occupational health and safety professionals
as a major driver of OH&S activities in workplaces.17 Every worker has the legal right to safe
working conditions under OH&S acts. The Occupational Health and Safety Act of Ontario,
section 25(2)(h), requires an employer to “take every precaution reasonable in the circumstances for the protection of a worker.” The legal term for this requirement is due
diligence.
From a legal perspective, due diligence is defined as the measure of prudence to be expected from, and ordinarily exercised by, a reasonable and prudent person under the
particular circumstances depending on the relative facts of the special case. In other
words, due diligence is a standard of conduct measured by what could be expected of a reasonable person in the same circumstances. Due diligence requires a business to foresee
all unsafe conditions or acts and requires it to take precautions to prevent accidents that
can reasonably be anticipated.18 Similarly, a worker is required to work in compliance with
health and safety legislation. The penalties associated with safety violations and workplace
incidents are increasing in Canada. For example, in 2013 Vale Canada Limited was fined a
total of over $1.3 million following a double fatality at its Sudbury, Ontario mine, which was
a record-setting OH&S–related fine for Ontario. In Saskatchewan, the maximum corporate
fine for serious safety offences has increased from $300 000 to $1.5 million.19 Safety
legislation in Canada is discussed at length in Chapter 2.
Moral Considerations
Aside from legal and economic considerations, employers have a moral obligation to
employees and their families to provide the safest working environment possible. Ethical arguments for safety initiatives as the right thing to do influence occupational health and
safety professionals.20 Two decades of research have provided consistent evidence that
management commitment to health and safety results in higher levels of employee
motivation to work safely and better organizational safety records. Similarly, workers have
a moral responsibility to learn about safety and health, to follow recommended workplace
practices, and to be alert and responsible. The perception that managers, supervisors, and coworkers are committed to and support health and safety predicts employees’
willingness to participate in health and safety programs and speak up about safety at
work.21 Clearly, the economic, human, and social costs associated with workplace injury
and illness are intolerable, and both employers and employees must work together to
enhance occupational health and safety.
The Stakeholders
We are all stakeholders in occupational health and safety. Workplace incidents carry far-
reaching effects for workers, companies, communities, and so forth. At this point in our
discussion it is helpful to identify a list of specific stakeholders in occupational health and safety. Table 1.1 provides a list of stakeholders in occupational health and safety. What do
you think about this list? Are there others you would add? OH&S Notebook 1.1 describes
the internal responsibility system, which illustrates that many groups share in the health
and safety of our workplace.
Let’s consider the roles, responsibilities, and influence of some of these stakeholder groups
as they relate to various elements of health and safety in the workplace.
Government
In Canada, Ontario was the first province to enact compensation legislation with the
passage of the Workmen’s Compensation Act in 1914. This legislation provided lost-time wages to almost every injured worker, thereby removing the right of workers to sue their
employers. After the First World War, the federal and other provincial and territorial
governments began to enact legislation to protect workers. The two main goals of this
legislation were (1) to ensure that injured workers received compensation and that
employers accepted liability, and (2) to prevent accidents and illness by establishing safe
work environments.
In Canada, we have seen the number of compensated lost-time workplace injuries decline
from 479 558 in 1982 to 251 625 in 2017.22 One interesting study compared the trends in
number of work versus non-work injuries reported at emergency rooms in Ontario.23 The
results showed that while there was no change in the number of non-occupational injuries each year from 2004 to 2011, the number of occupational injuries declined by more than 30
percent over the same time frame. The observed downward trend in work injuries, but not
in other types of injuries, is attributed at least in part to the efforts of government
regulatory agencies and workers’ compensation boards.
OH&S Notebook 1.1: The Internal Responsibility System
The basis for most health and safety legislation in Canada is the internal responsibility
system (IRS). Nova Scotia was the first province to define the internal responsibility system
in its health and safety legislation. Under the IRS, each “actor” or stakeholder (employees,
employers, supervisors, etc.) takes personal responsibility for safety. The idea is that individuals in the workplace are in the best position to ensure health and safety. Though
government has a regulatory and legislative role to play, the primary responsibility for
health and safety resides in the workplace.
Thinking about the meaning of each word in the term “internal responsibility system” can help you understand this approach to safety. It is “internal” in that responsibility for health
and safety is internal to the workplace and not dependent on external regulation. Safety is
also internal in the sense that it is the way we do our work: safety is not an add-on, it is an intrinsic feature of the way we work. As Peter Strahlendorf, an expert on the internal
responsibility system notes, we do not talk about “safety” versus “production” we talk
about “safe production.”
Responsibility in the context of the IRS means that each person in the organization—from
the CEO on down—has specific and personal responsibilities for safety that vary according to the nature of their role in the organization. Individuals can take ownership for safety in
their workplaces. If a person notices a safety concern that they can fix right then and there,
they should fix it. For example, imagine a restaurant server who notices a high traffic area is slippery; she should mop the area. If a person does not have the authority to fix the issue,
she must report it to someone who can.
Responsibility in the context of the IRS means that each person in the organization—from
the CEO on down—has specific and personal responsibilities for safety that vary according to the nature of their role in the organization. Individuals can take ownership for safety in
their workplaces. If a person notices a safety concern that they can fix right then and there,
they should fix it. For example, imagine a restaurant server who notices a high traffic area is slippery; she should mop the area. If a person does not have the authority to fix the issue,
she must report it to someone who can.
The IRS is a “system” that is both (1) based on people in the system interacting and (2) self-
correcting. Self-correcting mechanisms that are frequently enshrined in legislation include
procedures for work refusals or work stoppages and the institution of joint occupational
health and safety committees.
Sources: P. Strahlendorf, “Is Your Committee Effective?” OHS Canada, Vol. 23 (2007): 24–31; L. Johnson, “Internal Responsibility System Leads to Safer Workplace:
Strahlendorf,” Canadian Occupational Safety (December 11, 2012). Found at:
https://www.cos-mag.com/personal-process-safety/29498- internal-responsibility-system- leads-to-safer-workplace-strahlendorf (accessed July 7, 2019); and Workplace Safety
North, “A Theory of Incident: You Are Your Brother and Sister’s Keeper” (June 3, 2013).
Found at: https://www.workplacesafetynorth.ca/news/news-post/theory-incidents-you-
are-yourbrother- and-sister%E2%80%99s-keeper (accessed July 7, 2019).
Besides passing laws, governments solicit or conduct research on health and safety issues
and disseminate information. Ontario, Nova Scotia, and British Columbia are world leaders
in the development of chemical-exposure standards that are as strict as reasonably attainable based on hard scientific evidence. The federal government has created the
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) as a vital health and safety
research and resource organization. CCOHS accesses a number of databases from around
the world besides creating and maintaining its own comprehensive database. This organization’s goal is to provide health and safety information to any worker who requests
it.
CCOHS has developed an online information service called CCINFOWEB. This program’s vast database contains information on the toxicological effects of chemicals and biological
agents, as well as safety data sheets (SDS) and the health and safety laws for all of
Canada’s jurisdictions. CCOHS also produces a wide variety of safety publications.
Employers
Though every player has a role in occupational health and safety, that of a company’s
management team is the most pivotal. Managers have the means and the authority to
monitor the workplace and to ensure compliance with safe practices. Moreover,
organizations have the resources to hire occupational health and safety professionals.
The employer is responsible for preparing a written OH&S policy and for ensuring that it is
prominently displayed in the workplace. Employers are also required to:
• provide and maintain equipment, materials, and protective devices;
• ensure that the manner in which the work is performed is safe and
that the environment is free from hazards and serious risks;
• monitor their workplace and report minor, critical, disabling, and
fatal injuries, as well as occupational illnesses and toxic substances
(and to maintain the records of these occurrences for many years);
• establish health and safety committees with strong employee
representation; alert employees to any known or perceived risks
and hazards in the workplace; and
• provide employees with health and safety training.
Managers must be trained on the importance of occupational health and safety.
Leadership training programs have been linked to improvements in workplace safety. For
example, one study of trade employees found a connection between their bosses’ safety leadership and their own safety attitudes and actions. Those whose leadership did things
like model good safety behaviour and talk positively about safety showed improved safety
performance in their own work.24 Frontline supervisors are consistently identified as
important stakeholders in signalling the importance of safety to employees.25 Clearly, in order to fulfill their responsibilities, managers must receive health and safety training and
know how to show leadership around safety.
Employees
Employees of an organization have a role to play in occupational health and safety both as
individuals and as members of organized labour groups. As individuals, employees are
required to perform their duties and tasks in a safe and responsible manner and to wear
protective equipment in compliance with company and legislative regulations. They are also required to report defective equipment and other workplace hazards to the
occupational health and safety professional, the joint health and safety committee, or the
manager. Any employees who believe that a particular activity will endanger them or
others have the right to refuse to carry out the activity.
Organized Labour
Organized labour also has a role to play in ensuring the proper management of safety at
work.26 Researchers have examined how unionization in a workplace influences safety outcomes. One study in the mining sector reported that the presence of a union was
associated with fewer traumatic and fatal injuries. Conversely, unionization has been
associated with higher reported non-traumatic injuries; however, one explanation offered to explain these apparently contradictory patterns is that those unionized settings may be
more likely to report even minor injuries when they happen.27
What are some of the tangible ways that a union influences safety? Certainly, the union participates in the joint occupational health and safety committee. Another role for
organized labour is to bring emerging problems and issues in health and safety to the
attention of government and employers and to pressure other stakeholders to take
corrective action. Organized labour and professional associations have also used the collective bargaining process to incorporate health and safety provisions in many
contracts. These labour contracts attempt to formalize voluntary measures and extend
legislative programs. For example, some contracts state that a union must have a full-time safety representative in all plants. Others bargain for more training on safety measures or
more information on exposure to known toxic chemicals.
Barriers
Though all stakeholders support the idea of safe working conditions, not everyone is
committed to implementing OH&S programs and turning the concept of safer workplaces
into a reality. There may be several reasons for stakeholders’ lack of action in this area. One
study of small and medium-sized businesses found that perceived bureaucracy, time
pressures, and prioritization of production over safety were commonly reported barriers to
the implementation of OH&S programs.28 Certainly, some employers remain more focused on production quotas than they are on with safety records, perhaps because the payoffs of
production are more visible. However, as noted above, there are staggering economic
costs associated with workplace illness and injury. Some employers treat safety as a regulatory hurdle rather than an organizational value. Sometimes one hears about
employers who “clean up” their locations just before an announced safety inspection, thus
ensuring a pass. And sometimes managers do not even recognize unsafe conditions, or
they feel unable to do anything about those they do identify. Similarly, employers may be unaware of the methods and instruments by which rigorous monitoring of the workplace
can be achieved. In some workplaces, the industrial relations climate emphasizes conflict
between management and the union, which can lead to health and safety issues being
seen as another bargaining chip.29
Another barrier to the implementation of OH&S programs is that there can be a disconnect
between the general medical establishment and the workplace. For instance, the effects of some industrial diseases are not apparent for years and may be complicated by factors
such as the worker’s lifestyle and failure to follow safety regulations such as wearing
protective equipment. These factors present challenges in linking particular diagnoses to
work exposures. Further, as psychological risk factors, such as stress, become more
prevalent, the task of identifying the role of workplace risk factors relative to other risk
factors will be challenging to the medical community.
Partnerships
One way to overcome the barriers to the implementation of OH&S programs is to form
alliances among OHS stakeholders. For example, three of the core parties in safety— employers, employees, and unions—have the same goal: the reduction of injuries and
illnesses. It is a win–win situation in bargaining. The employer, by investing in health and
safety programs, gains economically through a reduction in direct and indirect costs; it also
gains through an improved public image that may strengthen employee loyalty and
increase marketing opportunities. Employees gain through reduced risk of work-related
injuries and illnesses. Unions gain through their ability to successfully champion the health
and safety interests of their clients.
Other groups of stakeholders may also cooperate to promote safety. For example, workers’ compensation boards may partner with industry safety associations to share data and
work to reduce certain types of injuries. Community-focused safety groups may engage the
public in safety campaigns to highlight workplace safety concerns. As we see in OH&S Today 1.5 with the case of young workers, advocacy groups that share common
experiences can come together to promote workplace health and safety.
OH&S Today 1.5: Young Workers at Risk
Young workers are at risk for workplace fatality and injury. The Association of Workers’
Compensation Boards of Canada (AWCBC) tracks workplace fatality and injury data by age.
Between 2015 and 2017, 63 young workers under the age of 25 were killed on the job in Canada. The many Canadian young people who have lost their lives to workplace incidents
include Aidan Webber, 18, a BMX junior national champion who died in a workplace
incident involving a fish pen in British Columbia in March 2019. Ashley Richards, 18, was
working her first shift as a flag person at a Saskatchewan road construction site when she was struck and killed by a car in August 2012. Wally Pelletier, 17, died in hospital just days
after he became stuck under a conveyor belt at a pellet plant in northern New Brunswick in
December 2016.
The AWCBC recorded more than 31 400 lost-time injuries among workers under age 25 in
2017 alone. A study by Canadian OH&S researchers suggests that this number may
underestimate the rate at which young people are injured at work. Sean Tucker, from the University of Regina, and his colleagues found that 21 percent of a large sample of young
Canadian workers had experienced a work injury that caused lost work time. However, only
50 percent of the injured workers reported that injury to the employer or to a doctor. The
workers noted several reasons that they did not report their injuries, including blaming themselves for the injury, fearing the reactions of employers/coworkers, feeling that
reporting was too much of a hassle, and protecting their self-identity (e.g., fearing that an
injury would make them look weak or childish).
Why are young people at particular risk in the workplace? First, a lack of experience and
training means they may not recognize hazards in the workplace. Second, they may not be
aware of their right to a safe working environment and their right to refuse unsafe work; they may not want to “rock the boat.” Finally, as part-time or shortterm employees, they
may not be offered the same level of safety training as full-time employees.
In recent years, Canadians have become more aware of the health and safety risks faced by
young workers. There are many champions behind the campaign for increased awareness
around young workers and safety. Many of them have a tragic connection to the message
they so passionately share. For example, Rob Ellis founded “My Safe Work,” a program that
promotes safe workplaces, after his 18-year-old son, David, was killed on his second day of work at a bakery. The efforts of champions for young workers’ safety like Rob Ellis are
invaluable. Increasing recognition of the hazards faced by young people in the workplace
has resulted in efforts to ensure they know their rights and responsibilities. Workplace
programs to reduce injury among young workers are gaining ground in workplaces and focus on matters such as helping young workers understand their rights, targeting safety
training to young workers, and mentoring in safe behaviour at work.
Sources: Association of Workers’ Compensation Boards of Canada (AWCBC), National Work Injury/Disease Statistics Program (NWISP), Table 24— Number of Fatalities, by Age and
Jurisdiction and Table 3—Number of Accepted Lost Time Claims, by Age and Jurisdiction,
2015–2017. Found at: http://awcbc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/National-Work- Injury-Disease-and-Fatality-Statistics-Publication-2015-2017.pdf (accessed April 19, 2019);
S. Tucker, D. Diekrager, N. Turner, & E.K. Kelloway, “Work-related Injury Underreporting
Among Young Workers: Prevalence, Gender Differences, and Explanations for
Underreporting,” Journal of Safety Research, 50 (2014), 67–73; Prince Albert Now, “SUV Passed Traffic in Orange Zone Before Killing Flag Worker” (August 14, 2014). Found at:
http://panow.com/article/527814/suv-passed-traffic-orange-zone-killing-flag-worker
(accessed July 7, 2019); CBC News, “Employer Charged After Teen’s Death Pleads Guilty to Safety Violation.” Found at: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newbrunswick/ groupe-
savoie-guilty-wanny-pelletier-1.4892409 (accessed July 7, 2019); OHS Canada, “Promising
BMX cyclist from B.C. dies in workplace accident off Vancouver Island” (March 12, 2019).
Found at: https://www.ohscanada.com/promising-bmx-cyclist-b-c-dies-workplace- accident-offvancouver- island (accessed July 7, 2019); MySafeWork. Found at:
http://mysafework.com/about-us (accessed August 23, 2019).
Looking ahead, in Chapter 2 we will further consider how groups of stakeholders work together to meet legislative requirements. For example, the federal and most provincial
and territorial governments require every organization with 20 or more employees to
establish a joint health and safety committee (i.e., one that includes
employers and workers). In some provinces, such as Ontario, there are no articulated requirements regarding the minimum number of employees if a designated substance—
such as asbestos—is present. These joint committees of workers and managers respond to
accidents; monitor the workplace; notify authorities about serious hazards, critical injuries,
or deaths; hear complaints; and make recommendations.
Occupational Health and Safety Professionals
One way to develop an effective OH&S program is to employ health and safety
professionals. Managers and human resource experts cannot be expected to develop,
manage, and evaluate an OH&S program, particularly when the issues cover the spectrum from chemical hazards to workplace violence, without input and support. To help
managers operate an OH&S program, various types of safety and health experts may be
hired or consulted. These people can be found through their associations or safety
associations and provincial departments. Be advised, however, that to date there is no regulation of the safety profession in Canada; thus, there are no legal requirements
regarding the training or skills necessary to practise as a occupational health and safety
professional in Canada nor is there a professional code of conduct.30 That said, there are safety designations and certifications that can help identify individuals with relevant
training and skills in OH&S. One such certification is the Canadian Registered Safety
Professional (CRSP®) described in OH&S Notebook 1.2.
OH&S Notebook 1.2: Occupational Health and Safety Professionals
Someone who holds the Canadian Registered Safety Professionals (CRSPs®) designation is a recognized safety expert. In fact, many Canadian organizations require that individuals
hold this designation to qualify for jobs in OH&S. CRSPs are trained in a variety of health
and safety areas such as identifying and appraising workplace hazards; evaluating incident severity; developing and communicating hazard control policies, methods, and programs;
devising motivational programs to integrate safety procedures into operations; and
evaluating the effectiveness of these programs and revising them as necessary. To achieve
certification, occupational health and safety professionals must meet specified academic,
experience, and examination requirements.
Among CRSP, you will find a diverse array of professions, united by their training and
interest in health and safety. One example of a safety profession is registered occupational hygienist. Registered Occupational Hygienists are educated in a variety of fields (with
degrees in chemistry, engineering, physics, biology, or medicine) and are trained to
evaluate and control workplace hazards that may lead to sickness, impaired health, significant discomfort, and inefficiency. A related group of professionals are Registered
Occupational Hygienist Technologists who perform similar functions as Registered
Occupational Hygienists, but typically have a college diploma rather than a university
degree.
CRSPs can enjoy working in a variety of settings and in various operational functions. Every
industry has health and safety needs and thus, occupational health and safety
professionals work in a variety of industries including the construction, services, and manufacturing sectors. Within those sectors, you’ll find occupational health and safety
professionals in roles such as consultant, project manager, inspector, quality assurance,
and many others. You can learn more about the CRSP designation, careers in occupational health and safety, and occupational health and safety training programs by exploring the
website of the Board of Canadian Registered Safety Professionals.
Source: Board of Canadian Registered Safety Professionals. Found at:
https://www.bcrsp.ca (accessed July 8, 2019).
Occupational health and safety professionals may differ greatly in their educational
backgrounds areas of expertise. Some are chemists focused on the safe handling of
chemicals for use or transport. Others may have a background in occupational nursing, medicine, or related health professions and focus on the prevention and treatment of
occupational injuries. Some have backgrounds in human resources or management and
focus on the coordinating occupational health and safety programs in workplaces or
delivering OH&S training. Some are social scientists who focus on issues such as workplace stress and work–life balance. Still others investigate safety incidents or conduct safety
inspections. These are just a few examples of the types of jobs held by occupational health
and safety professionals.
As noted above, employing occupational health and safety professionals is a sound investment for companies. In many cases organizations retain OH&S experts as part of
their full-time staff roster. For example, a company that deals in petrochemical
manufacturing will likely have experts such as occupational hygienists on its staff. A large and diverse workplace may have an occupational health and safety specialist as part of the
human resources team. That said, in smaller workplaces organizations may delegate the
OH&S portfolio to a human resources generalist. In those cases, it is important that the
company is able to consult with outside health and safety specialists. For instance, the company could contract with an ergonomics specialist to conduct physical assessments of
office workspaces to ensure that individuals have an appropriate desk, chair, and
computer arrangement. At other times, companies will interact with OH&S specialists who represent government agencies, such as a health and safety inspector. Regardless of their
specific area of focus or their status as employee or consultant, well-trained and certified
OH&S professionals play a vital role in the creation and maintenance of healthy and safe
workplaces.
The Role of Human Resources
Traditional views of safety have emphasized the three Es. In the past, the goal was to
develop engineering solutions to ensure safe work environments, equipment, and personal
protective devices. To that end, occupational health and safety professionals were tasked
with educating supervisors and employers in the use of the equipment. Finally, health and safety programs focused on enforcing existing regulations and practices. To a great extent,
these approaches have succeeded in creating safer workplaces. However, we now
recognize that the three Es do not provide a total solution and that focusing on the people
side of the workplace is likely to result in a safer workplace.
Not surprisingly, you will find that occupational health and safety is almost exclusively
“managed” under the human resource function. As described below, this placement makes
sense for several reasons.
Safety Is Integrated in Other Human Resource Functions
Safety is a people issue, and effective safety programs depend on building people’s skills,
abilities, and motivation for safety. Certainly, these are the traditional concerns of human resource departments; for instance, safety training and safety pertinent attitudes,
knowledge, and behaviour are important elements of any safety program.31 Strategies such
as compensation and awareness programs can help motivate safe working. Leadership
styles, including safety leadership, and workplace safety climate help promote workplace safety and predict safety outcomes (e.g., incidents, injuries).32 Failures to promote safety or
negative climate of safety in a workplace can carry direct implications for work outcomes
such as stress and turnover, traditional areas of HR concern.33
Indeed, safety must be strategically considered in all areas of human resource management. Recent research illustrates that strategic HR initiatives such as high-
involvement work practices, lean operations practices, and employee empowerment are
associated with improved safety outcomes.34 Research findings suggest that human resource decisions may affect safety even if safety was not considered at the time of the
decision. For example, research shows that individuals who fear job loss are more likely to
“cut corners,” ignore safety rules, and work unsafely. Thus, a rumour of corporate
restructuring or plans for a layoff may have an impact on safety even though the two are not obviously connected. As another example, consider that performance-based pay
systems have been associated with increased injury rates while the implementation of
teams in organizations may be associated with reduced injuries.35 Clearly, the way we
manage human resources has direct implications for occupational health and safety.
Safety Requires Legislative Compliance
As we have already seen, and will discuss in detail in Chapter 2, occupational health and
safety is a very well developed area of labour law. Numerous standards and requirements are imposed on employers to maintain workplace safety. Administering compliance is a
natural outgrowth of the human resource function. Human resource professionals already
ensure compliance with other areas of labour law (e.g., employment equity, human rights
legislation) and thus are well versed in dealing with such concerns.
Safety Decreases Costs
Workers’ compensation premiums, long-term disability coverage, sick-time provisions, and
health plans all add to the costs of doing business. It is the responsibility of human resources to see that such costs are minimized. This duty has assumed increasing
importance in an era in which double-digit increases in benefit premiums are not
uncommon. Aside from minimizing costs, human resources has a role to play in ensuring that the benefits an organization pays for are used most effectively to help injured workers
and ensure a prompt return to health (and to work). That said, it can sometimes be
challenging to get companies to view safety efforts as a way to decrease costs. See OH&S
Notebook 1.3 for a discussion of this dilemma.
OH&S Notebook 1.3: Does Cost Motivate?
When an organization increases revenue (e.g., sales) by $1.00, its actual profit may be substantially smaller (e.g., $.05 to $.20). On the other hand, every dollar in cost reduction
goes straight to the bottom line—that is, every dollar saved is another dollar in profit
(assuming that the cost savings do not require additional investment). Therefore, it is not
surprising that reduction in cost is generally seen as a powerful motivator among organizational decision makers. Thus, there seem to be powerful economic reasons for
businesses to improve occupational health and safety—by reducing the costs associated with injuries and incidents, they increase profitability. Indeed, research illustrates that
financial decision makers respect the logic of the argument that money spent on safety has
the potential for significant returns.
Despite its logical value, in practice it is not always easy to convince companies of the economic benefits of decreasing costs related to workplace injury. Some organizations
may see health and safety–related costs as “fixed” or uncontrollable. In this view,
organizations simply accept the increased costs of injuries and incidents; they incorporate them into their price structures (e.g., they pass the costs along to consumers) and do not
attempt to improve safety to reduce costs. Moreover, companies may attempt to reduce
costs in other areas in order to compensate for rising costs related to health and safety.
There is no clear resolution to this issue. The way an organization responds to increased
costs may depend on the particulars of its situation. The point to remember here is that the
premise that all companies will automatically concern themselves with health and safety in order to reduce costs is not necessarily always accurate. Not all companies will appreciate
the logic of investments in OH&S as a way to control organizational costs. Therefore,
occupational health and safety professionals and human resources practitioners may
encounter challenges when presenting this case to some companies. It is important that efforts be made to help occupational health and safety professionals build an empirical,
rather than intuitive, case for investments in safety. This may include building tools such as
computer software to help generate return on investment numbers. It also helps to provide empirically sound studies that illustrate the multifaceted positive effects spending on
safety initiatives on factors such as workplace climate and employee commitment.
Sources: P. Miller and C. Haslam. “Why Employers Spend Money on Employee Health: Interviews with Occupational Health and Safety Professionals from British Industry,” Safety
Science, 47 (2009), 163–169; Y.H. Huang, T. B. Leamon, T. K. Courtney, P. Y. Chen, and S.
DeArmond, “Corporate Financial Decision-Makers’ Perceptions of Workplace
Safety,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, 39 (2007), 767–775; K. Mearns, L. Hope, M.T. Ford,
and L.E. Tetrick, “Investment in Workforce Health: Exploring the Implications for Workforce
Safety Climate and Commitment,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42 (2010), 1445–1454;
and J.B. Linhard, “Understanding the Return on Health, Safety and Environmental
Investments,” Journal of Safety Research, 36 (2005), 257–260.
Summary
This chapter has established the importance of occupational health and safety. We began
by defining terms such as occupational health and safety, occupational injury, and
occupational illness, and by pointing out the unacceptably high rates of workplace injuries
and fatalities. Second, we described the financial and social costs associated with occupational injuries and illnesses, showing that direct and indirect costs can be
substantial. Third, we traced the development of modern models of health and safety management and described the role of the major stakeholders in modern occupational
health and safety. We emphasized the role of the internal responsibility system and the
notion that all parties have a stake in improving occupational health and safety. We ended the chapter by explaining the connection between human resource management and
occupational health and safety and describing the links between human resource practices
and health and safety. The management of occupational health and safety is a core area of
practice for human resources practitioners.
Key Terms
accident proneness
assumption of risk brown lung
due diligence
internal responsibility system (IRS)
lost-time injury occupational health and safety (OH&S)
occupational injury
occupational illness
the three Es
Discussion Questions
Steeping some tea... Discussion Question 1.2
Review
Why have people historically been more concerned about work-related injuries than work-related illnesses?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 1.3
Review
How has our understanding of personal liability for accidents changed over the years?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 1.4
Review
For what reasons, beside humanitarian ones, should workplace hazards be controlled?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 1.5
Review
Who are the stakeholders in health and safety? What roles do they play?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 1.6
Review
What types of roles do occupational health and safety professionals play in workplaces? How does the
organization benefit from hiring someone highly trained in OH&S? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 1.1
Review
How do organizations treat occupational health and safety? Visit websites of some major corporations
in your area. Search them for information on health and safety. Who in the organization administers health and safety programs? What kinds of programs are in place?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 1.2
Review
For one week, read the local newspapers and listen to the news. Make a note of the main topic of every
article or item relating to occupational health and safety. What roles are the media playing? What
OH&S issues are most likely to gain attention? Give reasons for your answers. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 1.3
Review
Interview a human resources manager about occupational health and safety. What is HR’s role in the
effective management of health and safety at work? What HR functions are involved in meeting the
health and safety requirements?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 1.4
Review
What types of programs and awards are available to support organizations to work toward and achieve
their health and safety goals? Search the Internet to find out. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 1.5
Review
Find out more about the Westray mine disaster by searching the Internet for information on its history
and how it has affected the community and the industry. Do you agree with Justice Richard that it was
a “predictable path to disaster”?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 1.6
Review
Do a scan of job advertisements for OH&S jobs. What types of jobs are being advertised? What in-
dustries are they in? What are the educational and background requirements?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 1.1
Show Correct Answer
April 28 is Canada’s annual day of mourning for workers who have died or suffered injury or illness from
their jobs. Imagine you are an occupational health and safety professional with a safety association for
a natural resources industry (you can pick which one). Create a poster or a press release to
commemorate what this day means to workers in the industry you have chosen.
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
Welcome to Well-Mart!
Well-Mart is a new, medium-sized retail outlet specializing in the sale of health food, supplements, and
lifestyle products. The store has just had its grand opening and initial consumer interest seems to be
strong—the store is busy from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. on Monday to Friday and from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on
Saturday and Sunday.
Currently the store has 32 employees, the majority of whom (20) work in the retail part of the store.
Their main duties are restocking shelves, staffing the cash registers, and assisting customers. Two of
these employees are designated as “lead hands” responsible for overseeing the checkouts and the
store floor. Seven employees work in the back warehouse and are responsible for unloading deliveries,
storing stock, and preparing stock to be moved out onto the floor, one of whom is a lead hand and
responsible for the warehouse. Finally, five employees work in administration including the store
manager, the assistant manager, the payroll officer, and an administrative assistant. You are the fifth
administrative employee, hired to be the store’s health and safety manager. In this role you are
responsible for providing support and advice, maintaining records, and evaluating various aspects of
performance as they relate to health and safety. Store cleaning is contracted out to a commercial
cleaning company who come in after hours.
In your initial meeting with the store manager, she is clear about your responsibilities. “Health and
safety is critical for us,” she told you, “We based our entire business on promoting well-being and we
would be remiss if we did not value the well-being of our employees. I have to tell you though, it’s a
tough sell. Most of our employees have experience in retail and many have expressed the view that
retail work is safe and we do not need a health and safety program. I’ve scheduled a meeting for you to
meet with the lead hands, the assistant manager, and myself. This is your chance to “sell” the need for
a comprehensive health and safety program and I think your best shot to get them to buy into your
program.” She’s asked you to prepare a short presentation using about five PowerPoint slides that
really bring home the key reasons that occupational health and safety is everyone’s concern.
When completing this assignment, address the following questions:
1. Consider the internal responsibility system (see OH&S Notebook 1.1) when
explaining why Well-Mart employees need mandatory health and safety
training. Discuss the implications of a lack of mandatory OH&S program at
Well-Mart.
2. What are the benefits of effective OH&S programs for both the employer and
the employee?
3. What are Well-Mart’s duties and responsibilities as they relate to commercial
contractors such as the cleaning company?
4. As the store’s health and safety manager, describe some of the barriers that you
may encounter when implementing an OH&S program.
Upload a PDF of your presentation to submit your cumulative assignment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
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LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the three health and safety rights granted to workers in
Canada
• describe the regulatory framework surrounding occupational health
and safety
• outline the duties of the major stakeholders under occupational
health and safety legislation
• discuss the nature of and limits placed on work refusals and work
stoppages
• describe the structure and role of joint health and safety committees
• discuss WHMIS 2015 as it applies to the right to know about chemical
hazards in the workplace
• explain how occupational health and safety fits into the Criminal
Code
• express how environmental and transportation of dangerous goods
legislation interacts with occupational health and safety concerns
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
Creative Sentences For OH&S Violations
In Canada, if a person or an organization is convicted of OH&S violations, they pay a fine to
the government. The amount of the fine can vary greatly depending on the severity of the
violation and the jurisdiction in which it occurs. However, the maximum fine for OH&S
violations in some Canadian jurisdictions is $1.5 million. In very severe cases, individuals
may be sentenced to jail time.
Some jurisdictions allow for creative sentences in addition to or in lieu of fines, and courts
can render creative sentencing options for organizations and individuals who are guilty of
OH&S violations. In a case involving the fatal electrocution of an electrician, an NS provincial court decision found that the company had not taken all reasonable precautions
to ensure this employee’s safety. The company was fined $35 000 and under a creative
sentencing option had to make a series of public presentations about the case, including factors such as the details of the case, the safety issues at play, and the importance of due
diligence. The presentations were to take place over a period of 18 months and reflect 150
hours of time commitment. The judge in the case reflected that this case had important
and sobering messages for other small businesses. In an Alberta case where an individual lost a leg in a workplace incident, the company had to pay $85 000 to the Construction
Safety Association to fund the development of a hazard assessment training program.
As you reflect on the material in this chapter, consider the possible value of creative
sentencing options. Do you think they would serve as an important tool in OH&S
enforcement?
Sources: L. Johnson, “Alberta OHS Judgment Sparks Creative Sentencing
Debate,” Canadian Occupational Safety, (October 19, 2011). Found at: https://www.cos-
mag.com/ohs-laws-regulations/30134-alberta-ohs-judgment-sparks-creative-sentencing-
debate (accessed July 24, 2019); OHS Insider. “Around the Provinces: Creative Sentences
for OHS Violations.” Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/topics/businesscase-for- safety/around-the-provinces-creative-sentences-for-ohsviolations (accessed July 24,
2019); OHS Insider. “Infographic: Maximum OHS Fine by Jurisdiction.” Found at:
https://ohsinsider.com/tools/other/infographics/infographic-maximum-ohs-fine-by- jurisdiction (accessed July 24, 2019); Provincial Court of Nova Scotia. Citation: R. v.
R.D. Longard Services Limited, 2015 NSPC 35. Found at:
https://www.canlii.org/en/ns/nspc/doc/2015/2015nspc35/2015nspc35.pdf (accessed July
24, 2019).
OH&S and The Law
The opening vignette illustrates some of the fines and sentences that can be involved in
occupational health and safety cases. Occupational health and safety is regulated under a
variety of mechanisms, including acts, regulations, guidelines, standards, and codes. Each
province and territory publishes its own regulations, which augment the federal ones. OH&S Notebook 2.1 contains a list of the federal and provincial acts for occupational
health and safety. There are resources that can help workers and employers identify which
legislation applies to them. About 90 percent of Canadian workers are regulated by OH&S
legislation of the province or territory where they work. The remaining 10 percent are under federal jurisdiction for occupational health and safety. For example, employees of
the federal government fall under the federal jurisdiction. Federal laws also govern
employees in sectors that operate across borders, such as airports, rail, and highway transport.1 Thus employers and employees who operate in one area typically must be
familiar with and comply with its provincial or territorial safety standards. This section
provides an overview of the regulatory framework for occupational health and safety.
OH&S Notebook 2.1: Occupational Health and Safety Legislation in Canada
Below is a listing of the Canadian jurisdictions for occupational health and safety legislation, the relevant occupational health and safety act, and the agencies across
Canada that are responsible for these acts and regulations.
Sources: CANOSH, Canada’s National Occupational Health and Safety Website,
“Legislation.” Found at: http://www.canoshweb.org/Legislation/All (accessed July 24, 2019); CCOHS, “Canadian Government Departments Responsible for OH&S—OSH Answers
Fact Sheet” (as updated October 19, 2018). Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/information/govt.html (accessed July 24, 2019).
An act is a federal, provincial, or territorial law that constitutes the basic regulatory mechanism for occupational health and safety. Each jurisdiction publishes an act that sets
out the basic intent and the general rights and duties of individuals affected by the
law. Regulations explain how the general intent of the act will be applied in specific circumstances. Regulations typically have the same force of law as the act. Guidelines and
policies are more specific rules but are not legally enforceable unless specifically referred
to in a regulation or act. Finally, standards and codes provide practical guidance on the implementation of occupational health and safety practices. For instance, a code or
standard may outline recognized best practices to manage a specific hazard, such as the
maintenance and operation of a crane or another type of heavy equipment. Codes and
standards are not necessarily enforceable by law, unless they are explicitly identified as required within the OH&S Act. Standards are established by agencies such as the Canadian
Standards Association (CSA), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), or the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). You can read about one such standard in OH&S Notebook 2.2.
OH&S Notebook 2.2: Canadian Standards for Safety
In 2006 the Canadian Standards Association published CSA Z1000-06: Occupational Health
and Safety Management. This standard was based on wide consultation and has been
described as “Canada’s first consensus-based approach to occupational health and safety.” The purpose of the standard is to provide organizations with a model for
implementing a health and safety program. The standard is voluntary and, while standards
do not have the force of legislation, they do provide organizations with “best practices,”
and may provide the basis for a due diligence defence in the case of legal action. An updated version of the standard was released in 2014. CSA Z1000-14 maintains focus on
helping organizations plan, implement, review, and revise health and safety management
systems. However, it also considers how to include workers in safety management programming, clearly differentiates between corrective and preventive actions, and offers
additional insight on planning for continual improvement. The Canadian Standards
Association issues a wide variety of such standards dealing with issues ranging from
workplace electrical safety (CSA Z462) to mental health issues in the workplace (CAN/CSA
Z1003-13).
Sources: CCOHS, “Canada’s First Consensus-based Occupational Health and Safety
Management Standard.” Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/headlines/text190.html (accessed July 24, 2019); Safety Lives, “Z1000-14—Occupational Health and Safety Management”
(February 18, 2015). Found at: https://safetylives.com/2015/02/z1000-14-occupational-
health-and-safety-management (accessed July 24, 2019); CSA Group, “CAN/CSA-Z1000-14. Overview.” Found at: http://shop.csa.ca/en/canada/occupational-health-and-safety-
management/cancsa-z1000 14/invt/2702406014 (accessed July 24, 2019).
The Scope of OH&S Legislation
The scope of the OH&S legislation differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but in all cases
these statutes and regulations have been enacted to protect the rights of workers. Recall from Chapter 1 that in Canada, the three principal rights of workers are the right to refuse
dangerous work without penalty; the right to participate in identifying and correcting
health and safety problems; and the right to know about hazards in the workplace. OH&S
Today 2.1 illustrates what can happen when an employee’s right to know is not respected. Statutes and regulations also establish duties that require compliance. Statutes provide
the legal foundation, while regulations enacted under the statute establish the framework
within which the employer will conduct business in order to comply with the law. All
Canadian OH&S legislation includes the following elements:
• an act;
• powers of enforcement;
• the right of workers to refuse to do unsafe work;
• protection of workers from reprisals; and
• duties and responsibilities assigned to employers and others.
OH&S Today 2.1: The Right To Know
A workplace incident resulted in the imposition of 18 work orders for a blueberry farm in
British Columbia. In April 2012, 10 workers were spraying the blueberry fields with herbicide when the spray applicator tipped over and severely injured a worker. The injured
worker was transported to the processing plant to receive first aid and eventually an
ambulance was called. The injured man required knee surgery and spent a month in
hospital.
However, it wasn’t until the injured man went public with his story in August that the
authorities became involved. The injured man did not know about his OH&S rights. In a
chance encounter, a taxi driver told him about workers’ compensation and his right to a file a claim. The blueberry farm’s owners had not notified the appropriate health and safety
authorities, which is in contravention of BC’s Workers’ Compensation Act. Under the act,
employers must report serious incidents. Work orders were issued for a variety of other problems including the inability of the employer to show that workers had been trained,
the employer’s failure to conduct an immediate investigation into the incident, the failure
to have up-to-date first aid procedures, and the failure to issue and train workers in the use
of proper respiratory protection.
The injured man in this story, Gurdev Khakh, ultimately received help filing a workers’
compensation claim from an organization called the Progressive Intercultural Community
Services Society, an organization that helps vulnerable workers, including immigrants, seniors, and young workers, understand workplace programs, including occupational
health and safety rights. Recent Canadian research shows that such programs respond to a
very deep need. Recent immigrants and refuges to Canada were found to have higher rates of occupational injury and illness owing to factors such as poorer working conditions,
increased hazard exposure, limited knowledge of Canadian OH&S laws and rights, and a
lower likelihood of voicing safety concerns at work.
Sources: Jean Lian, “Blueberry Farm Neglected to Report Worker Injury,” OHS Canada (September 4, 2012). Found at: https://www.ohscanada.com/blueberry-farm-neglected-to-
report-worker-injury (accessed July 24, 2019); M. Martins. “Farm Worker Says Accident Has
‘Broke Him Forever,’” Maple Ridge News (August 10, 2012). Found at: https://www.mapleridgenews.com/news/farm-worker-says-accident-has-broke-him-
forever (accessed July 24, 2019); CBC. “Blueberry Farm Didn’t Report Injured Worker’s
Accident” (August 2, 2012). Found at: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british- columbia/blueberry-farm-didn-t-report-injured-worker-s-accident-1.1297559 (accessed
July 24, 2019); Progressive Intercultural Community Services. Found at:
https://www.prepareforcanada.com/settlement-spotlight/pics-bc/progressive-
intercultural-community-services-pics/#.XMiK8HdFyDsY (accessed July 24, 2019); Y. Basak, A. Kosny, and P.M. Smith, “Occupational Health and Safety Vulnerability of Recent
Immigrants and Refugees,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health 15(9) (2018).
Other elements, which vary among jurisdictions, include mandatory establishment of joint
labour/management health and safety committees, health and safety policies, accident-
prevention programs, and advisory councils on occupational health and safety.
Human resources, occupational health and safety professionals, and others responsible for managing health and safety and workers’ compensation should be familiar with the
administrative structure as it relates to enforcement, education, and compensation in their
particular jurisdiction. Multinational and transportation companies may fall under two or
more jurisdictions, which increases the administrative complexities.
It is important to emphasize the general duty provision requiring employers to take every
reasonable precaution to ensure employee safety is Canada-wide. In the federal jurisdiction, the duty is sufficiently broad in scope that an employer could be held liable for
failing to ensure the health and safety of an employee even if there was an absence of a
specific violation to a regulatory provision. The term “ensure” is applied in legislation
across Canada and is accepted to mean the strongest responsibility possible short of a
guarantee.
Labour legislation and standards relating to occupational health and safety are not static.
Rather, they are continually being updated. Changes may be limited and specific; for instance, specific changes to Newfoundland and Labrador’s Workplace Health, Safety, and
Compensation Act came into effect in July 2019. These changes are such that for workers who experience workplace trauma and later develop post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), their PTSD will be presumed to be work related. Or the changes can be more
general; for example, substantial changes to the Alberta Occupational Health & Safety Act were enacted in June 2018.2 Thus, human resource practitioners, safety professionals,
and employers need to maintain current awareness of standards, regulations, and
legislation.
Occupational Health and Safety Acts
Occupational health and safety acts across the country set the minimum requirements for
occupational health and safety within each jurisdiction. For example, the PEI act notes that its purpose is to “secure workers and self-employed persons from risks to their safety,
health and physical well-being arising out of, or in connection with, activities in their
workplaces.”3
Each act also states the boundaries of its application. For instance, the PEI act notes that it
applies to “all workplaces within the legislative jurisdiction of the province.” Exclusions to
the act will also be noted. For example, there was a longstanding farming and ranching
exemption in the Alberta Occupational Health and Safety Act, but these workers are now
included under new legislation that went into effect in January 2016.4
The acts also outline mandatory components for OH&S within their jurisdictions. These will
include activities and policies such as requirements for health and safety activities, occupational health and safety policies, and prevention programs. While components of
the acts vary, some are quite consistent. For example, most acts articulate duties for the
major stakeholders; most mandate joint health and safety committees, and those that do not have provisions for enacting them when needed; and most include workplace safety
policies. Other components are more variable across jurisdictions; for instance, some
involve input from advisory councils, and some do not. Likewise, some jurisdictions
mandate incident or hazard protection programs; others do not.
As introduced in Chapter 1, occupational health and safety legislation in Canada is largely
based on the notion of an internal responsibility system. Within the internal responsibility
system all major stakeholders in health and safety are assigned specific responsibilities. Thus, health and safety acts include statements of mandated duties for particular groups.
In Chapter 1, we introduced a list of individuals who are stakeholders in OH&S. Recall that
these include employers, contractors, supervisors, and workers. In this section we examine
some of the major duties mandated in occupational health and safety acts.
Stakeholder Duties and Responsibilities
Duties of Employers
Employers have a primary duty to provide a safe work environment. As stated earlier, the general duty provision requiring employers to take every reasonable precaution to
ensure employee safety is represented in health and safety acts across Canada.
Other duties include providing supervision, education, training, and written instructions
where applicable, as well as assisting the joint health and safety committee or representative and complying with statutes and regulations. These broad-based duties are
called general duties, and are directly articulated in the occupational health and safety act.
In Ontario the employer’s responsibilities are extensive. The general employer duties can
be described as including, among several other duties, the following:5
• Take every reasonable precaution to ensure employee safety.
• Appoint competent supervisors.
• Provide information (including confidential information) in a
medical emergency.
• Inform supervisors and workers of possible hazards.
• Post the OH&S act in the workplace.
• Prepare and maintain a health and safety policy to be reviewed
annually.
• Prepare policies regarding workplace violence and workplace
harassment.
All federal and provincial or territorial OH&S acts include prescribed duties that may come into effect by regulation at some time. These prescribed duties may include an employer’s
responsibility to establish occupational health services, or a description of the written
procedures that may be required. To continue the example from above, in Ontario, prescribed duties for employers include assessing risk for workplace violence given the
nature of their workplaces.
OH&S Today 2.2: Medical and Recreational Cannabis Use in Canada: an OH&S
Concern?
In October 2018, the Cannabis Act passed into law, making Canada the second country to
legalize recreational cannabis. In the months leading up to the legislation, Canadian employers and occupational health and safety professionals prepared for the ways that
legal cannabis use would affect workplace policies and safety.
Canadian employers have addressed challenges raised by medical marijuana use in varied
types of work settings for almost two decades. The rules around medical cannabis are such
that a company may have to accommodate, that is, make provisions for, an employee who is prescribed medical cannabis as treatment for a disability. That said, there are still many
questions about the parameters around medical cannabis use in safety-sensitive positions.
A recent Supreme Court decision in Newfoundland and Labrador concluded that the lack of accurate measurement tools to detect degree of impairment after medical cannabis use,
given the potency and dosage of the cannabis prescribed to the employee in question,
meant that the employer could not reasonably accommodate the employee in a safety
sensitive job.
In the case of recreational cannabis, despite the recent legislation, employers can still
expect workers to be sober on the job. Employers are not expected to allow provisions for
an employee’s recreational cannabis use, unless there is a diagnosed addiction for which the employee is being accommodated under human rights laws. In the case of recreational
cannabis, employers should keep some key issues in mind. The focus should be on a
person’s fitness to perform the assigned work and how cannabis use may impair that ability as opposed to policies based on morality or zero tolerance. Employers also should
keep their focus on assistance in a proactive manner rather than to emphasize reactive
discipline. Finally, employers should note that drug testing can be controversial owing to
questions about how it affects employees’ rights to privacy with random drug testing
prompting many legal challenges.
Sources: OHS Insider, “OHS Compliance Briefing: Preserving Workplace Safety in the Legal
Cannabis Era: 10 Practical Pointers.” Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/topics/drugs- alcohol/ohs-compliance-briefing-preserving-workplace-safety-in-the-legal-cannabis-era-
10-practical-pointers (accessed July 24, 2019); R. MacLean, “A Brief History of Marijuana in
the Workplace” (September 24, 2017), Canadian Occupational Safety. Found at: https://cos-mag.com/cannabis/columns/a-brief-history-of-marijuana-in-the-workplace
(accessed July 24, 2019); Cox & Palmer, “Employer’s Refusal to Hire Medical Cannabis User
Upheld by NL Court” (March 29, 2019). Found at:
https://coxandpalmerlaw.com/publication/employers-refusal-to-hire-medicalcannabis- user-upheld-by-nl-court (accessed July 24, 2019); P. Attfield, “Cannabis Concerns at
Work,” The Globe and Mail (March 27, 2018). Found
at:https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/careers/workplace-award/article-
cannabis-concerns-at work (accessed July 24, 2019).
Duties of Contractors
In health and safety legislation, a constructor or a primary contractor is a person or
company that oversees the construction of a project and that is ultimately responsible for the health and safety of all involved workers. Constructors/primary contractors have
responsibilities similar to those outlined for employers. For instance, Yukon’s Occupational
Health and Safety Act specifies that “Every constructor shall ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that during the course of each project the constructor undertakes (a) the
measures and procedures prescribed by this Act and the regulations are carried out on the
project; (b) every employer and every person working on the project complies with this Act and the regulations; and (c) the health and safety of workers on the project is
protected.”6 In some jurisdictions, when a construction project is scheduled to commence,
a constructor/primary contractor has a duty to notify the authority within a specified time. Some jurisdictions require a written “Notice of Project” to be filed outlining the
approximate cost, scope, commencement date, and duration of the project.
Duties of Supervisors
The OH&S duties assigned to supervisors are similar across Canada. “Supervisor” is broadly
interpreted to refer to a person (with or without a title) who has charge of a workplace and
authority over a worker. Supervisors can be union members, association members covered
under a collective agreement, plant managers, general managers, lead hands, forepersons, school principals, or self-employed individuals. For instance, in Newfoundland and
Labrador’s Occupational Health and Safety Act, a supervisor is “a person authorized or
designated by an employer to exercise direction and control over workers of the employer.” Under this provincial legislation supervisors have a general duty to “ensure,
where it is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of all workers under his or
her supervision.” Specific duties include advising workers of safety hazards, providing
instructions about safety precautions, and ensuring that workers use protective
equipment.7
Duties of Workers
Duties of workers are included in the majority of statutes. In some jurisdictions the
responsibilities are laid out by regulation. The inclusion of workers’ responsibilities and
duties is relatively new in health and safety legislation. Before the late 1970s, all
responsibility for workplace health and safety rested with the employer. Now, though the employer is solely responsible for paying for health and safety activities, everyone is
responsible for making them work. For example, some of the worker duties under
the Canada Labour Code can be paraphrased to include.8
• properly using the safety equipment and clothes provided;
• taking all reasonable precaution to ensure their own health and
safety and that of those who may be affected by their work
activities;
• reporting hazards, such as defective equipment, to the employer;
• reporting any contraventions of the act or regulations;
• reporting to the employer work-related incidents and occupational
diseases; and
• cooperating with health and safety policy, committees, and persons
carrying out duties required by the code.
Stakeholder Summary
As we can see from the above consideration of duties, the occupational health and safety
acts across Canadian jurisdictions reflect the philosophy of the internal responsibility
system. All individuals share responsibility for health and safety in the workplace.
Together, the shared and specific duties for various stakeholder groups help enact the
regulations designed to keep our workplaces safe.
Joint Health and Safety Committees
Joint health and safety committees in the workplace are required by law in most
jurisdictions in Canada. OH&S Notebook 2.3 details the requirements for when a joint
health and safety committee is necessary in workplaces across Canada. Note that although
in this text we use the label “joint health and safety committee,” these committees may be called by other names; for example, “joint occupational health and safety committee,”
“worksite safety committee,” and others.
OH&S Notebook 2.3: When do Organizations Need Joint Health and Safety
Committees?
Whether a workplace must have a joint health and safety committee largely depends on its
size and the occupational health and safety jurisdiction it falls under. Most health and
safety acts require a joint occupational and safety committee in workplaces with 20 or more employees. These include the federal jurisdiction, Alberta, British Columbia*,
Manitoba*, Ontario*, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Yukon, and
Northwest Territories/Nunavut*. That said, some of these jurisdictions (indicated by an
asterisk), have special provisions that can require a smaller organization to have a
committee in place as a result of an order and/or when requested by the governing body.
Ontario has additional provision for committees when designated substances are in use. Two jurisdictions, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saskatchewan, require a committee
when there are 10 or more employees. Quebec’s act permits the formation of health and
safety committees in workplaces where there are more than 20 employees and the
organization falls under a category recognized in regulations. The committee is established by written notice by the certified association or 10 percent of the workers in the case of
workplaces without certified associations. The CNESST also has the ability to require a
committee in a Quebec workplace regardless of the number of workers.
Sources: CCOHS, “Joint Health and Safety Committee—What Is a Joint Health and Safety
Committee?” Fact Sheet (July 26, 2018). Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hscommittees/whatisa.html (accessed July 24, 2019); Quebec, An Act Respecting Occupational Health and Safety, Chapter 4. Found
at:
http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.phptype=2&fil
e=/S_2_1/S2_1_A.html (accessed (July 26, 2018), 2019)
The joint health and safety committee helps enact the internal responsibility system. The
inclusion of “joint” in the title reflects that both labour and management participate in the
work of the committee. The primary function of the joint health and safety committee is to provide a nonadversarial atmosphere in which labour and management can work together
to create a safer and healthier workplace. The committee can bring together knowledge of
work tasks and company policies and procedures to improve health and safety.9
Occupational health and safety legislation regulates the formation and composition of the
joint committee. Legislation typically mandates that joint committees are structured in
such a way that equal or better representation is required from workers who do not exercise managerial responsibilities. For example, in New Brunswick, the committee size is
to be agreed upon by the employer and employees. The committee must have equal
representation from the employer and its employees and is co-chaired by an employer
representative and an employee representative. The committee must meet once a month.10 Additionally, most acts outline training requirements for committee members.
For example, in British Columbia and Manitoba, committee members are entitled to an
annual educational leave to attend training. In Saskatchewan, employers are responsible to ensure that representatives receive training.11 Training for committee members might
include law, general safety, hygiene, inspections, job safety analysis, indoor air quality,
chemical safety, certified workers’ rights and duties, and joint committees’ responsibilities.
What are the duties of a joint health and safety committee? These differ somewhat across
the country, but duties can include things such as hazard recognition, risk assessment,
responding to employee concerns, and ensuring that records are maintained and
monitored.12 Certified members may be involved in inspections, work refusals, and bilateral work stoppages when there is an imminent hazard to a worker. They may also
investigate critical accidents, attend at the beginning of hygiene testing, and respond to
worker concerns.
The existence of joint health and safety committees grows out of the idea of an internal
responsibility system (IRS)—the suggestion that work and safety are inexorably linked and
that all parties in the workplace have a responsibility to improve health and safety.13 A review of the research literature generally supports the effectiveness of joint committees in
managing health and safety, particularly that the existence of joint health and safety
committees can lead to a reduction in the number of workplace injuries.14 However, it is
important to emphasize that the existence of a joint health and safety committee does not necessarily mean that the committee is effective.15 Researchers have considered the
elements that make for an effective joint occupational health and safety committee. Some
of the key features of an effective joint committee include being appropriately trained, operating in a workplace where senior management is supportive, being empowered in
their work, visibility in the workplace, good communication with the workforce, and having
adequate resources.16 Effective joint occupational health and safety committees can make
a real, positive difference in health and safety outcomes.
Work Refusals
The right to refuse dangerous work without fear of reprisal is available to workers in every
jurisdiction in Canada. Within that right, workers can refuse to operate equipment, work in a place, or engage in an activity if they have reasonable cause to believe that doing so
would cause danger to themselves or others. Some hypothetical situations where a worker
might feel at risk for illness or injury and launch a work refusal include the following: A
machinist refuses to operate a particular press at work owing to a missing safety guard. A
crew of outdoor workers refuse to work outside under very cold conditions because they
feel their required uniform does not provide adequate personal protection. A construction
worker refuses work because there has been a safety recall on the company-provided hard
hats. A courier refuses to deliver a package to the home of a violent individual who has
previously thrown heavy objects at delivery people.
There are established procedures for engaging in and investigating a work refusal. Here is a
sketch of the general process of reporting and investigating a work refusal, although
various jurisdictions may differ somewhat in the exact process. The employee should alert the employer to the danger and indicate the intention to refuse due to a reasonable
assumption that the work is unsafe. The employer then investigates. Note that another
employee cannot be asked to perform the work in the interim. Following the investigation, the employer writes a report. If the conclusion is that danger is present, corrective actions
are to be taken. If the employer concludes there is no danger, the worker may opt to return
to the task. However, if the worker disagrees and still refuses, the refusal is taken to a committee that conducts additional investigations and reporting. If the conclusion is the
same, the refusal can be taken to the relevant government ministry. At this point, the
employee may be assigned to other work while the investigation continues.17
Following appropriate procedures in work refusal situations is important. Case law shows
when work refusals go through the appeals process, the courts will consider whether
appropriate reporting and investigations took place. They will also examine whether the
motivation for the refusal was in bad faith; for instance, avoiding discomfort or reflecting other labour concerns as opposed to true safety concern.18 Some of the complexities in
work refusals are explored in OH&S Today 2.3.
OH&S Today 2.3: The Right to Refuse Unsafe Work
Although the right to refuse unsafe work is well enshrined in occupational health and
safety legislation, enactment of that right can be confusing for employees and employers
alike. In fact, in 2014 changes to the Canada Labour Codetook effect. These changes were in part to clarify confusion around work refusals. One change was to provide a more
specific definition of danger so that work refusals are enacted only in light of a serious and
imminent safety threat.
One area of complexity is differentiating work refusals based on safety concerns versus
those based on a worker’s level of comfort. In cases where workers refuse work based on
heat stress, the question of discomfort versus danger are often key. For instance, in one case, a work refusal was upheld for hotel porters whose multi-layered uniforms
exacerbated risk of heat stress when working outside in hot summer conditions. Yet, in
another case, railways workers’ refusals regarding potential heat stress due to the ponchos
they were required to wear were dismissed because the frequent breaks permitted
reduced the risk of heat stress. In such cases things like the actual thermal conditions as
well as exacerbating (e.g., warm uniforms) and mitigating (e.g., provision of breaks) are
considered in determining the validity of the ground for work refusal.
In another case, correctional workers at a jail in Hamilton, Ontario, were tasked with conducting a search of the cells for a missing piece of metal. Fearing that inmates could
have made a knife out of the metal, workers refused to conduct the search unless they
were allowed to wear protective vests while searching. The employer initially refused— arguing that wearing the vests would likely intimidate inmates. In this case, a Ministry of
Labour investigation also concluded that there was no enhanced risk and vests were not
needed. However, management eventually allowed the guards to don vests to conduct the
search. Although the initial issue was resolved, the guards ended up locked out of the job
when the union and ministry continued to debate the legitimacy of the safety complaint.
Sources: K. Jensen and S. Robinson, “Changes to the Canada Labour Code: Work Refusals
and Narrower Definition of Danger,” Canadian Employment Law Today (October 20, 2014). Found at: https://www.employmentlawtoday.com/article/22570-changes-to-the-canada-
labour-code-work-refusals-and-narrower-definition-of-danger (accessed July 24, 2019);
OHS Insider, “Seasonal Safety: Is Fear of Heat Stress Valid Grounds for Refusing Work?” Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/topics/cold-heat-stress/seasonal-safety-is-fear-of-heat-
stress-valid-grounds-for-refusing-work (accessed July 24, 2019); and Sabrina Nanji, “Jail
Guards Locked Out After Bulletproof Vest Brouhaha,” OHS Canada (September 10, 2012).
Found at: http://www.ohscanada.com/news/jail-guards-locked-out-after-bulletproof-vest-
brouhaha/1001682264 (accessed July 24, 2019).
That said, there are exceptions or limitations to the right to refuse unsafe work. The
specifics of these situations vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction across the country. However, the essential theme is that a worker does not have the right to refuse unsafe
work if such work is a normal condition of employment, or if the worker, by his or her
refusal, places another person’s safety in jeopardy. These conditions are noted in in
the Canada Labour Code. Provincial jurisdictions may expand or specify these exceptions. For instance, Ontario specifically notes, in addition to the situations noted above, certain
professions have a limited right of refusal. These groups include police officers,
correctional workers, firefighters, and health care workers. This does not mean that
workers in these groups never have a right to refuse dangerous work. For example, a
firefighter has the right to refuse to use unsafe equipment during an exercise. However, a
firefighter cannot refuse work on the basis of being exposed to the dangers of fires, which are an inherent aspect of the job. A nurse has the right to refuse to use equipment
suspected to be defective until his or her concern has been investigated and resolved.
However, a nurse does not have the right to refuse unsafe work if the lives of patients are
placed in jeopardy as a result of the refusal.19
Stop-Work Provisions
Some Canadian occupational health and safety acts incorporate stop-work provisions.
Included in Alberta’s 2018 updates to its Occupational Health and Safety Act are changes that bolster OH&S officers’ ability to issue stop-work orders and to ensure that affected
workers receive their regular pay and benefits during stop-work period.20 For example, in Ontario certain persons have authority to stop work under the Health and Safety
Act. Bilateral work stoppages allow certified members of the joint health and safety
committee, representing both the employer and employee members of the joint health and safety committee, to agree to stop work in dangerous circumstances that become
apparent in the course of an inspection or investigation. If both sides do not agree that
there are dangerous circumstances, the legislation permits unilateral work stoppages with
the notification and involvement of the Ontario Labour Relations Board. The legislation
defines “dangerous circumstance” as follows:21
• a provision of the act or the regulation is being contravened;
• the contravention presents a danger or a hazard to a worker; and
• the danger or hazard is such that any delay in controlling it may
seriously endanger a worker.
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information
System
The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) is an important aspect of workers’ right to know about hazards in their workplaces, particularly about hazards that
may be associated with handling, storage, use, and emergency measures for chemicals
used in the workplace, and, by extension, the community. WHMIS was legislated in Canada
in 1988, and phased into force across the country between 1988 and 1990.22
The original 1988 WHMIS legislation was based on three elements: labels designed to alert
the worker that the container contains a potentially hazardous product, material safety
data sheets (MSDSs) outlining a product’s potentially hazardous ingredient(s) and procedures for safe handling of the product; and employee training. Note that Ontario
added three further elements to its legislation including hazardous materials inventory
requirement, physical agents (such as noise), and the public’s right to know.
More recently WHMIS has undergone substantial changes in structure to align with the
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). The GHS is
an international standard being adopted by countries around the world, which eases global trade and business interaction. WHMIS 2015 incorporates elements of the GHS.
There are changes in the classification criteria with some new classes added, new
requirements for supplier labels, and new formatting and information requirements for
Safety Data Sheets (which are no longer called Material Safety Data Sheets).23 The transition to the new system took place in phases from 2015 to 2018 during which time
government jurisdictions updated regulations and acts to comply with WHMIS 2015, and
businesses transitioned to the new system. WHMIS 2015 is considered in more detail in
Chapter 6.
Corporate Liability for OH&S Under
the Criminal Code
In the past, directors and officers of incorporated entities were responsible solely to the
corporation and shareholders; however, their zone of accountability now extends to the public at large. Environmental and OH&S statutes have been amended to include broad
responsibilities for directors and officers of corporations. For example, directors and
officers of corporations can be fined or imprisoned for environmental pollution and fined
for failing to comply with regulatory legislation.
Although executives of a company could once hide behind the laws of incorporation when
it came to occupational health and safety incidents, this is no longer the case. Changes to
the Criminal Code mean that company executives can be found criminally negligent for serious occupational health and safety violations and face fines and prison time
accordingly.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, these changes to the Criminal Code followed the 1992 Westray tragedy. This Nova Scotia mine explosion, which killed 26 miners, was determined to be
attributable to corporate negligence. However, Canadian laws at the time did not permit criminal charges. Following Westray, a federal bill (Bill C-45) was proposed to address the
issue of corporate liability with respect to both fraud and occupational health and safety.
The bill was passed by Parliament in 2003 and became law in March 2004. The passing of the bill into law meant the addition of sections to the Criminal Code of Canada. Specifically,
it resulted in the addition of Section 217.1, which states that those in authority for workers
have a responsibility to take reasonable steps to protect those workers from harm.
Furthermore, Sections 22.1 and 22.2 specify that corporations can be criminally liable for
negligence and other offences.24 The act makes a company responsible for
• the actions of those who oversee day-to-day operations (e.g.,
supervisors and mid-level managers);
• managers (executive oroperational) who intentionally commit, or
have employees commit, crimes to benefit the organization;
• managers who do not take action when they become aware of
offences being committed; and
• the actions of managers who demonstrate a criminal lack of care
(i.e., criminal negligence).
These changes to the Criminal Code could lead to a corporation and its managers being criminally prosecuted for failing to provide an appropriate standard of occupational health
and safety in the workplace if an employee died or was injured as a result of that
negligence. This brings the notion of “corporate homicide” into the Canadian Criminal Code for the first time, which substantially raises the stakes for managers and corporations.
Furthermore, companies cannot shift blame to frontline managers because the legislation
details that companies are responsible for ensuring that frontline staff know the
appropriate rules, regulations, and working procedures and that employees follow the
procedures. It is no longer possible to claim that employees were derelict in their
responsibility.
The passage of Bill C-45 was greeted with great fanfare; the first charges (relating to the death of a construction worker) were laid in 2004 but were subsequently withdrawn in
2005. Three people were changed with criminal negligence in the Lac Mégantic tragedy,
where a train carrying crude oil exploded resulting in 47 deaths. However, all three were acquitted following a jury trial.25 As a result, there has been some concern that the law has
no “teeth” in practice. Whenever charges could be laid under either the safety legislation
(provincial) or the Criminal Code (federal), the preference seems to be for safety legislation
to prevail. It seems that the Criminal Codeis likely to be invoked in only the most severe, egregious, and atypical cases. Nonetheless, there have now been several convictions under
the act. In one case, Transpave Inc. pled guilty to criminal negligence relating to a death of
an employee and was fined $110 000. In a second case, a landscape contractor (Pasquale Scrocca) was sentenced to two years less a day to be served in the community for criminal
negligence causing death when one of his employees was crushed by an improperly
maintained backhoe. Merton Construction pled guilty to criminal negligence charges in
relation to a staging collapse that killed four workers in Toronto on Christmas Eve, 2009. The company received fines of $230 000 with an additional $90 000 fine for the president of
the firm. In January 2016, the project manager in the Merton case was sentenced to 3.5
years in prison for his role in the tragedy. Nevertheless, critics point to the fact that the
penalties still do not reflect the seriousness of the charges.26
Environmental Legislation
Environmental and occupational health and safety laws are closely linked. In recognition of
this fact, many companies and institutions have occupational environmental health and
safety departments. Some of the intersections between OH&S and environmental sustainability are explored in OH&S Today 2.4. The occupational health and safety
professional will be aware of the overlap in environmental and OH&S statutes and
regulations. For example, chemicals that can cause damage to a worker may also cause damage to the ecosystem if released into the environment. Recall the rail tragedy at Lac-
Mégantic explored in Chapter 1. Following the derailment and its associated explosions,
there are concerns about the lasting environmental effects on the soil and water. Some of
the changes laid in that case were in fact under the Fisheries Act.27
OH&S Today 2.4: Corporate Social Responsibility: The Intersection of Safety and
Environmental Concerns
Via the corporate social responsibility movement, many organizations identify
environmental protection and safety promotion as core organizational priorities. In 2016 the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) adopted the International Standards
Organization’s (ISO) standard on social responsibility as a guide for Canadian
organizations. Under a corporate social responsibility philosophy, organizations make a
purposeful effort to incorporate social and environmental considerations into their
business decision-making frameworks. It is easy to see how the health and well-being of
employees, community, and the planet are social responsibilities for organizations. Some organizations are putting this into practice and reflecting on their health and safety
activities as part of their corporate social responsibility programming.
Consider Morneau Shepell, an HR services company offering technology-enabled services
in areas such as employee assistance, pensions, and benefits. Its 2018 Corporate Social Responsibility Report highlights the ways that core values in workplace experiences,
supporting communities, and environmental stewardship drive its operations. For
example, the organization’s workplace health and well-being programs focus on physical, mental, and social well-being, and its environmental initiatives include a green
procurement process.
Internationally, Denmark has legislation pertaining to mandatory reporting of corporate social responsibility activities. Developments in legislation, standards, and codes
pertaining to corporations’ social responsibilities will be something to watch for in the
coming years.
Sources: M.J. Montero, R.A. Araque, and J.M. Rey, “Occupational Health and Safety in the Framework of Corporate Social Responsibility,” Safety Science, 47(10) (2009), 1440–1445;
Morneau Shepell, “Corporate Social Responsibility Report 2018.” Found at:
https://www.morneaushepell.com/permafiles/91722/csr-report-2019.pdf (accessed July 24, 2019); OHS Insider. “CSA Publishes First Edition of Social Responsibility Guidance.”
Found at:https://ohsinsider.com/topics/due-diligence/csa-publishes-first-edition-social-
responsibility-guidance (accessed July 24, 2019); Norm Keith (October 24, 2011), “Corporate Social Responsibility: An International Perspective,” OHS Insider. Found
at:https://ohsinsider.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Corporate-Social-Responsibility-
2011-NK.pdf (accessed April 30, 2010).
By way of illustration, federal statutes relating to some aspect of environmental or health and safety management are listed in OH&S Notebook 2.4. Regulatory laws related to
environmental assessment, public health, waste disposal, buried fuel tanks, and storage or
use of pesticides have an impact on the environment, the public, and the occupational health and safety of employees. The practitioner is required to understand environmental
and OH&S jurisdictions and the potential for overlap. If a release of a potentially hazardous
substance occurs within a building (other than residential), it falls under the jurisdiction of the authority enforcing the health and safety legislation. If the release is outside the
building, or if the potentially hazardous substance is released into the sewer, storm
system, water, or air, it falls under the jurisdiction of the authority enforcing the
environmental legislation. Any single occurrence may involve both authorities.
OH&S Notebook 2.4: Building Awareness of the Statutes Relevant to OH&S in Canada
You’ve likely determined at this point in the chapter that there are many statutes and
regulations relevant to OH&S in Canada. First, each jurisdiction has its own OH&S legislation. There are also considerations for OH&S in Canadian human rights and
freedoms legislation. Human rights legislation is pivotal in protections and
accommodations offered to injured or ill workers. However, we also see that there are overlaps in OH&S, environmental, and transportation spheres. Thus, statutes pertaining to
the environment and transportation of dangerous goods also need to be on the radar of
employers, OH&S professionals, employees, and other stakeholders in OH&S.
These are some of the federal statutes relevant to OH&S:
• Canadian Environmental Protection Act
• Hazardous Products Act
• Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution
Act
• Canada Labour Code, Part IV
• Criminal Code of Canada
• Pest Control Products Act
• Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act
• Radiation Emitting Devices Act
• Canada Shipping Act
• Radiation Protection Regulations
There are also many relevant provincial and territorial statutes relevant to OH&S. These
include the OH&S acts, which we have considered throughout the chapter. Provinces and
territories also have specific legislation around the protection of human rights and
freedoms. Some provinces, such as Ontario and Manitoba, have specific acts pertaining to
accessibility for persons with disabilities, which also have OH&S implications, particularly relating to workplace accommodations. In addition, there are provincial/territorial laws
pertaining to the environment, waste management, and the transportation of dangerous
goods that need to be considered as necessary.
Transportation of Dangerous Goods
The regulation of environmental hazards, occupational health and safety, and
transportation of dangerous goods is not the exclusive domain of the federal, provincial, or territorial governments. Therefore, the OH&S professional should be familiar with the
statutes relevant to his or her particular jurisdiction. In essence, the environmental and
transportation legislation seeks to supply the framework within which society can protect
itself from the risk that attends the transportation of inherently dangerous materials.
The federal legislation governing the transportation of dangerous goods applies to all
persons who handle, offer for transport, transport, or import any dangerous goods. The
provincial or territorial legislation does not always go this far, making it sometimes impossible to determine which statutes apply. Notwithstanding some provincial or
territorial limitations, dangerous goods legislation applies to carriers, shippers, and
transportation intermediaries such as freight forwarders and customs brokers. Various regulations exist with respect to identifying and placarding dangerous goods, controlling
quantities, and training and certifying workers. The regulatory wording complements the
WHMIS requirements and the OH&S responsibility of employers and supervisors to educate
and train workers.
In R. v. Midland Transport Ltd. (1991) the New Brunswick Provincial Court made the
following observation about the legislation: “The Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act
and the Regulations thereunder with the act fall in the category of legislation which creates public welfare offences. Recognizing the potential dangers, it establishes safety guidelines
for the handling of hazardous materials to ensure the protection of the public and the
environment.”
Summary
The complexities associated with OH&S legislation in Canada continue to increase. This
chapter has outlined the scope of this legislation and the changing climate surrounding it.
We began by reviewing the three principal rights of employees (the right to know, the right
to participate, and the right to refuse) and how they are enacted in health and safety programs. We discussed the legislative framework of OH&S legislation. We paid particular
attention to the duties of major stakeholders (employers, constructors, supervisors,
employees) and their reflection of the internal responsibility system. We considered work
refusals and work stoppages as concrete enactments of the right to refuse unsafe work. Further, we examined joint health and safety committees, which exemplify the right to
participate in decision making around occupational health and safety. The elements
composing WHMIS, a manifestation of the right to know, were reviewed with particular attention to the recent alignment with the GHS. We also explored corporate criminal
negligence. Finally, we considered ancillary legislation (e.g., regarding environmental
concerns and transportation of dangerous goods).
Key Terms
act
constructor
general duty
GHS
guidelines and policies
prescribed duty regulations
standards and codes
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 2.1
Review
What are the three fundamental workers’ rights that underlie most health and safety legislation?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 2.2
Review
What is the most fundamental general duty provision in occupational health and safety legislation
across Canada? How do the general and prescribed duties in the legislation reflect the internal re- sponsibility system?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 2.3
Review
Considering the health and safety legislation: (a) Provide an example of a situation in which a worker
could reasonably refuse work. (b) Describe a situation in which a worker could not refuse unsafe work. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Steeping some tea...
Discussion Question 2.5
Review
Describe the structure and role of joint health and safety committees. In your answer, reflect on how
such committees enact the right to participate.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 2.1
Review
What OH&S legislation applies in your jurisdiction? Find the body responsible for occupational health and safety and review the legislation. What are the major provisions and their implications for
employers? for employees? for human resource managers?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 2.2
Review
Health and safety legislation can be crafted following different approaches. One approach is to “force”
compliance by establishing standards, conducting rigorous inspections on a regular basis, and harshly punishing failures to meet the established standards. A second approach is to facilitate self-reliance by
providing the parties with the information and resources necessary to monitor and enhance health and
safety in their workplaces. What are the relative merits of these two approach-es? What advantages and disadvantages accrue under each system? What is the appropriate bal-ance between enforcement
and encouragement? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 2.3
Review
WHMIS training is widely available online. Using a search engine and keywords such as “WHMIS online training,” find a local provider of online WHMIS training and describe the objectives and con-tent of the
program.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 2.1
Show Correct Answer
As a human resources manager at an urban property management firm, you’ve noticed a trend of an
increasing number of young workers on your payroll. Some are students who are helping to cover their
living costs by working part-time as on-site superintendents in their apartment buildings; some are
sum-mer workers who are hired to cover additional outside maintenance and landscaping work in the
sum-mer; and others are new full-time, permanent hires brought on in a recent expansion of your
company’s holdings. You’re concerned that you are seeing an increase in worksite injury incident
claims. When you interview many of these new, young workers you realize that they are often unaware
of their workplace rights. Prepare a briefing note for your boss, the director of company operations,
outlining the basic worker rights, why it is important for workers to understand them, and how you
might increase awareness of these rights among your entire workforce, including young, short-term,
and part-time workers. (Hint: You can easily find the details on the purpose and structure of a briefing
note using an Internet search.)
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
Need Assessment
To: You, OH&S Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Legal Requirements
Thanks for briefing the management team on the need for health and safety at Well-Mart. I think we’ve
made a good start and now need to keep the ball rolling. Your PowerPoint presentation really hit
home.
We’re starting from nothing and need to start building our health and safety program. I know that the
province has numerous requirements for us to be compliant with the existing legislation. Can you
please prepare a short checklist for me itemizing these requirements, with a short explanation from
each one?
When completing this assignment, in addition to responding to the above, address the following:
1. Who are the various stakeholders at Well-Mart? Describe each stakeholder’s
duties and responsibilities.
Do you think it’s important for Well-Mart to have a joint health and safety
committee?
2. Why or why not? Are they any legal obligations for the company to establish a
health and safety committee?
Upload a PDF to submit your Need Assessment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
References
1. CCOHS. “OH&S Legislation in Canada—Introduction. OSH Answer Fact Sheet” (June 20,
2016). Found at: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/legisl/intro.html (accessed July 24,
2019).
2. Canadian Occupational Health & Safety. “All Newfoundland Workers to Be Covered by
PTSD Presumption” (December 21, 2018). Found at: https://cos-mag.com/psychological-
health-safety/38913-all-newfoundland-workers-to-be-covered-by-ptsd-presumption
(accessed July 24, 2019); Alberta. “OHS Act, Regulations & Code”. Found at:
https://www.alberta.ca/ohs-act-regulation-code.aspx (accessed July 24, 2015).
3. PEI Occupational Health and Safety Act. Found at:
http://www.wcb.pe.ca/Workplace/OHSActAndRegulations (accessed July 24, 2019).
4. OHS Insider, “Alberta Moves to Include Farm & Ranch Workers under OHS Laws”
(December 16, 2015). Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/search-by-index/industries/alberta-
moves-to-include-farm-ranch workers-under-ohs-laws (accessed July 24, 2019).
5. Ontario Ministry of Labour, “Guide to the Occupational Health and Safety Act. Part III:
Duties of Employees and Other Persons.” Found at:
http://www.labour.gov.on.ca/english/hs/pubs/ohsa/ohsag_part3.php (accessed July 24,
2019).
6. Yukon Occupational Health and Safety Act, Section 4. Found at:
https://www.wcb.yk.ca/Document-Library/Legislation/LIB0054.aspx (accessed July 24,
2019).
7. Newfoundland and Labrador Occupational Health and Safety Act, Sections 2.k.1, 5.1, 5.2.
Found at: http://www.assembly.nl.ca/legislation/sr/statutes/o03.htm#5_1 (accessed July
24, 2019).
8. Government of Canada. “Information on Occupational Health and Safety—Pamphlet 2A
Employer and Employee Duties” (August 18, 2015). Found at:
https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social development/services/health-
safety/reports/duties.html (accessed July 24, 2019).
9. CCOHS. “Joint Health and Safety Committee—What Is a Joint Health and Safety Committee?” Fact Sheet (July 26, 2018). Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hscommittees/whatisa.html (accessed
July 24, 2019).
10. New Brunswick Occupational Health and Safety Act, Section 14. Found at:
http://laws.gnb.ca/en/showdoc/cs/O-0.2/ga:s_14#anchorga:s_14 (accessed July 24, 2019).
11. CCOHS. “Joint Health and Safety Committee—Joint Health and Safety Creation?” Fact
Sheet (April 8, 2019). Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hscommittees/creation.html (accessed
July 24, 2019).
12. CCOHS. “Joint Health and Safety Committee—What Is a Joint Health and Safety Committee?” Fact Sheet (July 26, 2018). Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hscommittees/whatisa.html (accessed
July 24, 2019).
13. P. Strahlendorf, “Is Your Committee Effective?” OH&S Canada 23 (2007): 24–31.
14. E.K. Kelloway, “Labor Unions and Safety,” in J. Barling and M. Frone, eds., Psychology of
Occupational Safety (Washington: APA, 2003); B. Reilly, P. Paci, and P. Holl, “Unions, Safety
Committees, and Workplace Injuries,” British Journal of Industrial Relations 33 (1995): 275–
288.
15. N. Milgate, E.V. Innes, and K. O’Loughlin. “Examining the Effectiveness of Health and
Safety Committees and Representatives: A Review.” Work 19, no. 3 (2002): 281–290.
16. A. Yassi, K. Lockhart, M. Sykes, B. Buck, B. Stime, and J. M. Spiegel. “Effectiveness of
Joint Health and Safety Committees: A Realist Review.” American Journal of Industrial
Medicine 56, no. 4 (2013): 424–438;
K. Nichol, I. Kudla, L. Robson, C.Y. Hon, J. Eriksson, and D. L. Holness. “The Development and Testing of a Tool to Assess Joint Health and Safety Committee Functioning and
Effectiveness.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine 60, no. 4 (2017): 368–376.
17. Employment and Social Development Canada, “Information on Occupational Health and Safety—Pamphlet 4. Right to Refuse Dangerous Work” (2015). Found at:
https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/services/health-
safety/reports/right-refuse.html (accessed July 24, 2019).
18. OHS Insider, “Is Fear of Heat Stress Valid Grounds for Refusing Work” (August 2018).
Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/07/OHSI_AUG2018_WebSpread.pdf (accessed July 24, 2019).
19. Employment and Social Development Canada, “Information on Occupational Health and Safety—Pamphlet 4. Right to Refuse Dangerous Work” (2015). Found at:
https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/services/health-
safety/reports/right-refuse.html (accessed July 24, 2019); and Province of Ontario, Occupational Health and Safety Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. O.1, Section 43. Found at:
https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90o01 (accessed July 24, 2019).
20. Alberta Government, “Alberta Occupational Health and Safety Act Highlights of
Changes Effective June 1, 2018” (2018). Found at: https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/bf8928ad-63f0-4d0e-9e70
6cf485098145/resource/a864d3ea-b955-4a97-b5cf-5aed84da61f5/download/act-2018-
highlight.pdf (accessed July 24, 2019).
21. Ontario Ministry of Labour, Guide to the Occupational Health and Safety Act. Part V:
Right to Refuse or Stop Work Where Health and Safety In Danger. Found at:
http://www.labour.gov.on.ca/english/hs/pubs/ohsa/ohsag_part5.php (accessed July 24,
2019).
22. CCOHS. “WHMIS 1988 General Fact Sheet.” Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/legisl/intro_whmis.html (accessed July 24, 2019).
23. CCOHS. “WHMIS 2015 General Fact Sheet.” Found at: https://www.ccohs
.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/whmis_ghs/general.html?print (accessed July 24, 2019).
24. CCOHS. “Bill C-45—Overview Fact Sheet.” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/legisl/billc45.html (accessed July 24, 2019); and Summary of Bill C-45, An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Criminal Liability of
Corporations). Found at:
https://lawslois.justice.gc.ca/eng/AnnualStatutes/2003_21/FullText.html (accessed July
24, 2019).
25. Canadian Press Montreal Gazette. “All Three Former Rail Employees Acquitted in Lac-
Mégantic Trial” (January 19, 2018). Found at: https://montrealgazette.com/news/lac-
megantic-trial-all-three-accused-found-not-guilty (accessed July 24, 2019).
26. N. Keith. “After 10 Years, Bill C-45 Yields Few Prosecutions,” Canadian Occupational
Safety (April 23, 2014). Found at: https://www.cos-mag.com/ohs-laws-
regulations/columns/after-10-years-bill-c-45-yields-few-prosecutions (accessed July 24, 2019); CBC News, “Manager in Fatal Scaffolding Collapse Sentenced to 3 1/2 Years”
(January 11, 2016). Found at: http://www.cbc .ca/news/canada/toronto/scaffolding-
collapse-criminally-responsible-vadim-kaznelson-1.3397597 (accessed July 24, 2019).
27. CTV News, “Charges Laid in Connection with Lac-Mégantic Train Derailment” (June 22, 2015). Found at: https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/charges-laid-in-deadly-lac-megantic-
train-derailment-1.2434308 (accessed July 24, 2019).
WORKERS’
COMPENSATION
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• outline the historical roots of the workers’ compensation system in
Canada
• describe the goals and methods of Workers’ Compensation Boards
(WCBs)
• discuss the problems associated with compensating for
psychological conditions and occupational llnesses
• describe the assessment methods of WCBs
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
Canada’s Hub for Workers’ Compensation Information: The Association of Workers’
Compensation Boards
Do you remember where or when you learned about the topic of worker’s compensation
for the first time? Perhaps you are learning about workers’ compensation for the first time
by reading this chapter? The topic of worker’s compensation is likely not a topic of conversation at parties or gatherings, but it is a topic frequently discussed within
organizations and businesses. The topic of worker’s compensation is complex, multi-
layered, and can be overwhelming; however, there are resources available that help employees, and employers ensure they have accurate and current information. For
instance, each province and territory has easily accessible websites and a social media
presence that facilitates the ease of information access; however, Canadians also have the
added benefit of the Association of Workers’ Compensation Boards of Canada (AWCBC). The AWCBC is a nonprofit organization that aims to support the exchange of current and
reliable information between the various provincial compensation boards and
commissions. The key elements of the AWCBC’s vision is to play a leadership role by ensuring workplaces are safe and healthy and that the compensation process is fair and
affordable. AWCBC achieves this by information sharing, data analysis, education, and
networking. The AWCBC is governed by a board of representatives from each provincial
and territorial board/commission, and in 2019 the association celebrated its 100th
anniversary of operation.
The AWCBC is a hub for Canadian WCB information. On the AWCBC’s website (www.awcbc.org) you will find cross-jurisdictional information, lists of various national and
international events, free tables of statistical information, lists of WCB-funded research
projects, provincial injury and illness prevention campaigns, and much more. In addition to
this information, the AWCBC also offers the following:
• National Committee Support—providing organizational support to
the various AWCBC committees.
• Key Statistical Reports—these reports outline annual workers’
compensation statistics from across Canada and are useful
resources by featuring common definitions for indicators and
statistics.
• National Work Injury Statistics Program—lost-time claims, disease,
and fatality statistics from 18 industries from across the country are
summarized in addition to various free summary statistical tables.
Members of AWCBC (each of the provincial and territorial
boards/commissions) can access customized statistical reports.
• Information Request Service—a national repository of information
wherein provincial boards and commissions can search for
information from other jurisdictions in Canada.
Introduction
Workers’ compensation is a form of insurance governed by an act of Parliament to help
workers who are injured on the job to return to work. Consider the example of a
construction labourer who has sustained an injury on the job and is now unable to work.
Workers’ compensation will ensure that the injured worker receives (1) first aid treatment, either on the job or at the nearest local treatment facility, (2) benefits while at home
recuperating, and (3) proper treatment for any injuries. If necessary, rehabilitation will be
provided to help the worker return to his or her former job or some modified version of it, if
circumstances dictate.
Workers’ compensation is an extremely important part of workplace health and safety,
therefore the needs of employees and employers must be considered. This chapter reviews the history of workers’ compensation, and basic principles and tenets of the various boards
and commissions.
Historical Roots
Workers’ compensation originated in Germany in 1884 but was not established in Canada
until 1914, when the Ontario Workmen’s Compensation Act was passed by the provincial Parliament (see OH&S Notebook 3.1). This time lag was something of an advantage,
because it allowed for consideration of the American and European experience (the
federal Employers’ Liability Act had been passed in the United States in 1908). In 1900 the
Ontario government inquired into the German system. Between 1912 and 1914 an intensive and prolonged study of existing laws in other European countries and in the United States
occurred under the guidance of Sir William Ralph Meredith, chief justice of Ontario. Based
on his findings, the first act in Canada was passed.
OH&S Notebook 3.1: Overview of Workers’ Compensation
Essentially, workers’ compensation is an insurance plan in which the premiums (i.e., the
cost of insurance) are paid by the employer. The plan is administered by a board or commission typically known as the workers’ compensation board (WCB). Each board
administers its provincial workers’ compensation legislation (e.g., WCB Act ), which is
created by each individual province or territory. In addition to legislation, each province has policies indicating how the legislation is to be applied. Each year the provincial board
or commission sets new premium rates for each industry. The rate is usually expressed per
$100 of payroll. A rate group is a method for categorizing companies based on the nature of their business (e.g., clothing retail, manufacturing). In some provinces a company’s
premium rate may be increased or decreased depending on its specific safety record. WCBs
use this money to compensate injured workers, pay for medical treatment, engage in
prevention activities, and fund safety associations (i.e., industry associations whose focus
is promoting occupational health and safety).
If you are a worker who is injured in the workplace, your employer is required to file a
report of the injury with the WCB. If your injury requires you to miss time from work, you will receive compensation to make up for lost income while you are off. Though the details
vary by jurisdiction, the compensation is usually based on a percentage of your salary to a
specified maximum. For example, in Prince Edward Island the 2019 maximum earning is
$55,000; in Ontario the maximum insurable earning ceiling is $90,300.
Acts were subsequently passed in all provinces and territories, and though they have been
amended many times (largely for increasing coverage and benefits), they have retained
many of the principles set forth in the Ontario act of 1914:
• collective liability for employers, with some recognition of risk in the
amount of contribution paid by individual employers;
• compensation for workers regardless of the financial condition of
the employer;
• compensation based on loss of earnings;
• a “no fault” system;
• a non-adversarial process: little or no recourse to the courts (in
Ontario, Schedule 2 can allow legal recourse).
A workers’ compensation system amounts to a trade-off for both workers and employers.
Workers know they will be compensated for injury without having to undertake expensive
and lengthy lawsuits; in return, they accept the WCB’s authority to determine the amount of compensation. Employers are obliged to pay for the workers’ compensation system but
are also protected from litigation that could drive them into bankruptcy.1
Workers’ Compensation in Canada
Administration and Responsibilities
The provincial and territorial acts throughout Canada are administered by the members of
the WCB, who are appointed by the lieutenant governor in council. The provincial
boards/commissions are empowered to fix and collect assessments, determine the right to compensation, and pay the amount due to the injured worker. In all these matters, the
workers’ compensation system has exclusive and final jurisdiction. In terms of its authority
and power, the Ontario Act is representative of the legislation that exists in all jurisdictions.
The regulations and responsibilities of workers’ compensation boards are as follows:
• The injured worker will receive payment while off work and will have
all medical bills paid if the injury happened at work and because of
work.
• The injured worker will receive a pension if the injury is or becomes
permanent.
• The injured worker will receive benefits if he or she cannot earn the
same amount of money earned before the incident.
• The injured worker’s immediate family and dependants will be
entitled to benefits if the worker is killed or dies because of an
injury on the job.
• The WCBs classify employers to ensure consistency.
• The WCBs decide whether an individual is classified as a worker, a
subcontractor, or an employer, as each class has different
conditions.
• The workers’ compensation system can pay benefits if a worker is
affected by an industrial disease that has resulted from his or her
occupation.
In relation to most of the industries within the scope of the provincial or territorial acts, the
system of compensation is one of compulsory and collective liability. Under collective
liability, the various industries are classified according to their size and end product, and each employer is assessed a rate that is a percentage of its payroll. The percentage is
determined by the injury cost of its classification. From the incident fund thus collected,
payments are made for compensation, medical aid, rehabilitation, incident prevention,
and administrative expenses. Each employer is liable for assessment, whatever the cost of injuries sustained by its workers. As a result, each is relieved of individual liability. In most
jurisdictions, liability is further distributed by a disaster reserve fund.
Public authorities and certain large corporations such as railways and shipping or telegraph companies have a different liability approach from the collective liabilities
scheme and are individually liable for compensation; however, all disputes are settled by
the WCB. Such corporations contribute their portion of the cost of administering the
various acts.
Because jurisdictions sometimes provide different benefits, most WCBs in Canada have
entered into agreements among themselves to avoid duplicate assessments and to help
the worker claim and receive compensation when two or more jurisdictions are involved. These agreements are intended to ensure that the worker receives the best possible
benefits and that coverage is extended in a province or territory. Workers may receive
services within their home province/territory despite an injury or illness occurring in another province. This is an important consideration for organizations with employees
working in multiple provinces or territories. In such cases where an organization has
employees who cross provincial borders as part of their work, the interjurisdictional agreements ensure that employers avoid paying assessments twice for the same payroll.
For example, a transportation-based organization may not be required to pay assessments
in every province or territory. It is important for HR managers to understand the details of
these agreements given that each provincial and territorial board/commission has specific
rules about who is covered and the extent of that coverage.
The provincial and territorial acts generally cover all employment in industries such as
lumbering, mining, fishing, manufacturing, construction, engineering, and transportation. Covered occupations include operation of electrical power lines, employment in
waterworks and other public utilities, navigation, operation of boats and ships, operation
of elevators and warehousing, street cleaning, painting, decorating, renovating, and cleaning. Those types of employment that are exempted from this list may be admitted at
the organization’s own request.
Personal injuries resulting from incidents arising out of and during employment are
compensated, except when the incident is attributed to the worker’s serious and willful misconduct. Workers’ compensation systems also compensate for certain specified
occupational diseases. The various compensation boards across Canada continually
update and amend legislation to ensure and promote workplace health and safety. Many of those updates are to the presumptive work-related diseases—those diseases where the
cause is presumed to be work related (see OH&S Today 3.1).
OH&S Today 3.1: Legislative Updates
As we evolve, technology advances, and industries and environment change, the legislation that governs WCB coverage needs to be amended to ensure it meets the needs
of employees and employers and supports safe and healthy work environments. The
following is a list of some legislative changes made within the year 2018–2019. For a more comprehensive list, or to view specific legislative changes made in your jurisdiction please
visit your local board or commission website (see OH&S Notebook 3.2 for web addresses).
• Saskatchewan amended presumptive coverage legislation for
professional firefighters to include volunteer firefighters. Six new
cancers were added to the list of presumptive coverage: prostate,
skin, breast, cervical, ovarian, and multiple myeloma.
• British Columbia expanded coverage for wildfire firefighters. The
expansion coverage includes cancer and heart disease.
Additionally, mental health disorder presumptions now include
three other job categories.
• New Brunswick amended various aspects of its legislation wherein
the following amendments were made:
o Restoration of policy deference to WorkSafeNB’s board of
directors
o Clarification and establishment of the intent of compensation
(compensation for work-related injuries and illnesses only)
o Elimination of the unpaid three-day waiting period for injured
workers
o Addressing the recovery of the accident fund deficit to
mitigate the risk of significant increases to the assessment
rates while protecting the benefits for injured workers
• Nova Scotia amended the Workers’ Compensation Act to include
presumptive coverage of PTSD for frontline and emergency
response workers.
• In 2018 the government of Alberta made legislative changes to
various aspects of the Workers’ Compensation Act. These changes
fall under the following categories:
o Creation of the Code of Rights and Conduct
o This new code articulates the rights of workers, employers,
and their interaction with Alberta WCB and how the board
commits to recognizing these rights within its operations
• Requirement of employer’s obligation to reinstate
o Employers required to reinstate injured workers
• Provision of interim relief
o Financial support will be provided to workers during a
decision review/appeal process
• Expanded psychological coverage
o Expanded presumptive coverage for psychological injuries
o Expanded presumptive coverage of post-traumatic stress
disorder to correctional officers and emergency dispatchers
(in addition to first responders)
• Extended window of appeal
o Window for appealing to the Appeals Commission is extended
to two years following a decision from the Dispute Resolution
and Decision Review Body
• Enhanced survivor benefits
o New lump-sum fatality benefit (up to $90,772.20) is provided
to the spouse or dependants of a worker who dies because of
an injury or illness
o Enhanced benefits for all surviving spouses and dependent
children of workers who pass away because of an injury or
illness
• Process enhancements
o Required confirmation that all reasonable efforts are made in
a worker’s job search before the earnings capacity is
estimated
o Safety associations funded through WCB–collected levies will
receive grant installments only after satisfying oversight
requirements established by OHS
o Workers have the right to choose their own health care
provider
o Implementation of regular review schedule of WCB
compensation system
• Benefits enhancements
o Removed the cap for maximum insurable earnings
o Enhanced benefits for severely injured young workers
o Expanded presumptive coverage of myocardial infarction to
paramedics
o Cost of living adjustment calculation now based on 100% of
the change in the Alberta Consumer Price Index
o Enhanced retirement benefits
Sources: Association of Workers’ Compensation Boards of Canada (accessed March 1,
2019); Government of New Brunswick, http://www2.gnb.ca /content/gnb/en
news/news_release.2018.11.1295.html (accessed July 24, 2019); Workers’ Compensation Board—Alberta, https://www.wcb.ab.ca /about-wcb/2018-updates.html#additional-
enhancements (accessed July 24, 2019); Saskatchewan Workers’ Compensation Board,
www.wcbsask .com (accessed July 24, 2019); WorkSafeBC,
https://www.worksafebc.com/en/law-policy/workers-compensation-law/amendments (accessed July 24, 2019); Workers’ Compensation Board of Nova Scotia,
https://www.wcb.ns.ca/About-Us/News-Room/News/Presumptive-benefits-for-PTSD .aspx
(accessed March 1, 2019).
Prevention
Most WCBs, at one time, were responsible for the incident prevention or OH&S aspects of
workers’ compensation. In the 1970s and 1980s the combined role was viewed as a conflict
of interest by some governments, and these WCB functions were placed under a government department in most provinces and territories (e.g., the Department of Labour).
Though the OH&S function is formally separate in most jurisdictions (with BC and NB being
exceptions), all WCBs cooperate with the responsible government department by sharing information. Many jurisdictions across Canada include some type of prevention function in
the WCB’s traditional compensation functions. For example, many boards offer premium
reductions based on safety records. The idea behind this is that it places the onus of prevention and reducing rates on employers by encouraging them to take the necessary
steps required to create a safe and healthy workplace. Employers that improve their safety
records by preventing and reducing injuries will see a reduction rate and those that do not
could be required to pay a surcharge.
Compared to 2018, four jurisdictions in Canada decreased their average assessment rates,
while four jurisdictions held them steady (see OH&S Today 3.2). In addition to this general
premium reduction, employers in Alberta (and in some other provinces—see the discussion in this chapter on experience ratings) can achieve further premium reductions of up to 20%
from the industry rate based on their safety performance. Conversely, organizations with a
poor safety record may be charged a surcharge to reflect the increased costs of insurance. In Nova Scotia the surcharge program is a rate-setting model that responds to the safety
performance of individual employers.
OH&S Today 3.2: Workers’ Compensation Assessment Rates (Averages Per $100 of
Payroll)
Source: Association of Workers’ Compensation Boards of Canada, “Provisional average
assessment rates, per $100.00 payroll.” http://awcbc .org/?page_id=566 (accessed March 1,
2019). Reprinted with permission.
A mandate for prevention also means that WCBs are actively involved in trying to prevent
incidents and reduce costs to employers. WCBs provide a wide range of information for employers and employees regarding safety-related matters. For example, WorkSafeBC
maintains a large online library of safety-related publications; the WCB of Newfoundland
and Labrador provides workshops on how to prevent workplace injuries, and New
Brunswick’s WCB has the 5*22 Health and Safety Resources program. The WCBs in Alberta and Nova Scotia offer a Certificate of Recognition (COR) to organizations that have
implemented safety programs that meet their standards. In many jurisdictions in Canada,
WCBs provide extensive resources to both employers and individuals interested in health
and safety issues. (See OH&S Notebook 3.2 for individual WCB contact information.)
OH&S Notebook 3.2: Contact Information for the Provincial and Territorial Workers’
Compensation Boards
Workers’ Compensation Board—Alberta
9912–107 Street P.O. Box 2415
Edmonton AB T5J 2S5
Tel: 780-498-3999 Fax: 780-498-7999
http://www.wcb.ab.ca
WorkSafeBC
P.O. Box 5350
Vancouver BC V6B 5L5
Tel: 604-244-6181 (Lower Mainland—Employers & Assessment)
Tel: 604-231-8888 Claims call centre Fax: 604-233-9777
http://www.worksafebc.com
Workers Compensation Board of Manitoba
363 Broadway Winnipeg MB R3C 4W3
Tel: 204-954-4321
Fax: 204-954-4999
http://www.wcb.mb.ca
WorkSafe/Travail Sécuritaire New Brunswick
1 Portland Street P.O. Box 160
Saint John NB E2L 3X9
Tel: 506-632-2200
Fax: 506-632-4999
http://www.worksafenb.ca
Workplace Newfoundland (WorkplaceNL)
146–148 Forest Road P.O. Box 9000
St. John’s NL A1A 3B8
Tel: 709-778-1000 Fax: 709-738-1714
https://workplacenl.ca
Workers’ Safety & Compensation Commission of the Northwest Territories and
Nunavut
P.O. Box 8888 Yellowknife NT X1A 2R3
Tel: 867-920-3888
Fax: 867-873-4596
http://www.wscc.nt.ca
Workers’ Compensation Board of Nova Scotia
5668 South Street
P.O. Box 1150
Halifax NS B3J 2Y2
Tel: 902-491-8999
Fax: 902-491-8001
http://www.wcb.ns.ca
Workplace Safety and Insurance Board of Ontario
200 Front Street West
Toronto ON M5V 3J1 Tel: 416-344-1000
Fax: 416-344-4684
http://www.wsib.on.ca
Workers Compensation Board of Prince Edward Island
14 Weymouth Street
P.O. Box 757 Charlottetown PEI C1A 7L7
Tel: 902-368-5680
Fax: 902-368-5705
http://www.wcb.pe.ca
Commission des norms, de l’équité, de la santé et de la sécurité du travail (CNESST)
1199, rue de Bleury
C.P. 6056, Succursale Centre-ville Montréal QC H3C 4E1
Tel: 1-866-302-2778
Fax: 514-906-3133
http://www.csst.qc.ca
Saskatchewan Workers’ Compensation Board
200–1881 Scarth StreetRegina SK S4P 4L1treet
Regina SK S4P 4L1
Tel: 306-787-4370 Fax: 306-787-4311
http://www.wcbsask.com
Yukon Workers’ Compensation Health and Safety Board
401 Strickland Street Whitehorse YK Y1A 5N8
Tel: 867-667-5645
Fax: 867-393-6279
http://www.wcb.yk.ca
Source: Association of Workers’ Compensation Boards of Canada. Found at:
http://awcbc.org/?page_id=10 (accessed July 24, 2019).
Compensation Rates and Methods
Two standards are in place for determining the amount of compensation. There are five
jurisdictions that base the payment on a percentage (generally 90%) of net earnings; the
remaining jurisdictions base payments on a percentage of average earnings that ranges from 75% to 85%. Jurisdictions such as Nova Scotia have used both methods depending on
the date of the incident. In Nova Scotia the percentage is 75% for the first 26 weeks, after
which it increases to 85%. A worker’s average earnings are generally calculated based on his or her earnings during the past 12 months. Since many workers have not worked for the
same employer for 12 months, other ways of establishing earnings are sanctioned. Each act
also stipulates a maximum amount of earnings that can be used to determine the
maximum amount of compensation. Though there are procedural variations across jurisdictions, workers’ compensation is based on the individual’s past salary record, not on
the loss or potential loss of future earnings.
The method used for determining the average wage of a worker is the one that gives the
best representation of the worker’s weekly earnings and that seems fair and reasonable.
When work is made available and the worker still suffers an earnings loss, the payment for
the continuing impairment may be adjusted, whether or not the worker accepts the work. A payment for non-economic loss (functional impairment) is also made in several
jurisdictions. This figure is based on factors such as the worker’s age, degree of
impairment, and number of dependants. For example, a 40-year-old worker with three
children would receive a larger payment than a 60-year-old worker with no children.
Compensation to employees can be provided using different methods including wage loss
benefits, permanent disability benefits, dependency benefits, and rehabilitation. Wage loss
benefits means that an injured employee receives a specific percentage of their typical wages (this varies by province). An employee typically receives permanent disability
benefits if determined to have a permanent disability because of his or her work injury; he or she may receive additional or varied compensation depending on the province. If an
individual dies while on the job, his or her dependants (e.g., spouse or children) may be
eligible to receive benefits. Finally, rehabilitation services and programs are provided to
help workers get back to their pre-injury health and to get injured workers back to work.
Depending on the type of compensation—for example, wage loss—payments continue as
long as an injury or impairment lasts, in accordance with the entitlement established by
the province or territory. In cases of permanent partial impairment, the worker receives a life pension based on rating scales established by the boards. There are allowances for
economic losses and non-economic losses. For a non-economic loss, an injured worker
could receive payment based on a percentage of impairment of the total person.
Wage or earnings loss refers to situations in which workers can no longer earn the same
amount of money that they were earning before the incident because of their impairment.
For a worker who was earning $20 per hour before the incident and now, because of the injury, can earn only $10 per hour, the potential compensation is $10 per hour. The
earnings loss is calculated and paid as long as the worker is unable to return to work
paying the same wages as before the incident.
In the event of the death of a worker, the spouse may receive a pension in accordance with
the schedules established by the various jurisdictions, and allowances are given to
children. In addition, most provincial and territorial boards may allow an immediate lump-
sum payment and variable expenses. However, some industries and workers are excluded from injury compensation; for example, Alberta excludes farms with paid family members,
the operation of charitable institutions, employment agencies, banking, and so forth. (See
OH&S Today 3.3.)
Employers or injured workers who disagree with a WCB decision can turn to various appeal
bodies and mechanisms. In many jurisdictions workers must appeal to the internal review
board in order to have any decisions revaluated. The final level of appeal in most
jurisdictions is the Workers’ Compensation Appeals Tribunal (WCAT). The WCAT is an independent administrative tribunal or board that has the legal authority to overturn
decisions made by a workers’ compensation board. However, not all jurisdictions in
Canada have a WCAT; in provinces like Saskatchewan the WCB has various levels for a
worker’s appeal, but the final decision rests with the WCB Appeals Tribunal.
OH&S Today 3.3: The Dangers of Farming
The agriculture industry is one of the most dangerous work environments. In many places farming has one of the highest fatality rates and is a work environment that exposes
workers to various occupational diseases. In 2015, the Enhanced Protection for Farm and
Ranch Workers Act was passed in the Alberta legislative assembly. This act required that
farm and ranch producers with paid or waged employees must register with the provincial compensation board. This means that if you are a farm worker injured while working, you
will not be financially responsible for your own wage loss, medical aid, and any necessary
vocational rehabilitation; however, if you are a paid family member or an unpaid worker you may not be covered. Additional coverage for family members and unpaid workers is
available at an additional cost. According to the Parkland Institute, in 2018, 4009
employers enrolled their workers for compensation, an increase from 2015 that had only
1756 employees enrolled when participation was not legislated (was voluntary). In 2018, 16 767 employees filed for 818 injury claims, an increase from 2015 that only saw 339 injury
claims. Prior to the change in legislation, there was significant debate over whether this
would result in a safer farming industry. What do you think?
Source: Adapted from Bob Barnetson, Parkland Institute, “UCP Pledge to Repeal Bill 6
Would Endanger Farm Workers.” Found at:
https://www.parklandinstitute.ca/ucp_pledge_to_repeal_bill_6_would_endanger_farm_w
orkers (accessed July 24, 2019).
Medical AID and Incident Prevention
Accompanying compensation in all cases is the provision of medical aid. This aid includes
medical and surgical care, hospitalization, nursing care, drugs and supplies, physical and
occupational therapy, and the provision and maintenance of prostheses. An employee who
sustains a work-related injury is compensated not only for loss of earnings but also for loss of functional capacity. Workers who, as a result of their injury, are no longer able to
perform some of their duties on the job, such as lifting, twisting, or bending, are considered
to have suffered loss of functional capacity for which benefits are payable.
Employers within a particular industry may form safety associations and make rules for
incident prevention that, on approval of the WCB and the lieutenant governor, are binding
on all employers in that industry. WCBs pay the expenses of these associations out of the
incident fund and have the authority to investigate the premises of employers to ensure compliance with safeguards required by law. The goal of safety associations is to provide
training in the area of incident prevention and health and safety (see OH&S Today 3.4).
OH&S Today 3.4: Safety Associations
Health and safety associations are industry groups funded at least in part through the
workers’ compensation board (employers pay a levy or surcharge as part of their premium
to fund the association). Associations provide training programs, prevention programs, and other health and safety–related services (e.g., safety audits, certificates of recognition),
to members of their industry, typically charging a fee for these services. They are not
responsible for regulation, nor are they a government agency—rather, a safety association represents a specific industry and provides general and industry-specific safety knowledge
to its members. Because workers’ compensation premiums are initially set by industry, all
employers in a given industry benefit if safety improves within that industry. This is the goal of safety associations. See below for some of the various safety associations found
across Canada:
Aware-NS is a safety association dedicated to health and community service employees
within the province of Nova Scotia.
• Alberta Construction Safety Association
• Aware-NS
• Service Hospitality (Saskatchewan)
• Northern Safety Association
• Canadian Industrial Radiography Safety Association
Source: Courtesy of Aware-NS, Nova Scotia Health + Community Services Safety
Association.
Social Goals of Workers’ Compensation
Workers’ compensation is driven by two main social goals: (1) to provide services intended
to prevent injuries or reduce the psychological impact of injuries when they occur, and (2)
to provide the training and development necessary to prepare an injured worker to return
to work. The various WCBs have come to look on compensation as a means for society to share with the worker the consequences of industrial incidents and to ensure the
restoration of the worker to active participation in the life of the community. The focus is
more on restoring earning power than on paying for its loss. In no manner of speaking or
interpretation is compensation considered a reward for being injured.
This social conception of compensation is grounded in the following standard provisions
contained in the various acts:
• unlimited medical aid
• artificial prostheses
• a fund to encourage re-employment (known as the Second Injury
and Enhancement Fund [SIEF] in some jurisdictions)
• liberal compensation
• rehabilitation maintenance income
Canada’s compensation system provides greater benefits than those of most other
countries; it also ensures that benefits are not prejudiced by earnings after rehabilitation.
In Canada, a permanently injured worker draws compensation for life and is able to keep
his or her pension, even if the sum of the pension and the earnings supplements amounts
to more than the wages earned before the injury. In contrast, many compensation laws in
the United States hinder rehabilitation, either by cutting off compensation for permanent
injury as soon as workers begin to earn as much money as they did before the injury or by paying compensation for only a limited period (which can leave workers stranded before
they can be retrained).
Provision for Second Injuries
In some provinces (e.g., Ontario) provisions may be provided to an employee who receives
a second injury. The purpose is to facilitate the re-employment of disabled workers.
Without a provision for multiple injuries, employers might be tempted to discriminate
against workers with impairments, as an additional injury could make the employer responsible for a far more serious disability than if the worker had not had a prior injury.
Thus, a worker who has lost one arm will be given a total disability rating if he or she loses
the second arm. By charging the excess liability resulting from the cumulative effect of a prior disability and the subsequent injury to a disaster reserve fund, the various acts
distribute the burden throughout industry as a whole rather than letting it rest on one
particular class. In this way, employers are relieved of the extra risks associated with the
employment of workers with disabilities.
Rehabilitation
Before the First World War, people with disabilities were often left to fend for themselves.
Some were placed in poorhouses; others survived through begging. Gradually, society realized that people with disabilities could be productive; however, the first attempts at
drafting people with disabilities into the workplace proved to be difficult and frustrating.
People with disabilities found that though they were given an opportunity to earn a living, they could do so only by accepting menial jobs that no one else wanted. However, when
thousands of injured soldiers returned from the First World War, the need to provide
rehabilitation programs was finally recognized. Rehabilitation is a financial necessity as
well as a moral and social obligation. Only through effective rehabilitation can the future
cost of the workers’ compensation system be maintained at a reasonable level.
There are three types of rehabilitation. Vocational rehabilitation refers to the steps
undertaken by WCBs to help injured workers return to their place of employment or find
similar or suitable work elsewhere. Placement services, vocational testing, and retraining
or training may all be part of this process. Physical rehabilitation refers to the steps taken to restore, fully or partially, the worker’s physical function (see photo above). Social
rehabilitation refers to the psychological and practical services that help workers with
severe disabilities cope with daily life (e.g., assistance with cooking, bathing, and household chores). An example of the full range of compensation benefits being provided
to an injured worker is outlined in OH&S Today 3.5.
OH&S Today 3.5: Workers’ Compensation at Work
As a result of an industrial accident an employee lost his left hand. Over the previous 10
years, he had risen from the position of delivery truck driver to plant manager at a small
aluminum fabricator in northwest Toronto. Mr. Nowak* had been thinking about a career change before the incident. Besides his duties as plant manager, he had begun to do some
selling and marketing and found it was something he enjoyed. After the incident, he knew
he would not be able to work in the plant again, so he began to consider retraining.
After his surgery, Mr. Nowak spent four weeks in hospital recovering. A WCB representative
came to see him two days after the incident and initiated his claim so that he could
continue to pay his bills. Before Mr. Nowak could be fitted with a prosthesis, his physical
wounds had to heal. He spent the next couple of months getting better and receiving
treatment.
Around this time, Mr. Nowak decided to pursue a marketing career. Thanks to the
sponsorship of the WCB, he enrolled in a marketing program. On graduation, Mr. Nowak received further assistance from a WCB placement adviser. Within months, a job was
located. After completing a training program with his new employer, Mr. Nowak began
work as a full-time marketing representative.
In this scenario the full range of compensation benefits was provided, including monetary benefits, medical aid, prosthetic device, vocational rehabilitation, placement services, and
counselling in social services.
*Name has been changed.
Source: Joan Cushon-Boulet, “Vocational Rehabilitation of Injured Workers Downsview: A Rehabilitation Center?” Journal of Law and Social Policy, Vol 3 (January 1988). Found at:
http://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1163&context=jlsp
(accessed July 24, 2019).
Occupational Diseases and Workplace Stress
A significant issue facing workers’ compensation today concerns occupational diseases
and the degree to which they are work related. Occupational diseases can include various
cancers, skin diseases, and allergic reactions to materials and components in the
workplace. Occupational disease compensation has been part of workers’ compensation since six specific diseases were cited in the Ontario act of 1914. Since then, the act has
broadened the definitions of “incident” and “injury,” which has allowed for greater
consideration of occupational disease claims. Today many occupational disease claims
can be considered in the same way as any other claim. The requirement to isolate the point at which the disease was contracted has given way to a recognition that the disease could
be the result of exposure or injury over time. Occupational disease claims, unless very
straightforward, are often adjudicated by a special claim unit and may require additional expert medical opinion as well as exposure and employment histories. Some WCBs use
separate claim forms for specific occupational diseases. The latency period is quite often a
major factor in determining the acceptability of the claim.
There has been an increased emphasis on the importance of good mental health in the
workplace. The Mental Health Commission of Canada’s standards for psychological health
and well-being in the workplace are a voluntary set of guidelines and resources to help
organizations promote employees’ psychological health and prevent harm due to
workplace factors. For more information see here.
WCBs in many jurisdictions allow for stress-related disabilities to be claimed for
compensation. Stress-related disabilities (impairments) can be divided into three groups: (1) physical injury or occupational disease leading to a mental disability, (2) mental stress
resulting in a physical disability, traumatic occurrence, or series of occurrences, and (3)
mental stress resulting in a mental condition. Generally, stress claims in the first group
have been dealt with in the same way as any other claims. Those in the second group have
been subject to some selection. If the disability (say, a cardiac attack) is acute, it will be
considered for compensation. If the disability (say, an ulcer) is a result of accumulated
stress, it will likely not be considered for compensation. With respect to the third group, an
unusual incident that provokes the mental reaction and results in a disability will probably be considered for compensation; chronic stress resulting in a mental disability is seldom
compensated. In Ontario, a worker is entitled to benefits for traumatic mental stress that is
an acute reaction to a sudden and unanticipated traumatic event (e.g., violent act, armed robbery), that is suffered by the individual or suffered through direct contact with victims
(e.g., 911 operators, first responders). While WSIB recognizes the potential for a cumulative
effect of multiple traumatic events, the policy stipulates that compensation is provided for
acute reactions. Workers may not claim benefits for stress that is the result of employer- based actions such as termination, demotions, and changes in work hours or performance
expectations. (See OH&S Notebook 3.3 for the WCB claims process.)
OH&S Notebook 3.3: The WCB Claims Process
When a worker is injured, to process a claim a WCB generally needs information from three
parties: the employer, the employee, and a physician. Although the specific detailsfor the
process may vary somewhat from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, it is helpful to consider an
example of a claims process at a very general level.
As an illustration, let’s look at the very basics of the claims process in PEI in the event of an
injury or illness.
Employer
When a worker reports a work-related injury or illness, the employer must file Form 7
within three days. Form 7 requests information about the worker, the workplace, the
injury/illness, the type of work performed by the work, hours of work, wages, the nature of the incident, and details regarding lost work time. The form also involves preparing for
potential return-to-work reports. Beyond completing the form, the employer has
responsibilities in terms of keeping in contact with the worker, finding safe employment
options for the worker, and keeping the WCB up to date.
Employee
The employee needs to report the injury to his or her employer and file Form 6 with the WCB. Form 6 needs to be submitted even when there is no lost time from work. Form 6
collects information about the worker, the workplace, the injury/illness, the type of work
performed by the worker, hours of work, wages, the nature of the incident, and the details
regarding lost work time. The worker has responsibilities to take an active role in treatment, cooperate with return-to-work options, and keep the employer and WCB
informed.
Health Care Providers
During the initial and follow-up medical visits, the physician completes and submits Form 8 to the WCB. Reports from additional health care services, such as physiotherapy or
assessment services to determine worker capabilities, must also be submitted to the WCB.
Once all the forms are submitted, an entitlement officer assumes the file and makes a
decision on the claim. If it is accepted, benefits begin. If claims are not accepted, there is a process for reconsideration and appeals. Claims that require more time for processing are
moved to a case management team.
Source: Workers Compensation Board of PEI. Found at: http://www.wcb.pe.ca (accessed
July 24, 2019).
The adjudication of stress claims received is not straightforward and has proved to be a
difficult process. The courts and human rights tribunals have consistently maintained that stress-related disorders or other psychological disabilities are to be treated the same as
physical disabilities in employment settings2; however, there have been cases wherein a
board or commission has denied an individual’s claim. In 2014, the Workplace Safety
Insurance Appeals Tribunal (WSIAT) in Ontario overturned a decision by the WSIB that denied a nurse’s claim for psychological stress resulting from verbal abuse and bullying
over a 12-year period. WSIAT sided with the nurse, stating the WSIB decision to deny her
claim violated her rights as stated in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. With an increased focus on the positive mental well-being of employees, and as legislative changes occur
(e.g., presumptive coverage of PTSD), and our understanding of stress-related illnesses and
injuries improves, how these types of claims are adjudicated and whether that process will
change or improve as appropriate remains to be seen.
Assessments
Employers are grouped together according to the type of operation or industry in which
they are engaged, and they are assessed on that basis. The groups are referred to as
industries, classes, subclasses, or classifications. In some jurisdictions, the terms “unit”
and “sector” are used; employers are not grouped by occupation, though occupation may
help determine a subdivision of an industry or class.
Separate accounts are generally used when an employer is involved in more than one
industry or when an industry or employer’s operation includes several departments. Assessments are determined by the WCB at least once a year when the board sets a
percentage or rate to be applied to the payroll of the employer. Payrolls are estimated (see
OH&S Notebook 3.4); the employer is then required to submit a certified payroll statement.
OH&S Notebook 3.4: Illustrative Industry Rates
The average workers’ compensation assessment in Ontario for 2019 was $1.65 for every
$100 in insurable earnings. However, there are dramatic differences in premium
assessment rates across occupational groups. For some sample rates, see the table below.
Source: Workplace Safety and Insurance Board of Ontario, “2019 Premium Rates.” Found
at: https://www.wsib.ca/en/businesses/premiums-and-payment/2019-premium-
rates#premiumrates (accessed March 7, 2019).
The workers’ compensation system in Canada is based on the concept of dividing
employers into three categories: (1) those who contribute to the incident fund and benefit
from its collective liability, (2) those who are individually liable for their own employees’
incidents, and (3) those in certain low-risk industries, who are excluded under various acts across the country. Employers who pay directly for the incidents of their employees are
generally public enterprises such as provincial or territorial and municipal governments
and certain transportation and communication companies within Crown corporations.
All employers within a particular industry group are assessed at the same rate based on the
injury experience of the group as a whole. Some organizations calculate their own
experience rating in order to help manage their own health and safety (see OH&S Notebook 3.5). In most jurisdictions, within the general incident fund, a provision is made for a rate
stabilization and disaster reserve fund. One group by itself cannot sustain the heavy costs
associated with a major disaster that might occur in any one year, or with a sharp decline in
assessable payroll owing to massive layoffs in the industry. Continued financing can be
provided by the rate stabilization and disaster funds, which are maintained by the various
WCBs.
OH&S Notebook 3.5: Calculating Injury Frequency and Severity Rates
Individuals within the HR or safety department of their organization may be required to
calculate the injury frequency and severity rates following a workplace injury to help set
benchmarks and manage their organization’s health and safety. Depending on the industry, there are various ways to assess injury frequency and severity rates. The
frequency rate is often defined as the number of medical aid injuries (or recordable events)
relative to the number of hours worked expressed in a ratio of 200 000 labour hours. Some
firms and jurisdictions use a factor of 1 000 000 rather than 200 000. Using the 200 000
figure, the relationship becomes
\mathrm{frequency}=\frac{\mathrm{number}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{inj
uries}}{\mathrm{total}\;\mathrm{hours}\;\mathrm{worked}}\times200\;0
00frequency=totalhoursworkednumberofinjuries×200000
Take, as an example, a company that employs 300 people who work 8-hour shifts for 250
days in one year. The total number of hours worked is
250\;(\mathrm{days})\times300\;(\mathrm{people})\times8\;(\mathrm{ho
ur}\;\mathrm{shifts})=600\;000\;\mathrm{total}\;\mathrm{hours}\;\mathr
m{worked}250(days)×300(people)×8(hourshifts)=600000totalhoursworke
d
This company has a record of 6 medical-aid injuries with no lost time, 15 minor injuries
with 5 total days lost, 3 major injuries with 55 total days lost, and 7 property damage
incidents with no lost time. The total number of injuries is
(6+15+3)=524(6+15+3)=524
The frequency is calculated as
\mathrm{frequency}=\frac{24}{600\;000}\times200\;000=8frequency=600
00024×200000=8
Therefore, this organization has an injury frequency ratio of 8 per 200 000, or 8.
Severity of work-related injuries is the ratio of the number of days lost due to injuries to a
factor of 200 000. Severity is sometimes calculated by using the relationship
\mathrm{severity}=\frac{\mathrm{number}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{days
}\;\mathrm{lost}\;\mathrm{to}\;\mathrm{injuries}}{\mathrm{total}\;\mat
hrm{hours}\;\mathrm{worked}}\times200\;000severity=totalhoursworkednumber
ofdayslosttoinjuries×200000
The severity, based on the total number of days lost due to injury in the above example,
would be calculated as
\mathrm{total}\;\mathrm{lost}\;\mathrm{days}=(5+55)=60totallostdays=(
5+55)=60
\mathrm{severity}=\frac{60}{600\;000}\times200\;000=20severity=600000
60×200000=20
The injury severity for this company is 20, or a ratio of 20:200 000. If the company works two or three shifts instead of one, as the examples show, then the total hours worked will
be increased twofold or threefold and the relationship will be the same.
These figures facilitate comparisons between various years of the company and among companies within the same product and size group. These values can help identify trends.
Records of injuries caused by incidents can also be used as a basis for risk and fault tree
analyses.
New organizations or businesses or those responsible for the financial forecasting for their
organization often gather estimates of their WCB premium amounts. This can be done by
using the formula determined and provided by the WCB board/commission within your
jurisdiction. Using the appropriate formula, businesses can get an estimate of the amount
of money they will be required to pay to WCB (see OH&S Notebook 3.6).
OH&S Notebook 3.6: Calculating WCB Premium Rates
Provincial and territorial board/commission websites often provide information on how to calculate (estimate) premiums. For instance, in Ontario premiums are calculated using the
following formula:
\mathrm{premium}\;\mathrm{amount}=\frac{\mathrm{insurable}\;\mathr
m{earings}\times\mathrm{premium}\;\mathrm{rate}}{100}premiumamo
unt=100insurableearings×premiumrate
To calculate a premium, you must have the following information:
• classification and rate group
• premium rate
• reporting frequency
• annual insurable earnings
To help employers receive an estimate of their premiums the WSIB provides employers
with a premium estimator tool wherein you enter the required information and the
estimator tool calculates an estimated premium payment. Consider the following example
of a lawn care business.
• Classification/Rate group = Landscaping and Related Services
• Premium rate = $3.82
• Reporting frequency = Annually
• Gross Insurable Earnings = $1 000 000
\begin{array}{lcl}\mathrm{Premium}\;\mathrm{payment}\;\mathrm{for}
\;2019&=&\frac{\$1\;000\;000\times\$3.82}{100}\\&&\\&=&\$38\;200.0
0\end{array}Premiumpaymentfor2019==100$1000000×$3.82$38200.00
It is important to note the while the formula for calculating premiums appears relatively
simplistic in nature, there are several considerations that must be given to the information included within the calculation. For example, you must appropriately determine your
organization’s insurable earnings, in which case you must:
• Determine who you are responsible for insuring
• Determine the gross earnings for each person during that reporting
period, at which point you must know what should be included
versus excluded as part of the gross earnings (e.g., maternity
benefits paid in addition to EI benefits; maternity leave top-ups are
excluded in the gross earnings calculation).
• You must know whether there is more than one rate group for your
organization in which case you must calculate the premiums for
each rate group separately. For instance, office staff will have a
different rate group than field staff consequently resulting in
separate premiums.
It is important to consult with each provincial board/commission to ensure you have
included the appropriate information and are basing it upon current and accurate
information.
Experience Rating
Experience rating in workers’ compensation refers to an incident insurance premium
pricing scheme that considers the cost experience of the individual employer. Under experience rating, the assessment for each firm may be higher or lower than the basic rate
for the relative industry group. Firms with lower-than-average incident costs per worker
pay lower premiums than firms with above-average incident costs. Experience rating
reduces or eliminates the cross-subsidization of relatively unsafe firms by relatively safe
firms. Given two otherwise similar firms, a safer employer will face lower compensation
costs and hence lower production costs. Thus, the primary effect of the experience rating is
to create a financial incentive for relatively unsafe firms to begin caring for their workforces
(see OH&S Notebook 3.7).
OH&S Notebook 3.7: Experience Rating Programs
There are various experience rating programs across the provincial jurisdictions. For
example, Newfoundland and Labrador offers the opportunity for employers to reduce their
rates and injuries via their PRIME incentive program. This program works by comparing an
employer’s PRIME claim costs to their expected range of injury costs (experience incentive range). Employers can achieve an Experience refund if after 1 year their PRIME costs are
below the bottom range or they could be required to pay an Experience charge if their
PRIME costs are above the top range. If an employer should fall within the range, then no
refund or charge is applied.
Many jurisdictions require that their construction employers be COR certified before they
qualify for their respective experience rating program. Newfoundland and Labrador’s
PRIME program requires construction employers to be COR certified before they can qualify for the incentives offered through the PRIME program. COR is an occupational
health and safety accreditation program that verifies that the organization’s health and
safety programs meet national standards.*
*COR is a nationally trademarked program by the Canadian Federation of Construction
Safety Associations. The objectives of the certificate program are to provide industry
employers with an effective safety and health management system. While it is a national
standard, employers must achieve COR from the province or territory in which they work.
For more information visit here.
Experience rating is intended to offer an incentive to employers to reduce injuries and to
return workers to their jobs as early as possible. In this way, employers benefit because the
amount of money spent on compensation is reduced; workers benefit because they return to their jobs quickly. Experience rating is thus a process of rewarding good performers and
penalizing those organizations that are not making efforts to reduce incidents and return
workers back to work as quickly as possible.
Generally, if an employer has an experience rating of a three-year average injury cost lower than that of the entire group, that employer will receive a rebate on the annual
assessment. Conversely, employers who have an average injury cost higher than the group
will receive demerit charges on top of their regular assessments.
One of the most important reasons for experience rating is to reduce industrial incidents
and injuries and their costs. The profit-maximizing, cost-minimizing firm will respond to
the incentive by investing in activities that reduce its workers’ compensation claim costs to the point where the expected marginal benefits (i.e., incremental reduction in the expected
cost of injuries and incidents) equal the marginal costs. Given the existence of workplace
risk, and assuming full information about such risk, the firm may allocate resources to safety practices or pay the costs associated with work injury. Profit-maximizing firms
operating in competitive markets will strive to minimize some of the costs associated with
workplace injuries and incidents, such as workers’ compensation premium payments
(including experience rating service charges/refunds as well as material costs), fixed employment costs, lost production time, and damage to equipment, by preventing
incidents (i.e., reducing the probability of a hazardous state) as well as by engaging in
activities that minimize costs when incidents do occur. Post-incident employer actions that can result in claim cost reduction include implementing early return-to-work programs and
appealing WCB decisions on workers’ benefits.
The workers’ compensation boards in several jurisdictions (e.g., Ontario, Alberta, BC) operate experience rating plans with the goal of creating incentives for firms to reduce
their claim rates (see OH&S Today 3.6). That is, the experience rating systems attempt to
reward safe firms (through a rebate of assessment premiums) and to penalize unsafe firms
(through a surcharge on premiums). Such programs provide some leverage to firms
seeking to reduce their workers’ compensation costs: to the extent that firms can establish
and maintain better-than-average safety records, costs will be decreased.
OH&S Today 3.6: Neer Experience Program Change
In 2020, the WSIB in Ontario implemented a new rate-setting framework replacing the
NEER, CAD-7, and MAP experience rating programs. NEER, CAD-7 (for construction
employers), and MAP (for smaller employers) offered financial incentives to employers for
maintaining a good health and safety record. A new feature of this newly adopted
framework is the application of the North American Classification System wherein
employers are assigned to a “Dominant Class” based on the Class that represents the employer’s largest percentage of insurable earnings. Each class has respective risk bands
and each risk band has an associated rate that falls either above or below the class rate. Employers are assigned a risk band, including adjustments for experience, that represents
their risk in relation to other employers in that class.
According to the WSIB other features of the new rate framework include premium rate
stability and easier administration. The framework maintains the collective liability approach and is designed to ensure fair premium rates. Premium rates are set using
insurable earnings, claims cost, and number of allowed claims over a six-year period,
except for businesses with less than a year of experience, in which case the Class average is
applied.
In summary, the new framework applies two steps for setting business rates:
1. An average rate for each industry is set based on their risk profile and share of the responsibility. This maintains the insurance fund.
2. An organization’s individual claim history is reviewed to determine how it compares to
the remaining businesses in that class, meaning that the employers’ overall rate will reflect
their own claims experience and risk.
Source: WSIB, “Rate Framework: Our Model. “Found at:
https://www.wsib.ca/en/businesses/premiums-and-payment/rate-framework (accessed
July 24, 2019).
Empirically, then, the question is whether experience rating schemes work as they are
intended. That is, do they decrease incidents or injuries in the workplace? This is an
exceedingly complex question, and there does not appear to be a clear answer thus
far.3 Some evidence suggests that such plans are effective in improving workplace safety.4
Reporting Requirements
In most jurisdictions, employers are required to report all workplace injuries to the
workers’ compensation board within a certain time. In Manitoba, for example, the
requirement is to report within five days of learning of an injury. In New Brunswick, employers must report serious (e.g., fatality, loss of limb) incidents immediately; other
incidents within 24 hours; or, if neither of these applies, within three days of learning of the
incident. Each board provides a form for employer reporting. Figure 3.1 shows the form used for employer reporting in Manitoba (note that each board has its own form, though all
are very similar). Essentially the employer report is designed to collect information about
(1) the nature of the employment relationship, (2) the employee’s salary and hours of work, (3) the nature of the incident and injury, and (4) the extent of time loss and medical
treatment. These elements will then enter into the determination of whether the employee
is eligible for compensation and, if so, the amount and duration of this compensation.
Employees are also required to report to the WCB if they want to open a claim for
compensation. Employees often do not want to complete an incident report if they do not
plan to open a claim (e.g., have not incurred medical expenses, do not intend to miss time).
Though not a requirement, it is a good idea for employees to file a report—one never
knows when a seemingly minor injury will become something much more serious later on
and having the paperwork filed will make subsequent claims easier to file. A typical
employee report is presented in Figure 3.2; it collects basically the same information as the
employer report.
Noncompliance
When employers and employees fail to comply with the act in their jurisdiction, then
penalties and fines can be applied. Penalties and fines vary slightly in that penalties do not
require court proceedings. For instance, in Manitoba the WCB has the authority to levy
penalties for those who fail to comply with provisions within the act. Employers can be required to pay upward of $50 000 for certain offences. Penalties can be imposed for
various reasons including administrative violations. If an employer discourages an
employee from filing a claim or punishes the worker for filing the claim, then a penalty of $4000 can be imposed. Similarly, if an employee fails to report to WCB that he or she has
returned to work, he or she can be penalized.5 Reporting requirements can be found on
each WCB provincial website (see OH&S Notebook 3.2).
Summary
Workers’ compensation was established in Canada in 1914 with the passage of
Ontario’s Workmen’s Compensation Act. Since then, coverage and benefits have increased, as have the associated costs. Though the primary goal of workers’ compensation is to
ensure that injured workers receive appropriate treatment, compensation, and
rehabilitation, WCBs often engage in promoting occupational health and safety and trying to prevent occupational injuries. WCBs fund these activities by collecting a premium
(based on industry, amount of payroll, and previous claim history) from employers.
Compensation for stress-related and chronic conditions remains a challenge for many boards and while some industries are challenging current policies and practices, others are
making gains. Workplace injuries are fundamentally about more than financial losses to
workers and employers. Each and every individual has a moral and ethical responsibility to
ensure he or she is working as safely as possible and providing a safe and healthy work
environment.
Key Terms
collective liability
latency period
loss of functional capacity
net earnings
physical rehabilitation social rehabilitation
vocational rehabilitation
workers’ compensation
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 3.1
Review
Imagine you work for a large grocery store in your home town as an employee of the deli department.
An incident with the meat grinder has left you with significant lacerations on your hand and you are unable to return to work. What type of assistance might you expect from workers’ compensation? What
could your manager do to expedite your return to work?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 3.2
Review
Outline the responsibilities of WCBs today. Describe how these responsibilities have changed over the
years since the inception of workers’ compensation in Ontario in 1914.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Steeping some tea...
Exercises
Exercise 3.1
Review
Various jurisdictions have struggled with how employees should be compensated for stress-related
disabilities. Using the workers’ compensation websites listed in OH&S Notebook 3.2, check to see how
the following scenarios are handled in your jurisdiction: a. mental—mental stress at work results in a psychological disorder (e.g., depression) b. mental/physical—mental stress at work results in a physical disorder (e.g., heart attack) c. physical/mental—an incident at work results in a psychological disorder
(e.g., anxiety attacks)
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 3.2
Review
Lorax Industrial operates one 12-hour shift per day for 220 days per year. It employs 315 people. The company records show a history of incidents and injuries:
• 3 medical aid injuries with no days lost
• 15 property damage incidents with a total 35 days lost
• 11 equipment failures that caused a total 20 days lost
• 19 injuries requiring medical attention with a total 75 days
lost Calculate the following (refer to OH&S Notebook 3.4 for
the formulas): a. frequency b. severity
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 3.3
Review
Explain how Lorax Industrial’s severity rate can have a significant increase while the frequency rate has
a very minor increase.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 3.4
Review
Check the workers’ compensation board in your area. What cost savings are available to firms that improve their health and safety record? What obligations exist to implement return-to-work proce-
dures? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 3.5
Review
Most WCBs publish their current rates online. Pick a single industry and find the appropriate rate group assessment across all provinces and territories. Which pays the highest rates? Which pays the lowest?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 3.1
Show Correct Answer
You have been hired to help revitalize a workers’ compensation social media campaign that targets
youth and new workers. The current board received feedback that its social media materials include
very technical language that is difficult to understand and information youth do not feel is relevant.
You need to revamp this material to ensure the information is accurate, engaging, positive, and
informative, and reaches as many young and new workers as possible. Outline the following:
• What information about the workers’ compensation system do you think
should be included in these materials? What information can be excluded?
Explain why.
• How will you make this information engaging to youth and new workers?
Provide one to two example materials.
• What social media platforms will you use to target youth and new workers?
• How will you plan to evaluate the impact of your social media campaign?
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Steeping some tea...
References
1. K. Roberts, “Using Workers’ Compensation to Promote a Healthy Workplace,” in D.A.
Hoffman and L.E. Tetrick, eds., Health and Safety in Organizations: A Multi-Level
Perspective (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003), 367.
2. E.K. Kelloway, L. Francis, V.M. Catano, J. Cameron, and A. Day, Psychological Disorders
in the Canadian Forces: Legal and Social Issues—Contractor’s Report (Ottawa: National
Defence Headquarters, Director Human Resources Research and Evaluation, 2004).
3. K. Roberts, “Using Workers’ Compensation to Promote a Healthy Workplace,” in D.A.
Hoffman and L.E. Tetrick, eds., Health and Safety in Organizations: A Multi-Level
Perspective (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003).
4. D. Durbin and R. Butler, “Prevention of Disability for Work-related Sources: The Roles of
Risk Management, Government Intervention, and Insurance,” in T. Thomason, J.F. Burton,
and D.E. Hyatt, eds., New Approaches to Disability in the Workplace (Madison: IRRA, 1998).
5. Workers Compensation Board of Manitoba, “Fines and Penalties.” Found at:
http://www.wcb.mb.ca/fines-and-penalties-0 (accessed March 1, 2019).
HAZARDS, RISKS, AND
CONTROL
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• define key terms used in the field of occupational health and safety
• identify the sources of workplace hazards
• describe the types of injuries caused by workplace hazards
• identify types of workplace hazards
• describe methods for systematically examining workplace hazards
and risk
• describe the processes for controlling hazards and managing risk
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
High Heels Are Workplace Hazards
Many of the hazards we encounter daily are obvious; however, many are “hidden” in plain
sight and it is not until they are identified that we are able to act. Consider the issue of high heels in the workplace. Recently, some Canadian businesses in the hospitality industry
have come under fire for forcing female employees to wear heels under the pretext of
preserving a brand or image. While there are several reasons a workplace policy forcing workers to wear high heels is problematic (e.g., discrimination) consideration must be
given to the dangers of wearing these shoes. Consider a restaurant work environment
wherein spills are frequent, floor space is often crowded with staff and customers moving
about, in addition to the amount of time workers are required to be on their feet. The Canadian Safety Council, American National Safety Council, and Health and Safety
Executive in the UK all identify slips, trips, and falls as a leading cause of workplace injuries.
Many workplaces dictate required footwear as a protective measure against hazards (e.g., construction) and it is obvious that certain footwear is inappropriate or unsafe for certain
conditions. In 2017, Ontario and BC banned the practice of forcing employees to wear
footwear that poses a risk to employee health and safety for this reason. In 2019, Alberta followed suit and similarly amended their OHS code to ban the practice of forcing
employees to wear high-heeled shoes.
Have you ever thought of a restaurant server or airline attendant as wearing hazardous
footwear when in heels? Is that because heels do not match your definition of a hazard? As a potential HR professional, do you think you would have recognized high heels as
hazardous? Consider how you might go about managing the risks associated with wearing
high heels, and how you would approach this from an employee and customer perspective. As a method of control, should heels be banned? What about restricting the amount of
time they are worn? Is it reasonable to restrict their use the same way we restrict the
amount of time commercial drivers can spend behind the wheel? Decisions such as these must be carefully considered, comprehensively researched, and well understood. How we
tend to think about hazards, and the information available to us often dictates how we
manage them and whether the chosen approach is appropriate (e.g., legislation). Hazard
identification, risk assessment, and control are the backbone of workplace health and safety and the most important and proactive approach to dealing with hazards. This
chapter focuses on broadening your understanding of the processes involved in hazard
identification, risk assessment, and control.
Sources: “Alberta Banning Mandatory High Heels in the Workplace.” Found at:
https://www.cos-mag.com/occupational-hygiene/38775-alberta-banning-mandatory-high-
heels-in-the-workplace; https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/norwegian-air-high- heels-flight-attendant-requirements (accessed May 1, 2019); National Safety Council,
“Make Fall Safety a Priority.” Found at: https://www.nsc.org/work-safety/safety-
topics/slips-trips-and-falls (accessed May 1, 2019); Health and Safety Executive, “Non-Fatal
Injuries at Work in Great Britain.” Found at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causinj/index.htm (accessed May 1, 2019); Canada Safety
Council, “Slip-Falls No Laughing Matter.” Found at: https://canadasafetycouncil.org/slip-
falls-no-laughing-matter (accessed May 1, 2019).
Terminology
If you were to conduct a general Internet search of key terms related to the topic of
hazards, risk, and controls you might note they often have varying definitions, and are used
interchangeably or in some cases incorrectly. For example, there are many different
definitions of the term “hazard”; however, the term is typically defined as any source of
potential adverse health effects, damage, or harm to something or someone under certain conditions at work.1 Though the terms used in this chapter might seem similar, each has a
distinctive use in the OH&S field and it is important to ensure that as a future HR
practitioner that you and everyone in your organization has a common understanding of
their definitions and appropriate use.
As noted in the opening vignette, hazards pose a risk to those within that environment and,
to manage that hazard and its potential to cause harm or loss, the hazard and the risk associated with it must be clearly understood, assessed, and controlled using a systematic
process known as risk assessment. This is the first of many important terms that will be
explained in this chapter. The term risk assessment is used to describe the overall process
of hazard identification, risk analysis, risk evaluation, and control. The overall goal behind risk assessments is to avoid incidents or near-miss incidents, thus resulting in safe
operations.
A hazard is any object, action, or condition that can be a source of potential adverse health effect, damage, or harm to people, processes, or equipment within the workplace.
Examples of objects that can be considered workplace hazards are chemicals used to
disinfect a surface, or sharp objects and machinery. Examples of hazardous conditions are icy steps, or an understaffed shift rotation. Examples of hazardous actions are not wearing
personal protective equipment (e.g., gloves), or not following safety procedures.
Next in line for important terminology is risk. Risk is typically defined in terms of the
probability or the extent to which a hazard is likely to cause harm to people, processes, or equipment. The concept of risk perception is based on the individual’s interpretation of the
potential for harm and his or her concern for the consequences based on social, physical,
political, cultural, and psychological factors that then influence how an individual behaves in response to that hazard.2 Risk perception is an important concept to add to your
understanding of health and safety as an HR professional or practitioner. Understanding
how workers, managers, and CEOs perceive a hazard or dangerous situation can give
powerful insight and understanding into their actions.
Lastly, the term incident is defined as an event or occurrence that had or could have had a
negative impact on people, property, or processes. Events that could have had a negative
impact are frequently referred to as close calls or near-miss incidents. A close call or near- miss incident is any unplanned event wherein harm or equipment loss almost occurred but
was successfully prevented or mitigated. Examples of close calls include not wearing safety
glasses when operating a power saw and nearly being hit by flying debris or brushing
against hot objects with unprotected hands without getting burned.
Risk Assessment
Hazard Identification
The first step in the risk assessment process is hazard identification. Hazard identification
considers five broad sources: biological, chemical, ergonomic, physical, and psychosocial
(discussed in detail in following chapters) followed by the specific type of hazard. There are
five categories of hazard types—people, equipment, environment, materials, and
processes—that should be considered during the hazard identification process.
People
Humans create hazards in the workplace by their actions or inactions. Proper training, administration, leadership, and supervision are required to ensure that employees engage
in appropriate workplace behaviours. Incidents involving humans are referred to as unsafe
acts. An unsafe act generally refers to a deviation from standard job procedures or
practices that increase the potential for an incident and harm. A human action that may cause an immediate event of any type, and over which the person has control, is
considered a direct, unsafe act (sometimes referred to as a substandard practice). An
example would be improper modifications to a respirator to allow for easier and more comfortable breathing. An indirect, unsafe act is one in which the human action is only
indirectly involved. Consider the following example: a designer of a machine who alters the
braking system on a punch press that allows the machine to complete its operating cycle after the emergency stop is activated instead of immediately stopping. In this instance
there is overlap between an indirect unsafe act and an unsafe condition. The machine
defect started as an indirect unsafe act but resulted in an unsafe condition for the
operators using the machine. Unsafe acts are observable behaviours that are the direct outcome of a decision made by an individual. Unsafe acts that contribute to or cause an
incident are labelled as human factors.
When a worker or another person causes an incident by commission (doing something), poor judgment, or omission (failing to do something), the cause is labelled a human factor.
An example of a human factor would be when a physician does not engage in proper hand
hygiene practices between patient visits even when there is only minimal direct contact with the patient. When conducting incident investigations, it is important to consider the
role of human factors. Much of what is incorporated into this process comes from what is
learned from investigations. A human action can be directly or indirectly involved in an
event. The purpose of an investigation is to determine what actions led to an outcome and incorporate this information into the hazard recognition and risk assessment process.
From the investigation perspective, the point of examining human factors is not to
determine whether an individual had ill intent to cause harm; it is to determine how these factors can be prevented and incorporated into safe operations. No matter how many
backup systems are in place, some shortcut or personal foible, lapse can cause the system
to fail. The intent of hazard identification, risk analysis, and control is to understand this and to take a proactive approach to managing our safety and the various possible
outcomes.
Equipment
Under certain conditions or situations, the tools, machines, or equipment people use and
work near can be hazardous. Examples of equipment that can be hazardous include
defective tools (broken ladder) and unguarded moving machinery (unguarded saw blades
in a butcher shop). When considering the equipment in the workplace that can be hazardous it is important to carefully consider what is workplace equipment and to ensure
that everyday equipment like office, lunchroom, or kitchen equipment are considered.
Environment
Some hazards can be created by the work environment and can be either naturally
occurring (e.g., weather in outdoor work environments) or the result of an unsafe condition
caused by poorly maintained equipment, tools, or facilities.
The following are examples of an unsafe work environment:
• improper illumination—too dark or too much glare
• poor exhaust or ventilation systems—the toxic vapours from a
process hang in the air rather than being removed
• defective equipment and materials—not to the required
specifications
• adverse temperature conditions—working around a furnace on a hot
summer day
• poor indoor air quality—odours and stuffiness
Environmental factors, which encompass sources of hazards such as physical, chemical,
biological factors, and ergonomic factors, can play a direct or indirect role in incidents. For
example, physical factors such as noise, vibration, illumination, and temperature extremes have an obvious relation to safety and exist within certain work environments. A noisy
work environment, such as a kitchen, may prevent a worker from hearing approaching
individuals or may damage hearing over time. Similarly, chemical factors such as airborne
toxic gases not only may cause illness, but also may impair a worker’s reaction, judgment, or concentration. Contact with biological agents such as viruses or parasites may cause
either minor illness—a cold—or something more serious—hepatitis B.
Materials
Materials are any workplace substance, matter, or provisions used in the workplace that
have the potential to cause harm or loss, especially if handled improperly. Examples of
materials include supplies and raw materials such as wood within a carpentry shop, dry- cleaning chemicals, acetone or nail polish remover in a spa, or cleaning chemicals in a
hotel. When materials are improperly handled or misused, or if the wrong materials are
used they can become a hazard or create hazardous conditions. For instance, certain
cleaning materials such as ammonia and bleach should never be mixed together because the mixture results in a toxic chemical reaction. Ensuring the proper handling and use of
workplace materials is very important and requires training (e.g., WHMIS training).
Processes
When combining people, equipment, environment, and materials with the purpose of
production of a good or service, a process is involved. Processes involve the flow of work
and include factors such as design, pace, and organization of the various types of work via policies, procedures, and work processes. Work processes can result in various hazardous
by-products when combined with people, equipment, environment, and materials. While
the objects and equipment in and of themselves are types of hazards, when combined with
a poor process or procedure then the process or procedure itself is a hazard.
Hazard Identification Methodologies
Some organizations or business have specific or customized hazard identification or identification procedures. Hazard identification is a systematic means of identifying and
recording hazards in the workplace. It is designed to integrate safe and healthy procedures
into job tasks and procedures. The process of hazard identification should be completed by safety experts or employees who are trained to recognize hazards that might not be clear
to the casual observer (e.g., high-heeled shoes). The hazard identification process can be as
simple as a visible inspection of the workplace or as complex as taking air samples to test
for suspected contaminants. There are various methodologies available for conducting a hazard identification; however, it is critical that a sequential and systematic process is used
to ensure that no hazard is overlooked.
A safety professional can enter a worksite and, by walking through, identify and note hazards. The utility of a walk-through survey is increased when the supervisor and a worker
member of the joint health and safety committee (JHSC) accompany the safety
expert. Safety sampling, often referred to as behaviour or activity sampling, is a systematic survey procedure undertaken by safety personnel, who record their observations of unsafe
practices on a sampling document. They might observe, for example, workers not wearing
hardhats where they are required.
Actual and observable exposures to hazards are the focus of the survey. Following the walk-through survey, the safety personnel encode and count their observations. A report is
then submitted to management to provide an objective evaluation of the type and number
of unsafe acts and conditions.
Management can ask workers who represent a variety of tasks and jobs to identify hazards
and unsafe conditions. Employees might report that they are required to adapt tools (thus
rendering them potentially hazardous) to meet production quotas, or to make room for a new piece of equipment (e.g., photocopier) by placing paper boxes in a hallway for storage,
rendering a corridor treacherous. Discussions with both the experts and the employees
should be supplemented by an analysis of the job site and the work performed.
Additionally, the company should have a detailed layout of the plant or premises, showing the location of processes, machinery, equipment, and materials storage. Having this
information available in printed format allows for quick retrieval in emergency situations.
TASK AND JOB INVENTORY A description of the job and its associated tasks should be obtained and organized by department, operation, or product. The human resource
department can assist by providing job descriptions, the content and hierarchy specific to a
job, and job specifications, which are the requirements necessary to perform the various
functions of a job (e.g., ability to lift weight, education level).
Task analysis refers to the systematic examination of a job’s many components. It consists
of a list of tasks, the number of workers who perform the same or similar tasks, the time
spent on each task, the importance of the task to the job, the complexity and criticality of the job, the learning curve if complicated and repetitive, and the effort required. The
analysis identifies the various demands on the worker, the tasks that are susceptible to
worker error and stress, and potentially hazardous conditions. Industrial engineering
methods are best for performing this kind of analysis.
A common method of hazard identification is the analytical tree, of which there are two
types. The positive tree shows, graphically, how a job should be done. The more frequently
used tree is the fault tree, which illustrates things that can go wrong. A typical fault tree
structure is shown in Figure 4.1.
AUDITS AND REPORTS Workplace safety audits typically involve a comprehensive and
systematic review of one or more components of an organization’s health and safety–
related programs and documents. Audits are designed to identify and correct any outdated or missing information and to ensure the reliability and effectiveness of the various
workplace inspections, education of workers, policies, and procedures. Workplace
inspections are a systematic process of investigating previous incidents and the current
work environment looking for hazards and unsafe acts. A review of the reports filed after an incident, or injury, or as part of a safety inspection, will provide valuable information on
hazards. Also, OH&S departments and safety associations can provide written information
about the types of accidents in similar industries. Accident and injury rates published by governments are another source of information. For example, most workers’
compensation boards and commissions publish regular reports on accident statistics.
Workplace audits, inspections, and investigation reports are extremely useful sources for
cataloguing hazards. Inspection reports typically include equipment and chemical inventories, diagrams of the work environment, and procedural or equipment checklists.
The frequency of audits and inspections depends on factors such as legislation, the type of
work, previous incidents, size of work operations, introduction of new work processes or equipment, and work hours/shifts. Consider the frequency with which a fitness facility may
conduct safety audits compared to a local clothing retail company or a manufacturing
plant. How this information is stored, analyzed, and used is extremely important. Most large organizations use computers to store, analyze, and report on hazards and incidents,
thus facilitating the identification of hazards by type or department.3 Audit and inspection
reports are a key component to identify hazards in the workplace before an incident.
Risk Analysis
Risk Analysis Process
Once hazards have been identified, the risk of an incident or injury must be determined via
risk analysis. Analyzing risk is a critical aspect of the risk assessment process that is designed to make people aware of the hazards and risks they are exposed to and what they
should be doing to manage the risks. Consider for a moment your most recent job or
current job and the various hazards you were/are exposed to; what risk did they pose to
your health and safety? Regardless of the industry you choose to work in, and the role you perform, analyzing the level of risk associated with workplace hazards is everyone’s
responsibility and vital to everyone’s health and safety (see Chapter 1, OH&S Notebook 1.1
Internal Responsibility System). Determining risk is often difficult due to the nature of how it is defined and because there are various methods of analysis. Furthermore, the nature of
some hazards can make it extremely difficult to analyze; consider the high heel shoe
example from the opening vignette.
It is important at this point to consider the concept of risk perceptions and the relationship
between the actual risk of a hazard and an individual’s perception of the risk. Risk can be
analyzed by rating the probability of an incident followed by rating the consequences and
assigning a level of priority (e.g., very high risk). Risk can also be measured by consulting statistics (e.g., accident statistics) and calculating the probability of an event. Risk analysis
methods that are based on numerical calculations are sometimes referred to as
quantitative risk analyses while those not based on numerical calculations are referred to as subjective risk analyses. An argument can be made for choosing one type of risk analysis
method over another given the subjective nature of risk perceptions; however, there is
evidence to support that the actual or objective level risk and an individual’s interpretation are not always disparate. Research involving offshore oil and gas platform employees
showed that workers had “reasonably accurate perceptions of risk” and suggested that the
factors that influence risk perceptions are similar to those which influence more objective assessment methods (e.g., quantitative risk assessment).4 Regardless of the method
chosen, the necessity of conducting a risk analysis (as part of the overall risk assessment)
cannot be negated.
The two main pillars of risk analysis are probability and consequences. Probability refers to the chance or likelihood that an event will happen and will result in harm or loss. Within the
context of workplace safety and risk assessments, probability is typically expressed in
terms describing the likelihood (e.g., very unlikely, likely, very likely); however, there are numerous ways to express probability and it is up to the organization to ensure the
definition is appropriate for that context, environment, or situation. The following is
example terminology for expressing probability:
• Very likely—typically experienced at least once every six months by
an individual.
• Likely—typically experienced once every five years by an individual.
• Unlikely—typically experienced once during the working lifetime of
an individual.
• Very unlikely—less than chance of being experienced by an individual
during his or her working lifetime.
Source: CCOHS, “Risk Assessment.” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_assessment.html.
Example ratings from CCOHS for probability are as follows:
• High—likely to be experienced once or twice a year by an individual.
• Medium—may be experienced once every five years by an individual.
• Low—may occur once during a working lifetime.5
Consequences correspond to the severity of the injury, harm, or loss and can range from
dust in the eye, to amputation of a finger, to death. Consequences of hazard can be expressed in various ways and can include the consequences of harm and or the loss to
equipment. It is important for organizations to select terminology that is appropriate for a
given job, situation, or context. Consequences are often expressed in terms of severity of
harm or loss (e.g., slight harm, moderate, or extreme) and can be expressed as follows:
• Slightly harmful (e.g., superficial injuries; minor cuts and bruises; eye
irritation from dust; nuisance and irritation; ill health leading to
temporary discomfort).
• Moderately harmful (e.g., lacerations; burns; concussion; serious
sprains; minor fractures; deafness; dermatitis; asthma; work-
related upper limb disorders; ill health).
• Extremely harmful (e.g., amputations; major fractures; poisonings;
multiple injuries; fatal injuries; occupational cancer; other severely
life-shortening diseases; acute fatal diseases).
Source: CCOHS, “Risk Assessment.” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_assessment.html.
CCOHS uses the following examples for severity rankings:
• High: major fracture, poisoning, significant loss of blood, serious
head injury, or fatal disease.
• Medium: sprain, strain, localized burn, dermatitis, asthma, injury
requiring days off work.
• Low: an injury that requires first aid only; short-term pain, irritation,
or dizziness.6
Determining the risk level of hazard is done by gauging the probability and the
consequence of a hazard and assigning it a rating. Like probability and consequence
ratings, risk ratings can be customized. CCOHS includes the following rating examples and
corresponding actions:
• Immediately dangerous—stop work and implement controls.
• High risk—investigate process and implement controls immediately.
• Medium risk—keep work process going, develop control plan and
implement as soon as possible.
• Low risk—keep process going but monitor regularly. Investigate a
control plan for implementation.
• Very low risk—continuous process monitoring.7
The process of looking at the relationship and ranking risk can be done using a table similar
to Table 4.1.
If the probability associated with a hazard is determined to be very unlikely but would
cause extreme harm, it would be ranked as high risk indicating the process should be investigated and controls implemented immediately. Likewise, if the probability of risk is
considered very unlikely, and would result in slight harm, it would be assigned a ranking
of very low in which case the process should be monitored.
A very important aspect that should not be overlooked when documenting a risk analysis is
the organization of the information. Whichever method is chosen, the information must be
clearly written, concise, and easily understood. Often this can be taken for granted by
those determining the format; however, it should be evaluated and tested with a representative sample of employees to ensure there is no confusion in understanding and
interpretation. It is important to keep in mind the demographic of the organization’s
employees and to be conscious of reading level and language abilities. Numbers, colours, and symbols can be used to support ease of understanding, documentation, and
interpretation. Charts, diagrams, and tables can also be helpful (see Table 4.2 adapted
from CCOHS).
Follow-Up
The information obtained through hazard identification and risk analysis should be
communicated to the appropriate manager, the immediate supervisor, and the health and safety committee. Some reports may be forwarded to the Ministry of Labour (if the
substance is under assessment), to the Ministry of Environment, or to the corporation’s
lawyers. Safety professionals and supervisors who do not pass on information about unsafe conditions to a responsible manager could be charged under the jurisdiction’s
occupational health and safety act.
When presented with information about hazards, management may decide to (1) take no
action, (2) take corrective action, or (3) consider a cost–benefit analysis to determine
whether the anticipated losses are worth the cost of correcting the problem.
Types of Injuries and Illnesses
A look at the nature of workplace injuries and illnesses will help us identify the types of
workplace hazards we are concerned with as well as help determine the consequences of
an event. There are at least two broad classes of injuries in workplaces. Overt traumatic
injuries (e.g., cuts, fractures, burns) typically result from coming into contact with an
energy source (e.g., falling, being struck by material). In contrast, overexertion injuries (e.g., sprains, back pain, tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome) typically are caused by excessive
physical effort; repetitive motions; and, possibly, awkward working positions. From this
observation it follows that hazard identification and control should focus on identifying
and controlling sources of energy that can result in injury as well as in conditions of work
that may lead to overexertion.
Overt Traumatic Injuries
One of the most common causes of workplace accidents is individuals coming into contact
with objects and equipment. For example, individuals may be struck by objects falling from overhead or may drop materials on themselves, resulting in crush injuries. Material may fly
through the air because of grinding or cutting operations. The use of compressed air in
many industrial settings is a particular hazard, as the stream of compressed air may cause
small particles of material to accelerate rapidly through the work environment. Individuals
may also be struck by moving equipment such as the portable equipment or “crash” carts
used in hospitals, or chair lifts and T-bars used at ski hills.
Another form of contact with equipment occurs when individuals become caught in, under,
or between (CIUB) machinery. Industrial presses, for example, are often associated with
crush injuries when individuals who are feeding the machine stock get their hands caught
in the machinery as it presses. Conveyer belts and other power transmission systems (e.g.,
belts, pulleys) may have “pinch points” in which individuals can become entangled.
Falls are another significant source of workplace injury. This category includes falls from a
height (e.g., off a ladder, or down a set of stairs) as well as falls on the same level (e.g., slipping on the floor). As we might expect, falls from a height are common in construction,
where ladders and other temporary structures (e.g., scaffolding) are frequently used;
however, consider other occupations where individuals are working from heights such as telecommunications technicians who climb towers or electricians who climb various
structures. Falls on the same level often result from spilled material (e.g., oil) or from
tripping over poorly placed material, uneven surfaces, and so on.
Overt traumatic injuries also result from coming into contact with sources of energy such as electricity, chemicals (e.g., chemical burns), and heat (e.g., touching a hot surface).
Prolonged kneeling and the use of abrasives can result in abrasive injuries in which the skin
is torn or rubbed raw.
In all situations, prevention focuses on (1) recognizing the source of the hazard (i.e., the
potential energy source), (2) eliminating the hazard, and (3) protecting workers from
exposure to the energy source (e.g., through personal protective equipment).
Overexertion Injuries
There are many types of overexertion or repetitive strain injuries. Most of them, though,
have one of three basic causes: lifting, working in an awkward position, or repetition.
Workers like store clerks, merchandisers, or even continuing care assistants who might be working in a nursing home are frequently and repeatedly handling materials and clients
who require lifting, carrying, and lowering countless times during a shift. These frequently performed operations in many organizations can result in high-risk injuries through
overexertion and poor posture, both of which are the primary cause of low back pain.
According to the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS), training that focuses on how to lift properly is a controversial topic in the world of manual handling
due to the fact that there is no best way to lift an object or materials and lifting can often be
done in various ways.8 The best way to manage injuries such as lower back injuries from
lifting is to do so with very specific and onsite training provided to workers; nevertheless,
there are general lifting guidelines (see OH&S Notebook 4.1).
OH&S Notebook 4.1: General Lifting Guidelines
• Prepare to lift by warming up the muscles.
• Stand close to the load, facing the way you intend to move.
• Use a wide stance to gain balance.
• Ensure a good grip on the load.
• Keep arms straight.
• Tighten abdominal muscles.
• Tuck chin into the chest.
• Initiate the lift with body weight.
• Lift the load close to the body.
• Lift smoothly without jerking.
• Avoid twisting and side bending while lifting.
• Do not lift if you are not convinced that you can handle the load
safely.
Source: Does Training Reduce Back Injuries,
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/inj_prev.html, Canadian Centre for
Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS), 2007. Reproduced with the permission of
CCOHS, 2019.
When lifting activities are identified as a workplace hazard, materials handling can be
mechanized by using an ergonomic program or with equipment like conveyors and forklift trucks or other lifting devices. Work processes can be automated by using guided vehicles,
which follow sensor lines on the floor, stopping as required to transfer their loads; or
inventory systems can be installed that allow computer-controlled machines to pick up or
stock inventory. In these ways, many of the risks associated with lifting can be greatly reduced. Some workers use supports (e.g., back belts) that force the back to remain
straight but do not prevent the worker from lifting or handling heavier loads. Though the logic of using back supports is appealing, agencies such as NIOSH in the United States and
CCOHS have suggested that there is no scientific evidence in favour of the use of such
devices and does not recommend the use of them.9
Repetitive Strain Injuries
Consider how many times in a day you grip, hold, bend, twist, clench, and reach for
something. Performing these activities as part of our daily life may not contribute to an
injury but consider the amount of time a student or office worker spends typing at a
computer. Tennis elbow, golfer’s elbow, writer’s cramp, and postal worker’s shoulder are
well-known examples of what is known as repetitive strain injury (RSI). Other conditions
include carpal tunnel syndrome, thoracic outlet syndrome, and white fingers disease or
Raynaud’s syndrome.
Repetitive strain injuries are serious, and it is the responsibility of employers and
employees to minimize the impact. RSIs result in lost productivity, compensation costs,
and health care costs. More importantly, though, RSIs are painful and debilitating and can lower an individual’s overall quality of life. While we can calculate the amount these
injuries cost the economy, it is also important to consider the impact RSIs have on work
and daily life (see OH&S Today 4.1).
OH&S Today 4.1: Repetitive Strain Injury Awareness Day
Did you know that February 29 marks the Repetitive Strain Injury Awareness Day? In years when there are only 28 days in February, the day is noted on the 28th. The purpose of this
day is to raise awareness among workers, employers, and the public of the impact of RSIs,
and the importance of prevention. In Ontario, the Workers Health and Safety Centre held a
training day designed to educate individuals about the impact of RSIs and the various ways
that ergonomics can be used to prevent injuries.
Source: CCOHS, “Repetitive Strain Injuries: A Real Pain.” Found at
http://www.ccohs.ca/newsletters/hsreport/issues/2012/02/ezine.html (accessed May 1,
2019).
The origins of RSI can be traced to the following four general conditions:
• Unnatural joint position or posture—Whenever a joint is forced to
work in a position that is unnatural or stressed, the risk of RSI is
increased. For instance, during keyboarding the wrists are forced
out of axial alignment with the arm. The use of a hand tool such as a
pair of pliers can force the wrist–arm axes out of line, creating a
stress condition that could eventually cause joint irritation.
• Force application to hinge joints—When hinge joints are forced to
carry applied loading, particularly when flexed, the joint load
distribution of the cartilage is uneven, causing excessive stress in a
small area of the joint. The wrist is a good example of a hinge joint.
When performing a task such as lifting while bent, this joint can
begin to ache. Repetition of the activity can result in a loss of
strength.
• Activity repetition—Tasks such as keyboarding (computer operator)
or using a hammer (carpenter) involve a repetitive flexing of the
fingers and wrists. The action of typing applies low-load repetition
to the fingers (touching the keys) and medium loading to the wrist
(supporting the hand). The action of hammering applies a high-
impact loading to the wrist, which is flexed into a nonaligned axis
on impact. The shock effect increases the potential risk of tissue
damage.
• Pre-existing conditions—Ailments such as arthritis and circulation
disorders can have a synergistic effect on RSI conditions. For
example, arthritis and inflammation of the joints can be aggravated
by the stress associated with hammering or keyboarding.
AWKWARD WORKING POSITIONS Strains and sprains can result from bending, twisting,
and working in a variety of awkward positions. Frequently, the work position may
compound or interact with other factors. For example, an individual may be lifting a load
that normally would present no problem but be working in a restricted space that prohibits
following safe lifting procedures, resulting in an injury. Consider the image below and
imagine the copier is in a small room or closet where there is little room to manoeuvre the
copier in order to repair the broken components or perform routine maintenance.
Perhaps the most common types of injury result from bending or twisting the torso, extending the reach beyond the body, and working overhead with the hands and arms. As
a general guideline, individuals should not have to reach below the knees or raise their
arms above the shoulder for any length of time. Workstations and work procedures should be designed to ensure that individuals work in a comfortable position. Moreover,
equipment and machinery should be adjustable to accommodate differences in body size.
Illness
Workplace illnesses are also a consideration when examining the impact of risk.
Workplace illnesses are the physical and mental conditions resulting from hazards and can
affect the physical and mental health of workers. Workplace illnesses need special
attention given they develop over time thereby making them much more difficult to identify and manage. Conditions can result from exposure to disease-causing bacteria,
viruses, chemical dust, as well as psychosocial hazards (see Chapters 6 and 7).
Risk Control
Hazards can be controlled or eliminated by identifying and attacking the source of the
hazard, the path it travels, and the employee or recipient of the hazard (see Figure 4.2) This
schematic provides a useful summary of the information on hazard control; however, choosing an appropriate control can be difficult. Factors such as whether the hazard
requires a permanent or temporary control, and the appropriate type and number of
controls necessary must be considered. One factor that often causes great debate is the cost of controls. Consider a situation wherein the best control for a hazard is cost
prohibitive; what should organizations do to manage? While there is no easy answer, the
decision must always come back to our moral and legal obligations to protect and preserve
the health and well-being of everyone involved.
Using the Source–Path–Human model allows for a systematic process for determining
where or when a control is necessary and helps to determine what type of control will work
best. However, placing control strategies into categories is less important than having a
thorough understanding that hazard control is possible, necessary, and required.
Hierarchy of Control
Risk control refers to the program or process used to establish preventive and corrective
measures as the final stage of the risk assessment process. Risk control is typically thought of as being organized according to a hierarchy (see Figure 4.3). At the top of the hierarchy is
elimination, followed by substitution. When elimination and substitution are not possible
or reasonable then engineering, administrative, and lastly personal protective equipment are implemented. The idea behind a control hierarchy is that when followed, there is a
systematic process that reduces the probability of risk being realized thus making a system
fundamentally safer. It is important to note that not every control is perfect; therefore, it is
necessary that for each level within the hierarchy multiple different types of controls (from
each category) should be implemented.
Elimination
Elimination is the process of removing a hazard from the workplace. Eliminating a hazard is
the most effective approach because once the hazard is removed it cannot cause harm.
According to some organizations, customized risk control programs, elimination, and substitution are often grouped together given that a hazard or process is removed in place
of another. This occurs when the hazard is part of workplace equipment, material, or
process.
Substitution
Substitution involves replacing or changing out equipment or materials for less hazardous
ones. Safety professionals sometimes replace hazardous equipment or materials with those that are less hazardous. For example, replacing a light, fluffy powder with the same
material in granular form will result in a reduction of airborne dust levels. Lead paints can
be replaced with less toxic materials such as water-based coatings. Similarly, electric
trucks can be substituted for gasoline-powered ones, with a resultant decrease in exposure to carbon monoxide. The substitute should, of course, be checked for other types of
hazards. The introduction of electric trucks will reduce the serious risk of carbon monoxide
exposure but increase less serious exposure to flammable hydrogen or electric shock from
batteries.
Engineering Controls
Engineering controls are methods of modifying plants, workshops, factories, or other work environments through equipment, isolating machinery, or ventilating a work environment.
Engineering controls also involve modifying work processes and designing or redesigning equipment to minimize workers’ exposure to the hazard.10 Engineering controls should be
built into the design of the work itself. Before equipment and materials are purchased,
specifications for efficient and safe operations should be determined. For example, noise emission limits for noisy equipment can be specified before the equipment is purchased,
thus reducing possible worker exposure. Engineering controls also refer to the installation
of auxiliary equipment, such as physical barriers and ventilation systems, to reduce
hazards involving the source and path. Because engineering controls avoid hazards or eliminate them entirely and because they work independently of workers, they are the first
(i.e., most preferred) way to deal with hazards.
PROCESS MODIFICATION Sometimes changing the way the work is done can increase safety. Changing a manual operation to an automated one, or from batch processes to
continuous processes, may result in fewer hazards.
Effective job design is key to worker safety and efficiency. Frederick Taylor (1856–1915), the founder of industrial engineering, tried to increase both by breaking a job into its basic
components and then assigning to each task specific times and methods (motions).
Taylor’s ideas were applied to the shovelling of coal at the Bethlehem Steel Company in
what was to become a classic motion study. This application demonstrated that a stoker could shovel more coal into the blast furnace by using a larger shovel and engaging in
fewer work cycles. Decreasing the repetition of the task reduced fatigue and back strain.
Subsequent efficiency experts addressed the tedium associated with simple task repetition. In 1920 the managers at Hawthorne Works, a large manufacturing facility in
Illinois, set out to determine whether employees were more productive in a well-lit work
environment compared to a poorly lit work environment. The managers at the facility hired consultants and commissioned a study that indicated that employees were in fact more
productive in well-lit conditions. Furthermore, the results of the study also indicated that
modifying work processes by letting employees work in teams, having a clean work space,
and allowing for regular breaks also increased worker productivity.11
Inspired by the Hawthorne studies of the 1920s, the socio-technological approach to work
design was concerned with enhancing worker involvement and satisfaction. What has this
to do with health and safety? The more interested and motivated the worker, the lower the
probability of a serious accident or injury.
VENTILATION Ventilation is one that specifically targets the control of airborne hazards by
removing the contaminated air and replacing it with uncontaminated air. Examples of this would be an exhaust system found in office buildings or skyscrapers (e.g., heating,
ventilation, air conditioning unit, or HVAC). Isolation limits exposure to employees who are
working within proximity or directly with a hazard by enclosing the hazard in a
containment structure, (e.g., closet). In this approach, the hazardous job or task is isolated from the employees to reduce their exposure. Isolation strategies may be as simple as
putting a physical barrier around a chemical or noise source or involve removing a
hazardous operation to a separate facility. Robots can handle tasks that are too dangerous
for humans.
EQUIPMENT DESIGN Controls and displays can also be designed to reduce confusion.
Automobile instrument panels and machine operating panels should exhibit the following
four characteristics:
1. Visibility. The display must be within the worker’s field of vision, with no obstructions.
Characters should be of a readable size, with high contrast.
2. Legibility. Characters must be adequately spaced as well as distinguishable (a “3”
should not look like an “8”). No more than one line or pointer should appear on each
display.
3. Interpretability. The displays must be interpreted in the same way by all observers. Universal symbols help but can lead to misunderstandings. For example, the red exit
symbols may be confused with the red glow that means “stop.” In Europe, exit symbols are
green. 4. User-friendliness. Each control must be a different shape and have a different operating
direction to be easily distinguished from adjacent controls. Picture the controls in your car:
the radio volume rotates, while the station change button is pushed; the most important
controls—the fuel gauge and the speedometer—are displayed most prominently.
MACHINE GUARDING Machine guarding is necessary to protect a worker from the hazards
and energies created by moving machinery.
The following basic guidelines for machine guarding apply, regardless of the type or
operation of the equipment:
• The guard must be sturdy enough to resist external source damage
that would interfere with the operation of the machine, such as
being struck by a forklift truck.
• The guard must permit required maintenance tasks without
excessive dismantling or reassembly labour.
• The guard must be properly and securely mounted to prevent
rattling, which is a distraction, or part interference, which can cause
snags and force the operator to attempt to free them, possibly
without proper precautions.
• There should be no parts that, if removed, would compromise the
protection provided by the guard; there should always be some
guarding left.
• Construction should be relatively simple so that problems can be
immediately identified and corrected during an inspection.
Source: CCOHS, “Risk Assessment,” Table 2. Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_assessment.html.
Thoroughness and quality in guard design is essential. Consider the machine guard in the
photo.
An incomplete guard may be as much of a hazard as no guard at all. The guard must not create a false sense of security that may cause accidents and possible injuries. When the
guard is in operation, all parts of the body must be excluded, and no access is permitted.
The barrier or guard will prevent a worker from being caught in, on, or between moving
equipment (kinetic energy), or from being struck by flying, sliding, or falling objects (gravity
energy).
Floor barriers installed around pumps and other hazardous equipment must be strong enough to resist damage by, for example, forklift truck impact (mechanical energy), and
high enough that a worker will not trip or fall over them. Expanded metal should fill the
open spaces to prevent parts from rolling into the hazard area and fingers from being
poked through.
Several devices can be used to control point-of-operation hazards. Barrier or enclosure
guards prevent workers from entering a hazardous area. The barrier may be mechanical (a
cage that covers the work action) or electrical (a photocell that will not permit the machine to cycle while the beam is broken). The emergency stop button is another form of guard;
for it to be effective, the machine must be equipped with a braking system that will stop
the machine in mid-cycle.
Guarding by distance involves keeping workers physically removed from the machine
hazard. One of the most common methods is the two-handed trip guard or control, which is located near but not amid the hazard site. Both hands are required to press each button
simultaneously for the machine to cycle.
Hand-removal devices are designed to physically remove the worker’s hands and arms from the activated machine. The “hand pullout” is a harness-like system fastened to the
worker’s wrists at one end and to the machine at the other end. When the machine (say a
punch press) is activated, the harness mechanism physically pulls the worker’s hands out
of the way. Short of removing the harness, the worker cannot win the ensuing tug-of-war.
The sweep away is a device with one or two arms (single sweep or double sweep) that,
when activated by the machine cycle, will swing across in front of the worker, forcibly
removing his or her hands from the danger area. A small panel attached to each arm screens the swept area to keep the worker’s hands from re-entering the danger zone after
the sweep arm passes. The sweep-away device is not a recommended guard.
The photoelectric eye is a light beam that, when broken, will not allow the machine to cycle. This type of device has the advantage of not adding to the machine any obstructions that
can make maintenance difficult. It is generally expensive to install and maintain but very
effective.
Feeding tools include hand-held tongs, push sticks, or clamps that allow the operator access to the machine while keeping his or her hands out of the way. Metal tools are
usually made of aluminum or magnesium, which will crush easily if caught in the machine,
thereby saving the die sets and not allowing the type of kickback that could direct the worker’s hands into the machine. A press forge operator will use a set of special tongs to
hold a red-hot piece of metal in place in the dies while the machine forms the part. In a
similar manner, a set of handles secured to sheet glass or metal by vacuum will permit a
worker to handle the material without being cut by sharp edges.
Engineering controls can also be applied to any environment; for instance, an office
environment where you might do your banking, or even a call centre. Many employees
spend long periods seated at their workstations. A poor sitting position or posture can restrict blood circulation, increase blood pooling in the legs and feet, and add to the
compressive load on the spine. Correct chair design will minimize the concentration of
pressures under the thigh and the back of the knee. Work seating must be completely adjustable in all directions and planes. A forward-tilting seat may be preferred by
employees who must lean over a workstation.
The backrest should be curved on the vertical and horizontal planes. It should also be
vertically adjustable (so that the point of contact fits the small of the back in the lumbar region) as well as horizontally adjustable. Armrests are recommended unless a wide variety
of arm movements are required. The chair base should provide stability and mobility. Five
casters with a wide spread will prevent tipping.12 Visit here for illustrations and information
on recommended chair settings and body positions.
Lighting within an office environment is also extremely important and has two main
purposes: to illuminate the tasks, and to increase the safety and comfort of the worker. Bright overhead lighting can produce glare and annoying reflections on a computer screen,
resulting in eyestrain and headaches. Choosing the correct lighting for a workplace will
involve consideration of the following factors:
• Intensity—the amount of light given off by a source.
• Luminance—the amount of light uniformly reflected or emitted from
a surface and the background.
• Reflectance—the amount of light reflected from a surface
(luminance) and the amount of light falling on the surface
(illuminance). A dull black surface has 9 percent reflectance, while a
shiny white surface has closer to 100 percent reflectance.
• Luminaire—a complete lighting device (e.g., floodlight with
reflector).
• Contrast—the relationship between the amount of light from a
surface and the background.
• Glare—the reduction of visibility caused by brightness differences
between an object and its background.
Both the quantity and the quality of light must be considered. In the context of workstation
design, quantity refers to the correct amount of light needed to perform a task. Quality is
more complex and includes measures of distribution (or spread), glare, diffusion, shadows,
contrast, and colour.
Administrative Control
Administrative controls are the changes to work practices, policies, procedures, training,
and rules. Administrative controls direct or provide guidance on the safest method for completing a job or task. Relative to engineering controls, administrative controls can be
more complex as they do involve removing a hazard and involve various individuals within
the organization, and require coordination and resources (e.g., employee training and rotation, environmental sampling, and medical surveillance) to protect
individuals.13 Administrative controls is the second level of priority for worker protection,
after engineering controls but before personal protective equipment. Administrative controls can have some effect in minimizing hazardous conditions. The most serious failure
of this method relates to a company’s reluctance or lack of appreciation for the hazards,
and of the impact administrative controls can have. Using administrative controls, the HR
practitioner can be effective by (1) introducing preplacement assessments so that employees who have suitable characteristics (e.g., the ability to lift materials) are chosen
for the job; (2) scheduling job rotations so that workers spend time in less hazardous jobs,
thereby reducing exposures (e.g., working with toxic materials in the morning and with nontoxic materials in the afternoon); (3) moving workers to other permanent jobs after
exposure to toxic materials; and (4) performing periodic monitoring.
Some common examples of administrative control include safety awareness programs, incentive programs, housekeeping programs, preventive maintenance, and the
development of policies and training modules for unique situations such as confined space
entry.
SAFETY AWARENESS Safety awareness programs are a type of administrative control and refer to programs that attempt to inform workers about health and safety issues and to
remind them of the importance of health and safety. Awareness programs are done in
various ways; you might be most familiar with public awareness campaigns (e.g.,
Repetitive Strain Injury Awareness Day).
VISIBLE REMINDERS There are many ways to remind workers of the importance of safety:
• Posters and signs at worker entrances and other points of entry are
one way to promote safety awareness.
• A company-designed booklet dealing with health and safety issues
can be issued to employees.
• Safety messages through emails, text messages, and messages via
social media (e.g., Twitter, Facebook) are also used to provide
reminders to employees.
• Placemats and napkins in the dining area can be imprinted with
safety messages.
• Decals (self-adhesive or magnetic) can be applied to specific objects
as safety reminders.
• Safety displays can be set up at entrances and in cafeterias. These
displays can feature photographs of the Safe Employee of the
Month or brief statements by workers who were saved from injury
by, for example, correct use of personal protective equipment (e.g.,
safety glasses).
• Newsletters, bulletin boards, and billboards are other vehicles for
promoting safety awareness.
Safety campaigns can be used to target specific hazards or unsafe practices. These efforts
and presentations, though, will not be effective unless senior managers are fully behind the
programs.
SPECIAL EVENTS Numerous special events and campaigns have been developed to
promote safety awareness in the workplace (e.g., National Safe Driving Week). In general,
the intent of these special events is to increase awareness of safety issues in the workplace
by focusing on safety or a specific element of safety in the workplace (see OH&S Today 4.2).
OH&S Today 4.2: CCOHS Young Workers Zone
In response to the high rate of injuries among young workers, many jurisdictions have begun to address the issue of young workers’ health and safety by specifically targeting
youth about safety issues, the importance of health and safety, and their rights under the
law. CCOHS has recently created a website called the Young Workers Zone, which is
designed to help educate young people about their roles and responsibilities in worker safety. This website provides information to youth about programs and incentives they can
access as well as various safety-based contests they can participate in. Parents can access
information about what they should be asking their children about their work environment, and what they should be doing to ensure their child is safe while at work. The
website also targets employers and teachers and provides information about rights,
responsibilities, and resources designed to help engage youth, as well as various teaching
tools and techniques.
Source: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, “Young Workers Zone.”
Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/youngworkers/resources/initiativesprograms.html
(accessed July 24, 2019).
AWARDS AND INCENTIVES Safety awards are another vehicle for increasing awareness of
safety. By establishing an award, the sponsoring agency or company creates an “event”
comprising a presentation and a media announcement. The resulting publicity can be used to raise safety awareness. Safety award programs have been created by industrial
associations, governments, and agencies to recognize achievements in safety.
Within organizations, individual employees can be given incentives to maintain good safety performance. However, safety awards and incentive programs must be very carefully
designed and executed to ensure that employees and employers are engaging in safe work
behaviours for the right reasons and not simply because they are rewarded for doing so
(see Chapter 10 for behaviour-based safety programs that involve incentives).
HOUSEKEEPING Ensuring that the worksite is clean and that workers have access to
cleaning facilities will contribute to the control of hazards. A clean, orderly workplace can
reduce hazards and at the same time increase efficiency. Every worksite contains potentially hazardous tools and equipment. For example, a plant site may have containers
of chemicals such as solvents, tools such as drills, and processes that generate dust or
scrap material. Maintaining a clean and orderly job site reduces the risk of injury due to falls, fires, and so forth. Furthermore, it is easier to locate first aid equipment or exits in an
environment in which all tools and equipment are in their assigned places (see OH&S
Notebook 4.2).
Housekeeping is not just a good practice; it is a legal requirement under most health and safety legislation. Though legislation varies across jurisdictions, the Canadian Health and
Safety Regulations under the Canada Labour Code are typical:
1. Every exterior stairway, walkway, ramp, and passageway that may be used by employees shall be kept free of accumulations of ice and snow or other slipping or tripping
hazards.
2. All dust, dirt, waste, and scrap material in every workplace in a building shall be removed as often as is necessary to protect the health and safety of employees and shall be
disposed of in such a manner that the health and safety of employees is not endangered.
3. Every travelled surface in a workplace shall be
OH&S Notebook 4.2: Preventing Slips and Falls Through Housekeeping
Have you walked into a service station bathroom and notice a sheet of paper on the back of
the door that identifies the last time the washroom was cleaned and by who? Have you
ever walked into a coworker’s office and had to navigate your way around stacks of books
and papers? Consider the area where you study; do you ever feel like you study better when your space is clean? Good housekeeping practices are perhaps the simplest and
most effective way to prevent slips and falls in the workplace, and clean, well- maintained
workspaces often help boost employee morale and productivity. Housekeeping programs should involve information, policies, and procedures about how to manage dust, dirt, and
waste removal; storage of materials and supplies; work surface lighting; and so forth.
Housekeeping programs should be built into a typical work routine and should specifically
identify the following:
• who is responsible for clean up during the shift
• day-to-day cleanup
• waste disposal
• removal of unused materials
• inspection to ensure cleanup is complete
Source: CCOHS, “Why Should We Pay Attention to Housekeeping at Work?” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/house.html (accessed April 1, 2019).
• a. slip resistant; and
• b. kept free of splinters, holes, loose boards and tiles, and similar
defects.
Source: Canada Occupational Health and Safety Regulations (SOR/86-304). Found at:
http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-86-304/page-7.html#h-20.
The cleaning process itself should be evaluated. Besides the obvious hazards posed by
solvents used for cleaning, other hazards may be involved in operations such as dust
removal. Workers using compressed air may be tempted to blow dust off work surfaces and even clothing; however, compressed air can be forced through the skin, enter the
bloodstream, and cause death.
Organizations that employ workers who handle toxic materials should ensure that washing facilities are located close to the work area. Workers should wash before drinking or eating
to prevent the ingestion of toxic materials. No food or drink should be permitted at the
worksite. Workers exposed to chemicals should have showers and change clothes before
leaving the worksite. Where appropriate, hazardous material (hazmat) suits should be
available and workers should be trained in their use.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE Preventive maintenance refers to the orderly, continuous, and scheduled protection and repair of equipment and buildings. The primary goals of
preventive maintenance are to determine potential problems and to implement corrective
actions. The main benefits of this process are uninterrupted production and the reduction
of potential hazards caused by equipment failure. See OH&S Notebook 4.3.
OH&S Notebook 4.3: Preventative Maintenance
Preventive work plans are often completed according to a specific schedule (therefore classified under administrative control) with the over goals of avoiding wear and tear and
any sudden equipment failures. Preventive maintenance plans increase equipment
reliability, decrease replacement costs and downtime, and reduce injuries to workers.
Preventive maintenance plans include planned replacement of equipment or exploratory maintenance wherein workers will stop a work process and or system and look for any
parts or components that are showing signs of wear or need replacement.
Source: Health and Safety Ontario, “Preventive Maintenance.” Found at: http://www.wsps.ca/WSPS/media/Site/Resources/Downloads/Preventative-
Maintenance_Final.pdf?ext=.pdf (accessed April 1, 2019).
Equipment failures do not happen without warning. We are all familiar with the atypical noises that our cars or air conditioners produce as signals that something needs to be
fixed. However, maintenance should enter the picture before warning signs emerge. It is
more cost-effective to perform maintenance routinely while the equipment or machines
are still operating than it is after they have failed, necessitating shutdown of the entire operation. Checking the level of oil in your car at every second fuel stop is preventive
maintenance. To let the oil level drop and the engine seize is expensive and unnecessary.
Record keeping is essential to any preventive maintenance program. Maintenance information should be recorded at the time the maintenance work is done. Pertinent data
will include part replacement and frequency, lubrication, bearings and drive repairs,
electrical failures, and cleanliness. Once the historical information is available, failure trends can be anticipated and addressed. (This approach is often referred to as failure
mode analysis or maintenance hazard analysis.)
LOCKOUT PROCEDURES When maintenance or adjustment is performed on any machine,
the machine must be shut off and locked out. For example, replacing the signal light on a
residential stove involves accessing the appliance’s interior. Shutting off the stove entails
turning off the switches; locking it out entails turning off the power at the main fuse box or
circuit breaker and removing the appropriate fuses in either the power panel or the stove. With these precautions, no one can turn the stove on and cause an electrical shock or burn
injury. For a more complicated appliance such as a furnace, not only must the fuses be removed, but also the fuel lines must be shut off, and the supply flange joint must be
disassembled.
The following are some of the precautions that must be taken during the lockout process:
• Only one person should be responsible for the lockout procedure.
• The worker must ensure that the machine is shut off completely;
that all internal pressure sources (hydraulic, air, steam) are bled off
to atmospheric levels; that the valves are locked open; and that any
movable parts, such as flywheels or rams, are immobilized.
• After the machine has been shut down, all the disconnect points,
such as the electrical panel, must be left open.
• Before work begins, complete testing must be undertaken to ensure
that all energy sources are inoperative.
• The worker must use an approved lockout tag and single-key
padlock to secure the equipment.
• Only the workers who installed each lock are permitted to remove
that lock, in the reverse order to the lock installation, beginning
and ending with the project manager.
• Each worker must sign off the work permit as his or her lock is
removed.
When the project is finished, the equipment will be activated in the reverse sequence to the
shutdown. Checks must be made to ensure that guards are in place, isolation devices have
been removed, all tools are accounted for, energy controls have been closed and put back into operating condition, and tags and locks have been removed. The last lock removed is
that of the manager of the project from the shift on which the lock was applied.
WORK PERMITS Before any high-risk work is undertaken, a series of work permits must be in place, one for each type of activity. These permits are, in effect, in-house licences to
perform dangerous work. Permits are required for confined space entry, electrical work,
excavation work, safety valve work, scaffolding work, radiation work, and equipment- disconnecting work (lockout procedures). “Hot work” permits may be required for
activities such as cutting, welding, and soldering wherein the heat involved may trigger the
fire alarm system or present a fire hazard. A sample work permit for scaffolding is shown in
Figure 4.4.
CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PROCEDURES Confined space refers to a space that is enclosed
or partially enclosed and restricts entrance and exit by the location and size and is a space that is potentially deficient in oxygen or could contain toxic gases. Some typical examples
are city sewers, holding tanks on fishing vessels, boiler rooms, walk-in fridges and freezers
in restaurants, and ditches. Other examples include any long, small tunnel; shower stalls;
and some specialty rooms such as computer equipment rooms that are completely
independent from any adjacent spaces.
PERMITS At home, cleaning the bathroom shower stall with the door closed and using a
tile cleaner will trap the vapours from the cleanser. These vapours may accumulate near
the floor where the work is being done, displace oxygen, and cause drowsiness or fainting.
Entry into industrial confined spaces is addressed in various OH&S regulations. One of the
first things to determine is whether the space to be entered is, in fact, a confined space. CCOHS provides helpful information on identification of a confined space, how to manage
the space, and how to develop a confined-space safety program.
Once it has been established that a confined space exists, the following steps should be
taken:
1. Issue a proper work permit and follow all the lockout procedures.
2. Determine the ease of access to and from the space and develop appropriate
contingency plans for worker emergencies. 3. Make sure that all the proper tools and equipment are on hand to do the job.
4. Communicate to workers that no smoking or open flames are to be permitted at or near
the worksite.
5. Purge the space of all contaminants and test the air quality several times to ensure that
all impurities have been removed.
6. Ensure that a constant forced airflow into the space is provided.
7. Clean the interior of the space to ensure that no hazardous scale or deposits are present. 8. Post a trained safety lookout outside the space. (The inside workers should be kept in
full view at all times.)
9. Attach a lifeline to each worker in the space. (The free end should be controlled by the
safety lookout.)
On completion of the confined-space work, equipment start-up can be undertaken in the
reverse order to the shutdown. The permit and lockout systems should be followed
without deviation.
MONITORING/AUDITING Monitoring is an important part of hazard control and is a
continual process that occurs at various points in time with regularity. Audits are done to
ensure that hazard controls are functioning effectively and to identify new hazards. Monitoring can be done daily by supervisors and maintenance personnel, weekly by
department heads, monthly by health and safety committees, and as needed by
compliance officers.14 An audit program can be used to evaluate health and safety performance and security in the workplace. For example, the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council (NSERC) and Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council (SSHRC) recently completed a corporate internal audit of the physical security of
their information, assets, and services to ensure they were protected against compromise
and threats, and to ensure individuals were protected against workplace violence.15
Several audit methods are available. One very effective technique, which involves applying
total quality control methodologies and trend analysis, relates the number of incidents to a predetermined goal. If it seems from the number of events in a particular time frame that a
safety goal failure is imminent, steps can be taken to prevent the occurrence. The audit
program should:
1. ensure that safety programs are being carried out without restrictions
2. ensure that safety programs are up to date and that deficiencies are documented
3. be carried out by people with some understanding of both the audit methods and the
material being examined (the various members of the JHSC should be able to carry out this inspection)
4. stimulate discussion among all managers and workers, and ultimately produce
conclusions and recommendations 5. be conducted at least annually by companies with high-risk hazards
6. include all documentation (WSIB/WCB statements, Ministry of Labour citations, air
sampling results, first aid and incident reports, hazard analyses, discipline records, cost–
benefit studies, etc.)
RECORD KEEPING Information obtained at all stages of the hazard control process should
be stored in a database. These records are used to identify frequency of events as well as
trends in hazards. They are also a source of information on worker training and equipment maintenance. The provision of monthly updates to managers will assist them in their
efforts at ongoing hazard control. The length of time that records should be kept varies
with the nature of the record. Records on individual employees should be kept for as long
as that individual is with the company. In some cases (e.g., individual records of exposure to radiation) records may have to be kept for the length of employment plus an additional
period (e.g., 10 years).
Personal Protective Equipment
In some cases, it is not possible to fully protect individuals by applying engineering and administrative controls. The third line of defence in occupational health and safety is the
use of personal protective equipment (PPE) (point-of-contact controls). PPE consists of
clothing, helmets, goggles, and other devices designed to protect the individual from
specific hazards. A construction worker, for example, might wear steel-toed safety boots
(typically with a nonconductive, nonslip sole), a helmet, safety glasses or goggles, work
gloves, and hearing protection.
It is relatively easy to control the wearing of some PPE. For example, in many industries the
use of steel-toed safety boots/shoes is a standard policy. Since most of us do not remove or
change our shoes during the working day, a worker who puts on safety boots is likely to
continue to wear them. The use of other types of PPE can be more variable. Safety goggles or glasses (for example) can steam up on a hot day, and workers may find that they are
uncomfortable. Hearing protection can make it difficult to converse with coworkers.
Moreover, workers can simply forget to use PPE. For example, when working on a
construction site it is easy to forget to put on your safety glasses before using a saw.
Individuals may opt for wearing PPE in a way that reduces its effectiveness; for example,
one often sees construction workers wearing helmets with the peak to the back or perched improperly on the head. Helmets worn in an improper position do not provide the same
level of protection as when properly worn.
Though PPE offers protection to workers, its use can be highly variable because of factors
such as the ease of use/donning. As a result, the use of PPE is recognized as the least
preferred means of controlling hazards. Though PPE of one sort or another is required in
many workplaces, it is most properly considered to be an adjunct or backup to other
methods of control. It should never be the sole means of protecting workers from hazards.
Summary
In this chapter we introduced the broader concepts of risk assessment, hazard
identification, risk analysis, and control. A hazard is defined as any source of potential
damage, harm, or adverse health effects on something or someone under certain
conditions at work. Hazards typically involve exposure to energy while hazard identification involves the systematic recognition and documentation of the hazards and
risks associated with them. We discussed various tools for hazard identification. Risk
analysis refers to the evaluation of the likelihood of harm posed by the hazard. Such an
analysis needs to consider the probability of an adverse event, and the potential consequences. When controlling risk there is hierarchy, which includes elimination,
substitution, engineering, administrative, and PPE. Engineering controls typically include
equipment processes or careful design of the work (e.g., the tools, machines, or substances) to minimize the hazard. Administrative controls involve strategies such as
training, education, and management techniques to reduce exposure to the hazard. In this
case, the hazard is still present, but the exposure of the individual worker is substantially reduced or controlled. PPE includes items such as helmets, safety glasses, and hearing
protection. These devices do not reduce exposure but do reduce the probable
consequences of being exposed to a hazard. There is a hierarchy of hazard control such
that elimination and substitution are the preferred options; however, when not feasible or reasonable, engineering controls are the preferred solution (i.e., reduce or eliminate the
hazard), administrative controls are the second line of defence (i.e., reduce exposure to the
hazard), and PPE is the last option (i.e., reduce the consequences). That said, all forms of control have a place in OH&S programs and can be thought of as providing multiple layers
of protection for workers.
Key Terms
administrative control
confined space
consequences
elimination
engineering control
fault tree
hazard human factor
illness
incident
injury job description
job specifications
kickback machine guarding
overexertion injuries
overt traumatic injuries positive tree
preventive maintenance
probability
risk risk assessment
risk perception
safety sampling substitution
unsafe act
walk-through survey
Discussion Questions
Steeping some tea...
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Exercises
Steeping some tea... Exercise 4.2
Review
Identify a hazard at your workplace (or a workplace with which you are familiar). List all the ap-
proaches you could undertake to control or minimize the hazard.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 4.3
Review
Human resources professionals can be responsible for ensuring that workplace safety inspections take
place regularly. Using your text and online resources, describe how you would conduct an ef-fective safety inspection program. (Hint: Start by visiting http://www.worksafebc.com to search for
information.) Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 4.4
Review
Using the Web, find out (a) what safety awareness events are celebrated in your local area and (b) how
they are implemented.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 4.5
Review
Lifting limits can be established by calculations developed by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the United States. An online calculator for the equations is found at
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/niosh/calculating_rwl.html. Use the calculator to as-
sess the lifting limits for a retail employee who has to lift a shipment of clothing weighing approxi- mately 16 kg onto a shelf that is 60 cm (horizontally) from where he or she is standing (assume the
vertical distance of their hands from the ground is 50 cm and that horizontal distance from the mid-
point between the ankles to the hands while holding the object is 30 cm). The worker must lift each box a vertical distance of 50 cm. The lift is repeated once each minute for 30 minutes. Keep in mind the
employee must twist at an angle of 30 degrees giving them a fair grasp on the boxes of clothing.
Determine the acceptability of the operation.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 4.1
Show Correct Answer
Using the example risk assessment found in Table 4.1, complete a risk assessment and fault tree
diagram on a task or job you are familiar with. Once you have completed this, outline how your
individual risk perceptions may have influenced your assessment and how it might be different from a
classmate’s evaluation.
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Steeping some tea...
References
1. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, “Hazard and Risk.”
Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_risk.html (accessed July
25, 2019).
2. M. Fleming, R. Flin, K. Mearns, and R. Gordon, “Risk Perceptions of Offshore Workers on
UK Oil and Gas Platforms,” Risk Analysis 18: 103–110.
3. G. Rampton, I. Turnbull, and G. Doran, Human Resources Management Systems, (Toronto:
Nelson, 1996).
4. Fleming, R. Flin, K. Mearns, and R. Gordon, “Risk Perceptions of Offshore Workers on UK
Oil and Gas Platforms,” Risk Analysis 18: 103–110.
5. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, Risk assessment.
Found at: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_assessment.html (accessed
July 25, 2019).
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, “Lifting Guidelines.”
Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/inj_prev.html (accessed June 7,
2016).
9. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, “Back Belts: Do They Prevent
Injury?” Found at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/94-127 (accessed July 25, 2019).
10. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, “Engineering
Controls.” Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_control.html
(accessed May 3, 2019).
11. Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge, A History of the Hawthorne Experiments, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1991).
12. Canadian Standards Association, “Office Ergonomics,” CSA Standard, CAN/CSA Z412-
M89, section 5, 1995.
13. S. DiNardi, ed., The Occupational Environment—Its Evaluation and Control, 2nd ed.
(Fairfax: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1997).
14. P.M. Laing, ed., Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry: Administration
and Programs, 10th ed. (Washington: National Safety Council, 1992).
15. SSHRC, “Audit of Physical Security Management.” Found at: http://www.nserc-
crsng.gc.ca/_doc/Reports-Rapports/Audits-Verifications/PhysicalSecurity_e.pdf (accessed
May 3, 2019).
PHYSICAL AGENTS
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify and describe common physical agents within the workplace
• explain how and when many of the commonly found physical agents
can be considered hazardous
• identify methods of controlling physical agents within the workplace
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
How is Blue Light Affecting You?
Take a minute to consider how often you interact with an electronic device such as a mobile phone or tablet. Now consider at what point during the day you use them. Have you
ever used them before bed to wind down before going to sleep? Consider how much time
you spend sitting in front of a computer screen while at work and for leisure activities. Perhaps you use your tablet to study or play games? Many of these sorts of electronic
devices emit what is referred to as blue light. Visible light is made up of electromagnetic
particles that travel in waves; these waves emit energy and vary in length and in strength, making up what is referred to the visible light spectrum. Blue light, which is part of this
spectrum, has a much shorter wave than other colour lights (e.g., red) resulting in a higher
energy level, reaching further into our retinas, and having a greater impact on us.
Researchers and scientist have conducted studies over the last number of years and have found that while blue light has several benefits, exposure to it before sleep can be
detrimental to our health. For instance, the Harvard Medical School indicates the dangers
of blue light as significant for those who work night shifts and for those who regularly use electronics before sleep. Being exposed to blue light negatively affects the body’s ability to
produce melatonin, a hormone that impacts circadian rhythms, resulting in a greater risk
for a poor night’s sleep. The risks associated with many of the physical agents we are
exposed to in our daily environment are complex and mitigating those risks can be as
equally complex. The first step in managing these risks is ensuring that employees can
identify them, analyze, and understand the potential consequences and control them.
Source: Harvard Medical School, Harvard Health Publications, “Blue Light Has a Dark Side.” Found at: https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/blue-light-has-a-dark-side
(accessed May 4, 2019).
Physical Agents In the Workplace
In this chapter we consider the effects of physical agents in the workplace and how best to
control them. Physical agents are sources of energy that may cause injury or disease if they are not controlled or managed properly. Examples include radiation, noise, vibration, and
extremes in temperature and pressure. Each of these agents may be ambient or acute (i.e.,
resulting from a single exposure).
Radiation
Every minute of every day we are exposed to radiation, some that occurs naturally, and
some of which is created. The exposure comes from various sources including the LED
lights in our houses, various foods we eat, basements we live in, medical equipment we
use, and the offices and buildings where we work. Although we have almost-constant
exposure, not all radiation has the same effect on our health.
Radiation in general is the emission of electromagnetic energy and is divided into two distinct groups—ionizing and non-ionizing. These two types of radiation are identified
primarily by wavelength range—short for ionizing and long for non-ionizing—and by their
action on tissue. This section will be general since any worker employed by a company
involved in radiative processes or materials must undergo extensive, specialized training.
Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation is any form of electromagnetic energy capable of producing ions through
interaction with matter. Types of ionizing radiation include X-rays, gamma rays, alpha
particles, beta particles, and neutrons and higher energy UVC rays.1 X-radiation is most
commonly found in medical facilities. The other forms of ionizing radiation are commonly
found in nuclear operations or research companies. All of these forms, except X-rays, occur naturally as well as in manufactured states. Natural radiation is found in ground-grown
food, building materials such as concrete, and fertilizers such as phosphorus. Most of these
sources are measurable with very sensitive instruments but are insignificant from a health
standpoint. Some harmful ionizing radiation, which might occur in basements and mines,
is radon.
Radiation exposure or dosage is usually measured in a unit called a rem
(roentgen equivalent man). Natural radiation is approximately 125 mrem (millirem) per year. A dose of approximately 75 rem (75 000 mrem) per year can cause serious health
effects.
Manufactured ionizing radiation can be found in several products or operations other than nuclear energy. Most home smoke detectors use a source that emits alpha particles, which
are harmless; older “glow in the dark” watch faces were painted with very low radioactive
paint. In industry, ionizing radiation can be found in bulk-material measuring devices, high-
voltage electronic devices, and medical equipment such as X-ray machines or scanners;
none of these poses a health hazard to the general population.
The effects of electromagnetic radiation upon humans and animals depends upon the
power and frequency of the radiation. The biological effects of equal amounts of different radiations depend on several factors, including whether the exposure is whole body or
local (e.g., the arm), acute, or chronic. Genetic effects can include cell mutation, burns, and
radiation sickness. Control of exposure will include regular monitoring, shielding, job rotation, protective equipment, and extensive training. Therefore, the dentist places a lead
apron over your body and neck when taking X-rays of your teeth.
Non-Ionizing Radiation
Non-ionizing radiation refers to electromagnetic radiation that does not have energies
great enough to turn matter into ions. Non-ionizing radiation is made up of photons, which
are bundles of electromagnetic energy that travel at the speed of light. Non-ionizing
radiation includes extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation, microwave frequency, radio frequency (RF) infrared radiation (IR), visible light radiation (light that is part of the visible
light spectrum), and ultraviolet radiation (UV). It is important to note that UVA and UVB
rays make up the smaller portion of the light spectrum; however, we tend to focus on those
given the damage they can cause.
Even though non-ionizing radiation does not have the ability to ionize matter, it can still
have a negative impact on our health; however, we can be exposed to it without causing
significant impairments or damage to body tissues.2 The impact of non-ionizing radiation on our bodies depends on a number of factors such as the amount of exposure, the power
density of the field of beam, and environmental conditions.3 Do you wear sunscreen before
going outdoors? Do you know how long it lasts before you start to burn? What about on a cloudy day? If you wear sunglasses, do you wear them for style or protection, or both? If
your answer is style only, then consider that the sun can be a source of all types of
radiation and the eye is the primary organ at risk from non-ionizing radiation (see Figure 5.1). As an HR professional, consider how employees working outdoors can be impacted by
radiation from the sun. The impact of non-ionizing radiation is a significant research topic
and in some cases debate (e.g., the impact of cellular telephones).
Controlling Radiation
Chapter 4 outlines the various ways in which the risks associated with hazards can be
controlled or mitigated. Controlling the health risks of radiation often includes a
combination of controls from the hierarchy. For instance, a company may implement a specially designed piece of equipment that prevents access to radiation as well as
implement policies and procedures indicating how long shifts can be scheduled. Typically,
in an environment wherein the risk of exposure is high, multiple engineering controls are in place to protect a worker should one of those control mechanisms fail or be bypassed. The
device pictured is a dosimeter, which measures the level of ionizing radiation a worker is
exposed to, thereby providing an indication of whether they are within safe limits, or
whether further actions are required.
Engineering controls are implemented and can include shields, walls, locked doors,
warning indicators, displays, and ventilation systems. Administrative controls include regular inspections and maintenance schedules, operating procedures, and proper
labelling and inventory of any radioactive devices or materials. PPE controls primarily
include lead aprons, vests, or air purifying respirators as well as eye protection such as sunglasses. In the event that an incident has occurred, and an employee is exposed to a
radioactive source, it is important to consider how that source remains a hazard not only to
that employee but also others including customers, patients, maintenance staff, and so
forth. The intensity of a radioactive source diminishes over time and, as a result,
radioactive atoms decay and eventually form more stable atoms. To measure the amount of time required for the intensity of a radiation from a radioactive source to be reduced by
half is referred to as radiation half-life. This measure tells us the amount of radioactivity
that is left in a substance or object, thereby indicating the level of risk or danger that is
associated with it.
Noise
Noise is defined as any unwanted sound and is often referred to as the most common
workplace hazard. Technically, it refers to “the auditory sensation evoked by the
oscillations in pressure in a medium with elasticity and viscosity,” such as air.4 Sound and
noise differ in that noise is unwanted sound. It would be difficult to find a profession where employees are not exposed to some type of sound or noise; however, construction
workers, cafeteria workers, and farmers are some professions most at risk for hearing
damage, specifically, early warning change. A Canadian study found that approximately 4.6 million Canadians aged 20 to 79 (19%) had hearing loss significant enough to negatively
affect their ability to hear normal speech.5
What makes the issue of noise within the workplace so complex is the fact that a sound
considered to be noise by one individual may not be noise for another, meaning various
circumstances can change whether a sound is considered noise and therefore harmful.
Consider an office environment wherein noises coming from objects such as keyboards,
photocopiers, or dishwashers could be perceived or heard differently by employees.
There are characteristics about the ear that add to the complexity of managing noise in the
workplace. For instance, one major characteristic of the human ear and hearing is that we
do not hear everything in a nice, neat fashion. If sound were measured electronically, the sound spectrum might appear as a straight line. However, what the human ear hears or
perceives is significantly different. Sound is often assessed using a unit of measurement
known as Hertz or Hz (equal to one cycle per second). The human hearing range of
frequencies is approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Thus, a person can hear a bass note from a tuba or a shrill note from a piccolo, but not a dog whistle. This has direct implications for
human hearing problems. Just because we cannot hear the sound does not mean that it is
not present and possibly causing hearing damage.
The response of the human ear to sound is usually represented as a graph that illustrates
the threshold of hearing. The term “threshold of hearing” refers to the envelope or range of
sound that the human ear can perceive or hear. The standards for the measurement of noise use the unit of a decibel, or dB (also referred to as sound pressure level). Decibels are
measured on a logarithmic scale so that very small differences in the numbers can
translate into very large actual differences. For example, the threshold for hearing is 0dB
therefore a sound that is 10 times more intense is 10dB. A sound that is 100 more intense would be 20dB and a sound that is 1000 times more intense would be 30 dB. The
calculation is based on a power of 10, therefore 90dB is 10 times louder than 80dB and 100
times louder than 70dB. Thus, when the human response is involved, the unit becomes dB
(A) or A-weighted decibel. This response is built into the sound meters used for measuring
noise exposure in the workplace.
Human hearing response is conditional on three characteristics: frequency, duration, and
loudness. Any noise-level investigation must consider these three elements. Most noise
sources and sounds, such as music, are made up of a variety of frequencies, which the ear blends to create a pleasant or not-so-pleasant sound. As noted earlier, noise beyond the
range of human hearing response can be damaging even though not “heard.” Similarly,
certain frequencies in a noise that is made up of a variety of frequencies can be extra-loud and thus damaging without being noticed, even within the human range. It is important to
consider frequency response when dealing with hearing protection.
The duration of the sound is one of those conditions that the human ear responds to in a strange way. A loud noise of very short duration, like a gunshot, is perceived to be “quieter”
than the same sound level heard for a longer duration. They can both be damaging, but
only the latter one “sounds” like it. The short-duration noise is referred to as impact or impulse noise, which has a duration of about 1 millisecond (1/1000th of a second). The
third characteristic of human response is loudness. This term is self-explanatory. The
louder (volume) the noise, the more problems it can cause.
Types of Hearing Loss
Noise can affect humans in three ways: by causing physiological damage that affects
hearing also known as noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL), by causing more general physiological effects in some cases referred to as sociological effects, and by causing
psychological effects. In terms of the first effect, physiological damage, there are two basic
types of hearing loss. The first is conductive and restricts the transmission of sound to the
cochlea or inner ear (see Figure 5.2); the second is sensorineural (sometimes referred to as nerve deafness) and affects the cochlea and is usually irreversible. Conductive hearing loss
can be caused by wax buildup, infection, or trauma. From an industrial standpoint, it can
be caused by the unhygienic application of hearing protectors or the improper cleaning of
these devices.
More prevalent in industry, however, is the sensorineural type of hearing loss. This type of
NIHL can occur randomly in workers, meaning noise may affect two workers
differently.6 NIHL is typically a cumulative process wherein the loudness and the amount of
exposure are factors. Two indications of exposure to excessive noise levels at work are ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and raising the volume on the radio or television after work.
The volume of the radio or television will seem very high the next morning because
temporary hearing loss diminishes with rest and removal from exposure. Causes of workplace NIHL can be caused by various pieces of equipment (e.g., hairdryers, drills, fans,
and so forth) and careful measurements must be taken to ensure workers are not exposed
to dangerous levels.
Gradual hearing loss, known as temporary threshold shift (TTS), can sometimes be
reversed by removal from the noise source. Permanent threshold shift (PTS) identifies a
hearing disability that is permanent and may not be correctable. In many cases, a hearing
aid can bring about some improvement. However, such a device is of little assistance when the hearing loss has been caused by noise exposure or sensorineural loss because the hair
cells in the cochlea have been destroyed.
The second effect of noise is also physiological but a slightly different category of physiological in that it is more general. It is sometimes referred to as sociological hearing
loss and causes extra-auditory effects such as a startled response to a loud, unexpected
noise; cardiovascular, neurologic, endocrine, and biochemical changes; and nausea, malaise, and headaches.7 Other laboratory and field studies have demonstrated -
vasoconstriction, hyperreflexia, fluctuations in hormonal secretions, and disturbances in
equilibrium and visual functions. In the past, companies would hire workers with hearing
loss to work in high-noise environments on the notion that the damage was already done;
however, it is now known that noise can cause more general physiological effects.
The third effect deals with human psychology. Many people are affected and disturbed by
certain sounds that are not loud enough to present any serious physiological problem. These are day-to-day noises that tend to bother us, such as a patron talking during a
movie, a helicopter flying overhead, or a tap dripping. Though the actual noise level may be
well below acceptable standards and may not be measurable with a sound level meter, it is nonetheless very real (often referred to as “selective hearing”) and can cause stress and
other possible non-auditory effects (see OH&S Notebook 5.1).
OH&S Notebook 5.1: Noise Exposure Standards and Hearing Conservation Programs
Noise exposure standards vary across provinces and territories in terms of their relative
stringency. The standards are based on worker exposure during a defined time frame. This
relationship is referred to as dose, which describes the amount of noise absorbed by or
impinged on an organ (the ear or the body) in a given unit of time. The exposure limits in
Canadian jurisdictions are available on the CCOHS website.
To support employers with understanding how to manage and control noise in the
workplace, various organizations across Canada have hearing conservation programs. These programs provide various resources and tools for employers to ensure they are
following legislation, performing their due diligence, and caring for employees. The
workers’ compensation board in British Columbia (WorkSafeBC) offers a comprehensive hearing conservation program that employers can adopt and implement in their
workplaces. This program includes information about noise measurement, legislation,
controls, hearing protection, and resources needed for education and training. The
University of Calgary in Alberta implements a hearing conservation program designed to educate and protect university employees. This program also contains information about
the importance of avoiding hearing loss, the legislative requirements, testing,
recordkeeping, and so forth. For more information about both programs, visit the following
websites:
WorkSafeBC
University of Calgary
Source: CCOHS, “Noise—Occupational Exposure Limits in Canada.” Found at: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/exposure_can.html (accessed May 1,
2019).
Noise Control
Like other hazards, noise can be controlled by using various methods from the hierarchy
and should follow the source–path–human strategies used by health and safety
professionals. The first strategy is always elimination; however, when that is not possible
the next course of action would be to change the source and make the source quieter. There are several possible approaches. If the problem consists of a noisy machine, for
instance, it may be possible to make the machine quieter by adding sound-absorbing
materials, placing vibration padding under it, redesigning the operation so that the
machine performs in a different manner, isolating the machine in a separate room or
sound-deadening enclosure, or purchasing a new machine. (See OH&S Notebook 5.2.)
OH&S Notebook 5.2: Noise in the Workplace: Signs and Levels
Though nothing will replace accurate measurement of noise levels in the workplace, the
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety suggests that a workplace might be
too noisy if:
• people must raise their voices to be understood
• employees have ringing in the ears at the end of the workday
• employees find that they must turn their radio up on the drive home
(compared with the volume on the way to work)
• individuals who have worked in the workplace for years have
difficulty understanding conversations at parties or restaurants
where there are competing noises
If any of the above statements are true, a noise assessment or survey of the workplace
should be undertaken. Noise exposure tests can be done by an outside specialist or by a
trained person on staff using various pieces of equipment including:
• a sound pressure level meter to measure gross noise levels
• an octave band analyzer to measure noise level in each frequency
range
• a dosimeter to measure a person’s exposure to noise as a
percentage for one shift
• an audiometer to determine the sensitivity of a person’s hearing or
degree of hearing loss
Source: CCOHS, “Noise—Basic Information.” Found at: Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_basic.html#_1_3 (accessed May 1,
2019).
The second strategy—path—involves moving the worker away from the source or erecting
sound barriers between the noise and the worker, or both. Based on the physics of noise,
as the distance from the sound source is doubled, the noise level will drop by a fixed
amount. For example, if a noise level of 90 dB is measured 5 metres away from a machine (a point source) and the distance is increased to 10 metres, the noise level will
be attenuated or lowered by 6 dB. This is called a “free field effect,” which simply means
that nothing like a wall is around to reflect the sound back on the worker. Objects such as the walls of the building and other machines will cause reflections that can reduce the
amount of attenuation from this fixed amount. Nevertheless, the principle is still valid, and
this process is usually less costly than the source approach.
The third strategy—human—involves the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). This
approach is the least costly and the one most commonly used. Although it is not always the
best method, in many cases some companies are not well enough informed to undertake
other approaches such as job rotation, relocation, isolation, automation, rest periods, and site design. The two basic classes of hearing protection available are earplugs, which are
inserted into the ears, and circumaural muffs or earmuffs, which are worn over the ears
(see photo).
A description of the various types of industrial hearing protection is provided in Table 5.2 in
the chapter appendix. Note that whatever strategies are used to decrease noise exposure, personal protective devices may still be necessary in conjunction with other methods (see
OH&S Notebook 5.3).
OH&S Notebook 5.3: Choosing Hearing Protectors
For each application and to be properly fitted for maximum protection, there are 10 factors
to consider when deciding on the most effective hearing protection.
1. Comfort: Earmuffs can be hot in warm conditions. The spring band can generate a feeling of the head being squashed. Workers who are claustrophobic may experience
feelings of confinement.
2. Visibility: It is important that hearing protection be visible so that supervisors can
ensure that the worker is wearing the protection and using it in the required manner. 3. Size: People have heads of different sizes and shapes. It is imperative that hearing
protective devices be fitted properly. Additional types of PPE such as face shields used in
conjunction with hearing protection must also be examined. 4. Weight: Generally, the lighter the protection, the greater the comfort.
5. Ease of donning: A device that is easy to put on will gain more acceptance among
workers. 6. Cost: The actual dollar cost will depend on the application, the required degree of
attenuation, and the style of device. Earmuffs are costlier than earplugs. The specific noise
protection required could necessitate both plugs and muffs. 7. Effective attenuation: Most modern hearing protection devices use a noise reduction
rating (NRR) system to indicate the degree of attenuation based on laboratory evaluation.
The NRR value is usually accompanied by a chart showing attenuation by octave band -
frequencies. Generally, the higher the number, the greater the level of attenuation. A good
rule-of-thumb relationship is expressed with the equation below:
\mathrm{NRR}={\mathrm L}_{\mathrm{actual}}-{\mathrm
L}_{\mathrm{standard}}+7NRR=Lactual−Lstandard+7
where Lactual is the noise level measured in the workplace and Lstandard is the noise standard
for an eight-hour period. Thus, if a worksite has a noise level of 97 dB(A) and the standard is 90 dB(A) for eight hours, the required NRR for hearing protectors would be 97 - 90 + 17, or
14 dB(A).
8. Hygiene: This requirement is the most critical and most abused. It is not uncommon to observe a hearing protection device hanging from a hook in a dirty environment. Care must
be taken to keep the personal item clean and stored in a sanitary location to avoid ear
infections, which could cause more damage than the noise does.
9. Useful life: Disposable plugs or inserts do not last long but require no maintenance; muffs last longer but require maintenance.
10. Maintenance: All non-disposable hearing protection devices require ongoing
maintenance and care. They must be cleaned regularly with soap and warm water, not alcohol, and checked periodically for wear. The foam seal pads on circumaural units must
be regularly maintained because skin oils and sweat will cause embrittlement and surface
failure. Once the seal is damaged, the attenuation effectiveness is reduced.
Sources: T.Y Shulz & T. Hutchison, eds., Noise and Hearing Conservation Manual, 5th ed.
(Council for Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation, 2014); CCOHS, “What Is
Personal Protective Equipment?” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/ppe/designin.html (accessed May 1, 2019).
Vibration
Another physical agent within the workplace that can be hazardous, but may not be
thought about as often, is vibration. Vibration refers to the oscillating motion of a particle
or body moving about a reference position.8 Vibration is measured by examining the
frequency, amplitude, and acceleration of an object. Vibration has several mechanical causes, including the dynamic effects from machine tolerances, clearances, rolling or
rubbing contact, and out-of-balance conditions with rotary or reciprocating parts.
Vibrations are often easily detectable but determining the amount that is hazardous is difficult and, because of that, vibration exposure must be measured and carefully
monitored. Vibration enters the body from the part in contact with the vibrating -
equipment. Vibrations are classified into two categories: low frequency (discussed above) and high frequency. Vibrating effects fall into two separate conditions. As noted earlier, the
first concerns low-frequency vibrations. The second deals with higher frequency vibrations,
which can happen so quickly that the body cannot respond. When the higher frequencies
occur, the effects of wave velocity and acceleration take precedence. Vibratory effects are evaluated with a vibration meter, which is often a variation on a sound-level meter, using
measurements of velocity and acceleration caused by the source.
Health Effects of Vibration
An employee who is required to operate a handheld piece of equipment that vibrates
(e.g., jackhammer) typically feels it in the hands and arms. This is often known as -
segmental vibration or hand–arm vibration. An employee who is required to sit or stand on
a vibrating floor area such as a seat or piece of equipment will experience vibration in his or her entire body, which is known as whole-body vibration. The impact on health is largely
dependent upon the average amount of exposure and must be properly assessed. An
evaluation takes into account the intensity and frequency of the vibration, the duration
(years) of exposure, and the part of the body that receives the vibration energy.
Vibration can be a health hazard for three reasons. As mentioned above, it can cause
whole-body vibration, segmental vibration, and noise. Like noise, vibration is transmitted through a medium, though in this case the medium is usually solid (e.g., steel or brick). The
health effects will vary with the frequency and amplitude of the vibration. At low
frequencies—say, up to 15 Hz—the body will experience whole-body vibration. In this
instance, the complete human body will “shake” with the source. We have all experienced or witnessed this condition of motion sickness in an automobile or onboard a ship. Whole-
body vibration can also result in fatigue, nausea, stomach problems, headache, and
“shakiness” and some situations may be connected to bowel, respiratory, circulatory, and
back disorders.9 Additionally, health effects of whole-body vibration can include inhibition
of muscular reflexes, impaired or blurred vision, and alterations of brain electrical activity.
Whole-body vibration effects can result from driving a motorcycle, truck, or tractor, or from working near large machines such as air compressors or punch presses. See OH&S Today
5.1.
OH&S Today 5.1: Vibration Exposure—A Complex Issue
The acceptance of vibration syndromes as an industrial disease in the past has been
encumbered by the fact that not all physicians have the training and expertise to diagnose
vibration-related injuries and illnesses, and the causes are often unidentifiable or complex in nature. Measurement techniques to determine the level of exposure and impairment to
a worker are also complex. Take a look at the Health and Safety Executive’s Vibration exposure calculator; it requires very specific information including vibration magnitude,
exposure points per hour, time to reach exposure action value, and time to reach exposure
limit value. In Canada, it can be complicated to determine whether your business is falling within exposure limits given that only British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec,
NB, and the three territories have vibration exposure regulations. Furthermore, the
progression of vibration-related diseases and conditions can take a long time before it
impairs an individual’s ability to work, thus further complicating the process of worker’s
compensation.
Sources: CCOHS, “Vibration Effects,” Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration/vibration_effects.html (accessed May 1, 2019); Health and Safety Executive, “Vibration Exposure Calculator.”
Found at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/vibration/hav/calcinst.htm (accessed May 1, 2019).
As the frequency of vibration increases, parts of the body—not the whole body—will be
affected by a process called segmental vibration. Segmental vibration effects include sore neck and shoulder muscles and sore joints; Raynaud’s phenomenon (of occupational
origin), or white fingers, caused by restricted blood circulation in the fingers; neuritis and
degenerative alterations of the central nervous system; fragmentation, necrosis, and decalcification of the carpal bones; and muscle atrophy and tenosynovitis (see OH&S
Notebook 5.4).
OH&S Notebook 5.4: Hand–Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
Working with handheld power tools (particularly in cold weather) can result in vibration-
induced white finger (VWF)—or, more generally, hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS).
HAVS results from changes in blood circulation and the nervous system associated with
vibration and is characterized by:
• tingling in the fingers
• loss of sensation in the fingers (numbness)
• loss of sense of light touch
• whitening (blanching) of the fingers when exposed to cold
• loss of grip strength
• development of cysts in fingers and wrists
HAVS is a progressive disorder and is also known as Raynaud’s phenomenon that affects the blood circulation in the fingers and toes. CCOHS uses the Stockholm Workshop
Classification system to rate vibration-induced conditions. This classification system
evaluates sensorineural and vascular impacts separately. Prevention efforts focus on reducing vibration, using ergonomically designed tools, keeping hands warm and dry, and
taking rest breaks.
Source: CCOHS, “Raynaud’s Phenomenon.” Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/diseases/raynaud.html (accessed May 1, 2019).
One term that often arises in discussions of vibration is resonance, which refers to the
effect that occurs when an object reacts strongly to some frequency. If you sing in a tiled
shower stall, you will occasionally hear a note that sounds louder than most, which means that the space is resonant to that note. Parts of the human body can resonate when
exposed to some lower frequencies. For instance, the head and shoulders can resonate at
20 Hz to 30 Hz, while the eyeballs resonate at 60 Hz to 90 Hz.10 If your vision becomes blurry when you have been working with a power tool such as a belt sander, you are experiencing
minor levels of eyeball resonance, which is harmless unless prolonged.
Controlling Vibration
The first step in controlling vibration in the workplace is being knowledgeable about the
standards or exposure limits. As mentioned in OHS Today 5.1 there are five provinces that
do not have regulations around exposure limits. In the absence of regulations or standards
business can (and frequently) use Threshold Limit Values and guidelines recommended by professional associations such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Further complicating the issue of control is the effects can vary from one person to the
next; however, being knowledgeable of standards helps determine which control
mechanisms are required for minimizing any negative impact. By using the proper engineering and administrative controls as well as the correct personal protective
equipment, the impact of vibration, whether whole body or segmental, can be greatly
reduced.
One example of an engineering control includes ergonomically designed equipment or
equipment features such as special grips or properly designed seating that helps absorb or
decrease the vibrations felt by the worker. The frequency response associated with vibrating systems is directly related to the system’s mass. In the simplest terms, vibration
can be dampened by increasing mass or weight. An example: the increased weight on the
outer flange of a flywheel (typically a large wheel designed to regulate the speed of
machinery) smooths out much of a machine’s vibration. A flywheel is one method for reducing health effects of vibrations. Segmental vibration effects are caused by vibrating
tools such as riveters, sanders, saws, air hammers, or hammer drills. The most serious
segmental effects are those associated with hand–arm vibrations. Vibrating hand tools produce a catch-22 situation: to properly control a vibrating hand tool, one must grip it
securely; but the tighter the hand grips the tool, the more severe the effects of segmental
damage from vibration. The human resource professional should also be aware that
vibration has chronic effects that must be managed.
Examples of administrative controls include policies or rules around the duration and
amount of exposure (e.g., shift rotations) as well as regular maintenance of equipment.
Finally, personal protective equipment like padding, gloves, or floor mats can help reduce the amount of vibration that is felt by the individual. For more specific methods for
controlling vibrations, see OH&S Notebook 5.5.
OH&S Notebook 5.5: Controlling Vibration
Strategies for whole-body and segmental vibration control include implementing several
safe work practices, maintaining equipment, using PPE, and educating workers about the
impact of vibrations on their health. Employers can reduce the risk of vibrations by:
• avoiding the source by revising the task
• using equipment that produces lower vibrations
• adding dampening devices to equipment to reduce vibrations
• maintaining equipment properly
• decreasing worker exposure time
• isolating the worker from the source
Source: CCOHS, “How Can You Measure Vibration?” Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration/vibration_measure.html
(accessed May 1, 2019).
Thermal Stress
Thermal stress conditions involve cold and hot temperature extremes. The human body is
a machine that takes in chemical energy (food) and converts it to mechanical energy
(muscles) and heat (see Figure 5.3). The balance of this heat generation is part of a process called homeostasis,11 or thermal homeostasis and is the basis for examining the effects of
heat and cold on the body. Simple thermodynamic theory shows that temperature, like
water, flows from the high point to the low point. Thus, in cold climates, heat will flow from
the body into the surrounding environment, making the person feel cold. Similarly, in hot
climates, heat will be absorbed by the body, making the person feel hot. Adding physical
work to either of these situations will increase body heat and shift the thermal balance.
When an imbalance occurs, the body is stressed thermally. This body thermal balance can
be illustrated by the mathematical model below:12
S=(M-W)\pm R\pm C\pm V-ES=(M−W)±R±C±V−E
where S is the body heat storage or loss, M is the metabolic heat production of the
body, W is the work output, R is the radiative heat gain or loss, C is the convective heat gain
or loss, V is the respiratory heat gain or loss, and E is the evaporative heat loss.
When there is heat, the body will gain heat if R, C, and V are positive; similarly, when there is
heat loss, then R, C, V, and E are negative, and the body will lose heat. In medical terms,
heat gain is referred to as hyperthermic; heat loss is referred to as hypothermic; and a
condition of neither gain nor loss is known as balance (see OH&S Notebook 5.6).
OH&S Notebook 5.6: Measuring Thermal Stress
Thermal stress is measured using the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) index. This index
measures the effect of heat and humidity on a worker.
Source: CCOHS, “Humidex Rating and Work,” Table 1. Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/humidex.html, (accessed May 1, 2019).
There are three methods of heat transfer that apply to the body, as well as to any other
thermal condition. The first method, conduction, occurs when two surfaces are in contact (e.g., the skin touches a hot stove, resulting in a local burn). The second
method, convection, occurs when one surface adds heat to the surroundings (e.g., the skin
is close to air flow emanating from a flame or a heater). The third method, radiation, occurs when energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves (e.g., the skin is exposed to
sunlight).
The body has remarkable temperature control, with the blood system and the skin being
the major players. As body heat increases, blood flow increases, capillaries move closer to the surface of the skin (they open up), and sweating increases, thereby allowing increased
heat exchange to the atmosphere. As body heat decreases, blood flow slows, and the
capillaries withdraw from the skin surface, thus reducing the amount of heat transferred to
the atmosphere.
The effects of heat and cold on health are well recognized by anyone who spends a lot of
time outside in summer and winter. The focal point of most thermal stress and control is at the body core—from the neck to the groin and between the shoulders. The body core
temperature range is 35°C to 38.5°C , with “normal” being 37°C. Fluctuations in the body’s
core temperature typically stay within 1°C and occur during various times of the day or
when engaged in a physical activity or an emotionally arousing situation. In some situations, the environment can cause the body’s core temperature to increase more than
1°C. We typically see greater changes in the body’s core temperature when an individual is
ill. When the core temperature goes outside the normal range, serious problems can result.
Heat-Related Illnesses
Several factors influence the risk that heat poses to an individual. For instance, health,
weight, age, low fitness level, and medical conditions such as high blood pressure are
factors that influence the risk that heat poses to an individual.13 There are a number of
heat-related illnesses. Heat edema occurs most often in individuals who are not acclimatized to working in hot environments and typically results in parts of the body
swelling (e.g., ankles). Heat rash is one of the first signs of the body’s intolerance to heat
and results in the sweat glands becoming swollen and plugged. Small red spots appear on the skin and cause an individual to feel a tingling sensation or itchiness. Heat cramps occur
in the muscles of the body and may or may not occur in conjunction with other heat-
related illnesses such as heat rash. Heat cramps are the result of an imbalance of salt in the body and are often felt in the arms and legs first. Heat syncope or fainting is the result of an
inadequate amount of blood in the brain due to lowered blood pressure and often occurs
while an individual is standing or working. Fainting due to heat often occurs in individuals
who are not acclimatized; however, recovery is typically rapid after a period of rest in a cool area. Heat exhaustion occurs when an individual is sweating excessively and loses too
much body water. Individuals suffering from heat exhaustion exhibit one or more of the
following symptoms: excessive sweating, dizziness, blurred vision, nausea, headache, vomiting, heart palpitations, and numbness in the hands and or feet. Heat stroke and heat
hyperpyrexia occur when the body is unable to control its thermal balance, resulting in a
dangerous rise in core temperature (above 41°C). Symptoms of heat stroke include either a partial or complete loss of consciousness while the symptoms of heat hyperpyrexia are
similar, but the skin remains moist or wet. Heat stroke and heat hyperpyrexia are the most
serious of heat-related illnesses and require immediate first aid; if left untreated, they can
result in damage to the brain, kidneys, and heart. As part of the newly released criteria for heat exposure standards, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in the
United States defines two categories of heat stroke: classic heat stroke and exertional heat
stroke. Classic heat stroke includes major disruption to the central nervous system functions and often includes a lack of sweating. Exertional heat stroke occurs in individuals
who are physically active and may continue to sweat. In that latter category, skeletal
muscle can rapidly break down and can result in kidney and heart failure.14
Controlling Heat
Provincial legislation requires that employers take every reasonable precaution to prevent
heat-related illnesses and the risks of heat exposure. If employees are at risk for heat-
related illnesses the employer is required to conduct heat assessments and implement the proper controls.15 Engineering controls are the most effective method for controlling heat
exposure; however, they are often impractical in certain environments such as outdoors.
Examples of engineering controls include insulating heat sources or hot surfaces, shielding
or protecting workers, providing air conditioning, or increasing ventilation. When
engineering controls are not feasible then administrative controls should be put into place.
Administrative controls include reducing worker activity, proper supervision, arranging for work–rest cycles, and implementing work methods or requirements that help acclimatize
workers (e.g., physical fitness, water drinking). Personal protective equipment, including eye protection, cooling vests, hats, and sunblock, is also useful and an effective method for
minimizing the risk of heat-related illnesses; however, PPE should be used in combination
with other administrative and engineering control mechanisms.
Cold Environments
When we think of workers in cold environments we often think of the outdoors (e.g.,
construction workers, ski patrol); however, cold environments can include industrial
freezers at restaurants or food manufacturing plants, temperature-controlled rooms for IT
equipment, etc. Cold environments can be very hazardous to an individual’s health and
require similar precautions as hot environments (see OH&S Today 5.2).
OH&S Today 5.2: Office Air Conditioning—Is it Colder for Women Than Men?
On any given day in the summer, I am often sitting at my desk wearing a heavy sweater and
a small space heater pumping warm air at my feet. This is not because I am ill, or poorly
dressed, it is because I find the air conditioning temperature uncomfortably cold.
Interestingly, when I ask others if they feel cold, the majority who said “no” were men.
While you might think that I or my work environment are oddities, this is not the case. In
fact, office temperatures have been known to spark debate. There is some research to indicate temperature tolerance varies between men and women. Studies have
demonstrated that while women’s core body temperature decreases more slowly than
men’s, women are not able to create as much body heat through activities such as exercise
and shivering. However, the point here is not to spark debate, but to point out that beyond the variation between men and women, there are variations from person to person;
consequently controlling and managing the impact of heat and cold requires careful
consideration of several factors. Consider an office scenario such as mine wherein there are
approximately 60 to 90 people in the building on any given day.
Sources: Adapted from CCOHS, “Cold Environments—General.” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/cold_general.html (accessed May 1, 2019); BBC, “Air Conditioning, Why Women Feel Temperature Differently than Men.” Found at:
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33760845 (accessed May 1, 2019).
Cold-Related Injuries and Illnesses
Like heat-related illnesses, several factors or conditions influence the extent to which
individuals are at risk for cold-related illnesses. For example, age, gender, fatigue, diseases, health conditions such as Raynaud’s syndrome, consuming drugs or alcohol, or smoking
are all factors that increase the risk of suffering from a cold-related illness. Interestingly,
the human body does not become acclimatized to the cold in the same way it does in hot environments; however, certain body parts (e.g., hands) are able to develop a tolerance to
the cold.16 Key factors influence the human body’s response to the cold: air temperature,
wind speed, humidity, physical activity, work schedule, and protective clothing.
Cold-related injuries are labelled as non-freezing injuries or freezing injuries. Non-freezing injuries happen when body parts such as hands and feet cool but do not freeze. Non-
freezing injuries can occur in temperatures above the freezing mark and include chilblains,
immersion foot, and trench foot. Chilblains are a mild injury caused by reduced circulation in the extremities after prolonged exposure to temperatures above freezing. Chilblains
result in redness, swelling, and tingling in the hands and feet. Immersion foot is an injury
that occurs after an individual’s foot or feet have been wet but not frozen for prolonged periods of time (e.g., days, weeks). Similar to chilblains, immersion foot results in tingling,
numbness, itching, pain, and swelling in the feet and legs, and the skin may turn blue or
purple. Trench foot is similar to immersion foot and is caused by prolonged exposure to
colder (up to 10°C) wet conditions. The onset of symptoms, after hours or days, are like immersion foot and if left untreated can result in muscle tissue or nerve damage.17 Freezing
injuries occur in colder temperatures and are caused by local freezing of muscles and
tissues. Examples of freezing cold injuries include frostnip and frostbite. Frostnip is the mildest form of a cold injury and can affect the ear lobes, nose, cheeks, fingers, and toes
after exposure to temperatures below freezing. Symptoms of frostnip include the top layer
of skin freezing, which results in numbness, tingling, and the skin turning white and hard. Frostbite is similar to frostnip except the underlying tissues and the outer layer of skin
freeze. Frostbite occurs after exposure to freezing temperatures, frozen objects, or cold
compressed gases. Frostbite results in restricted blood flow to the tissue and, in severe
cases, can cause permanent tissue damage, blisters, infection, and gangrene if left
untreated.
Hypothermia occurs when cold causes the body’s ability to regulate its thermal
temperature to fail and the body is not able to compensate for the loss of heat. Hypothermia sets in after the body’s core temperature falls below 33°C and is life-
threatening if left untreated. Hypothermia requires immediate first aid and treatment of
symptoms. The first symptoms of mild hypothermia include an overall feeling of cold and pain in exposed extremities. As time passes, moderate hypothermia sets in and feelings of
cold and pain subside due to an increase in numbness. This is followed by muscle
weakness and drowsiness. Eventually, severe hypothermia sets in, resulting in heart and
respiratory failure and eventually death. See Table 5.1 for the signs and symptoms of
hypothermia.
Controlling Cold
There are also engineering, administrative, and PPE mechanisms that reduce the risk of suffering from a cold-related injury or illness. Engineering controls include equipment such
as heaters and shields that protect an individual from the cold environment or object.
Administrative controls include work and rest schedules and cold-weather procedures such as shutdown or closure requirements. Clothing is one of the most effective methods
for reducing the risk of a cold-related injury or illness. Protective clothing should be
carefully selected based on what is required by legislation, the conditions of the
environment, and the nature of the work being performed.
Summary
This chapter has focused on four physical agents that are commonly encountered in
industry—radiation, noise, vibration, and thermal stress.
Industries in which agents such as ionizing radiation are encountered have implemented
extensive, specialized training programs and procedures.
Noise or sound exposure occurs in most professions; however, construction workers,
cafeteria workers, and farmers are some who are most at risk for hearing damage. Noise
can be controlled by using various methods and should follow the source–path–human
strategies used by health and safety professionals.
Vibration exposure must be measured and monitored, but determining the amount of
vibration that is hazardous is often difficult. Not all physicians have the training or
expertise to diagnose vibration-related injuries and illnesses, and the effects of vibration can vary from one person to the next. An important first step is to be informed about the
standards or exposure limits to better understand this issue.
Thermal stress conditions involve hot and cold temperature extremes and these environments can be hazardous to an individual’s health. Provincial legislation requires
that employers take precautions to prevent heat-related illnesses and the risks of heat
exposure. Engineering and administrative controls and PPE mechanisms reduce the risk of
suffering from heat exposure and heat-related or cold-related injury or illness.
Simple prevention policies and programs are mostly adequate for reducing and controlling
worker exposure to physical agents.
Key Terms
ambient
attenuated
conduction
convection decalcification
early warning change homeostasis (or thermal homeostasis)
hyperreflexia
necrosis physical agents
radiation
resonance
segmental vibration vasoconstriction
whole-body vibration
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 5.1
Review
Workers in a manufacturing division in your jurisdiction have made a formal complaint that three machines are too noisy. Noise measurements are taken: the results are 83 dB, 87 dB, and 88 dB. Do the
workers have a legitimate complaint? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 5.2
Review
What are the health risks associated with vibrations? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 5.3
Review
All jurisdictions in Canada have access to the same science. Yet jurisdictions vary in legislated
standards. Why might different standards apply in different jurisdictions?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 5.4
Review
Many occupations involve inherent exposure to a physical agent resulting in excessive exposure to noise, vibration, thermal conditions, and so on. Outline the steps an employer can take to protect
employees when avoiding the exposure is not possible.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 5.1
Review
OH&S legislation establishes standards for exposure to various forms of physical agents in the
workplace. Think of a typical office environment like a call centre, research office, or even a bank. What
physical agents are present in these settings? What risks do they pose for employees versus customers?
What about any potential contracted staff of these establishments (e.g. cleaners)?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Steeping some tea...
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 5.1
Show Correct Answer
You are the HR manager in your organization. An employee believes he is suffering the ill effects of
regular exposure to vibration. He has been to a doctor; however, the physician is skeptical and tells the
patient to go home and rest. The employee is not convinced that rest will be helpful over the long term.
The employee is frustrated and asks you for help and to conduct an assessment of his work
environment. Identify a plan for helping this employee including:
• how you would measure the vibrations he is exposed to;
• any controls that might be necessary and helpful; and
• whether there is an expert on the health effects of vibrations in your area.
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
Physical Agents
To: You, OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Work in the warehouse
Hi again,
I thought I should check with you on this—we must do some work in the warehouse that will involve
jack-hammering a portion of the floor, fixing a problem with the pipes, and then re-pouring the
concrete floor. It’s urgent and we cannot close the warehouse, so our normal operations will just have
to “work around” the construction. Do you have any advice for us to ensure that our employees’ work
and normal operations are safe while this repair work is being completed? How much do we need to
work with the contractors doing the work to make sure we’re all on the same page about health and
safety? Do we need a standard operating procedure for access to the warehouse (personal protective
equipment, etc.) while the work is being done?
When completing this assignment in addition to responding the above questions address the following:
1. Consider every individual who will be impacted by the construction and how
you might need to engage a different process to ensure their safety (e.g.,
warehouse staff vs cleaning staff).
2. How will you manage if the contractor does not have the same perspective on
the level or type of controls you feel are needed to make sure everyone is safe
during the disruption?
3. Consider the potential added expense of implementing control measures for a
temporary disruption to the warehouse? How will you manage if this exceeds
the budget?
Upload a PDF to submit your cumulative assignment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Appendix
Hearing Protection Types or Classifications
The early part of this chapter noted that there are two basic styles of hearing protection
devices: plugs and muffs. Table 5.2 shows a more detailed breakdown of the styles and
their designations.
References
1. UVC rays are part of the UV spectrum and have short wavelength and have enough
energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule resulting in ionizing radiation.
Source: University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Found at:
https://share.upmc.com/2014/07/infographic-abcs-uv-difference-uva-uvb-uvc (accessed
May 1, 2019).
2. Kwan-Hoong Ng, “Non-Ionizing Radiations—Sources, Biological Effects, Emissions and Exposures,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Non-Ionizing Radiation at
UNITEN (October 2003): 1–16.
3. Kwan-Hoong Ng, “Non-Ionizing Radiations—Sources, Biological Effects, Emissions and
Exposures,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Non-Ionizing Radiation at
UNITEN (October 2003): 1–16.
4. E.H. Berger, W.D. Ward, J.C. Morrill, and L.H. Royster, eds., Noise and
Hearing Conservation Manual, 4th ed. (Akron: American Industrial Hygiene Association,
1988).
5. K. Feder, D. Michaud, P. Ramage-Morin, J. McNamee and Y. Beauregard, “Prevalence of
Hearing Loss Among Canadians aged 20 to 79: Audiometric Results from the 2012/2013 Canadian Health Measures Survey,” Health Reports (Statistics Canada) Vol. 26, no. 7 (July
2015): 18–25.
6. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, “What Are the Characteristics of
Noise-induced Permanent Hearing Loss?”
https://www .ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_auditory.html (accessed May 1,
2019).
7. M.M. Key, A.F. Henschel, J. Butler, R.N. Ligo, I.R. Tabershaw, and L. Ede, Occupational
Diseases: A Guide to Their Recognition, rev. ed. (Cincinnati: U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1977).
8. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: OHS Answers “Vibration.”
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration /vibration_intro.html
(accessed May 1, 2019).
9. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: OHS Answers. “Vibration Health
Effects,”
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents /vibration/vibration_effects.html
(accessed May 1, 2019).
10. R.D. Soule, Vibration in the Industrial Environment—Its Evaluation and
Control (Cincinnati: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1973).
11. W. Hammer, Occupational Safety Management and Engineering, 4th ed. (Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1989).
12. Homeostasis is the process through which a constant internal environment of which
maintaining temperature is a part, along with body fluids, ions, sugars, hormones, etc.
13. “Hot Environments: Health Effects,” Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and
Safety Answers, https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents /heat_health.html
(accessed July 25, 2019).
14. B. Jacklitsch, W.J. Williams, K. Musolin, A. Coca, J-H. Kim, and N. Turner, “Criteria for a
Recommended Standard Occupational Exposure to Heat and Hot Environments,”
Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2016.
15. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety OHS Answers, “Hot Environments:
Control Measures.” Found at:
https://www.ccohs.ca /oshanswers/phys_agents/heat_control.html (accessed May 1,
2019).
16. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety OHS Answers, “Cold Environments—General.” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/cold_general.html (accessed May 1, 2019).
17. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: OHS Answers “Cold Environments—Health Effects and First Aid.” Found at:
https://www.ccohs .ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/cold_health.html (accessed May 1,
2019).
BIOLOGICAL AND
CHEMICAL AGENTS
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• define the numerous terms relating to chemical and biological
agents
• recognize the problems associated with biohazards and chemical
agents and discuss the measures that can be taken to manage and
control them
• outline the actions of chemical and biological agents on human
physiology
• list the eight characteristics that make solvents effective but at the
same time hazardous and toxic
• describe the various control measures that can be used to ensure
the safe handling of both chemical and low-level biological agents
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cWoyCIVNPaw
Take a Deep Breath
You can always tell when spring has sprung in Truro Nova Scotia; the smell of fresh manure
on neighbouring farmland is unavoidable while outside or driving around town. For many,
apart from those living nearby or with sensitivities, it typically does not last long and
generally is not bothersome. Most cannot smell the offensive odour once they take refuge indoors. According to WorkSafeBC, people spend approximately 90 percent of their time
indoors and recently, indoor air quality has become an area of concern for several reasons
(e.g., greater use of laser printers, photocopiers, and other sources of air contaminants).
Poor indoor air quality can impact the comfort and health of workers in any number of
ways including nausea; eye, nose, and throat irritations; fatigue; headaches; dizziness; and
shortness of breath—and, in some cases, in Sick Building Syndrome. Sick Building Syndrome is a set of symptoms seemingly related to being exposed to chemical or
biological hazards; however, a particular cause cannot be pinpointed and when the person
leaves the building the symptoms disappear. Sick Building Syndrome and other ill health
effects resulting from air quality are extremely complex to diagnose, analyze, and control. Factors that influence the impact of indoor air quality include building layout, heating and
ventilation systems, outdoor air quality, contaminants inside the building, and even the
people who occupy the building. Common contaminants that affect indoor air quality include carbon dioxide, perfume, body odours, dust, mould, microbials, bacteria, and
ozone (from photocopiers and laser printers). As a future HR practitioner or safety
professional it is important to be familiar with the types of chemical and biological hazards
workers in all types of working environments that workers can be exposed to.
In Chapter 4, you read about hazard identification, risk assessment, and hazard control measures. Now reflect on how each of those topics applies to the management of the
various biological and chemical agents you will learn about in this chapter.
Sources: Health Canada “Indoor Air Quality in Office Buildings: Technical Guide.” Found at:
http://publications.gc.ca/site/archiveearchived. html?url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection /H46-2-93-166Erev.pdf (accessed
August 4, 2019); WorkSafeBC, “Indoor Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners, Managers
and Occupants.” Found at: https://www.worksafebc.com/en/resources /health- safety/books-guides/indoor-air-quality-a-guide-for-buildingowners- managers-and-
occupants (accessed August 4, 2019).
What are Biohazards and Chemical Agents?
In the previous chapter we discussed the nature of physical hazards in our work
environments and our everyday lives; however, physical hazards make up only some of the hazardous materials we encounter. Biological materials are made up of microorganisms,
proteins, or nucleic acids, and those that are infectious and result in disease or are
hazardous to our health are frequently referred to as biohazards. Chemicals are
compounds that are purified, often artificially, using chemistry. Chemicals that pose a risk to our health and safety are referred to as chemical agents. It is important to note that not
all biological material and chemicals are hazardous to our health; in fact, some are
beneficial. However, the focus of this chapter is the significant number of agents that are hazardous to our health. It is important to consider the type of work environment wherein
these hazards can be found, and while as an HR specialist or OH&S practitioner you may
not encounter many of these hazards, you must consider that there are employees who do and will. Those who work in office buildings may not be exposed to the same type of
chemical and biological hazards that workers in a production plant or lab might be;
however, the office workers should be given equal consideration.
OH&S legislation includes specific sections to deal with biological and chemical materials that pose a risk to humans. The majority are addressed under the Workplace Hazardous
Materials Information System (WHMIS) and the Global Harmonized System (GHS). Many
occupational diseases—such as asbestosis, silicosis, various types of dermatitis, respiratory problems, and some occupational injuries (e.g., burns) that result from spills and
splashes—are related to exposure to biological and chemical materials. This chapter
provides an overview of the problems associated with biohazards and chemical agents and
the measures that can be taken to manage and control them.
Biohazards
Biological agents are often referred to as biohazards when they pose a risk to our health
and safety. Biohazards can result in disease, allergic reactions, and infections. Examples of
biohazards include bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions (proteins or proteinaceous infectious
particles), toxins, genetically modified organisms, nucleic acids, tissue samples, - specimens, and live vaccines that may contain microorganisms, bacteria, or viruses. In
many cases, biohazards are very difficult to see or are invisible to the naked eye, making it
extremely difficult to perceive the risk associated with them (see Table 6.1).
The people most at risk of exposure to biohazards tend to be employed in unique or
specialized fields, such as medicine, research, and farming. However, the public is also at
risk (e.g., through salmonella food poisoning, influenza, or the common cold). Nonetheless, for a biohazard to infect an individual, certain conditions must be met. These conditions
make up what is referred to as the chain of infection. The chain of infection outlines the
specific links and process by which an infectious agent is spread from host to host. All the links or conditions must be met in order for infection to occur and it is only by breaking
these conditions, or interrupting the links, that transmission is stopped.
The process of transmission starts with a biohazard or an agent such as a bacterium or virus leaving its host or reservoir through a portal of exit. It is then transported via a mode
of transmission until it enters via a portal of entry on a susceptible host (see Figure 6.1).
The CDC defines each of these links as follows: A reservoir is the home or environment
where the biological agent grows and multiplies (e.g., humans, animals, and the ground). A portal of exit is the path by which an agent leaves its host and often corresponds to
where the agent is located within the host (e.g., chest infections typically exit via the respiratory tract). Modes of transmission are the means or channel by which an agent is
carried. Modes of transmission can be through direct contact (e.g., skin to skin) with an
infected host, or indirectly via the air (e.g., droplet spread). Food, water, and bodily fluids can also be vehicles. Insects are also known to be a mode of transmission and are referred
to as vectors (e.g., West Nile virus and malaria are spread via mosquitos). Once an agent
has been transported, it must gain access to the tissues and cells via a portal of entry,
which is similar to an exit route (e.g., respiratory tract) of a susceptible host or person. The factors that determine whether new hosts are susceptible are their genetics, the health of
their immune system (e.g., antibodies), and the sensitivity of their sneeze and coughing
reflex. If an individual is infected by an agent and is unable to fight it off, he or she may become ill; however, not everyone infected will show symptoms. An individual who does
not become ill can be a carrier of the agent and transmit it to another.1
Chemical Agents
Regardless of the industry, every workplace contains chemical agents and if they are not
handled and stored properly, they can be harmful. Chemical agents can be intentionally
used for a specific purpose like cleaning or production. For instance, common chemicals used in office buildings are cleaners, photocopier toner, and printer ink. Other industries
such as agriculture use pesticides and fertilizers (e.g., potash). A common chemical agent
used in industries like steel manufacturing, pharmaceutical, food, and oil production is
hydrochloric acid. Other chemical agents within workplaces can be a side effect or a by- product of process. The number of chemical agents currently in existence is difficult to
determine because there are various databases and registries used around the world for
commercial, research, or even environmental purposes (e.g., Chemical Abstract Service in the United States). Chemicals are a necessary part of our everyday lives and to minimize
any negative impact on our health they must be carefully managed; part of this means
understanding how they affect our health.
The specific effects of some chemicals are well documented, while those of many others are still unknown. Health problems created by chemical exposures are more prevalent in
the workplace than in any other environment. For instance, dermatitis is a common
workplace condition wherein the skin becomes irritated after exposure to a chemical. The Health and Safety Executive in the United Kingdom reports that up to 70 percent of
hairdressers at some point over the course of their career suffer from skin damage.2 Health
care workers, construction workers, and caterers who are required to wash their hands
repeatedly are also at a very high risk for dermatitis.
Chemical agents may be hazards in and of themselves, but they can also
interact synergistically with lifestyle or environmental factors. Synergistic effects occur when the result of two factors taken together is greater than the sum of the two. For
example, a lifestyle factor such as smoking can have a synergistic effect on some materials.
An asbestos worker is four times more likely than a non-asbestos worker to develop lung
cancer; the probability rises to 80 to 90 times more likely if the asbestos worker smokes. For the sake of simplicity, this chapter will discuss single chemical exposures; however,
most of the exposures that take place in the workplace are more complex.
To understand chemical agents, we must be familiar with the associated hazards each possesses. The hazard associated with a material is defined as the likelihood that it will
cause injury in a given environment or situation. The potential degree of seriousness of the
hazard is determined by its toxicity (i.e., its ability to cause injury to human biological tissue) or its explosive properties, which are defined in terms of flammability and reactivity.
The extent to which a potentially toxic substance is an actual health hazard will depend on
other factors, such as the concentration of the chemical and the length of time the
employee is exposed to it.
Chemicals exist in three main states: solid, liquid, and gas. Having knowledge of the
physical state of a chemical helps you understand the health risks it poses to the human
body. The physical state of a chemical determines its route of entry into the body; for example, chemicals in a gaseous state are more likely to enter the human body via
inhalation whereas liquids and solids are more likely to enter the body via skin absorption
or ingestion. Throughout a work process the physical state of a chemical can change (e.g., liquid to a gas) and therefore change the health risks associated with that chemical.
Consequently, it is extremely important to take into consideration the physical state of a
chemical in the context of routes of entry into the human body.3
Every chemical has its own melting, freezing, and boiling points. Typically, more than one of these states may be present at the same time. Consider an open container of boiling
water: the water is in the liquid state, while the steam is entering the gas state. Similarly,
ice may feel hard (solid), be wet (liquid), and have evaporated water surrounding it
(vapour). Most chemical-related health problems result from contact with chemicals in the liquid or gas (vapour) state. Most of the negative effects of exposure are derived from
airborne respiratory contaminants known as aerosols (see OH&S Notebook 6.1).
OH&S Notebook 6.1: Types of Contaminants (Aerosols)
Listed below are seven types of contaminants:
1. Dust. Airborne respirable particulate that is solid particles generated by some
mechanical means such as grinding, crushing, or sanding. The heavier particles tend to settle out of the air under the influence of gravity. The lighter or smaller the particle, the
longer or greater the settling rate.
2. Fume. Airborne respirable particulate formed by the evaporation of some solid
materials (e.g., steel, where the parent metal will vaporize on the application of weld-level heat and the vaporized metal will condense on contact with cooler ambient air). This
condensed particulate is a fume. (This term is often confused with vapour.) Particle size is
usually less than 1 micron or micrometre in diameter. Other examples of fume include plastic extrusion and automobile exhaust, which can include fumes (from the metallic
additives) and vapours (from the unburned fuel).
3. Smoke. Airborne respirable particulate originating from the products of combustion, usually less than 0.1 micron in size. An example would be tobacco smoke or smoke from a
fire.
4. Mist. Airborne respirable particulate in the form of liquid droplets generated by
condensation from the gas state or by the breaking up of a liquid into a dispersed state of finely divided droplets. Spray paint and hair spray are two sources of mist generation.
5. Vapour. The airborne respirable contaminants in a gaseous form of any substances that
are normally in the solid or liquid state at room temperature and pressure. An example would be the airborne contaminant present above any solvent.
6. Gas. An airborne respirable contaminant that is one of the three states of matter created
where the temperature is above the boiling point. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are two examples.
7. Liquid. Chemicals are sometimes found in a liquid form from which, though not
airborne, respirable particulate can come in contact with the skin and the eyes—for
instance, when there is a splash or spill during manual mixing or pouring operations.
Source: J. B. Olishifsky, “Overview of Industrial Hygiene,” Fundamentals of Industrial
Hygiene, 4th ed. (Chicago: National Safety Council) 1995.
A workplace health hazard is posed by exposure to one or more of these airborne respirable particulate forms. For instance, the white cloud that rises from a welding
operation usually consists of the following: fumes resulting from the condensation of the
parent metal and the weld rod metal and coating; smoke resulting from combustion of oil and other surface contamination; and vapours resulting from the evaporation of some of
the oils and solvents on the metal surface (see OH&S Today 6.1).
OH&S Today 6.1: Bakers’ Asthma
If you were to think about the various occupational hazards that bakers are exposed to you
might think of the industrial mixers, or heat or the cleaning chemicals, but what about
flour? Flour is one of the most important ingredients for many of the foods we eat and when flour becomes airborne it creates a very fine dust that can easily be inhaled. Imagine
inhaling flour dust week after week, month after month, and year after year. Without the
proper precautions, flour and other similar ingredients like wheat or rye are known to cause a type of occupational asthma referred to as “Bakers’ asthma.” Individuals at risk
may not realize their symptoms are work related as the symptoms can also result from
other conditions, and symptoms often subside after leaving the workplace. Short-term
symptoms include coughing, shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest tightness, and typically worsen over the course of a shift as exposure increases. Long-term exposure can
result in the development of asthma. Bakers are not the only occupations at higher risk for
occupational asthma. Other occupations include people working in nail and hair salons, farmers, people working in snow crab processing plants, and people who work in the
automotive manufacturing industry.
Sources: Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers, “Occupational Asthma.” Found at: https://www.ohcow.on.ca/occupational-asthma-2. html (accessed August 4, 2019);
WorkSafeBC, “Flour Dust.” Found at https://www.worksafebc.com/en/health-
safety/hazards-exposures/flour-dust (accessed August 4, 2019).
Toxicology: An Overview
Toxicology is the scientific study of poisons. For the purposes of this chapter, toxicology is
part of understanding chemical-related occupational illnesses (see OH&S Notebooks 6.2 and 6.3). Like biological agents, chemicals may enter the body by one of four portals of
entry. In order of risk and normal contact, they are respiration (inhalation), skin absorption,
ingestion, and skin penetration.
OH&S Notebook 6.2: Ototoxic Effects of Workplace Chemicals
When you consider typical causes of hearing loss, most individuals would think of noise; however, certain chemicals are known to have ototoxic effects. Ototoxicity is defined as
having an adverse or harmful effect on the nerves and or bones required for hearing and
balance. Chemicals known to have ototoxic effects include those used in the manufacturing of plastics, perfumes, and dyes, and certain medications (e.g., antibiotics)
can also cause hearing loss or damage (e.g., tinnitus or ringing in the ears). A proper
assessment of the work environment should be conducted if there are concerns about
possible noise or ototoxic hazards.
Source: CCOHS, “Chemicals and Noise: A Hazardous Combination.” Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/newsletters/hsreport/issues/2009/10/ezine.html (accessed August 4,
2019).
OH&S Notebook 6.3: Toxicity Terminology
• Dose—The degree of exposure and possible reaction with time. The
dose is usually the basis for the values that are developed for
threshold limit values (TLVs), which are used as a control measure
in the workplace. For example, the TLV for carbon dioxide is 5000
parts per million (ppm), based on an eight hour exposure time.
• Acute toxicity—An effect that manifests itself immediately following
exposure or very shortly thereafter. Burning your hand on a hot
surface, for example, results in immediate pain and discoloration,
and, later, blisters.
• Chronic toxicity—An effect that manifests itself sometime after the
exposure (possibly months or even years). Examples include
sensitization from isocyanates; occupational cancer, such as
leukemia, from benzene exposure; and mesothelioma from
asbestos exposure.
• Local toxicity—The effect of an exposure at the point of contact.
Cleaning your hands with paint thinner will cause dry, grey skin at
the point of contact; this will be an immediate reaction.
• Systemic toxicity—An effect that occurs at some location remote
from the point of contact. For example, inhaling a chlorinated
solvent such as trichloroethylene can cause damage to the liver;
and inhaling carbon monoxide, which interrupts oxygen transfer to
the blood, can cause asphyxiation and death.
Source: Threshold Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the
Workplace (Cincinnati: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1994).
Respiration (Inhalation)
An average-sized human breathes approximately eight litres of air per minute while at rest; this quantity increases with any activity.4 Most human exposure to chemicals comes from
breathing airborne contaminants. The respiratory system (see Figure 6.2) does a very
efficient job of distributing these contaminants throughout the body during the normal air
exchange process.
There are five basic levels of protection or defence within the respiratory tract. The first is
the nose. The nose, or upper respiratory tract, is lined with hairs, or cilia, which act as a
coarse filter medium. The second is the interior of the nasal passage, where turbinates are found, which act as humidifiers and heat exchangers. The third is farther back in the throat,
where the hairs or cilia are coated with a thick fluid called mucus. This mucus/cilia system entraps the finer particulate. The trapped contaminant is removed by blowing the nose
and/or clearing the throat. Individuals often experience these conditions after cleaning the
garage, dusting a room, or sanding wood for refinishing. The fourth level is the lung passages such as the bronchi and the bronchiole. Here, the flow of air and its turbulence
from breathing allow much of the larger particulate that bypassed the earlier defences to
be expelled with normal exhalation. The fifth level of defence consists of myriad tiny air
sacs, called alveoli, located at the ends of the lungs’ air passages, called the alveolar ducts. These sacs (which are the source of oxygen transfer from the lungs to the bloodstream)
contain small cells called macrophages (Greek for “big eater”), which dispose of any
impurities via the lymph system.
Skin Absorption
In many workplaces and at home, chemical contact with the skin is a common occurrence.
Many fat-soluble chemicals are readily absorbed, and most gases can pass through the skin
very quickly. Chlorinated solvents such as carbon tetrachloride (e.g., industrial cleaners or
degreasing agents) can pass through the skin into the blood and eventually reach the liver, where tissue damage may occur. Dimethyl sulphoxide, found in solvents and some medical
applications such as skin patches, can be absorbed through the skin in less than a minute
following contact.
A chemical’s ability to easily pass through the skin is often closely associated with its level
of toxicity. For example, the toxicity of DDT is about the same for insects and humans when
it is injected. However, it is much less toxic to a person when applied to the skin, because it is poorly absorbed through the skin. Other pesticides are much more rapidly absorbed
through human skin. Many agricultural workers have died following skin absorption of
pesticides, particularly organophosphate insecticides.
Chemicals that are not rapidly absorbed through the skin may produce a localized irritation (dermatitis) at the point of contact through a process called defatting, which
causes the skin to become white and dry (e.g., when cleaning your hands with paint
remover) and thus more permeable to water vapour, leading to tissue water loss and cracking. Burns or blisters can result from contact with acids or alkalis (chemical action).
Skin disorders can result from contact with certain plants (biological action). Skin damage
can result from contact with radiation or heat (physical action).
Ingestion
For many solvents, entry through the mouth and digestive system is not as major an issue
as entry through the skin or the lungs. That said, poor personal hygiene can contribute to
poisoning, as can eating, drinking, or smoking in an area where solvents are used.
Ingestion of most solvents will cause damage to the lining of the digestive system. The
ingested solvent may also be absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to target organs,
where it will produce toxic effects. Worse still, the ingested solvent may be aspirated into the lungs where it can destroy the surfactant layer, cause a chemical pneumonitis, and
collapse the alveoli.5
Penetration
Penetration occurs when the skin is cut or punctured by any sharp object. The type of
contamination on the source, such as a knife or needle, will determine the possible trauma
or illness. Cuts can occur when contact is made with sharp metal, glass materials, or other
pointed instruments. Workers such as doctors, nurses, and veterinarians can easily be punctured by a hypodermic needle. The disorders range in seriousness from low-grade
infections to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).
Characteristics and Properties of Solvents
The majority of solvents were developed by the science of organic chemistry, and they are
the most common of those products used both at work and at home. There are eight general characteristics or properties that make solvents effective but at the same time
hazardous and toxic (see OH&S Notebook 6.4).
OH&S Notebook 6.4: Classification of Toxic Substances
Toxic materials are many and varied and have a variety of health effects on humans. In this
section, organic and inorganic solvents are enumerated, because they are common at
home and at work, and because they can have widespread health effects based on their properties. The overall effects of toxic materials can be grouped under the following nine
classifications.
1. Irritants—Irritants, sometimes referred to as “primary irritants,” produce tissue or other
damage at the point of contact. They are divided by route of entry into two groups:
• a. Inhaled irritants—These refer to airborne respirable contaminants
or aerosols (including vapours, gases, and solid particulate) that are
inhaled into the lungs, causing damage wherever they settle.
Ammonia is dissolved into body fluids and absorbed by the mucous
membranes of the upper airways and can result in symptoms such
as headache, nausea, salivation, and burning of the throat.
Bronchitis may follow a very severe exposure, if the patient
survives.
• b. Contact irritant—A contact irritant is any material that causes
some sort of irritation, such as a rash or itch, at the point of contact.
An example would be using Varsol to clean paint from your hands
or coming into contact with poison ivy. In most cases, the skin is the
organ most affected.
2. Asphyxiants—Any material that interferes with the oxygen supply to the blood and body
tissues is referred to as an asphyxiant. Normal air contains approximately 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen. The average person uses about 3% of the oxygen in air
when breathing. If the oxygen content of the air falls below 15 percent, the body will be
asphyxiated. There are two major types of asphyxiants:
• a. Simple asphyxiants—Any airborne respirable chemical that
reduces the quantity of oxygen in the inhaled air by displacement is
referred to as a simple asphyxiant. Examples are methane,
propane, and nitrogen.
• b. Chemical asphyxiants—If an airborne and inhaled chemical
interferes with the transport of oxygen by the blood hemoglobin or
with the ability of the body cells to use oxygen, it is called a
chemical asphyxiate. Examples of such chemicals are carbon
monoxide, which interferes with the ability of the hemoglobin to
transport oxygen and can result in tissue hypoxia and death, and
hydrogen sulphide (rotten gas), which can interfere with the ability
of the body cells to use oxygen and, after acute exposure, can result
in immediate coma and possible death.
3. Anesthetics and narcotics—Any chemical that affects the central nervous system (CNS)
can be considered to belong to this class. Most of these chemicals can, on exposure, cause
headaches; interfere with the ability to concentrate; and act as a depressant. Examples
include ethyl alcohol, acetylene, acetone, and toluene. In fact, all organic solvents can
produce narcotic effects. Many of us have experienced some of these symptoms after
consuming alcohol.
4. Systemic poisons—Systemic poisons can cause damage to one or more internal organs, as well as cell and neuron damage. Chlorinated materials such as DDT, endrin, chloroform,
and trichloroethylene can cause damage to the liver and kidneys, usually because of
chronic exposure. Benzene (used in dyes, detergents, gasoline, etc.) can cause damage to the blood-forming cells (part of the haematopoietic system). Carbon disulphide (solvent) is
believed to damage the neurons. Other common systemic poisons include heavy metals
such as lead, cadmium, and mercury, and chemicals such as arsenic and fluoride.
• a. Liver toxicants—This grouping includes any chemical that will
cause direct damage to the liver. The toxic action may be chemical
(caused by alcohol) or metabolic (caused by benzene). In most
instances, slight damage can be repaired. Cirrhosis is the most
common disease.
• b. Kidney toxicants—Kidney toxicants, like liver toxicants, include
chemicals that cause damage to the kidneys, usually through the
process of metabolictransformation whereby harmless chemicals
are rendered harmful or vice versa. Heavy metals such as lead,
cadmium, and mercury, in addition to some solvents, can have this
effect.
• c. Neurotoxins—As the name indicates, these chemicals can cause
damage to the nerves in the body. Hexane, a component of
gasoline, can produce a condition called peripheral neuropathy—a
disease affecting the nerves of the extremities—that can result in
numbness and loss of feeling. This condition is dose related.
5. Sensitizers—Sensitizers, which can be chemical or biological, cause the body’s immune
system to respond abnormally by producing antibodies. Examples of sensitizers are
isocyanates and poison ivy. The result is an allergy to the specific chemical whereby even
casual exposure will cause an allergic reaction. Workers thus affected may have to change
jobs, if not employers. Though sensitization is usually chronic, a very large acute exposure
can sometimes bring it on. Farmer’s lung, humidifier fever, nickel itch, and nickel fume
fever are common examples of sensitization. 6. Lung toxicants—Toxic chemicals that can affect the lungs include irritant gases such as
hydrogen chloride and ammonia, vapours such as isocyanates, and respirable solids such
as asbestos, platinum, and silica. These materials can cause a variety of diseases, from simple pneumoconiosis (an accumulation of dust in the lungs and the tissue reaction to the
presence of such dust) to cancer.
7. Mutagens—These include any chemicals that can lead to changes or mutations in DNA. The actions of chemicals such as lead, nickel, zinc, and manganese usually cause the death
of cells but may in some cases allow the distorted cells to multiply, creating a potentially
malignant tumour.
8. Teratogens—Chemicals such as lead, DDT, and PCB can damage germ cells or create defects in a developing fetus. The most infamous of these chemicals, thalidomide, is a well-
known cause of gross abnormalities or birth defects in the fetus.
9. Carcinogens—Carcinogens are agents that cause or promote the formation of cancers. Well-known carcinogens include vinyl chloride, which can cause a liver cancer called
angiosarcoma; benzene, which can result in leukemia; and asbestos, which can lead to
mesothelioma. Following exposure to the carcinogenic chemical, there can be a latency
period of five to 15 or more years.
Sources: University of Toronto, Environmental Health and Safety, “Health Effects of Toxic
Chemicals.” Found at http:// https://ehs.utoronto.ca (accessed May 7 2019); M.M. Key, et
al., eds. Occupational Diseases: A Guide to Their Recognition, rev. ed. (Cincinnati: U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1977).
1. Low surface tension—This property allows a solvent to spread evenly and quickly and to
provide excellent wetting of the contact surface. The higher the wetting factor, the better the wetting effect. But the wetting factor allows a spilled solvent to flow into cracks and
joints and remain there, creating vapours that may be toxic. It also allows for more
effective skin absorption. 2. High vapour pressure—Vapour pressure increases with temperature; this in turn
increases the volume or concentration of a generated vapour or gas. This property of solvents allows efficient cleaning in processes such as degreasing systems because of the
high vapour generation at the high operating temperatures. It can, however, create an
inhalation hazard, the risk of which increases with temperature. This is not considered a problem as long as the container is kept closed. In a fire situation, the pressure increase
can cause an explosion.
3. Low boiling point—The lower the boiling point, the greater the rate of evaporation or
generation of vapours from a liquid. This property is useful when cleaning or painting because the solvents can evaporate quickly at room temperature, allowing the article to
dry or tack off efficiently. However, the lower the boiling point, the greater the health risk
since vapour can be generated at lower temperatures. Chemicals with boiling points close to room temperature or lower, such as ammonia (BP = 22°C) or hydrogen cyanide (BP =
25°C), can be a special problem since they can evaporate readily and are highly toxic.
4. Low heat of vaporization—This relates to the amount of heat or energy required to change a liquid into a gas or vapour. The less heat required, the less costly the process in
an industrial environment. But, similarly, the lower the amount of heat necessary, the
greater the risk of exposure if the material is not properly controlled.
5. High volatility—The main test of a solvent’s effectiveness is the speed at which it will evaporate. The greater the volatility, the faster the evaporation, and the greater the health
and fire risk.
6. Ability to dissolve fats—The more effectively a solvent dissolves fats or oils, the more
useful it can be. However, when solvents are in contact with the skin, the skin’s surface oils
are dissolved. The unprotected skin then becomes susceptible to infection and other
trauma. Skin contact with solvents is one of the major causes of dermatitis. 7. Flammability—This is one of the main hazards associated with solvent use, since all
organic solvents are flammable. Care must be taken to ensure that there are no sources of
ignition present during use. Chemical specifications usually list four characteristics that
relate to flammability.
• a. Flash point—This is defined as the lowest temperature at which a
liquid gives off enough vapour to form an ignitable mixture with air
and produce a flame with a source of ignition. If the flash point is
close to room temperature, the danger of ignition can be very great.
• b. Lower explosion limit (LEL; also known as lower flammability limit,
LFL)—This is defined as the smallest fuel–air mixture that is
ignitable, expressed as a percentage. Carbon monoxide has an LEL
of 12.5 percent by volume, which is equivalent to 125 000 parts per
million (ppm). The upper exposure value for health exposure is 50
ppm, as shown in various standards. If the exposure to carbon
monoxide in the workplace is maintained well below the health
limit, there is no risk of ignition from that source.
• c. Upper explosion limit (UEL; also known as the upper flammability
limit, UFL)—This is defined as the highest fuel–air mixture that is
ignitable, expressed as a percentage. Carbon monoxide has a UEL
of 74 percent by volume, or 740 000 ppm. The LEL and UEL spread
indicates that carbon monoxide could be ignited through a wide
range of fuel–air mixtures, which could be an advantage if the gas
were to be used for some heat applications.
• d. Auto-ignition temperature—This is defined as the lowest
temperature at which a flammable fuel–air mixture will ignite from
its own heat source. An example is spontaneous combustion in
moist hay in a barn or in paint-soaked rags stuffed in a pail.
8. Vaporization—Most solvents will form very large volumes of vapour from a small
amount of liquid. For instance, turpentine can form 112 litres of vapour for each litre of
liquid at standard temperature and pressure conditions.
Inorganic Solvents
Inorganic solvents fall into two classes: acids and bases. These are the simplest of chemical
groups and are the oldest known such groups. Acids and bases are used for a number of
everyday uses including cleaning but also more complex processes such as manufacturing of fertilizers, dyes, or gasoline. The difference between an acid and a base is expressed in
terms of pH, a unit that notes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution, having a scale
of 1 to 14. A pH value of 7 is considered neutral (e.g., neither an acid nor a base). A pH of 1
indicates extreme acidity, while a pH of 14 indicates extreme alkalinity.
1. Acids—Materials such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid (H2 SO4 ), and chromic
acid (H2 CrO4 ) are some of the most common. Acids are characterized as being highly
corrosive and are used for processes such as refining and processing metals. The plating process makes extensive use of these acids. The health effects are predominantly burns
resulting from inhalation and skin contact. The eyes are the most susceptible body part
and are exposed usually because of splashing. Acids tend to taste sour.
2. Bases—Sometimes referred to as alkalines, bases include potassium hydroxide (KOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), or baking soda. Bases are
commonly found in household products including oven cleaner, laundry soap, and drain
cleaners. Health effects from bases can include chemical burns, skin irritations, and
blisters. Bases tend to taste bitter.
Organic Solvents
Organic solvents, which are petrochemically based, are manufactured by combining the
carbon atom with a great many other elements. These solvents can be identified by their
molecular structure and can be grouped under 10 classifications (see Table 6.2).
Control of Exposures
The safe use and handling of chemical and biological agents can be ensured only through
the active employment of a variety of risk control measures. Figure 6.3 outlines the various
control measures that can be used to ensure the safe handling of both chemical and low-
level biological agents. These controls are the subject of the sections that follow.
Engineering Controls
The best method for mitigating the risk associated with chemical and biohazards is
elimination. When that is not possible, the next best line of defence is to reduce the risk by
finding a less harmful alternative. Unfortunately, within the context of biohazards this may
not be practical or even possible. For chemical agents, a thorough investigation should be
conducted to ensure that the proposed substitute meets the intended purpose, does not contain dangerous properties, and is compatible with existing materials in use. If solvents
are being used, areas should be properly enclosed to prevent or minimize the escape of
vapours, and an effective exhaust system should be in place. Because some of the chemicals used may be a source of ignition, it is equally important to ensure that
appropriate fire-extinguishing equipment is on hand and that combustibles are isolated
from sources of ignition. Materials should not be stored adjacent to highly reactive
chemicals.
Engineering controls for biohazards include built-in protective systems, equipment, or
supplies, which often require they be planned ahead of time and built into the design of a
workspace. Common examples include ventilation systems (e.g., HVAC systems), construction seals, sharps disposal containers for needles, or automated equipment such
as toilets and sinks (e.g., in hospitals, restaurants).
Administrative Controls
Perhaps the single most important administrative function is the education and training of
all employees in safe work practices. Employees should receive training in safe operating
and emergency procedures, in the use and care of PPE, and in the handling and control of
agents. Training must be conducted on an ongoing basis, given that new solvents and other agents are continually entering the workplace. Finally, workers must be familiar with
all aspects of Workplace Hazardous Material Information System (WHMIS) legislation.
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
WHMIS is a comprehensive communication system designed to outline the safe use of
hazardous products via product labels, safety data sheets (SDS), and worker education and
training programs. WHMIS began in the United States in the early 1980s in the form of the Hazard Communication Standard. WHMIS was the brainchild of industry, labour, and
government representatives committed to developing regulations that meet the right-to-
know standard. WHMIS legislation came into force across Canada between 1988 and 1990.
Initially, all jurisdictions were involved in creating the first Canada-wide health and safety legislation. To ensure the desired consistency in regulations, the federal government
created a model OH&S regulation, which was then used by the provincial and territorial
governments. As of 2015, WHMIS incorporated the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals for workplace chemicals. The overall goal in
adopting the GHS is to develop consistent policies, practices, and standards with other
countries that use the GHS. GHS is used to define and classify the hazards that exist within chemical products. The purpose of GHS is to communicate health and safety information
on labels and safety data sheets using the same set of classification and labelling rules.
Adoption of GHS was a necessary step taken to ensure there is greater regulatory
compliance, in addition to supporting safer transportation and improving emergency response. GHS covers all hazardous workplace chemicals and is targeted toward workers,
employers, transporters, and first responders.
In addition to adopting the GHS, the federal government released an amended Hazardous Products Act (HPA) and released the new Hazardous Products Regulations (HPR), which
replaced the Controlled Product Regulations. The act and the regulations define which materials (i.e., hazardous products) are included in WHMIS 2015 and what information
suppliers must provide to employers for controlled products used in the workplace.
WHMIS 2015 is based on three elements:
• labels designed to alert the worker that the container contains a
potentially hazardous product
• safety data sheets outlining a product’s potentially hazardous
ingredient(s) and procedures for safe handling of the product
• employee training
HAZARD CLASSES AND CATEGORIES Hazards identified within WHMIS 2015/GHS are
organized by group, class, and category or type. There are three groups of hazards:
physical, health, and environmental. Within each of these groups there are classes and
categories. The physical hazard group is based on physical and chemical properties (e.g.,
flammable) and includes substances such as flammable gases, liquids and solids,
explosives, gases under pressure, and self-reactive substances. The health hazard group identifies hazards that can cause negative health effects such as acute toxicity, serious eye
damage/irritation, and reproductive and organ toxicity. Hazards within the environmental
group include those that affect aquatic life and the ozone layer. Hazards within these groups can be further organized into a hazard class, which clusters hazards with similar
properties together (e.g., flammable gases, aerosols, and gases under pressure).
Once hazards are classified, if necessary, they are categorized by number. Numbers are
assigned to categories according to how dangerous they are, meaning that category 1 is more hazardous than category 2, and category 2 is more dangerous than category 3. Each
hazard class has at least one category associated with it; however, further categories (i.e., 2
and 3) may not be necessary. If a category needs to be further grouped it is done so by type, which is assigned a letter (see Figure 6.4). It is important to note that some of the hazard
classes included in WHMIS are not included within GHS. Hazards such as explosives are
covered under separate legislation in Canada; thus, it is extremely important employers ensure they are complying with their provincial or territorial requirements under the
appropriate legislation and regulations.
LABELS All products within the workplace that meet the criteria for being classified as a
hazardous product as outlined in the act and regulations must be labelled. There are two specific types of labels: supplier and workplace labels. Supplier labels must be attached by
the supplier or provider. For example, if you work in a lab all hazardous agents received
from a supplier by a lab must have a supplier label (see Figure 6.5). Workplace labels are required when a hazardous product is made and used within a workplace, when a
hazardous product is poured or transferred to another container, or when a supplier label
is lost or unreadable. Workplace labels are not required when a hazardous product is
poured into a container and will be used immediately or when one worker pours a material into another container and will be the only person using it for that shift. If another worker
will be using that container, or if it is to be stored, then a workplace label must be applied.
Workplace labels must contain the product name, outline measures for safe handling, and refer to the safety data sheet if one is available. It is important to note that each provincial
and territorial jurisdiction has specific requirements that must be followed and, as such, it
is the responsibility of individual employers to ensure they are up to date on when changes
or modifications to WHMIS in their area are adopted.
Supplier labels must include the following information in both English and French:
• Product identifier—the brand name, chemical name, common name,
generic name or trade name of the hazardous product.
• Initial supplier identifier—the name, address, and telephone number
of either the Canadian manufacturer or the Canadian importer.
When distributors are selling a product, the distributor may replace
the name, address, and telephone number of the initial supplier
with the distributor’s own contact information. When an importer
brings in a hazardous product for its own use, it is not required to
replace the foreign supplier’s information with their own.
• Pictogram(s)—hazard symbol within a red “square set on one of its
points.”
• Signal word—a word used to alert the reader to a potential hazard
and to indicate the severity of the hazard (e.g., “danger” or
“warning”).
• Hazard statement(s)—standardized phrases that describe the nature
of the hazard posed by a hazardous product (e.g., “Extremely
flammable gas” or “May cause cancer”).
• Precautionary statement(s)—standardized phrases that describe
measures to be taken to minimize or prevent adverse effects
resulting from exposure to a hazardous product or resulting from
improper handling or storage of a hazardous product (e.g., “Wear
protective clothing” or “Protect from sunlight”).
• Supplemental label information—some supplemental label
information is required based on the classification of the product.
For example, the label for a mixture containing ingredients with
unknown toxicity in amounts higher than or equal to 1% must
include a statement indicating the percentage of the ingredient or
ingredients with unknown toxicity.
Using the GHS, labels must now include pictograms, which are standardized graphic
images that help a user to quickly identify the type of hazard he or she are using or is
exposed to. Most of the pictograms used within the GHS are identifiable as a square that has been turned 45 degrees and has a red border. There are nine pictograms used within
WHMIS 2015; they are located on supplier labels as well as on the safety data sheets (see
Figure 6.6).
SAFETY DATA SHEETS The objective of safety data sheets (SDS) is to identify potentially harmful materials, to present information about the nature of the materials and their
harmful effects, and to provide guidance on how to handle safely.
The manufacturer or supplier must develop an SDS for each product supplied for use in the workplace. The requirement for supplying SDSs is twofold. Suppliers are regulated by the
federal legislation under the Hazardous Products Act and provincial or territorial
regulations, while employers are regulated only under provincial or territorial regulations.
Should an employer also be a manufacturer or produce research products not intended for
sale, the responsibility for creating an SDS becomes an employer’s.
The SDS must contain information as set out by the Hazardous Products Act, and the
Hazardous Products Regulations. The SDS must be provided to the buyer on or before the date of sale or delivery of the product. The information on the SDS must be current at the
time of sale or delivery, and the SDS must be dated no more than three years before the
date of sale or delivery.
The following 16 items must appear on an SDS; however, items 12 to 15 are not required by
law in Canada to be filled in.6
1. Identification
2. Hazard identification
3. Composition/Ingredients 4. First aid
5. Firefighting
6. Accidental release measures 7. Handling/Storage
8. Exposure controls/Personal protection
9. Physical/Chemical properties 10. Stability/Reactivity
11. Toxicology information
12. Ecological information 13. Disposal considerations
14. Transportation information
15. Regulatory information
16. Other information (e.g., last time SDS was revised)
EDUCATION AND TRAINING WHMIS education refers to providing information about how
the WHMIS/GHS is structured, its purpose and objectives, and the hazards associated with
each material. For instance, WHMIS education teaches workers about the various hazard
classes and why a material belongs to a particular class.
Training can be viewed as more job-specific information and covers the procedures for
handling, storage, use, disposal, and emergency procedures within that particular work environment. Companies and organizations that use hazardous products as outlined in the
HPA must have a WHMIS program in place. Any and all individuals who use or directly work
with (e.g., workers), or are exposed to but do not directly work with a hazardous product
(e.g., supervisors, emergency personnel), must receive WHMIS education and training. The
requirements for WHMIS education and training are outlined according to each province
and territory, and it is imperative that employers stay up to date on changes and
amendments to the legislative requirements in their area.
Work Practices and Procedures
Senior managers must ensure policies and procedures are enforced at all times (see OH&S
Today 6.2) and by everyone. Situations where employees do not follow policies must be handled appropriately, and in cases where employees willfully neglect policies and
practices, a disciplinary structure must be put in place.
Good housekeeping is essential workplace practice when handling, storing, or using
agents. This is important for breaking the chain of infection. Ensuring that surfaces such as doorknobs and faucets are properly disinfected is extremely important. Laboratories,
hospitals, and clinics must ensure that each area exposed to biohazards is kept clean and
orderly. For chemical hazards, if containers are leaking, the agents they contain must be transferred immediately to sound containers. Spills must be cleaned up properly, and
employees who may be exposed to the hazard must wear protective equipment. Solvent-
soaked rags should be disposed of in airtight, all-metal containers and removed daily. Each municipality has its own guidelines for the disposal of wastes, and employees must be
familiar with the guidelines that apply to them.
Preventive maintenance must be conducted regularly to ensure that no potential dangers
exist. For example, air filters on exhaust or ventilation equipment may become damaged or plugged and pose a potential danger in an enclosed area in which solvents or biohazards
are used. Employees should understand the procedures for maintaining equipment and
documenting all repairs.
Thorough recordkeeping is essential. Though provinces and territories vary in terms of
requirements for recordkeeping, all demand that records be kept of employee exposure,
workplace air monitoring, and equipment breakdowns and repairs.
OH&S Today 6.2: Needlestick Injuries: A Decrease In Rates
Needlestick injuries have been a health and safety concern for many years. A needlestick
injury occurs when a sharp object, such as a needle, lancet, scalpel, or IV delivery system, which is potentially carrying blood-borne pathogens, punctures the skin of a care provider.
For example, a nurse changing an intravenous (IV) may inadvertently stick the used needle
in his own hand. For some occupations, there has been a decrease in the incidence of sharps injuries. Researchers in Ontario have found that needlestick injury rates have
decreased significantly. However, needlestick injuries are a worry for other occupations—
workers at recycling centres.
Many communities have adopted recycling programs that involve (at least in part)
individuals working at a recycling centre sorting through various types of recyclable
material (glass, plastic, etc.). Items such as syringes are often discarded in the recycling
bins, and recycling plant workers run the risk of a needlestick injury as they sort through
the material to identify what can be recycled.
The solution to the problem involves both prevention and protection. First, communities
with recycling programs must educate citizens in the proper procedures for disposing of needles and similar items. Second, employees should be provided with protective gear
(e.g., heavy leather gloves over latex) to offset the exposure to needles. These policies and
procedures must also be followed by all employees at all times.
Sources: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, “What Are Needlestick Injuries?” Found at: https://www.ccohs.ca
/oshanswers/diseases/needlestick_injuries.html (accessed August 4, 2019); A. Chambers, C.
Mustard, and J. Etches, “Trends in Needlestick Injury Incidence Following Regulatory Change in Ontario, Canada (2004–2012): An Observational Study,” BMC Health Research 15
(2015): 127.
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE Medical surveillance programs, an administrative control, are
implemented to ensure that employees who are exposed to agents are not subjected to situations in which their health will be jeopardized. For such programs to be effective, pre-
employment and preplacement medical examinations should be conducted to establish a
baseline of the employee’s health and exposure to agents in previous workplaces. Follow- up medical examinations should be conducted periodically. Examinations may include a
chest X-ray, pulmonary function tests, and blood workups. Finally, recordkeeping is an
important aspect of medical surveillance programs. The types of exposures employees face
and their health records before and after exposure should be included in this process.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is one of the most important control mechanisms for
many hazards, and because inhalation is the most common and hazardous route of entry
for chemical and biological hazards, the most commonly used protection device is a
respirator. Respiratory protection is more specialized for biohazards than it is for chemical
agents, since a biological airborne contaminant can be much smaller than a chemical one. PPE for hands, face, and other body parts must be provided where necessary. No single
protective device, such as a facemask (seen below), will adequately address all conditions
for all workers. Each device must be matched to the chemical or biological exposure, and it
is imperative that the device be properly fitted to the individual. (One size does not fit all!)
Personal Hygiene Practices
The ingestion of chemicals or biological particulate is often the result of poor hygiene (e.g.,
hand hygiene). Individuals who handle agents without wearing proper protective gear,
such as gloves, are at risk of food contamination. In other instances, chemicals that are not
adequately removed at the workplace can be transferred to the worker’s home. To ensure that this and similar incidents do not occur, individuals who handle toxic substances must
adhere to the following:
• Remove outer protective clothing, and clean hands, arms, face, and
nails before entering rest areas or lunchrooms.
• Avoid touching lips, nose, and eyes with contaminated hands.
• Wash hands before eating, drinking, or smoking, and eat, drink, and
smoke only in designated areas.
• Remove work clothes and wash or shower before leaving work.
Summary
This chapter has focused on the types, characteristics, measurement, and control of
chemical and biological agents. All workers who are exposed to these agents should be
knowledgeable about their potential health effects as well as trained in their proper use
and handling. Chemical agents and, to a lesser extent, biological agents are the major causes of occupational diseases. Much of the required knowledge is highly technical, and
there is a lot of terminology to understand. HR practitioners should be sensitive to the
potential effects of a broad array of health-related effects that can occur. Most important,
the focus of an OH&S program should be on the appropriate management of exposure to
these agents.
Key Terms
aerosols
agents
alveoli
biohazards
boiling point chain of infection
chemical agents
dermatitis
modes of transmission
portal of entry
portal of exit reservoir
surfactant layer susceptible host
target organs
toxicity
turbinates
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 6.1
Review
This chapter lists the types of contaminants found in industrial workplaces. Consider the typical office
setting; to what types of chemical hazards might office workers be exposed?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 6.2
Review
Explain the concept of a “synergistic effect” as used in this chapter.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 6.3
Review
What are the major ways of controlling the potential adverse effects of exposure to chemical and
biological agents? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Steeping some tea...
Exercises
Exercise 6.1
Review
As your workplace approaches cold and flu season, the healthy workplace committee has decided to
take a number of proactive measures to prevent and minimize infection rates. Discuss the steps that
HR can and should take to prevent the spread of cold and flu among employees. In other words, what tasks, measures, information, or programs should be developed that will help to break the chain of
infection? Outline these precautions in terms of the level of responsibility associated with them (e.g.,
frontline employee, manager, supervisor).
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 6.2
Review
Research reports detailing the flu season in Canadian cities last winter. Examine how this season
compared to previous years. What procedures or measures did workplaces and individuals (e.g.,
hospitals) implement to minimize exposure or reaction to this biological hazard?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 6.3
Review
Cases of environmental illness or environmental sensitivity seem to be becoming more common.
Search out contemporary cases in which employees have been exposed to chemical or biological
agents with long-term consequences. Could these exposures have been prevented? Could the workers
have been protected?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 6.1
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When it comes to biohazards, some individuals may be more sensitive to some exposures than others.
For example, pregnant women may be more at risk when exposed to certain viruses or bacteria (e.g.,
measles, chickenpox) than other employees. Unfortunately, when humans and animals are reservoirs
or carriers of infectious agents, they may be unaware and show no symptoms, and, as a result, may not
take precautions to minimize the spread (e.g., through hand washing, wearing PPE). Your organization
has a number of female staff, some of whom will be going out on maternity leave over the next few
months. Create an employee information pamphlet that demonstrates the vulnerability of some
populations of people, illustrates the chain of infection in simple terms, and outlines the various ways
in which this chain can be broken.
Upload a PDF to submit your pamphlet.
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Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
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Unknown Chemicals
To: You, OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Unknown Chemicals in Warehouse
Hi again,
A few hours ago, staff were moving stuff around in the warehouse and discovered a couple of barrels
that seem to be filled with a type of powder. Unfortunately, there don’t seem to be any labels on the
barrels and we really don’t know what to do with this stuff. No one has touched the barrels yet. Do you
think it’s safe to just throw it out? Should we even touch it? Is this something that requires us to call in
a hazardous waste company? Please advise; this feels urgent.
When completing this assignment, in addition to responding the above questions, address the
following:
1. Consider how the hierarchy of control can be applied to this situation for
protecting Well-Mart employees, customers, contractors, etc.
2. What are the required labelling obligations, according to WHIMIS 2015/GHS?
3. Given the types of questions the store manager is asking, what type of training
do you think they need/require? Consider how you can use this situation as a
teaching moment for everyone within Well-Mart regardless of whether it was
determined to be a toxic substance.
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References
1. Centers for Disease Control, “Chain of Infection.” Found at:
https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd (accessed May 7, 2019).
2. Health and Safety Executive, “Hairdressing.” Found at:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/hairdressing/index.htm, (accessed August 8, 2019).
3. Peel District School Board, “Take One Step: Wellness at Work” (January 20, 2013). Found
at: http://www.topberlinapartments.com/takeonesteporg (accessed August 8, 2019).
4. P.L. Williams and J.L. Burson, eds., Industrial Toxicology—Safety and Health Applications
in the Workplace (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985).
5. C.W. Pilger, “Toxic Solvents,” 23rd Intensive Workshop in Industrial Hygiene, Toronto,
1994.
6. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, “WHMIS 2015, Safety
Data Sheets.” Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/whmis_ghs/sds.html
(accessed August 8, 2019).
PSYCHOSOCIAL HAZARDS
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe and distinguish among the concepts of stressor, stress, and
strain
• explain the transactional model of stress and its implications
• identify major sources of stress in the workplace
• discuss the psychological, physical, behavioural, and organizational
consequences of stress
• discuss ways to recognize, assess, and manage psychosocial hazards
at work
• describe and distinguish among primary, secondary, and tertiary
stress interventions
• describe injustice, technology, and work–life conflict as prevalent
workplace stressors
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
“I’ll never forget it.” Her voice quivers as she recounts the story. “Those two little children crying in emergency. ‘Don’t die, Mommy… don’t die, it’s Christmas.’” Now retired for more
than 25 years, this nurse is recounting an incident that occurred mid-career and has
haunted her for almost 50 years—the scene of a mother dying in an emergency room on Christmas Eve with her children (aged six and eight) by her side. Maureen Brennan—a
former intensive care nurse—tells a similar story. Now diagnosed with post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) she points out that through her career she has witnessed things that
the human mind was simply not meant to deal with.
PTSD results from exposure to traumatic events and is characterized by three symptoms:
re-experiencing the initial event, avoidance of specific situations, and arousal. Some data
suggest that just over 9 percent of Canadians will experience PTSD in their lifetime with the most likely causes being witnessing someone killed or badly injured (32 percent); sexual
molestation (21.9 percent), or being involved in a serious motor vehicle accident (17.8
percent).
Although PTSD was first recognized in soldiers serving in combat zones, we now recognize
that wide variety of occupations that involve traumatic exposure. Most recently Canadian
legislation recognizes that first responders (e.g., firefighters, paramedics, and police)
witness a large number of traumatic events and are more likely to experience PTSD.
Many provincial jurisdictions have introduced presumptive legislation whereby a first responder diagnosed with PTSD will automatically be qualified for workers’ compensation
(i.e., without having to prove occupational exposure). The legislation may also require
employers to take steps to reduce PTSD. The federal government has announced a wide- ranging action plan to address the experience of trauma in public safety personnel (e.g.,
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, firefighters, paramedics, correctional employees, border
services personnel, operational and intelligence personnel, search and rescue personnel,
Indigenous emergency managers, and dispatch personnel).
Sources: M. Van Ameringen, C. Mancini, B. Patterson, and M.H. Boyle, “Post-traumatic
Stress Disorder in Canada,” CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 14(3) (2008), 171–181;
Canadian Occupational Safety, “Feds Launch PTSD Action Plan for Public Safety Workers” (April 8, 2019). Found at: https://www.cosmag.com/psychologicalhealth-safety/39799-
feds-launch-ptsd-action-plan-forpublic-safety-workers (accessed July 26, 2019).
Introduction
Imagine that you come to work one morning and see a coworker lying on the floor
clutching her arm. There is a ladder tipped over next to her and she is clearly in pain. What
do you do? Anyone who has taken a first aid course knows the answer to this question— you check the scene to make sure it is not dangerous to you, you ask her if she needs help,
you may provide first aid, and you call for emergency assistance if required.
Now imagine you come to work one morning and you see a coworker sitting at his desk. He looks dishevelled. He is holding his head in his hands and he is obviously crying. What do
you do?
Despite that fact that one in five Canadians will experience a mental health disorder at some point in their lives,1 we are often reluctant to deal with people experiencing
emotional crises. Either we do not know what to do or we are afraid of getting involved. As
a result, many employees who are experiencing a crisis or a mental health issue do not
want to disclose their problems at work or to seek help. They often fear being stigmatized
and being labelled as having a problem, which will adversely affect their career.
In some ways this stigma is surprising. Approximately 30 years ago the United States
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) declared occupational stress to be one of the 10 leading causes of workplace death, and it is now common to speak of
occupational stress as an epidemic.2 Estimates suggest that workplace stress costs the
Canadian economy anywhere from $12 to 33 billion annually. In the United States this
figure rises to a staggering $300 billion.3
There is some evidence that these costs may be increasing. A study by consulting firm
Morneau Sheppell reported that a third of Canadian workers report that they are more
stressed now than they were five years ago. Twenty-seven percent of workers and 34 percent of managers report that their stress was high to extreme. Somewhat unexpectedly,
a feeling of being isolated in the workplace was a major cause of stress.4
On a more positive note, the same survey found that Canadians reported less stigma
around mental health issues. Mental health problems are estimated to cost the economy in excess of $50 billion per year. Specific to workplace productivity, mental health problems
cost organizations $6 billion annually in absenteeism and presenteeism (presenteeism
occurs when an individual goes to work even though they are sick or not capable of performing as usual).5 Some estimates of the total costs to workplaces are closer to $20
billion annually.6
Though we recognize that estimates of the cost of work stress involve considerable guesswork, it is clear that workplace stress is a large and growing problem with
considerable consequences for individuals and organizations. The workplace is replete
with factors that contribute to stress, and many Canadian workers experience the reality of stress. The results of the 2010 General Social Survey on Time Use show that 27 percent of
Canadian workers report being quite a bit or extremely stressed in their daily lives. Among
those highly stressed workers, 60 percent identify work as their major source of stress.7 A
survey of employed Nova Scotians found that a large percentage of them experienced stressors such as high workloads (60 percent), conflicting demands (70 percent), and
conflicts between work and family responsibilities (50 percent). Furthermore, about 20
percent of the sample reported health-related symptoms that commonly manifest
themselves after the experience of stress.8
There are several reasons for organizations to address issues of mental health at work.
From the statistics presented above, the economic drivers are clear. Further, given the prevalence of workplace stressors and the number of employees affected, one might also
consider a moral incentive for workplaces to focus on creating psychologically healthy
work. Beyond these reasons, there are legal motivations for Canadian employers to focus
on creating psychologically healthy workplaces.9 For instance, Canadian human rights
tribunals are explicating the responsibility to accommodate mental illness at work.
Workers’ compensation boards are increasingly addressing claims related to mental stress.
Private insurers report skyrocketing “mental health” claim rates that now can account for the majority of costs attributable to short- and long-term disability claims.10 Occupational
health and safety acts are recognizing that psychological safety is part of a safe workplace.
And cases across jurisdictions show that managers are being held accountable to
understand how their actions affect others.
Reflecting this increased focus on mental health at work, the Canadian Standards
Association, with the support of the Mental Health Commission of Canada, published a
voluntary workplace standard, CSA-Z1003-13, for a psychologically healthy and safe
workplace. This standard provides guidance for employers on developing a psychological
health and safety management system in the workplace.11 A psychologically healthy and
safe workplace “promotes workers’ psychological well-being and actively works to prevent harm to worker psychological health including in negligent, reckless, or intentional
ways.”12 Although voluntary, the standard is a way for employers to demonstrate due diligence when it comes to issues of psychological health at work. After the initial success
of the standard, the Mental Health Commission is now expanding the standard to look at
specific populations. For example, there has been interest in customizing the standard for first responders and for health care—the Commission has even begun work on a national
standard for students! Although the details may vary by context, the focus of these
standards is still on creating and promoting a psychologically healthy and safe workplace.
One predominant assumption about workplace mental health is that organizations are concerned with this issue largely to address the costs associated with stress and mental
health problems. Thus, the assumption is that firms are largely concerned with reducing
absenteeism or disability leave or are focused on increasing productivity. Discussion of the effectiveness of workplace health programs often focuses on the “return on investment”
that one might obtain from such programs.13
Recently, the Mental Health Commission of Canada commissioned a case study project in which researchers examined the experiences of 40 Canadian organizations that were in the
process of implementing CSA Z1003. One surprising finding that emerged was the reasons
companies were interested in improving health and safety.14 For the most part, firms were
not primarily concerned with financial returns. Rather, they expressed the view that improving mental health for employees was the “right” thing to do—companies felt a
moral obligation to do work in this area. Alternately, many firms described their initiative
as being “mission-critical”—the focus on mental health was closely related to their strategic goals and focus as an organization. For example, unions are focused on improving
working conditions for employees, and initiatives around mental health clearly fall within
their scope. Health care organizations are focused on health and well-being and mental health is a natural extension of that focus. These results don’t suggest that financial returns
aren’t important, but they do suggest that financial motives are not the main drivers for
organizations to become involved in workplace mental health.
So, what exactly is stress? One way to discuss stress is in terms of the psychosocial model
of health. The term “psychosocial” highlights the importance of both the social
environment and the psychological or individual factors that affect a person’s health and
well-being. Social factors that influence a person’s health include family circumstances, exposure to violence, and workplace policies. Psychological factors that affect a person’s
health include levels of self-esteem and anxiety, as well as the ability to cope with pressure.
In everyday conversation, we use the term “stress” in several different ways. We talk about feeling stress and about stress as something we’re exposed to. Even the scientific literature
demonstrates considerable confusion over the precise meanings of stress-related
terms.15 Most researchers now agree on a general stress model that distinguishes among
three closely related terms: stressors, stress, and strain.
Stressors
A stressor is an objectively verifiable event in the environment that has the potential to
cause stress. For example, congested traffic is a stressor. Stressors, then, exist outside the individual and reflect some of the social factors that affect a person’s health. Stressors vary
along several dimensions, including frequency of occurrence, intensity, duration, and
predictability (time of onset).16 These dimensions have led researchers to distinguish
among four categories of stressors: acute, chronic, daily, and catastrophic (see Table 7.1).
Acute stressors have a specific time onset (i.e., you know exactly when it began), are typically of short duration and high intensity, and have a low frequency. For example, a
traffic accident is an acute stressor. In terms of the work environment, a performance
review meeting or a conflict with a supervisor may be an acute stressor. In contrast, a chronic stressor has no specific time onset, may be of short or long duration, repeats
frequently, and may be of low or high intensity. Many individuals today are experiencing
job insecurity as a chronic stressor. Most cannot point to a specific event or time that
triggered the insecurity, but the nagging worry that their job is at risk is always with them.
Daily stressors have a specific onset, are of short duration, are low in intensity, and are
typically infrequent. Dealing with a broken piece of office equipment may be a daily
stressor for some employees. Finally, we need to recognize the existence of catastrophic stressors or disasters. Much like acute stressors, catastrophic stressors have
a specific onset, occur infrequently, have a high intensity, and may be of long or short
duration. The main distinction between acute and catastrophic stressors relates to the intensity of the stressor. Catastrophic stressors typically involve a direct threat to life, loss
of life, or major property damage. Again, the complexities involved in categorizing stressors
are indicated by the observation that catastrophic stressors can become chronic over time.
For example, the events of September 11, 2001, constituted a catastrophic stressor for those directly involved, but also have had long-term consequences for those individuals
who live with the fear of terrorism.
Stressors in the Workplace
The above categorization (also shown in Table 7.1) provides a general overview of
stressors. Other researchers have focused on the content or sources of workplace
stressors.17 The NIOSH model identifies the following major categories of workplace
stressors:
• Workload and work pace—This refers to the amount of work that
must be completed and the speed at which employees must work
to complete their tasks.
• Role stressors (conflict, ambiguity, inter-role conflict)—Role conflict
exists when individuals face incompatible demands from two or
more sources. Role ambiguity reflects the uncertainty that
employees experience about what is expected from them in their
work; the opposite of role ambiguity is role clarity. Inter-role
conflict exists when employees face incompatible demands from
two or more roles. The most common form of inter-role conflict is
work– family conflict, in which the demands of work conflict with
the role of parent or spouse. We’ll learn more about work–family
conflict later in this chapter.
• Career concerns—This includes worries about job security; fear of job
obsolescence; underpromotion and overpromotion; and, more
generally, concerns about career progression.
• Work scheduling—Working rotating shifts or permanent night shifts
results in a disruption of physiological circadian rhythms, as well as
a disruption of social activities.
• Interpersonal relations—Poor interpersonal relations in the
workplace are consistently identified as a source of stress. Poor
interpersonal relationships can range from experiencing rude
treatment to a variety of more intense experiences such as bullying
or violence. Chapter 8 focuses on workplace violence as a
psychosocial hazard in the workplace. Having well-established
sources of social support (i.e., receiving support from coworkers
and supervisors) may reduce the effects of other workplace
stressors.
• Job content and control—Jobs that are highly repetitive, or that do
not make use of a variety of workers’ skills or give workers a
measure of control over how and when they complete their tasks,
can be a source of stress.
The Canadian standard for psychological health and safety at work (CSA-Z1003-13)
identifies 13 organizational factors that affect psychological health at work. All these
factors are within the control of the organization and, when met, provide sources of psychological safety for employees. However, when not met, the factors identified in this
inventory represent workplace stressors. Managing these factors effectively should
contribute to positive experiences and mental health for workers. The factors, along with
their desired state, identified in the standard are:18
• Organizational culture—The culture reflects trust, respect, civility,
and fairness.
• Psychological and social support—Workers experience supportive
social interactions with coworkers and supervisors.
• Clear leadership and expectations—Leadership communicates clear
expectations to employees about their work roles and
organizational change.
• Civility and respect—Workers are respectful and considerate of each
other and with clients.
• Psychological demands—The psychological demands of the job are
recognized and assessed with respect to their potential impact on
worker well-being.
• Growth and development—Employees are supported to develop
skills.
• Recognition and reward—Workers’ efforts are acknowledged and
appreciated.
• Involvement and influence—Workers are able to influence the work
process and important work decisions.
• Workload management—Tasks can be accomplished within the
available timeframe.
• Engagement—Workers feel motivated and connected to their work.
• Balance—The workplace accepts that there needs to be balance
between personal, family, and work aspects of life.
• Psychological protection—Workers feel they can ask questions,
report mistakes, or propose ideas without fear of reprisal.
• Protection of physical safety—Workers are protected from risks in the
physical environment.
For more information on the standard, see OH&S Today 7.1.
OH&S Today 7.1: Mental Health at Work: Calming the Perfect Storm
As a result of a number of circumstances, organizations have become more focused on
issues related to workplace mental health. Examples of agencies promoting workplace
mental health include the Mental Health Commission of Canada’s promotion of workplace mental health, the publication of CSA Z1003, and the success of Bell’s “Let’s Talk”
campaign. More pragmatically, organizations also recognize their legal obligations with
respect to workplace conditions and the rising cost of long-term and short-term disability
claims. A common estimate is that 30 to 40 percent of these claims relate to mental health
issues.
It seems clear that mental health problems can negatively affect work. However, perhaps
ironically, work itself can increase the risk of depression and other mental health concerns. Many workplace stressors are associated with depressive symptoms. For instance, those
who work shift work, particularly evening and night shifts, are more likely to be depressed
than others. Also, those who report being exposed to many workplace stressors most days
on the job are at increased risk for depression. Employee stressors such as work role
conflict, workload, and work–life conflict appear to be on the rise.
The Mental Health Commission of Canada recently sponsored “the case study project”—a
detailed study of 40 Canadian organizations that have agreed to implement CSA Z1003.
The results of the study are still unfolding; however, interim data have led to the identification of both success factors and barriers to implementing the standard. Perhaps
most importantly, results of the case study indicate that it is feasible to implement the
standard in a wide variety of organizations from very small private sector operations to large-scale public employers and even unions. Implementing the standard appears to be a
practical way for most organizations to address issues of mental health in the workplace.
Source: Ipsos, Great West Life Centre for Mental Health in the Workplace, “Mental Health in the Workplace Research” (August 2012). Found at:
http://www.workplacestrategiesformentalhealth.com/pdf/GWLReleaseDeckDepressionint
heWorkplace.pdf (accessed April 28, 2019).
Stress
Stressors are objective events. However, the individual’s response to or evaluation of these
events also plays an important role. Researchers in occupational health psychology (see OH&S Notebook 7.1) have typically referred to this response or evaluation as stress. Stress
is an internal response to stressors and is often characterized by negative feelings of
arousal. Stress, then, reflects some of the psychological factors that affect a person’s health. In contrast to the objective stressors we have discussed, stress is an internal event
that is subjectively defined. Stress is a consequence of any action, situation, or event that
places special demands on a person. The stress response is an adaptive reaction to these
demands and is influenced by differences between people.
OH&S Notebook 7.1: Occupational Health Psychology
Occupational health psychology applies psychology to questions of occupational stress,
illness, and injury. Having developed throughout the 1990s, this field has brought
considerable attention to psychosocial risk factors for workplace injury and illness.
Occupational health psychology aims to improve quality of work life and protect and
promote the safety, health, and well-being of workers. Occupational health psychologists
consider both organizational and individual factors in occupational health. They believe
that the transformation of the work environment can carry positive effects for employee
health.
Researchers and practitioners of occupational health psychology rely on a four-component
strategy to reduce work-related psychosocial disorders:
1. A focus on organizational change—Organizational change is possible and is at times
necessary to reduce psychosocial hazards in the workplace.
2. A focus on information—Workers should be provided with information, education, and training regarding psychosocial hazards and psychological health at work.
3. A focus on psychological health services—Enriched services for the promotion of
psychological well-being and the treatment of psychological symptoms (e.g., employee assistance programs, inclusion of preventive services in benefits plans) should be provided
to employees.
4. A focus on surveillance—The surveillance and monitoring of psychosocial risk factors
and psychological disorders should be routine in organizations.
Sources: CDC, “Occupational Health Psychology.” Found at:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ohp (accessed July 26, 2019); S.L. Sauter, L.R. Murphy, and J.J. Hurrell, “Prevention of Work-related Psychological Disorders: A National Strategy
Proposed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),” American
Psychologist, Vol. 45 (1990): 1146–158; L.E. Tetrick and J.C. Quick, “Prevention at Work:
Public Health in Occupational Settings,” in Quick and Tetrick, eds., Handbook of
Occupational Health Psychology (Washington: APA, 2003), pp. 3–17.
Stress is an adaptive response. The stress response is our way of mobilizing resources to
deal with stressors in the environment. Viewed in an evolutionary context, stress is the product of millions of years of evolution. The general adaptation syndrome (stress
response) is the body’s way of gearing up for fight or flight (i.e., to confront or run away
from a predator).19 Some of the physiological changes that occur as the body prepares for
fight or flight include increased blood supply to the brain and major muscle groups, decreased blood supply to the digestive system and skin, increased heart rate and
breathing, and increased activity in the stomach, bowels, and bladder. If the stress reaction
is prolonged, the resulting symptoms include headaches, dry mouth, skin rashes,
heartburn, hypertension, stomach ulcers, and asthma.
Stress is moderated by individual differences. Psychologists have recognized for many
years that our responses to events in the environment are determined largely by our interpretations of those events. Some people are less vulnerable to stressors in their
environment than others. In fact, one of the most popular models of stress, the
transactional model, is based on the notion that individuals may perceive and respond
differently to the same stressors.20 According to this model, people appraise the stressors in their environment and assess their ability to manage them. For example, a person may
determine that though work demands are heavy, he or she can manage the workload by
setting up a comprehensive “to do” list and by delegating some of the tasks to coworkers. Stress occurs when an individual realizes that a pertinent stressor is present and that he or
she does not have the resources or ability to manage that stressor. Thus it is clear that
stress does not always follow exposure to a stressor; rather, it results when an appraisal process indicates that the stressor is indeed an unmanageable threat to the person’s well-
being.
Researchers often talk about stressors as events that have the potential to cause change,
harm, or loss, or to pose a threat or a challenge. Even events that are viewed as positive can be stressors. For instance, a promotion can be a stressor because it involves considerable
change (e.g., in job duties), challenge (e.g., increased job responsibilities), and threat (e.g.,
the potential to fail in the new job). Stress is the body’s way of coping with the environment, and the response is the same whether these demands are positive or
negative.
Stress Moderators
Many factors affect people’s evaluations of stressors as well as how they react to them (i.e.,
degree of stress experienced). We often call these factors moderators. A moderator is a
variable that changes the relationship between two other variables. Some moderators
aggravate or increase the effects of stressors. These types of moderators are called risk factors for stress. Other moderators can protect an individual from the adverse effects of
stressors. Because of their role in breaking the chain of response, these moderators are
sometimes referred to as stress buffers.
Two well-accepted general classes of moderators in the stress process are the enduring
properties of the individual (i.e., personality characteristics) and the social context (i.e.,
social support, individual relationships). We will consider each type of moderator.
The Individual—Personality
A considerable amount of research has examined the role that personality plays in stress.
Personality is the relatively stable set of characteristics, responses, thoughts, and
behaviours of a given individual.21 Two personality characteristics of particular relevance in
considerations of stress are the Type A behaviour pattern and negative affectivity.
TYPE A BEHAVIOUR Type A individuals try to achieve increasingly more in increasingly less
time. Their struggle is chronic and, if necessary, is carried out against the will of others.22 Individuals who exhibit Type A behaviour are hard driving, competitive, and time
urgent. There are two components of Type A behaviour: achievement striving and
impatience/irritability.23 Someone who is high on achievement striving is typically very goal directed and action oriented. Individuals high on impatience/irritability are typically very
time conscious, hostile, impatient, and irritable. In general, achievement striving is
associated with performance outcomes but not health outcomes. That is, those high on
achievement striving perform well, but this aspect of themselves is not related to their health. Conversely, impatience/irritability is associated with health outcomes. Those high
on impatience/irritability experience more stress and have poorer health, but this is not
related to their work performance.24
NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY Negative affectivity is a mood factor that reflects persistent individual differences in the experience of negative emotion. More simply—perhaps too
simply—some people are optimists and others are pessimists. Pessimists demonstrate
negative affectivity across situations; that is, they seem predisposed to see the negative side of everything. These individuals may react negatively or adversely to all stressors, and
in this sense, negative affectivity may be a risk factor for stress.
The Social Context—Social Support
Social relationships are another important moderator of stress. Having sources of support
can reduce a person’s vulnerability to stressors.25 In other words, people who provide
support are a buffer against stress. For example, in an environment filled with challenging
stressors (e.g., workload and time pressure), a high degree of organizational support can improve a person’s performance at work.26 Alternatively, a lack of social support can
intensify the impact of stressors and may be a potential risk factor for stress.
Support can come from a number of sources, including supervisors, coworkers, and family
members. Support can be offered in a number of ways. For instance, a coworker may provide tangible support by giving a new employee needed information about a job task.
This same coworker may also show emotional support by offering positive feedback and
encouragement to the new hire.
Strain
The result of stress is strain. When people encounter a stressor and experience persistent
stress, ultimately strain will result. We will discuss four categories of strain reactions:
psychological, physical, behavioural, and organizational.
Psychological Strain
Psychological strain reactions typically include either a disturbance in affect (e.g., mood) or
a disturbance in cognition (e.g., concentration). Feeling irritable, anxious, overwhelmed,
moody, depressed, and angry are all common affective strain reactions. Indeed, we often
describe these moods as “feeling stressed out.” Disturbances in mood resulting from stress range from short-lived periods of feeling blue, down, or irritable to longer-term and more
serious diagnoses of psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety.27 Similarly,
we often hear people colloquially talking about being “burned out.” More formally speaking, burnout has three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, cynicism about one’s
work, and a sense of inefficacy about one’s contributions. People who are burnt out may
feel exhausted owing to prolonged exposure to stress, have negative perceptions about the
value of their work, and feel incompetent or unproductive.28
Most people recognize the affective or emotional reactions to stress; cognitive reactions
often go unnoticed. Typical strain-related cognitive disturbances include difficulty making
up your mind (often on trivial matters), difficulty concentrating and staying with one task, being unable to remember people’s names even though you know them quite well, and
other small mistakes. These small mistakes are generally not very important, but they can
be devastating for an individual under considerable strain. For instance, even small mistakes in the workplace can sometimes have negative consequences for employee
safety and performance.29
Physical Strain
Some physical symptoms of strain (e.g., stomach upsets, headaches) may seem quite
trivial, but considerable evidence now suggests that stress is implicated in more serious
physical conditions. Most prominently, coronary heart disease (CHD) has been consistently
linked to increased stress; so has high blood pressure (hypertension), strokes, ulcers,
asthma, and even some forms of cancer.30
The mechanisms through which strain manifests itself physically are not yet clearly
understood, though it has long been known that changes in hormone and enzyme
secretion occur under stress. Moreover, stress may play a dual role as a cause of serious physical illness. First, individuals exposed to a stressor may experience stress and
ultimately develop a physical strain response—illness (e.g., being under constant pressure
to meet deadlines and make clients happy may result in hypertension). Second, increased strain may lower the body’s resistance by impairing the immune system, thereby opening
the door to physical illness.31 Indeed, evidence suggests that work-related stress is a risk
factor for the common cold, such that those experiencing heavy psychological job
demands have reported increased incidence of colds.32
Behavioural Strain
Behavioural strain reactions take a variety of forms. Individuals under increased stress may
develop nervous habits (e.g., nail biting or nervous tics). Other behavioural strain reactions
include avoidance of certain situations, or a reduction in individual involvement, either
because of a lack of interest or as a means of reducing time demands. Individuals may also
engage in aggressive or violent behaviour stemming from stress. Evidence also suggests that individuals may increase their smoking, consumption of alcohol, or reliance on
psychotherapeutic drugs under periods of increased stress.33 Given the known health
outcomes associated with smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and overmedication,
these are very dangerous ways of coping with increased stress.
Organizational Strain
Stress researchers interested in organizations have identified increased absenteeism,
decreased performance, disturbances of interpersonal relationships at work, and an increased likelihood of looking for alternative employment as some of the most common
organizational outcomes of stress.34 Consistent evidence suggests that high levels of stress
are also associated with an increased risk of workplace accidents.35 This increased risk may be a consequence of other strain reactions (e.g., increased cognitive failures, impaired
ability to concentrate). Note also that the causal direction of this relationship is not certain.
Though accidents and increased stress are certainly correlated, it may be that working in a
dangerous or risky environment is in itself a stressor.
Recognizing, Assessing, and Managing
Psychosocial Hazards
It is clear that work-related stressors, stress, and strain have substantial negative
consequences for both employees and organizations. Organizations must learn to
recognize and control psychological hazards in the workplace. Certainly, the new Canadian Standard for psychological health and safety in the workplace (CSA-Z1003-13) not only sets
the expectation that Canadian organizations will strive for psychologically healthy work
environments, but also helps identify strategies to promote and sustain psychological
health at work.
There are several means to identify psychosocial hazards:
• Learn to identify stressors—The NIOSH model identifies some
stressors that can be recognized in job design. For example, any job
that involves shift work places workers at risk for this psychosocial
hazard. Air traffic control is widely recognized as a career that
involves high cognitive demands and the associated stress. Transit
operators are known to be targets of aggression from the public
they serve. HR managers and OH&S professionals should acquaint
themselves with the particular psychosocial risk factors that exist
among the working population they serve.
• Survey the employees—Checking in with employees to gain their
sense of the prevalent workplace stressors is a useful way to
identify psychosocial hazards at work. An employee survey that
asks employees about common stressors such as work overload,
work–family conflict, and interpersonal conflict can identify
problem areas in the workplace.
• Look for telltale signs of stress—As described earlier, there are
organizational manifestations of strain. For example, if
organizations are experiencing rates of absenteeism and turnover
that are higher than the industry standard, this may be a warning
sign for high levels of stress.
• Be attuned to individual employees—Changes in employee behaviour
may reflect work stress. If a person who has always submitted
things on time and had an excellent attendance record is suddenly
handing things in late and missing lots of work, that person may be
under strain. A manager who has a good relationship with this
employee may be able to inquire tactfully about the person’s well-
being or encourage the person to use organizational resources such
as an Employee and Family Assistance Program.
Fortunately, individual employees and organizational management can work together to
offset or avoid negative outcomes by taking an approach known as preventive stress
management. The basic principle of preventive stress management is that the health of an
organization and the health of its employees are interdependent.36 In other words,
organizations whose employees are in good health are more likely to succeed.
Alternatively, employees who work for organizations that provide pleasant working
conditions are more likely to be healthy, productive individuals.
The Canadian standard on psychological health and safety at work (CSA-Z1003-13) outlines
how organizations can develop a psychological health and safety management
system.37 The recommended structure notes the importance of organizational commitment, leadership support, and employee involvement. It also outlines the value of
careful planning of program implementation that involves the identification and
prioritization of hazards and risks that is informed by organizational data. Once implemented, the psychological health and safety management system needs sustained
and appropriate resources to engage in programs such as education, investigations, and
critical event preparedness. Finally, the system should be the focus of management review
and continual improvement.
Ideally, stress management programs will include both organizational and individual
interventions designed to reduce exposure to stressors, reduce the experience of stress
when stressors are unavoidable, and swiftly provide treatment options to those individuals who are experiencing the negative consequences of stress. In the following paragraphs, we
describe three categories of interventions (primary, secondary, tertiary), providing
illustrative examples for organizational and individual efforts to manage workplace stress.
Primary Interventions
Primary interventions involve reducing or removing the actual stressors and are highly
effective in reducing work-related stress and strain.38 The idea is that the removal of
sources of stress from the workplace should reduce employee stress and strain. Despite the
supporting evidence, primary prevention strategies have not been broadly implemented in Canadian organizations, presumably because organizational decision makers believe that
the costs and logistics of primary preventive strategies would be excessive, so they prefer
to focus on interventions that target the employees’ ability to cope with existing stressors.39 However, the costs associated with primary preventive efforts can be
reasonable and, given the resulting reduction in employee stress, worth the effort involved
to implement them. Tables 7.2 and 7.3 provide examples of primary stress prevention
strategies at the individual and organizational levels.
Secondary Interventions
Secondary interventions focus on minimizing negative outcomes once a person is feeling
stress. Techniques such as stress management and relaxation training help people identify
the negative health effects of stress. This often involves teaching effective coping
strategies, the premise being that appropriate strategies for managing stress can lessen
the negative effects of stress on health.40 Common interventions include relaxation
training, stress management training and counselling, and programs in nutrition and
physical fitness. We will explore some of these interventions in more detail in Chapter 14.
Secondary interventions are more widely used than primary ones. However, secondary
strategies are less desirable than primary ones because they target stress only after it has developed. See Tables 7.2 and 7.3 for examples of ways that organizations and individuals
can engage in secondary stress interventions.
Tertiary Interventions
Tertiary interventions include psychological therapy and medical attention—strategies, in
other words, that are applied after the fact to help those individuals who have not been
able to manage workplace stress effectively and who are now experiencing symptoms of
strain.41 In the “best of all organizations, primary and secondary prevention would be enough to manage the demands of work life.”42 However, in the event that stressors and
stress are not adequately dealt with via primary and secondary efforts, it is important to consider tertiary intervention strategies that organizations and individuals could use to
treat employees’ symptoms of strain. At the tertiary level it is important that individuals
experiencing strain be aware that the symptoms pose a real threat to their overall health and well-being, and seek treatment. The organization can facilitate tertiary interventions
by providing education about strain-related illnesses for employees. Tables 7.2 and 7.3
outline the individual and organizational strategies that contribute to successful tertiary
stress interventions (See also OH&S Today 7.2).
OH&S Today 7.2: Mental Health Interventions: A Look At The Evidence
With the increased recognition of the prevalence, and effects, of mental health issues in the workplace has come an interest in designing and evaluating programs to help individuals
deal with mental health issues. Many of these programs aim at providing education about
mental health issues and reducing the stigma associated with mental health problems— this is commonly known as increasing mental health literacy. At least three programs are in
common use. First, Mental Health First Aid training combines mental health literacy with
some instruction in “helping skills.” In the workplace, the training usually follows a first aid
model in which designated individuals are trained in Mental Health First Aid and then expected to help others who might be in crisis. Thus far, the available data suggest that
Mental Health First Aid training has a positive effect for those who take the course (i.e.,
improved confidence, reduced stigma) but there is little evidence that the potential
recipients of first aid are actually helped.
The Roads to Mental Readiness program was originally designed by the Canadian military
but has since been adapted for use in police forces across Canada. The program is
designed to teach resilience and provide skills to employees to help to manage stress. An
initial evaluation of the program suggests that it has little benefit in improving mental
health or in increasing participants’ resilience. The program did, however, result in small
but significant decreases in mental health stigma among participants.
The Mental Health Awareness Training program was developed to provide organizational
leaders (supervisors, managers) with mental health literacy training as well as
organizationally specific information about policies and resources. Initial evaluation of the training suggested that it was associated with increased knowledge about mental health,
willingness to promote mental health and improved attitudes toward mental health
among leaders in two organizations. Although not conclusive there was some evidence of a decline in the length of disability claims associated with the program. A subsequent
evaluation showed that both the leaders who were trained and their subordinates
experienced positive effects from the training.
Sources: B.A. Kitchener, and A.F. Jorm, “Mental Health First Aid Training: Review of Evaluation Studies,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40(1) (2006), 6–8;
R.N. Carleton, S. Korol, J.E. Mason, K. Hozempa, G.S. Anderson, N.A. Jones, et al. “A Longitudinal Assessment of the Road to Mental Readiness Training among Municipal
Police.” Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 47(6) (2018), 508–528; J.K. Dimoff and E.K. Kelloway,
“With a Little Help from My Boss: The Impact of Workplace Mental Health Training on Leader Behaviors and Employee Resource Utilization,” Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology24(1) (2019), 4–19; J.K. Dimoff, E.K. Kelloway, and M.D. Burnstein, “Mental
Health Awareness Training (MHAT): The Development and Evaluation of an Intervention for
Workplace Leaders,” International Journal of Stress Management, 23 (2016),167–189.
Spotlight on a Stressor: Injustice at Work
Recent studies show that employees who experience unfairness in the workplace report
higher levels of strain.43 Indeed, research now shows that exposure to injustice at work is
associated with increased risk of death from a cardiac event as well as with increased
insomnia.44 Researchers have long known that unfairness negatively affects employee attitudes, including their commitment to the organization. However, investigations of the
relationship between the experience of unfairness at work and employee health are
relatively new.
In organizational justice research, “fairness” is not treated as a one-dimensional construct. Researchers in this area focus on three separate categories of fairness judgments that a
person can make: (1) the fairness of outcomes, or distributive justice, (2) the fairness of
processes, or procedural justice, and (3) the fairness of interpersonal treatment, or interactional justice.45 All three types of injustice have been associated with increased
work stress and strain. Perceived injustice has been associated with increased risk of
psychiatric symptoms, high blood pressure, and sickness-related absences from work.46
Employees are likely to judge an outcome as unfair when they do not receive a reward or
the recognition they feel they deserve. For example, Joe, an employee who has recently
put in many extra hours on a project at work, may feel that he deserves a bonus in
recognition of his extra effort. If he does not receive it, he may feel that he has been the
victim of a distributive injustice.
With respect to procedural injustice, people arrive at perceptions of fairness by examining
several aspects of the process. Procedures that allow employee input; that are consistently
implemented across conditions; that are unbiased, accurate, and ethical; that are subject
to appeals on the part of those involved; and that are representative of all relevant parties, are viewed as more fair than those that are not.47 For instance, Ellen would have judged the
decision to change her work hours from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. to 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. as more fair had
she been told beforehand the reason for the decision and had she been permitted to give
her opinion about the potential change.
In terms of interactional fairness, individuals judge the fairness of the interpersonal
treatment they receive on several levels. For instance, they examine the extent to which their supervisors treat them with kindness and consideration, provide adequate
explanations for decisions, and give useful and timely feedback. As an example, Tom is
likely to have a better reaction to a negative performance review if his boss delivers that
information in a sensitive manner and makes constructive suggestions on how he can
improve his performance before the next performance appraisal.
Creating a Fair Workplace
Organizations can engage in primary stress interventions by working to reduce
occurrences of injustice at work. Organizational leaders should be given training on the
importance of fairness at work. Leadership training programs that include a discussion of the value of fair treatment are likely to help leaders see the value of fairness and the
damage associated with injustice. The provision of appropriate feedback in a kind and
sincere manner can go a long way toward improving an employee’s perceptions of
interactional justice at work and may have a positive impact on that individual’s health.
Organizations can also try to follow decision-making processes that are procedurally fair.
For example, they might consider allowing employee representation on committees or
decision-making bodies for important organizational procedures. For instance, if an HR manager is considering changing the employee review process, striking a committee that
includes representatives from the various stakeholder groups may increase the perceived
fairness of the new evaluation process and ultimately the well-being of the employees who
undergo the performance review.
Spotlight on a Stressor: Technology
Innovations in computer hardware and software have profoundly changed the workplace,
including how people do their work and interact with other employees (see OH&S Today
7.3).48 Researchers in occupational health and safety recognize the health risks involved in
the increasing presence of technology in the workplace. For instance, increased reliance on
computers in the modern work environment has been associated with increased risk for
physical health problems. The repetitive movements involved in keyboarding and cursor
control place people at risk for musculoskeletal injuries. Carpal tunnel syndrome is an example of a common work-related musculoskeletal disorder that may stem from
computer use. (In carpal tunnel syndrome, the median nerve of the arm and hand is
compressed.)49
OH&S Today 7.3: Too Much Mail?
The advent of electronic mail was first hailed as a revolutionary tool that would save time and streamline organizational communication. Few could have predicted just how popular
email would become. Daily, worldwide email traffic is now at 141 billion messages. Some
estimate that as much as 17 percent of each workday is spent dealing with emails.
The interruptions and information overload that come with large amounts of email can leave people exhausted and reduce their productivity. Pressures to respond quickly to
email can lead to breaches of etiquette such as checking email during meetings or while in
face-to-face conversation. One survey found that a majority of individuals have committed
email “blunders” (i.e., sending confidential information to the whole company)—perhaps
as a result of trying to respond too quickly.
Some companies are trying to combat the proliferation of email. Jon Coleman of Pfizer Canada has requested that staff in his department substantially reduce the number of
emails they send over a one-year period. Email at work is bad enough but a growing trend
is to receive and reply to emails after work hours, thereby extending the workday for
employees and interfering with their home lives.
Pfizer has also introduced a program called Freedom Six to Six, banning email messages
between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. and on weekends. Volkswagen actually blocks its servers from
sending email to some employees after work hours. The idea is to allow employees to really disengage from their work and to promote work–life balance—the idea being that
employees will thus become more productive while at work.
Sources: CNN, “E-mails Hurt IQ More Than Pot.” Found at: http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/04/22/text.iq (accessed April 28, 2019); Robert
Half, “Business Etiquette: The New Rules in a Digital Age.” Found at:
https://www.roberthalf.com/sites/default/files/Media_Root/Images/RH- PDFs/RH_BusEtiquette_SEC.pdf (accessed April 28, 2019); BBC, “Volkswagen Turns Off
Blackberry Email After Work Hours.” Found at: http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-
16314901 (accessed July 26, 2019).
Musculoskeletal injuries are a prevalent and costly problem. Individuals with these injuries are sometimes in such chronic pain that they are forced to seek disability leave or early
retirement.50 Workers’ compensation claims relating to musculoskeletal disorders can
place heavy financial demands on companies and government compensation systems. Preventive solutions are available to employers. A field of study called ergonomics
emphasizes the importance of creating workstation arrangements that fit the needs of
workers. For instance, computer keyboards and cursor controls are being redesigned with
the aim of reducing the likelihood of musculoskeletal strain. Other, more psychological,
hazards are discussed in OH&S Notebook 7.2.
OH&S Notebook 7.2: Technology-Related Stressors
The increasing role of technology in the workplace affects the psychological as well as the physical well-being of workers. Several technology-related factors have been implicated as
psychosocial stressors:
• Malfunctions—We have all likely experienced the frustration of an
ill-timed computer crash. In these types of situations, our
increasing reliance on technology to help us complete our work
tasks can, in fact, be associated with reduced control at work. When
our control over our work environment is reduced, increased stress
and strain can result.
• Isolation—Our increasing reliance on technology has been
associated with increased isolation in the workplace, reducing the
incidence of positive social interactions among workers. For
instance, employees who rely on computers are often “tied to their
desks” to complete their work and thus are available for fewer
social interactions with their coworkers.
• Privacy—The advanced state of technology in today’s workplaces
provides new means of employee surveillance and monitoring.
Increasingly, organizations are turning to watchdog systems to
keep track of things such as the amount of time an employee
spends on the phone or email, the number of keystrokes a worker
makes at the keyboard in a given amount of time, and the extent to
which people use office technology (e.g., the Internet) for non-
work-related tasks. In some cases these systems are used for
performance monitoring.
• Increased job demands—The increasing role of technology in the
workplace can also increase the demands associated with a job.
(Recall that workload and work pace can be potent psychosocial
stressors.) With respect to work pace, technological advances have
increased the pace of many jobs. For example, the prevalence of
technologies such as email and fax has shortened the expected
turnaround times for work-related communications. Also, the need
to keep pace with quickly advancing technology increases the
workload of some employees.
• Increased expectations for continuous learning—Rapid changes
in technology may require employees to learn new software, attend
additional training, or change their work processes to incorporate
new technology on a frequent basis. These changes may be
particularly frustrating if employees are still mastering current
systems.
Sources: Based on M.D. Coovert and L.F. Thompson, “Technology and Workplace Health,”
in J.C. Quick and L.E. Tetrick, eds., Handbook of Occupational Health
Psychology (Washington: APA, 2003), 223–248; A.L. Day, N. Scott, and E.K. Kelloway, “Information and Communication Technology: Implications for Job Stress and Employee
Well-Being,” in P.L. Perrewe and D.C. Ganster, eds., New Developments in Theoretical and Conceptual Approaches to Job Stress: Research in Occupational Stress and Well Being, Vol. 8
(Bingley, U.K.: Emerald, 2010).
Spotlight on a Stressor: Work–Family Conflict
For many people, work and family are life’s central elements. Recent demographic shifts,
such as those outlined in OH&S Today 7.4, have increased the extent to which
responsibilities to work and those to family interfere with each other. For instance, more and more workers are facing childcare demands, and more and more families are dual-
income, and these two circumstances together mean that working parents will sometimes
be torn between work demands and childcare responsibilities. For example, a child who is home sick from school may prompt a working parent to miss work to care for the child.
Studies suggest that work–family conflict is prevalent among Canadian workers.51 For
example, in one study of the Nova Scotia workforce, half the respondents reported high work–family conflict.52 Researchers are interested in the factors that contribute to work–
family conflict, the outcomes of this type of conflict, and how organizations can help
employees meet their multiple work and family roles.
OH&S Today 7.4: Work–Life Balance: Some Canadian Statistics
Balancing multiple commitments, including work and family, is a reality for Canadians.
Here are some Canadian statistics on family, work, and well-being. In a study of more than
25,000 Canadian employees from 71 organizations:
• The typical employee worked just over 50 hours/week with more
than half of the respondents reporting taking work home with
them.
• Fifty-seven percent of those surveyed reported a high level of stress.
• Forty percent of respondents report high levels of role overload,
with women reporting more overload than men.
• Respondents were twice as likely to let work interfere with family
than to let family interfere with work.
• Work–family conflict was associated with increased presenteeism
and absenteeism.
• Women continue to work a “double shift”—doing the same work as
men at work but also bearing a disproportionate share of
household and childcare responsibilities.
• Caregiving now includes both childcare and caring for sick or
disabled relatives.
Other important work–family facts include:
• The number of women in the workforce has increased. Women now
account for 47.7 percent of the workforce, compared with 37
percent in 1976. Over half (61.1 percent) of Canadian women
participated in the workforce in 2018.
• Both men and women in the Canadian labour force have childcare
demands. In 2014, 69 percent of couple families with children under
the age of 16 years were dual-earner couples compared with only
36 percent in 1976.
• Almost half of all Canadian children between the ages of one and
five are in nonparental care.
• Family-friendly workplace policies are on the rise in Canadian
organizations. A survey of Canadian employers found that 88
percent offer flextime, 50 percent make provisions for telework,
and 63 percent offer family responsibility leave. However, other
data suggest that there is limited access to flexible work
arrangements even in organizations that offer this benefit and that
the provision of childcare benefits in Canadian workplaces is low,
with only 15 percent of companies indicating they provide on-site
or near-site daycares.
Sources: L. Duxbury and C. Higgins, “Revisiting Work-Life Issues in Canada: The 2012 National Study on Balancing Work and Caregiving in Canada.” Found at:
http://newsroom.carleton.ca/wp-content/files/2012-National-Work-Long-Summary.pdf
(accessed April 28, 2019); C. Higgins, L. Duxbury, and S. Lyons, “Reducing Work–Life
Conflict: What Works? What Doesn’t?” (2008). Found at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh- semt/pubs/occup-travail/balancing-equilibre/index-eng.php (accessed July 26, 2019);
Catalyst, Quick Take: Women in the Workforce—Canada (May 28, 2019). Statistics Canada,
“Employment patterns of families with children.” (2019). Found at:
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-006-x/2015001/article/14202-eng.htm (accessed
July 30, 2019).
Organizational experts define work–family conflict as a form of inter-role conflict. That is, it is a type of conflict in which the responsibilities of two separate roles are incompatible in
some respects. In other words, pressures experienced in the work and family domains are
in opposition.53 Participation in one role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in
the other.
Some experts in this area distinguish two categories of work–family conflict.54 They note
that work–family conflict is bi-directional: work may interfere with a person’s ability to
meet family demands, and family responsibilities may interfere with an individual’s ability to keep pace with work demands. These two categories have been labelled work-to-family
conflict and family-to-work conflict, respectively. Work-to-family conflict is a real problem
for Canadian families. As indicated in OH&S Today 7.4, one in four respondents to a recent national survey reported that their work seriously interferes with their family
responsibilities. Another 40 percent reported that work interferes with their family role to a
moderate degree.55
Causes of Work–Family Conflict
Several elements of work and family roles contribute to work–family conflict. One is the amount of time a person spends in each role, or behavioural involvement in the role.
Generally, more time dedicated to one role means less time available to spend in the other
role. Certainly, increased time devoted to work is associated with increased incidence of work-to-family conflict. Similarly, the more time a person spends on family pursuits and
responsibilities in the home, the more likely that individual is to experience family-to-work
conflict.56
A person’s psychological involvement in work and family roles has also been implicated as a predictor of work–family conflict. Psychological involvement reflects the degree to which
a person identifies with a particular role and sees the role as central to his or her self-
concept. For example, a woman who considers her status as a mother to be the defining feature in her life has a high degree of psychological involvement in her mother role. A high
degree of involvement in one role can cause it to conflict with other responsibilities.
Stress in either the work or the family role is also associated with work–family conflict. In particular, the experience of family-related stress, such as many family demands or
dissatisfaction with family life, is associated with family-to-work conflict. Similarly, the
experience of work-related stress, such as many work demands or job dissatisfaction, is
associated with work-to-family conflict. OH&S Today 7.5 discusses how organizational
expectations can contribute to work-family conflct and stress.57
OH&S Today 7.5: The Crunch
Although it seemed like a dream job, Osama Dorias’s new job as a designer in the video
game industry soon turned into a nightmare. Like many tech employees, Dorias was
subject to hard deadlines that could result in employees working 14–16 hours every day for seven days a week in order to meet a target. “The crunch” as it is referred to in the industry
went on for over three months and despite being a new father, Dorias had little time to be
involved with his family or to help out with the new baby.
“The crunch” appears to be endemic in tech firms, and tech billionare Jack Ma—founder of AliBaba and one of China’s richest men—recently was criticized for endorsing the 996 work
schedule (working from 9 to 9, six days a week) that is used in many tech companies and
startups.
There is no doubt that working long hours is a stressor that creates both physical and
psychological strain. Working long hours can also interfere with other roles (e.g., family
member, parent) thereby increasing the strain on individuals. At the extreme, one can
literally work oneself to death—in Japan, karoshi (literally death from overwork) was
officially identified as the cause of 190 deaths in 2017. Japan has now passed legislation to
limit work hours. France, a country that has had such legislation for a long time, has now
extended to workers “the right to disconnect” ensuring that they cannot receive work-
related emails after formal work hours.
Sources: A. Ram, “Karoshi to the Code du Travail: Why It’s Hard to Head off Worker Burnout
with Laws,” CBC (April 27, 2019). Found at: https://www.cbc.ca/news/work-preventing-
burnout-japan-france-canada-1.5110947 (accessed April 28, 2019); E. Glasner, “I Just Broke Down Crying: Canadian Video Game Creators Face Grueling “Crunch” Hours,” CBC (April 26,
2019). Found at: https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/burnout-crunch-canada-
1.5109599 (accessed July 26, 2019); S. Wang and D. Shane. “Jack Ma Endorses China’s Controversial 12 Hours a Day, 6 Days a Week Work Culture,” CNN Business (April 15, 2019).
Found at: https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/15/business/jack-ma-996-china/index.html
(accessed July 26, 2019).
Outcomes of Work–Family Conflict
Both work-to-family and family-to-work conflict are associated with negative
consequences. Interestingly, the outcomes tend to be in the opposite domain from the
cause of the conflict. That is, work-to-family conflict tends to affect family-related outcomes, and family-to-work conflict affects work-related outcomes. For instance, family-
to-work conflict is linked with decreased work performance and absenteeism from work.
Conversely, work-to-family conflict is associated with reduced performance in the family
role and absences from family events.58
Although many individuals experience conflict between their work and family roles, it
should also be noted that individuals also experience work–family facilitation whereby the
skills and feelings experienced in one role improve functioning in another role.59 For example, a supervisor who has children may be better able to understand the caregiving
demands of her employees. People experiencing traumatic events in their personal lives
(e.g., the death of a loved one) often report that coming to work allows them to “take their
mind off” their grief.
Summary
In this chapter, we have distinguished among the concepts of stressors in the work
environment, the experience of stress, and the possible strain consequences. Whether or
not someone perceives an event as stressful, or as a stressor, is individual. Not everyone will react to the same situation in the same way. People must perceive the event to be
demanding in some way (e.g., a threat or a challenge) for it to be deemed stressful. As
we’ve discussed, stress is an adaptive and individualistic response to the demands of the
objective environment (i.e., stressors). We have also demonstrated that these demands
take a variety of forms (acute, daily, chronic, catastrophic).
Stress can have serious consequences. Individuals exposed to continued or high levels of stress develop strain reactions that may be psychological, physical, behavioural, or
organizational. In turn, these forms of strain reactions can affect the organization and
people’s lives. The human and the monetary costs of occupational stress warrant our
attention.
Organizationally and individually driven interventions are important to reduce the extent
to which stressors exist in the workplace, as well as to minimize the damage caused by
unavoidable stressors. Such programs involve primary (preventive) techniques, secondary interventions (to help people avoid the negative consequences of stress), and tertiary
programs (to help people find the appropriate treatment when they are experiencing
strain). The most successful stress management initiatives involve both the individual employee and the organization as a whole. The organizational responsibility to promote
psychologically healthy workplaces is increasingly recognized. For instance, the first
Canadian standard on psychological health and safety at work (CSA-Z1003-13) was published in 2013. This standard defines a psychologically healthy workplace and
articulates guidelines for management systems to promote and sustain psychological
health at work.
Injustice, technology, and work–life conflict are relevant workplace stressors. When reflecting on these stressors, we highlight the individual nature of stress. Not all employees
reach the same conclusions about the fairness of a given situation, some employees are
not bothered by the increasing technological demands of modern workplaces, and some individuals do not experience high levels of work–life conflict. For others, though, one or
more of these stressors present potential health and safety issues in the workplace.
Key Terms
behavioural involvement
buffer
distributive justice
family-to-work conflict general adaptation syndrome
interactional justice
moderator negative affectivity
preventive stress management
primary interventions
procedural justice psychological involvement
psychologically healthy and safe workplace
psychosocial model of health risk factor
secondary interventions
strain
stress stressor
tertiary interventions
Type A behaviour
work-to-family conflict
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 7.1
Review
Think of five stressors you have experienced in the past 12 months. Using the guidelines presented in
this chapter, categorize the stressors as daily, acute, chronic, or catastrophic. Which, if any, seemed to
lead to strain?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 7.2
Review
If only one individual in a workplace is experiencing strain, are the causes of that strain likely to be in the workplace? Why or why not?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 7.3
Review
What are the major stressors in modern workplaces?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 7.4
Review
How does stress manifest itself in behaviour? In organizational functioning? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 7.5
Review
What are some actions that individuals can take to help manage stress? What can organizations do to
help employees avoid or manage stress?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 7.6
Review
What are some of the ways in which evolving technology contributes to the experience of workplace
stress? What are some interventions that employees and employers might attempt in order to avoid or manage the stress associated with technology?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 7.7
Review
Discuss some emerging stressors in the workplace. How might companies help employees deal with
the changing demands of work?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 7.1
Review
Think about your current or most recent job. What are/were some of the pertinent stressors? What actions do/did you take to cope with them? How does/did the organization help you deal with the
stress? Talk to some of your friends or members of your family about the stressors they encounter at
work and the strategies they and their employers use to manage workplace stress. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.2
Review
Returning to work after a stress-related leave can be difficult for both the individuals coming back to
work and their coworkers. Create and enact two role-plays in which you and your classmates are employees at an organization. In one of the scenarios, one of the employees is returning to work after a
leave due to a stress-related mental health problem. In the second scenario, one of the coworkers is returning to work following a leave due to a car accident. Following the role-plays, discuss each
scenario. How did the returning employee feel? What were the responses of the coworkers? Was there a
greater sense of discomfort in discussing the well-being of the person who had been on stress leave relative to the person who was in the car accident? Do you think there are taboos about discussing
mental health problems in the workplace? In your follow-up discussion, generate ways that organizations and individual employees might make the transition easier for the person returning to
work from a stress-related leave.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.3
Review
Imagine you are the human resources director for a large organization. You have been given the job of
designing and implementing a new performance review system. You know that the employees may find
the shift to a new system stressful and that employees often think that performance review
instruments are unfair. You are also aware that perceived injustice in the workplace is a stressor, and you would like to minimize the extent to which your employees are exposed to work stress. What might
you do to maximize the perceived distributive, procedural, and interactional fairness of the
performance review process?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.4
Review
Psychological symptoms have been identified as a health-related outcome of stress. Individuals who
feel prolonged stress may experience symptoms such as depression and anxiety. Many employees
indicate that they would be uncomfortable telling their boss or coworkers that they are experiencing
these types of psychological symptoms because of the associated stigma. Using the website resources
of the Canadian Mental Health Association (http://www.cmha.ca), the Canadian Psychiatric Association (http://www.cpa-apc.org ), the Canadian Psychological Association (http://www.cpa.ca), the Canadian
Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (http://www.ccohs.ca), the Mental Health Commission of
Canada (http://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca), and other websites, design an awareness program that might help reduce the stigma associated with stress-related mental health issues in the
workplace.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.5
Review
Use Internet resources to find out what you can about CSA-Z1003-13, the Canadian standard for
psychological health and safety in the workplace. Some angles you might consider are the media’s response to and coverage of the standard, the response by professional associations (e.g., HR,
psychological, or safety associations), and the ways in which particular organizations are implementing the standard.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.6
Review
Contact the human resources department of an organization. Interview the HR manager about
psychosocial hazards in the workplace. Some of the things you should ask about are: a. the extent to
which he or she considers workplace stress to be a problem in that organization b. the types of
stressors experienced by the employees in that organization c. the types of strain reported by
employees d. the organizational outcomes of employee stress that the company experiences (e.g., turnover, absenteeism) e. the types of interventions the company has to help employees reduce or
manage stress
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.7
Review
Issues of work–family conflict are highly prevalent for parents of young children. To find out more about the experience of work–family conflict, interview a working individual who also has
responsibility for childcare. Some questions you might ask include the following: a. How many hours
per week does the individual spend on paid work? b. How many hours per week does the individual
spend on childcare activities? c. How many hours per week does the individual spend on nonpaid
household chores and errands? d. If the individual has a spouse, in what ways does the spouse manage the multiple responsibilities of work and family commitments? e. What are some of the special
challenges the individual encounters in balancing work and family life? f. What are some of the
strategies the individual uses to meet all of his or her work and family demands? g. What efforts does
the individual’s employer make to help him or her manage work and family demands?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 7.8
Review
The “sandwich generation” is particularly exposed to issues of work–family conflict. Using Internet
resources, define the sandwich generation. Why are they vulnerable to work–family conflict? Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S In Action
OH&S in Action 7.1
Show Correct Answer
As a OHS manager you are responsible for developing programs to improve employee health and well-
being. The HR department reports that absenteeism rates are increasing and that the number of long-
term disability claims related to mental health has nearly doubled this last year. What would you
recommend that the organization do to address these concerns?
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
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Cumulative Assignment Well-Mart
Steeping some tea...
References
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12. Ibid., p. 4.
13. J.K. Dimoff, E.K. Kelloway, and A.S. MacLellan. “Health and Performance: Science or
Advocacy?” Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 1 (2014): 316–
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15. L.I. Pratt and J. Barling, “Differentiating Between Daily Events, Acute and Chronic
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and Francis, 1988), 41–53.
16. Ibid.
17. Sauter et al., “Prevention of Work-related Psychological Disorders.”
18. CSA Group, “CAN/CSA-Z1003-13 Psychological Health and Safety in the Workplace—
Prevention, Promotion, and Guidance to Staged Implementation” (January 2013).
19. H. Selye, “The General Adaptation Syndrome and Diseases of Adaptation,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 6 (1946): 117; T. Theorell, “To Be Able to Exert Control Over One’s
Situation: A Necessary Condition for Coping with Stressors,” in J.C. Quick and L.E. Tetrick,
eds., Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology (Washington: American Psychological
Association, 2003), 201–220.
20. R.S. Lazarus and S. Folkman, Stress, Appraisal, and Coping (New York: Springer, 1984).
21. M.S. Gazzaniga and T.F. Heatherton, Psychological Science (New York: Norton, 2003).
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Achievement Motivation, and Scientific Attainment Revisited,” Personality and Social
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24. P.A. Landsbergis, P.L. Schnall, K.L. Belkic, D. Baker, J.E. Schwartz, and T.G. Pickering,
“Workplace and Cardiovascular Disease: The Relevance and Potential Role for
Occupational Health Psychology,” in Quick and Tetrick, Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology, 2nd ed. (Washington: American Psychological Association, 2011), 243–264; S.D.
Bluen, J. Barling, and W. Burns, “Predicting Sales Performance, Job Satisfaction, and Depression Using the Achievement Striving and Impatience-Irritability Dimensions of Type
A Behavior,” Journal of Applied Psychology 75 (1990): 212–216.
25. C.D. Speilberger, P.R. Vagg, and C.F. Wasala, “Occupational Stress: Job Pressures and
Lack of Support,” in Quick and Tetrick, Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology, 185–
200.
26. J.C. Wallace, B.D. Edwards, T. Arnold, M.L. Frazier, and D.M. Finch, “Work Stressors,
Role-based Performance, and the Moderating Influence of Organizational
Support,” Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 254–262.
27. Sauter et al., “Prevention of Work-related Psychological Disorders.”
28. C. Rubino, A. Luksyte, S.J. Perry, and S.D. Volpone, “How Do Stressors Lead to Burnout? The Mediating Role of Motivation,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 14 (2009):
289–304.
29. J.C. Wallace and S.J. Vodanovich, “Can Accidents and Industrial Accidents Be
Predicted? Further Investigation into the Relationship Between Cognitive Failures and
Reports of Accidents,” Journal of Business and Psychology 17 (2003): 503–514.
30. T.S. Kristensen, “Job Stress and Cardiovascular Disease: A Theoretical Critical
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Favourably and Unfavourably Perceived Supervisors,” Occupational and Environmental
Medicine 60 (2003): 468–474.
31. S.C. Segerstrom and G.E. Miller, “Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System:
A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry,” Psychological Bulletin 130 (2004): 601–630.
32. C.L. Mohren, G.M.H. Swaen, P.J.A. Borm, A. Bast, and J.M.D. Galama, “Psychological Job
Demands as a Risk Factor for Common Cold in a Dutch Working Population,” Journal of
Psychosomatic Research 50 (2001): 21–27.
33. M.R. Frone, M.L. Cooper, and M. Russell, “Stressful Life Events, Gender, and Substance
Use: An Application of Tobit Regression,” Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 8 (1984): 59–69; and S. Liu, M. Wang, Y. Zhan, and J. Shi, “Daily Work Stress and Alcohol Use: Testing the
Cross-Level Moderation Effects of Neuroticism and Job Involvement,” Personnel
Psychology 62 (2009): 575–597.
34. W. Darr and G. Johns, “Work Strain, Health, and Absenteeism: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology 13 (2008): 293–318; and S. Sonnentag and M. Frese,
“Stress in Organizations,” in W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, and R.J. Klimoski, eds., Handbook of
Psychology, vol. 12: Industrial Organizational Psychology (New York: Wiley, 2003), 453–491.
35. J.C. Cullen and L.B. Hammer, “Developing and Testing a Theoretical Model Linking Work–Family Conflict to Employee Safety,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 12
(2007): 266–278; and T.M. Probst, “Layoffs and Tradeoffs: Production, Quality, and Safety
Demands Under the Threat of Job Loss,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 7
(2002): 211–220.
36. J.C. Quick, J.D. Quick, D.L. Nelson, and J.J. Hurrell, Jr., Preventive Stress Management in
Organizations (Washington: APA, 1997).
37. CSA Group. “CAN/CSA-Z1003-13 Psychological Health and Safety in the Workplace—
Prevention, Promotion, and Guidance to Staged Implementation,” January 2013.
38. R.J. Burke, “Organizational-Level Interventions to Reduce Occupational
Stressors,” Work and Stress 7 (1993): 77–87; C.G. Hepburn, C.A. Loughlin, and J. Barling, “Coping with Chronic Work Stress,” in B.H. Gottleib, ed., Coping with Chronic Stress (New
York: Plenum, 1997).
39. C.G. Hepburn, C.A. Loughlin, and J. Barling, “Coping with Chronic Work Stress,” in B.H.
Gottleib, ed., Coping with Chronic Stress (New York: Plenum, 1997).
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Quick et al., Preventive Stress Management in Organizations.
43. M. Elovainio, M. Kivimäki, and K. Helkama, “Organizational Justice Evaluations, Job
Control, and Occupational Strain,” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 418–424; L.
Francis and J. Barling, “Organizational Injustice and Psychological Strain,” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 37 (2005): 250–261; B.J. Tepper, “Health Consequences of
Organizational Injustice: Tests of Main and Interactive Effects,” Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes 86 (2001): 197–215.
44. M. Elovainio, P. Leino-Arjas, J. Vahtera, and M. Kivimäki, “Justice at Work and Cardiovascular Mortality: A Prospective Cohort Study,” Journal of Psychosomatic
Research 61 (2006): 271–274; J. Greenberg, “Losing Sleep over Organizational Injustice:
Attenuating Insomniac Reactions to Underpayment Inequity with Supervisory Training in
Interactional Justice,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006): 58–69.
45. R. Cropanzano and J. Greenberg, “Progress in Organizational Justice: Tunneling
Through the Maze,” in C.L. Cooper and I.T. Robertson, eds., International Review of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 12 (London: Wiley, 1997), 317–372.
46. J.E. Ferrie, J. Head, M.J. Shipley, J. Vahtera, M.G. Marmot, and M. Kivimäki, “Injustice at
Work and Incidence of Psychiatric Morbidity: The Whitehall II Study,” Occupational and
Environmental Medicine 63 (2006): 443–450; M. Kivimäki, M. Elovainio, J. Vahtera, and J.E. Ferrie, “Organizational Justice and the Health of Employees: Prospective Cohort
Study,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60 (2003): 27–34; N. Wager, G. Fieldman,
and T. Hussey, “The Effect on Ambulatory Blood Pressure of Working Under Favourably and Unfavourably Perceived Supervisors,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60 (2003):
468–474.
47. G.S. Leventhal, J. Karuza, and W.R. Fry, “Beyond Fairness: A Theory of Allocation
Preferences,” in G. Mikula, ed., Justice and Social Interaction (New York: Springer, 1980), 167–218; J. Thibaut and L. Walker, Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis (Hillsdale:
Erlbaum, 1975).
48. M.D. Coovert and L.F. Thompson, “Technology and Workplace Health,” in Quick and
Tetrick, Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology, 221–241.
49. Ibid.
50. H. Brenner and W. Ahern, “Sickness Absence and Early Retirement on Health Grounds in
the Construction Industry in Ireland,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 57 (2000):
615–620.
51. L. Duxbury and C. Higgins, “Work–Life Conflict in Canada in the New Millennium: A
Status Report (Final Report),” Public Health Agency of Canada (2003). Found at: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/H72-21-186-2003E.pdf (accessed April 28,
2019).
52. Kelloway and Francis, “Stress and Strain.”
53. M.R. Frone, “Work–Family Balance,” in Quick and Tetrick, Handbook of Occupational
Health Psychology, 143–162.
54. M.R. Frone, J.K. Yardley, and K. Markel, “Developing and Testing an Integrative Model of
Work–Family Interface,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 54 (1997): 145–167.
55. Duxbury and Higgins, “Work–Life Conflict in Canada.”
56. Frone, “Work–Family Balance.”
57. Frone et al., “Developing and Testing an Integrative Model of Work–Family Interface.”
58. Frone, “Work–Family Balance.”
59. J.H. Wayne, J.G. Grzywacz, D.S. Carlson, and K.M. Kacmar, “Work–Family Facilitation: A
Theoretical Explanation of Primary Antecedents and Consequences.” Human Resource
Management Review, 17 (2007): 63–76.
WORKPLACE VIOLENCE,
AGGRESSION, AND
HARASSMENT
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• define and distinguish among violence, aggression, and harassment
• identify the sources and risk factors for workplace violence
• explain the idea of imminent risk
• describe ways to reduce the risk of workplace violence
• recognize organizational efforts and policies to deal with workplace
harassment and bullying
• define sexual harassment and explain what organizations should do
to reduce the incidence of workplace sexual harassment
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
Workplace Harassment
The testimony of Elizabeth Cummings and Shannon Lee Sampson made clear allegations
of bullying. The same-sex couple, both of whom are Red Seal electricians working at the
Halifax Shipyards, claimed that, as a result of conflicts with other workers, they were called
“dykes,” “rats,” and “hateful troublemakers.” They also reported that other workers at the shipyard purposely “hit into” Cummings and shouldered Sampson, causing her to stumble.
In another incident, a worker stepped on Cummings’ calf with his full body weight as she
was working on a lighting panel. On the face of it, the story of Cummings and Sampson appears to be an all too common example of workplace bullying. However, the case also
involves elements of aggression (i.e., name calling), violence (i.e., physical assault), and
sexual or gender-based harassment.
We know that harassment of all sorts is prevalent in organizations. Janet Merlo and Linda
Davidson, for example, initiated (and won) a class-action lawsuit for sexual harassment
against Canada’s national police force, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). As a
result of the Merlo-Davidson settlement, the commissioner of the RCMP issued a public apology to all women who were sexually harassed while serving as members of the force.
The Canadian government created a fund of $100 million to compensate the projected
1000 claimants. Currently, the number of actual claimants exceeds 3000 women and the
costs of the settlement are expected to skyrocket. A parallel class-action suit directed at
the Canadian Armed Forces is still wending its way through the legal system but if
ultimately successful will result in astronomical costs that are likely to dwarf the payout derived from the RCMP suit. Again, the financial costs are associated with significant
reputational damage as investigation after investigation suggests that these organizations
and their employees have engaged in activities that are morally reprehensible and have
resulted in unsafe workplaces for women.
These cases tell us at least two things about harassment and aggression in Canadian
workplaces. First, harassment is widespread and is experienced by a large number of
individuals regardless of their status within the organization. Second, behaviours that may
once have been considered “normal” or “part of the culture” are no longer tolerated.
Indeed, Canadian jurisdictions have increasingly passed legislation giving employees legal
recourse when they are subject to workplace harassment.
Sources: C. Lambie, “Female Workers Called Dykes, Rats, Board Hears,” The Chronicle Herald (2017); CBC News, “Canadian Forces Investigates 8 Sexual Misconduct complaints.”
Found at: http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/progress-report-sexual-misconduct-
investigations-1.3428532 (accessed August 2, 2019); CBC, “RCMP’s Sexual Harassment Suit Bigger and More Expensive Than Predicted” (November 20, 2018). Found at:
https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rcmp-merlo-davidson-settlement-money-1.4905758
(accessed August 2, 2019).
Introduction
The postal shootings of the mid-1990s and the resulting popularization of the phrase
“going postal” to describe an enraged state were, arguably, the defining moments that focused organizational and research attention on the notion of workplace violence and
aggression.1 However, the postal shootings were not the last highly publicized incidents of
workplace violence. In Canada, tragic incidents such as the OCTranspo shootings (in which an employee of OCTranspo killed four coworkers and injured two others), the murders at
Concordia (in which a faculty member killed four colleagues), and the shootings at the
L’École Polytechnique (in which 28 people were shot and 14 women died) served to focus
public and media attention on the phenomenon of workplace violence.
Though such tragic acts are extremely serious and call for action to understand their
causes and prevent their occurrence, the available evidence suggests that they are actually
quite rare. While there are approximately 14 workplace homicides each year in Canada, other acts of physical violence and workplace aggression are considerably more
prevalent.2 Not surprisingly, many jurisdictions have enacted health and safety legislation
requiring employers to deal with issues of workplace violence and aggression.
Defining Workplace Aggression and Violence
Legislative approaches differ in how broadly they define workplace violence and -
aggression. Nova Scotia, for example, has adopted a very narrow definition that focuses
solely on acts or threats of physical assault. Thus, Nova Scotia’s legislation focuses solely
on workplace violence.3 Other jurisdictions, such as Quebec and Ontario, focus more
broadly on acts of workplace aggression. Schat and Kelloway have defined workplace aggression as “behaviour by an individual or individuals within or outside an organization
that is intended to physically or psychologically harm a worker or workers and occurs in a
work-related context.”4 Accordingly, all violent behaviours are, by definition, aggressive, whereas not all aggressive behaviours are violent. In Canada, legislation enacted in
Quebec, Ontario, and the federal jurisdiction uses the term harassment, which is another
term for aggression. In Ontario, for example, harassment is defined as vexatious (i.e.,
annoying or embarrassing) conduct that is unwelcome.
A host of other terms are commonly used to describe some aspects of workplace aggression.5 For example, articles in the popular press often refer to workplace bullying
and the similar constructs of workplace abuse as emotional abuse, mistreatment,
victimization, and mobbing (a term used in Europe to describe bullying). Though there are slight variations in the definitions of these terms, Keashly suggests that they generally refer
to “interactions between organizational members that are characterized by repeated
hostile verbal and nonverbal, often non-physical behaviours directed at a person(s) such
that the target’s sense of him/herself as a competent worker and person is negatively affected.”6 Thus, bullying and these other constructs are defined as repeated behaviours
that are explicitly nonphysical, are perpetrated solely by organizational members, and
occur over a prolonged period of time (e.g., six months).7
Workplace incivility is another construct that is conceptually related to workplace
aggression. It is defined as “low-intensity deviant behaviour with ambiguous intent to
harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviours are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others.”8 Incivility
can be a precursor to more serious forms of aggression.9 This suggests that if aggressive
behaviour is classified along a continuum of severity or intensity, incivility would represent
the low end of this continuum.
Recently, a number of researchers have included sexual harassment behaviours in their
definitions and operationalizations of workplace violence and aggression.10 -
Workplace sexual harassment—which consists of gender harassment, unwanted sexual - attention, and sexual coercion11—is a unique form of workplace aggression characterized
by sexualized or sex-related behaviour. Though we include workplace sexual harassment in
this chapter, much of the existing literature and legislation has emerged separately from that on workplace aggression. Therefore, we consider sexual harassment on its own at the
end of this chapter.
The Prevalence of Workplace Aggression
Until recently, estimates of the prevalence of workplace aggression varied widely and were
of dubious credibility. Accurate surveillance of the forms and frequency of workplace
violence requires representative sampling procedures and standardized definitions, measures, and reporting mechanisms.12 The most accurate estimates of the prevalence of
workplace violence will be derived from large samples constructed so as to represent a
known population. Data from three such surveys (one American and two Canadian) are available that provide some evidence for prevalence rates. Although these studies are
becoming dated, they still represent the best available data about the prevalence of
workplace violence and aggression.
U.S. Prevalence Data
Schat, Frone, and Kelloway reported a detailed analysis of a large, nationally
representative sample of workers in the United States.13 They asked a series of questions
about the experience of both workplace violence and workplace aggression. Their
operational definition of workplace violence focused solely on physical assaults (i.e., excluding threats). Respondents were asked to indicate how frequently somebody at work
had “(a) Pushed you, grabbed you, or slapped you in anger; (b) Kicked you, bit you, or hit
you with a fist; (c) Hit you with an object, tried to hit you with an object, or threw an object
at you in anger; and (d) Attacked you with a knife, gun, or another weapon.”
Overall, the researchers reported that 6 percent of the sample—corresponding to just
under 7 million American workers—experienced these forms of workplace violence in the course of year.14 Turning to the four specific physically aggressive behaviours examined in
the survey, assault with an object was the most common, being reported by 4.2 percent of
respondents. Being pushed, grabbed, or slapped in anger was reported by 3.9 percent of
respondents; being kicked, hit, or bitten was reported by 3 percent; and being attacked
with a knife, gun, or other weapon was reported by 0.7 percent.
Schat, Frone, and Kelloway also reported on workplace aggression, which they termed
“psychological abuse.”15 Their measure included items such as “Shouted obscenities at you or screamed at you in anger; Insulted you or called you names in front of other people;
Made an indirect or hidden threat, such as saying that ‘something bad’ would happen to
you; Threatened to hit you or throw something at you; and Threatened you with a knife, gun, or another weapon.” They found that 41 percent of their sample
(representing 47 million workers) reported experiencing workplace aggression as
measured by these items. About 35 percent reported being screamed at, and 24.4 percent
had been insulted. Fewer respondents reported being the victim of a hidden threat (12.2 percent), a threat of violence (7.6 percent), or a threat of an attack with a weapon (1.9
percent).
Canadian Data
Though there are no comparable national studies of workplace violence in Canada, Francis
and Kelloway conducted a large study of 1400 Nova Scotian workers.16 The sample was
drawn to match population parameters in terms of gender and geographic distribution
within the province. The researchers defined violence in accordance with Nova Scotian legislation, which includes both physical assault and the threat of physical assault. Just
under 21 percent of the respondents reported experiencing some form of physical violence:
• 9 percent reported being hit, kicked, punched, or shoved.
• 12 percent had objects thrown at them.
• 12.6 percent had been threatened with physical assault.
• 2.7 percent had been threatened with a weapon.
Francis and Kelloway also examined a wide variety of aggressive but nonviolent
behaviours.17 The results were strikingly different from those for violence—79.2 percent of
the sample reported experiencing some form of aggressive behaviour in the workplace.
Among their participants, they found that:
• 60.7 percent reported being glared at.
• 43.5 percent reported being given the silent treatment.
• 36.4 percent reported being the target of false accusations.
• 27.1 percent reported being the target of obscene gestures.
• 26.8 percent reported being refused needed resources.
• 27.6 percent reported being made fun of.
• 56.3 percent reported having their sense of judgment questioned.
• 25.2 percent reported being assigned meaningless tasks.
• 51.6 percent reported having their opinions dismissed.
• 37.5 percent reported having bad things said about them.
• 15.0 percent reported being told they were incompetent.
• 36.7 percent reported being teased.
• 44.9 percent reported being treated with disrespect.
• 30.9 percent reported someone taking credit for their ideas.
Clearly, there appears to be more violence and aggression in Canadian workplaces than in
American workplaces. Though the Nova Scotian results may not generalize to the rest of Canada, there are at least two sources of converging evidence. First, Statistics Canada’s
study of criminal victimization in Canadian workplaces also reported that 17 percent of all
violent victimizations happened in workplaces.18 This represents approximately 356 000 incidents of workplace violence in a 12-month period in Canada. Of these, 71 percent were
physical (i.e., nonsexual) assaults. Second, in a study of Canadian public sector employees,
69 percent responded that they had experienced some form of verbal workplace
aggression.19
Sources of Workplace Violence
A common approach to categorizing workplace violence focuses on the relationship
between the assailant and the victim (see Table 8.1).20 Here, various “types” of violence are
considered based on who the perpetrator is.
Type I violenceis associated with criminal activity; an assault or homicide that occurs in the
context of a robbery is an example of Type I violence. Type II violenceis also committed by
a non-organizational member but is not typically associated with other forms of criminal
activity. It is sometimes referred to as “client-perpetrated violence.” An example would be a patient who assaults a health care worker. Type III violence is violence perpetrated by
organizational “insiders”; examples include coworker assaults as well as tragedies such as
the post office murders of the 1990s. Finally, Type IV violence is committed by the spouse or partner of the victim and is more properly seen as family/spousal or intimate partner
violence that happens to occur in the workplace (see OH&S Notebook 8.1).
OH&S Notebook 8.1: Intimate Partner Violence
For many individuals, work is a “social address.” That is, partners or family members know where the person works and, often, his or her schedule. Lifetime prevalence rates of
partner violence have been estimated at 25 percent for women and 8 percent for
men.21 Intimate partners are identified as the perpetrator in 1 percent to 3 percent of all workplace violence incidents.22 Also, women are five times more likely than men to be
attacked at work by a current or former intimate partner.23
There are several ways that intimate partner violence plays out in the workplace. First,
because work is a social address, acts of intimate partner violence can occur in the
workplace when one partner shows up there and assaults the other. Second, a partner may
stalk the other person, including by sending emails and text messages to the workplace
and by waiting outside for the partner. A third form of intimate partner violence is sabotaging the other’s ability to get to, or do, work. Denying access to a home computer or
hiding the car keys are frequently noted ways of sabotaging a partner. Fourth, even when
events do not occur in the workplace, individuals victimized by a partner are unlikely to be
able to perform their work to their full potential as a result of the ongoing strain involved.
The CAL/OSHA framework excludes violence that occurs during a labour dispute, which is
in several respects a unique form of workplace violence.24 Picket line violence has been
defined as the “non-privileged physical interference with the person or property of another, or the threat, express or implied of such interference.”25 Labour disputes tend to
involve two broad categories of violent acts: confrontational and purposeful.
Confrontational violence breaks out at the spur of the moment during a conflict. For instance, following a trade of verbal insults, a group of picketers may throw rocks at line
crossers. In contrast, purposeful violence is planned and deliberate.26 Both forms tend to
result in interpersonal attacks. Picket line violence is thought to occur most often when individuals (e.g., management or replacement workers) are trying to cross a picket line
during a strike. Violence during labour disputes seems to have diminished over time, with a
sharp decrease since 1995.27 However, violence remains a real possibility during a labour
dispute. Indeed, there is some speculation that picket line violence is “legitimated” by labour legislation and/or court rulings that do not discipline the participants in violent
confrontations.28
Prevalence by Source
Though researchers have tried to estimate the prevalence of workplace violence by source,
the most common distinction is between violence perpetrated by coworkers (Type III) and
violence perpetrated by members of the public (Types I, II, and IV). The results of these
analyses uniformly suggest that workplace violence is overwhelmingly perpetrated by members of the public. Respondents to the Canadian Public Service Employment Survey
reported that violence was most likely from clients, residents, or other members of the
public (approximately 71 percent of those reporting workplace violence) rather than from
coworkers (approximately 34 percent of those reporting workplace violence).29
Analyses of American prevalence data suggest that an individual is four times more likely to
be assaulted by a member of the public than by a coworker.30 Results by source from the Nova Scotia Stress Survey are shown in Figure 8.1.31 All four forms of physical violence were
more likely to be experienced at the hands of members of the public.
Risk Factors for Workplace Aggression
Most workplace homicides in the United States are perpetrated by members of the public
during the commission of a robbery or similar crime.32 Employees in the retail (e.g., convenience stores), service (e.g., restaurants), security (protective agencies), and
transportation (e.g., taxi) sectors are at highest risk.33
Robbery is the primary risk factor for occupational homicide. It is not, however, the primary risk factor for nonfatal assaults—providing service, care, advice, or education can place
employees at increased risk for assault, especially if clients, customers, inmates, or
patients are experiencing frustration, insecurity, or stress.34 Industries reporting high rates
of nonfatal assaults include health care, education, social services, and law enforcement.35
SAV-T(1) and SAV-T(2): The Risk of Violence
Since violence and aggression tend to be perpetrated by members of the public, the first
overall risk factor is working with the general public. The acronym SAV-T has been
suggested as a way of understanding the more specific risks associated with situations or
occupations. With respect to situational risk, SAV-T36 (refers to the increased risk of
workplace violence associated with Scheduling, Authority, Valuables, and Taking Care of
Others).
Scheduling
Individuals who work alone or at night and on weekends are at increased risk for violence. Taxi drivers, for example, often work at night and almost always work alone. They have
long been identified as among those at greatest risk for workplace violence.
Authority
Individuals who have authority over others, who are in a position to deny services or
requests, who supervise or discipline others, or who make decisions that influence others’
lives are at increased risk for workplace violence. A social worker who decides whether a
client gets benefits, an emergency room nurse who controls access to treatment, and wait staff at a bar who have to “cut off” a patron who has had too much to drink are all at
increased risk because of their authority.
Valuables
Individuals who work around valuable products or objects are at increased risk of violence
largely because the risk of criminal activity is greater. Valuables include objects as diverse
as prescription medications, cigarettes, alcohol, weapons, and, of course, money.
Taking Care of Others
Providing physical or emotional care for others, especially if such care is outside a
traditional workplace (e.g., home-based health care), puts individuals at increased risk for
workplace violence and aggression. For example, nurses who provide both physical and
emotional care are at very high risk of violence.
Imminent Risk
It is useful to understand which tasks increase the risk of workplace aggression; even so,
there are limits to this analytical approach. For example, a nurse who provides care for
patients is at increased risk, but (1) most of the time these risks do not translate into
workplace violence, and (2) the nurse cannot stop providing care in order to manage the risk. In occupations that are inherently risky (e.g., working in psychiatric or correctional
facilities), the focus has turned to the prediction of “imminent risk.”37
The assessment of imminent riskis conceptually grounded in the assault cycle, a model
that identifies the escalation of violence from aggression to physical attack (see Figure 8.2).38 Models based on the assault cycle typically point to the escalation of violence
interactions from a triggering event through an escalation phase to a crisis or assault. The
assault cycle tells us that (1) that aggression can escalate into violence, and (2) violence does not “come out of nowhere”; rather, there are clear signs that individuals are
increasingly likely to become violent. By recognizing these signs, employees may be
alerted to the increased risk.
The SAV-T acronym has also been used as a means of identifying the imminent risk of
workplace violence (Swearing, Agitation, Volume, Threat) based on the assault
cycle.39 During the escalation phase of the assault cycle, individuals are more likely to use
profane or obscene language, to show physical signs of agitation (e.g., getting red in the face, fidgeting or pacing, clenching fists, unable to keep still), and to begin shouting or
talking loudly (see OH&S Notebook 8.2). Employees are advised to recognize these signs
and to respond by establishing clear boundaries (e.g., pointing out that profane language
or shouting is unacceptable, asking individuals to calm themselves), engaging in defusing,
and alerting supervisors or coworkers to the situation. The more critical behaviours
(swearing, agitation, shouting) present, the more employees should be concerned about
the potential for violence.
OH&S Notebook 8.2: Managing Imminent Risk
During the escalation phase of a conflict, individuals typically engage in swearing, are
agitated, and increase the volume of their voice. As these behaviours occur, employees can
respond in the following ways:
• Practise empathic listening.
Avoid being judgmental.
Give undivided attention.
Focus on feelings.
Use silence.
Use restatement.
• Set limits.
Explain which behaviour is inappropriate.
Explain why the behaviour is inappropriate.
Give reasonable choices and consequences.
Allow time to choose.
Enforce consequences.
• Defuse.
Get the individual to say “yes.”
Remain calm.
Help the individual save face.
Use humour.
Use distraction/make requests.
Provide a nonviolent and productive course of action.
Go from “light” to “heavy” interventions.
If the situation continues to escalate even when these responses have been tried, a
supervisor and/or security personnel should be summoned. If the individual utters a threat
or if at any time the employee feels threatened, the interaction should be brought to an
immediate end.
Almost all acts of violence are preceded by a direct threat, and the articulation of that
threat calls for the immediate cessation of the interaction. Employees should immediately
escape from the situation and/or alert security personnel where appropriate. Employees should not try to defuse or reason with an individual who has uttered a threat—at this
point, the time for managing the interaction has passed and employees should take
immediate action to protect themselves. Though many threats may be uttered in the “heat of the moment” and may not be serious, every threat should be interpreted as the onset of
a violent interaction.
Prevention
Type I Violence
Because most workplace homicides occur during the commission of a robbery, actions
aimed at preventing robberies will likely reduce the number of workplace
homicides.40 Robbery reduction strategies typically focus on increasing the risks, reducing the rewards, and increasing the effort associated with robbery.41 Because risk factors for
robbery differ among workplaces, no single strategy is appropriate for all organizations
and prevention strategies must be customized to worksites. That being said, three principles—increasing visibility, reducing rewards, and hardening targets—underlie most
robbery reduction strategies.42
Increasing Visibility
Increasing visibility is thought to increase the perceived risks for potential criminals,
thereby deterring crime. For example, for taxi drivers, means of increasing visibility include
external emergency lights; global positioning system (GPS) that allows the location of a
driver in distress to be pinpointed; and in-car surveillance cameras that make it possible to identify perpetrators. Data from Australia and Canada confirm the effectiveness of
surveillance cameras in taxis as a means of reducing assaults on taxi drivers. Crimes
against taxi drivers have been reduced by more than 50 percent since the implementation of a bylaw in Toronto, Ontario, requiring taxi owners to install either security cameras or
GPS in their cars.43
In retail establishments, increasing visibility has meant increasing the chances of someone
witnessing a crime. Most crimes occur late at night when there are few potential witnesses.
Keeping windows clear of signs (e.g., advertisements) to allow passersby to see inside, and
locating the cash register in a location that can be seen from the outside (e.g., in the centre of the store) are means of increasing visibility. Closed circuit televisions and video cameras
may also deter criminal behaviour by increasing would-be robbers’ perceptions of
risk.44 Clerk behaviour can also communicate visibility. Common recommendations are that clerks make eye contact with customers and greet them as they enter the store,
thereby making would-be robbers feel conspicuous.45
A recommendation that remains contentious is that all retail outlets be required to employ
two clerks during evening and night shifts to reduce the incidence of robberies. Industry associations and individual store owners resist this suggestion, pointing out that (1) there
is limited empirical evidence supporting the utility of the two-clerk provision, (2) hiring two
clerks is expensive, and (c) employing more than one clerk increases the number of workers exposed to robbery-related violence.46 A more effective recommendation may be
to ensure that commercial establishments have implemented work-alone procedures
designed to ensure the safety of employees. For example, under regulations being implemented in British Columbia, late-night retail establishments are required to (1) have
two employees working in the store at night, or (2) have the employee separated from the
public by a locked barrier or door. The comparable legislation in Nova Scotia does not
dictate a particular solution but mandates that employers take steps to mitigate the risk of
working alone.
Target Hardening
Target-hardening strategies focus on physical designs that make it difficult to assault employees. For example, protective screens have been found to reduce the number of
assaults experienced by taxi drivers. Opinions on screens remain mixed, however.47 Many
taxi drivers and customers do not like them because they can restrict air circulation, leave
little leg room, and limit communication between drivers and passengers.
In retail environments, strategies that make flight difficult may deter robbers.48 Potential
strategies to make retail stores less attractive targets include blocking off laneways and
using speed bumps in parking lots. Revolving doors and longer rather than shorter
distances between the cash register and the exit may also help deter crime.
Besides preventing robberies, some target-hardening strategies may reduce the likelihood
that employees will be hurt during the commission of a robbery. Installing high and wide counters, with raised floors on the employee side, to prevent robbers from jumping over
counters to assault employees, is an effective means of protecting workers. So is installing
a bullet-resistant barrier.
Employee training is another form of target hardening. Such training typically focuses on general safety precautions and on behaviour during a robbery or threatened assault.
Having instructions on how to behave may give employees a sense of control of the
situation and lessen the possibility that they will be injured. Employee training should stress cooperation with robbers, since there is ample evidence that employees who do
cooperate sustain fewer injuries.49 Workers should also be told not to make any sudden
moves during a robbery, to keep their hands in plain sight at all times, and to inform the robbers of what they are doing when they are doing it. Staff should also be told to activate
the silent alarm only when it is safe to do so. Employees should also be aware that it is not
constructive to confront shoplifters.
Type II Violence
Service providers—health care workers, teachers, social service workers, prison guards,
and police officers—are among the most common victims of nonfatal workplace violence.
In the United States in 2000, 48 percent of all nonfatal assaults occurred in the health care
and social service industries.50
There are three general approaches to preventing or dealing with Type II violence:
environmental, organizational and administrative, and behavioural. Several factors increase risk for care or service providers. For example, staff may be at risk when they
attempt to set limits on behaviour (e.g., tobacco use), especially if the employee’s actions
are perceived as unfair or unreasonable. Violence can also occur when a client is
involuntarily admitted to the hospital or confined. Long waits for service may result in
frustration and increase the propensity for patients and visitors to become aggressive.
Environmental Strategies
Security devices that may reduce employee risk include metal detectors, surveillance cameras, and bullet-resistant glass surrounding reception areas and nursing stations.
Other suggestions include effective lighting both inside and outside hospitals, and curved
mirrors at hallway intersections. The presence of security personnel may be effective at preventing assaults. Card-controlled entrances and security checks for identification can
be used to limit public access to restricted areas.51
OH&S Today 8.1: Caregiving as a Risk Factor
It was a situation no pregnant woman expects to find herself in—lying on the floor of the
day room in a psychiatric hospital grappling with a female patient who was intent on
harming both her and her unborn baby. The nurse, who was 33 weeks pregnant at the time, had tried to activate her personal alarm when the patient became agitated and started to
attack but the alarm was held together with masking tape and was not functioning.
Although the day room also had video cameras that were supposed to be monitored, it was
another patient who alerted other staff to the struggle and brought help.
In New Brunswick a nurse was assaulted by the husband of a patient who was upset that
his wife was being moved. The assault took place behind a closed door in the nurse’s office
and went on for at least 11 minutes before security arrived. The nurse was left with a
concussion, a broken nose, and two black eyes. When security arrived, the man had her by
the throat.
Both cases illustrate the real risks that health care professionals face as part of their day-to-
day jobs. The nurses association in New Brunswick reports that 63 percent of nurses have
experienced workplace violence, and data have consistently indicated that nursing is one
of the professions at highest risk for workplace violence.
Sources: G. Benjamin, “Patient at East Coast Forensic Hospital Charged After Pregnant
Nurse Assaulted: Police,” Global News (May 9, 2018). Found at:
https://globalnews.ca/news/4197504/nurse-assaulted-east-coast-forensic-hospital/
(accessed August 1, 2019); A. Bosse, “Man Arrested After Alleged Attack Leaves Nurse With
Head Trauma, Broken Nose,” CBC (March 14, 2019). Found at: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/nurse-attacked-dumont-hospital-
1.5055961 (accessed August 1, 2019).
Given long waiting times, hospitals should provide patients and their families with comfortable waiting rooms designed to minimize stress (e.g., soothing colours on walls;
toys for children to play with; reading materials). Waiting areas and patient care rooms
should be designed with safety in mind: furniture should be lightweight, have few sharp edges, and be laid out to ensure that staff cannot be trapped in rooms. Rooms and waiting
areas should be sparsely decorated (e.g., few pictures on the walls or vases on the tables) to limit the number of possible weapons that can be used against staff. Patient care rooms
should have two exits and be equipped with phones and panic buttons.52
Organizational/Administrative Strategies
Organizations should establish policies and practices to prevent aggression. A written policy should outline what constitutes unacceptable behaviour in the workplace, and
clients, visitors, and employees should be aware of the document. Policies that encourage
the reporting of violence are also necessary, and management should stress to employees
the importance of reporting acts of aggression. Management should take all reports of
aggression seriously and ensure that employees are aware of the organization’s
commitment to safety. It is not uncommon for employees to express concerns about reporting incidents of violence, because they fear their employers will assume that they
provoked the incident. Organizations also need to have detailed plans for dealing with
violent attacks when they occur and should develop procedures to ensure the sharing of
information about violent or potentially violent clients (see OH&S Notebook 8.3).
OH&S Notebook 8.3: Best Practices in Managing Workplace Violence
As a result of both legislative changes and concern for employee well-being, many
Canadian organizations have implemented some form of policy for dealing with workplace violence and aggression. Organizations are required to comply with legislative
requirements. Beyond that, an effective approach to dealing with workplace violence and
aggression would include the following:
• A policy statement that clearly identifies violent and aggressive
behaviour as unacceptable in the workplace. The statement should
be clearly posted in the workplace and should apply both to
employees and to members of the public.
• A risk assessment that considers the organization’s history of
violence and aggression, the nature of tasks performed in the
workplace, and any special circumstances that may temporarily or
permanently change these risks.
• Risk mitigation strategies specifically designed to reduce or mitigate
the risks identified in the risk assessment.
• Training for both employees and managers in recognizing and
managing risks and in applying the policy.
• An emergency response plan that deals with violent incidents in
progress and also their aftermath. The plan should include
provisions for escape/evacuation, for calling security/police forces,
for treating physical injuries, and so on.
• Follow-up procedures to ensure that victims receive appropriate
physical and psychological treatment, that risks are reassessed
following an incident, that all incidents are documented and
reported to appropriate authorities, and that all aspects of the
workplace violence management plan are current and effective.
When service providers, such as health care workers, work inside patients’ homes, access
to protections of the sort available to employees who work in traditional organizational
settings is delayed or limited at best.53 Therefore, organizations need to establish policies and procedures for home health care providers. For example, home care workers could be
required to keep a designated colleague informed of their whereabouts throughout their
work shift. Workers should be accompanied to a patient’s home by a coworker or a police escort if their personal safety may be threatened. In a similar vein, employees should be
prohibited from working alone in emergency areas or walk-in clinics, especially during late-
night and early-morning shifts. Policies and practices should be in place to restrict public
(e.g., patients, visitors) movement in hospitals.54
Behavioural/Interpersonal Strategies
Besides providing staff with necessary knowledge and skills, training may give employees
the confidence to deal with potentially dangerous situations. One study found that hospital workers who received training targeting workplace violence reported higher levels of
perceived control compared to workers who did not receive training. In that study,
perceptions of control were positively correlated with employee emotional well-being and
negatively associated with employee fear of future violence.55
Staff should be taught customer service skills, how to resolve conflicts, how to recognize
escalating agitation, and how to manage and respond to aggressive behaviour.56 Since
violence is related to wait times, staff should provide patients and their families with sufficient information when there will be long delays for service (e.g., explain how long the
delay will be and why there is a long delay). Employees who have direct patient contact
(e.g., security guards, nurses, orderlies) should also be trained how and when to physically
restrain patients.
Type III Violence
Though violence and aggression committed by coworkers is uncommon compared to that
committed by organizational outsiders, it can happen, so a comprehensive workplace
violence program needs to address the potential for coworker aggression and violence.
Reviews generally point to the fact that coworkers do not act aggressively; rather, they react to certain situations in an aggressive way.57 Triggers for workplace aggression include
unfair treatment, abusive supervision, role stress, and job insecurity. Efforts at prevention
focus on eliminating or managing these triggering events. This can be accomplished by eliminating triggering events, creating a transparent and nonthreatening environment, and
preventing aggressive acts.58
A focus on improving interpersonal relationships in the workplace often eliminates some of the triggers to workplace violence and aggression. For example, organizational justice (see
Chapter 7) should be explicitly considered when decisions are being made; this can greatly
reduce employees’ perceptions of unfair treatment. Leadership training activities may
result in a decrease in abusive supervision and an increase in organizational justice. Similarly, explicit attempts to reduce role (and other) stress may help control those events
with the potential to trigger workplace violence and aggression.
Creating an open and transparent environment includes developing specific procedures for employees to resolve conflicts and discuss grievances. Training in conflict resolution
and the creation of confidential and effective complaint procedures ensures that
inappropriate behaviour is identified and dealt with before it leads to workplace violence
and aggression.
Finally, an organizational policy that clearly labels violent and aggressive acts as
inappropriate is key to violence prevention programs. Indeed, some organizations have
gone beyond these prohibitions to implement “respectful workplace” policies. Such policies go beyond simply banning violent or aggressive behaviour—they establish the
expectation that all organizational members are to be treated with respect and courtesy at
all times. In their broadest sense, respectful workplace policies try to limit or exclude rude
behaviours that can trigger more serious aggression or violence.
Type IV Violence
Intimate partner violence almost always is perpetrated by someone (e.g., a spouse) who is
not a member of the organization. Some forms of this behaviour are not overtly violent (e.g., waiting outside the workplace) and fall into a “grey area” where it is unclear whether
the authorities should be called. Preventing or managing intimate partner violence
requires a comprehensive and open approach.
First, managers and organizational decision makers need to be educated about the forms
that intimate partner violence can take. Second, organizations should be aware of the
resources that are available (e.g., through the Employee Assistance Program) to employees experiencing intimate partner violence. Third, organizational policies should allow for
temporary accommodation during times of crisis. For example, some organizations have
provided additional security or escorts to/from the parking lot for employees experiencing intimate partner violence (these often turn out to be services that other employees value
as well). Others have allowed employees to work offsite or to take a period of leave until
the situation is resolved. Perhaps most importantly, organizations need to recognize the
potential for intimate partner violence to be expressed in the workplace and to take action
to protect employees.
Organizational Policies and Programs
There are a variety of guidelines and tools available to help organizations manage the risks
of workplace violence. One of the most comprehensive tailored to a Canadian environment
is the “Developing Workplace Violence and Harassment Policies and Programs” developed
by the Occupational Health and Safety Council of Ontario (OHSCO). As with the
management of other forms of occupational hazards, the management of workplace
violence follows the sequence of recognition, assessment, and control of hazards.
Recognition
In the OHSCO framework, organizations should conduct regular assessments of the risks for workplace violence. These assessments should occur at three levels: assessment of the
general physical environment, identification of risk factors, and assessments for specific
risks. OHSCO provides tools for each of these assessments.
In assessing the general physical environment, one would want to consider aspects of the
environment that might affect the risks for workplace violence. OHSCO suggests
specifically reviewing the outside and parking lot, entry systems to the buildings, reception
and waiting areas, public counters, elevators and washrooms, the location of cash and other valuables, and many other areas—in short, do a comprehensive security review of the
physical environment.
Beyond the general environment, OHSCO recommends identifying the specific risk factors applicable to the organization or occupation. Specific assessments are provided for (1)
direct contact with clients, (2) handling cash, (3) working with unstable or volatile clients,
(4) working alone, (5) working in a community-based setting, (6) the mobile workforce, (7) working in high crime areas, (8) securing or protecting valuable goods, and (9) transporting
people or goods. While not all of these risk factors are applicable in each organization, the
idea is to identify the ones applicable to the particular context and conduct the
appropriate assessment.
Assessment
Based on these risk assessments, one can rank the level of risk applicable to specific jobs. Although this a subjective process, OHSCO suggests that high risk would be when one or
more risk factors regularly (i.e., as part of the normal routine) place an employee at severe
risk. “Severe” in this context means that there is a potential for fatal or critical injury. Moderate risk is when the risk factors occasionally
(i.e., a recognized part of work that occurs on an infrequent basis) place employees at
moderately severe risk (i.e., potential for lost-time injury or injury requiring medical aid).
Finally, low risk occurs when risk factors occur rarely and the risk is minimal (potential for first aid). Based on this analysis, organizations can choose to prioritize the most severe risk
factors to develop solutions. Of course, a comprehensive approach to dealing with
workplace violence would deal with all of the risk factors, not just the high
priority ones.
Control
OHSCO also provides guidelines and audit tools for the creation and monitoring of workplace violence programs and policies. In general, the formulation of a comprehensive
workplace violence program would include the following:
1. creation of a workplace violence policy that conforms to the relevant legislation (note
that these requirements vary by jurisdiction)
2. creation of a violence prevention program that includes:
• a. mechanisms for assessment
• b. procedures for obtaining immediate assistance for victims
• c. procedures for reporting actual and potential violence
• d. procedures for investigating such reports
• e. procedures for dealing with incidents, complaints, and threats
3. creation of an emergency response plan
4. inclusion of workplace violence in work refusal policies
5. procedures for recognizing and dealing with incidents of domestic violence that may
occur in the workplace 6. training procedures to ensure that all employees are aware of the policies, procedures,
and risks related to workplace violence
After establishing the program, employers also need to institute ongoing monitoring and
compliance to ensure that the program is operating as it should. The entire program
should be reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that policies and procedures are current.
Harassment and Bullying in the Workplace
Although much of our discussion to date has focused on physical violence, there is growing
recognition of the harm experienced by individuals exposed to less physical forms of abuse.59 Perhaps most frequently these are discussed under the labels “harassment” and
“bullying” (see definitions earlier in this chapter). Legislatively, bullying is often included as
a form of harassment (e.g., Ontario’s Bill 168); however, conceptually the two can be quite
different. Harassment can occur, for example, as a single act whereas bullying is typically a
sustained pattern of harassing behaviours over time.
Because of the extended pattern of behaviours, bullying can be quite subtle and, therefore,
very difficult to deal with in an organization. For example, if an employee has been harassing another employee over a period of years then even innocuous behaviours can be
experienced as bullying. After years of harassment, for example, simply looking at an
individual as he or she enters a meeting can be intimidating and a form of bullying. However, in the absence of other complaints or a documented history of harassment, most
organizations would have difficulty in dealing with an employee complaint based on “he
looked at me.”
OH&S Today 8.2: Legislation
Every jurisdiction in Canada has some form of workplace violence legislation. The acts are
either narrowly focused or comprehensive. For example, Nova Scotia’s legislation is solely focused on physical violence and threats of violence in the workplace. In contrast,
Ontario’s legislation (Bill 168) is more widely focused and includes both violence and
harassment.
Legislation typically requires employers to assess the risk of workplace violence, develop
policies with respect to violence and/or harassment and to implement specific programs
for reporting and control of violence and harassment in the workplace. Bill 168 also requires employers to take action to protect workers from domestic violence (i.e., when
the employer is aware that an employee is at risk) and to warn workers if they are working
with someone with a history of violence.
Bill 168 has resulted in substantial fines for non-compliance. The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), for example, was fined $80 000 when a night shift nurse was
assaulted by a patient. An attack on a staff member by a youth under treatment resulted in
a $125 000 fine for a children’s mental health and support service. In both cases, the fine
was not a result of the actual assault—it was the failure of the organization to develop
policies and procedures to protect the workers who were placed at risk.
Source: Y. Saint-Cyr and C. Lavecchia, “Seven Years after Bill 168, We Learn It Is Costly Not to Comply with Violence Provisions Under OSHA” (April 13, 2007). Found at:
http://www.slaw.ca/2017/04/13/seven-years-after-bill-168-we-learn-it-is-costly-not-to-
comply-with-violence-provisions-under-ohsa (accessed April 28, 2019).
Harassing behaviours, although non-physical, can run a gamut of behaviours from simple rudeness (e.g., slamming a door in someone’s face) to more hostile acts (e.g., graffiti in the
workplace or acts of sabotage). Correspondingly, some complaints of harassment can be
difficult to deal with in the sense that it can be difficult to distinguish whether someone was harassing another or is simply inattentive or rude. Most organizations would know that
they have an obligation to respond to hurtful graffiti in the workplace, for example, but
might be less sure about how to handle a complaint that an employee let the elevator close
in another employee’s face.
Perhaps because of the difficulty in defining some acts of harassment and bullying,
legislation addressing such actions imposes a lesser obligation on employers than does
legislation addressing workplace violence. For example, under Ontario’s Bill 168 employers are required to have a policy about harassment in the workplace but are not required to
conduct risk assessments for harassment (but employers are required to conduct such
assessments for workplace violence). Moreover, harassment does not constitute a grounds
for a work refusal under the legislation (although violence might).
Reflecting a broader concern in society, employers have become increasingly sensitive to
the use of email and other forms of digital media as a means of aggression. Often termed “cyber-aggression” or “cyber-bullying,” such activities can involve both traditional and
new forms of aggressive behaviour.60 Thus, for example, one can blind-copy an aggressive
email to others (thereby escalating conflict in the organization) or distribute material about
individuals to others in the workplace without the knowledge of the target. These would both be forms of cyberaggression. Emails that don’t use a subject line, don’t include a
greeting, or are written in all capital letters may be seen as uncivil or harassing.61
Other forms of social media may be used to harass or bully other workers. Although most of the research in this area has focused on email, the use of platforms such as Twitter or
Facebook is particularly concerning. In this case, the harassment can occur outside the
workplace even though it is directly linked to workplace behaviour. Thus, teachers now report that students post inappropriate material about them on social media sites. Sites
such as RateMyProfessor.com or RateMyMD.com are intended to provide consumer
protection by providing public ratings of these professionals; however, just as often, the
comments posted on these sites could easily constitute harassment or bullying behaviour
even though they may be posted outside the work environment.
Organizational efforts to deal with harassment and bullying typically take one of two
forms. First, organizations have an obligation to investigate and respond to specific complaints about harassment and bullying. Second, organizations have attempted to
promote a more respectful workplace in an attempt to reduce the amount of harassment
and bullying in the workplace.
Investigation of Specific Incidents
A workplace harassment policy should include provision for the investigation and
resolution of specific incidents. Recommended investigation policies typically include:
a. provision to individuals to file a complaint
b. the conduct of an investigation by a neutral third party as soon as possible after the
complaint has been filed c. consultation with each of the parties involved (i.e., the victim and the alleged
perpetrator)
d. evidence gathering (including interviewing witnesses, etc.) and decision making e. communicating the decision to the parties with a proposed resolution
f. documenting the process and maintaining records62
Any such investigation procedure should accommodate the possibility of appeals.
Although the exact procedures may vary from company to company, the general principle
is that the investigation and appeals procedure should follow principles of natural justice—
ensuring that all parties get to tell their side of the story, having investigators and decision
makers who are neutral and unbiased, and ensuring that the process is both fair and seen
to be fair by all the parties involved.
Respectful Workplaces
There is no shortage of respectful workplace or anti-bullying programs being developed for
implementation in organizations. For the most part, such programs take a training approach—teaching individuals about what constitutes bullying, harassment, and
aggression, and working with staff to develop a norm of respectful interactions. Although
these programs are well intended there is still very limited research examining whether
they actually work.
One of the few evaluated intervention programs that does exist for addressing workplace
abuse is the civility, respect, and engagement (CREW) process.63 The objectives of CREW are that “participants become more sensitive to the impact of their social behavior on others,”
“participants develop effective strategies for responding to incivility and disrespect at
work,” and “participants develop a deeper repertoire of supportive interactions with
colleagues.”64 The program goes beyond simple training by involving employees in creating the definitions of respectful and disrespectful behaviour and establishing norms for how
employees would treat each other in the workplace.
An evaluation of the CREW program found that this six-month civility intervention did help reduce incivility in the workplace. This intervention also positively affected health care
workers’ reports of burnout, job attitudes, management trust, and absences. In a
subsequent study, the same authors showed that the positive changes from this civility intervention could be sustained over a one-year period. Specifically, when measured one
year after intervention, improvements in civility, incivility, workplace distress, and job
attitudes were sustained.65 The findings demonstrate that incivility interventions have the
potential to create long-lasting results.
Although successful, the CREW intervention is both time and resource intensive and these
concerns prompted the development of other forms of respectful workplace training.
Respect in the Workplace is a program that was developed in partnership with Canadian Red Cross and the RespectED organization, a division of the Red Cross. It is a 90-minute
interactive program available in both French and English and delivered via computer. The
Respect Group was responsible for developing the program, whose cofounders are Sheldon Kennedy and Wayne McNeil. While their Respect programs were initially
developed for sports and schools, they have most recently expanded the scope and
applicability of respect training for the workplace. The training consists of instructional
slides, animated scenarios, expert clips, and interactive questions and answers. Participants are able to complete the training at a time that is convenient for them and do
not have to complete the whole training in one sitting.
From an organizational perspective, the Respect in the Workplace program is an intervention that is both inexpensive and does not require a lot of resources (e.g., time,
development, planning). A recent evaluation of the program suggested that there were
some positive effects associated with participating in the program. Relative to a control group that did not receive training, participants in the Respect in the Workplace program
reported a small increase in workplace civility.66 These evaluation studies show that
respectful workplace programs do have a positive effect by reducing uncivil and increasing
civil behaviour in the workplace.
Sexual Harassment
Several studies have identified sexual harassment as a workplace stressor of increasing
importance. Most forms of sexual harassment involve unwelcome, intrusive sexual
attention and verbal comments. A recent estimate, based on numerous research studies, is
that 58 percent of women have experienced behaviours that are potentially harassing and that 24 percent of American women agree that they have experienced sexual harassment in
the workplace.67 Data collected in Canada suggest similar exposure rates: 56 percent of
working women who responded to a large survey on sexual harassment indicated that they
had experienced sexually harassing behaviour in the previous year.68 The most commonly
reported behaviours in the Canadian survey were insulting jokes and staring. Physically
violent actions such as rape do occur in the workplace, but rarely.69
Section 247.1 of the Canada Labour Code prohibits sexual harassment and defines sexual
harassment as any conduct, comment, gesture, or contact of a sexual nature
a. that is likely to cause offence or humiliation to any employee; or
b. that might, on reasonable grounds, be perceived by the employee as placing a condition
of a sexual nature on employment or on any opportunity for training or promotion.70
Sexual harassment, then, is any intentional, persistent (i.e., repeated), and unwelcome
sexual conduct or remark that occurs despite resistance from the victim (see OH&S Today
8.3). Note that in cases of severe misconduct (e.g., sexual assault), a single incident meets
the definition and constitutes sexual harassment. The act or conduct must be deliberate
and intentional. In other words, the offender must be aware that the behaviour is offensive.
To alleviate the potential loophole of offenders claiming during a sexual harassment hearing that they were unaware their behaviour was offensive, tribunals use what they call
the “reasonable person” test. Basically, this test determines whether a reasonable person
would be aware that the behaviour is offensive.
H&S Today 8.3: Prototypical Cases of Sexual Harassment: Not What You Expect?
You’d likely agree that prototypical stories of workplace sexual harassment call to mind an
attractive young woman being pursued by an older man in a relative position of power. In the face of persistent, unwanted advances from the man, the woman ultimately makes an
accusation of sexual harassment.
Recent research conducted by Dr. Jennifer Berdahl from the Rotman School of Business at the University of Toronto has found that such assumptions about sexual harassment are in
fact wrong. The most frequent targets of sexual harassment are not meek, young,
attractive women dealing with sexually coercive actions from men. Dr. Berdahl found that outspoken women who do not comply with gender stereotypes and who work in male-
dominated jobs are the most frequent victims of sexual harassment. In essence, these
women are more likely to experience hostile work environments in which they are the
recipients of rude remarks, are made fun of, and face obstacles to their career progression.
Dr. Berdahl suggests that her research has implications for organizational interventions
relating to sexual harassment. Policies that rely on things such as dress codes and rules
about dating do not address the realities of sexual harassment in today’s workplaces. She suggests that workplaces should instead focus on achieving a work environment where
skilled men and women are viewed as equals.
Source: J. Berdahl, “The Evolution of Harassment in the Workplace,” Rotman
Magazine (Winter 2007): 48–51.
The Labour Code definition seems to point to two different types of sexual harassment:71
1. Sexual coercion (or “quid pro quo” harassment) is an attempt to extort sexual
cooperation. This extortion can take the form of subtle or explicit job-related threats (e.g.,
job loss, loss of promotion), or the promise of job-related rewards (e.g., promotions,
raises). The Ontario Human Rights Code specifically prohibits both job-related rewards in exchange for sexual favours by a person in authority, and job-related punishment for not
providing those favours.
2. Hostile environment is sexual harassment that occurs without any coercion or extortion; it does, however, create a hostile, intimidating, and discriminating environment. Sexually
harassing behaviours of this nature can range from insulting, misplaced comments,
through pervasive sex-related verbal or physical conduct, to life threats or physical attacks. According to most research on sexual harassment, “hostile environment” sexual
harassment is the most prevalent type.
Sexual Harassment as a Health and Safety Issue
Sexual harassment becomes a health and safety issue for two primary reasons. First,
studies show that being the victim of sexual harassment is associated with several
organizational strains, including increased job dissatisfaction, decreased loyalty to the
organization, and increased intent to leave the organization. Some women who have reported being a victim of sexual harassment to their organization have experienced the
formal process as unjust—indeed, some report that they have been fired after making a
sexual harassment claim. There are also personal consequences of sexual harassment, with victims significantly more likely to experience dissatisfaction with life in general and
to experience psychosomatic disorders (e.g., respiratory, stomach, and sleep problems;
headaches and migraines; weight loss or gain). Thus, exposure to sexual harassment is
associated with impaired employee well-being and becomes a health and safety issue.
Second, the courts have increasingly viewed workplace sexual harassment as the
responsibility of the employer. Before 1981, sexual harassment on the job was not
prohibited by any human rights statute in Canada. A ground-breaking step occurred in 1989, when the Supreme Court of Canada concluded that sexual harassment is a form of
sex discrimination and is therefore prohibited in employment. Sex discrimination had been
prohibited by human rights statutes for some time in Canada, but sexual harassment was not initially recognized in those statutes.72 This was an important progression from simply
acknowledging that sexual harassment was a serious problem to taking steps to prevent it.
Another major change occurred when the Supreme Court of Canada stated that an
employer is liable for the discriminatory acts of its employees. This decision had significant implications, for employers now had a legal motive to prohibit sexual harassment in their
companies. Legal liability translates into a strong financial incentive to prevent illegal acts
from occurring. For example, in one of the largest lawsuits of its type, Mitsubishi Motors in the United States paid $34 million to settle allegations of sexual harassment filed by the
Equal Employment Opportunities Commission on behalf of 300 female employees.
Essentially, the allegations were that the women had been subjected to sexual comments, innuendo, and unwanted groping, and that plant managers knew of these problems but
did nothing to correct them.
The ruling that employers are liable for discriminatory acts, including harassment, has a
number of implications for organizations:73
1. Employers are responsible for the due care and protection of their employees’ human
rights in the workplace.
2. Employers are liable for the discriminatory conduct of and sexual harassment by their
agents and supervisory personnel.
3. Sexual harassment by a supervisor is automatically attributed to the employer when
such harassment results in a tangible job-related disadvantage to the employee. 4. Explicit company policy forbidding sexual harassment and the presence of procedures
for reporting misconduct may or may not be sufficient to offset liability.
5. Employers will be pressured to take a more active role in maintaining a harassment-free work environment.
6. Employers will feel greater discomfort with intimate relationships that develop between
supervisors and their subordinates because of the legal implications, and this may
motivate employers to discourage such office relationships. 7. Employers’ intentions to have effective sexual harassment policies are insufficient. To
avoid liability, the policies must be functional and must work as well in practice as they do
in theory.74
Clearly, the Supreme Court has made employers responsible for any sexual harassment in
the organization. As a result, employers are more likely to launch interventions to eliminate
or at least reduce the occurrence of sexual harassment in their workplaces.
Summary
The scope of OH&S practice continues to expand and now incorporates the need for
organizations to deal with issues of workplace violence, aggression, and harassment. Understanding these terms and how they occur in the workplace was a primary goal of this
chapter.
Addressing these issues requires understanding the situational and imminent risk factors
in the workplace and devising ways of addressing these risks.
Key Terms
aggression
assault cycle bullying
emotional abuse
gender harassment harassment
imminent risk
incivility mobbing
sexual coercion
sexual harassment
Type I violence Type II violence
Type III violence
Type IV violence unwanted sexual attention
violence
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 8.1
Review
How far can legislation go? Workplace violence legislation can focus very narrowly on physical assaults
or more broadly on behaviours that make employees feel uncomfortable. Can we realistically enforce
legislation that prohibits rudeness or teasing? At what point can legislation be effective?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 8.2
Review
Many of the behaviours reviewed in this chapter are illegal (e.g., sexual assault, physical assault). Do we
need special workplace legislation to address these issues? What is the value of specific legislation
around issues of violence and harassment? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 8.3
Review
Some legislation defines harassment or aggression, in part, by focusing on either the intent of the
perpetrator (e.g., behaviour that is intended to annoy or embarrass) or the reaction of the victim (e.g.,
behaviour that is unwelcome). Does this pose a problem for regulation? How can we know the intent of the perpetrator or the anticipated reaction of the victim?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 8.4
Review
Managers often do not know when to get involved in workplace conflicts. How does one distinguish
between a situation that constitutes “violence” or “aggression” and one that is just “normal” work-
place violence? When does a manager need to intervene in a situation between coworkers or be-tween
a coworker and a customer? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 8.5
Review
We’ve all heard the expression “the customer is always right.” Does this have any implications for the
management of workplace violence and aggression?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 8.1
Review
Many students work, or have worked, in retail environments. Find at least 10 students with this expe-
rience. Using the definitions in this chapter, ask them if they have ever experienced an act of work-
place violence (i.e., a physical assault or threat of physical assault). What were the circumstances?
What led up to the confrontation? Who was the perpetrator? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 8.2
Review
Over a period of time, collect articles from your local paper that report on incidents of workplace vio-
lence. What types of violence are reported? Does the reporting reflect research data suggesting that
workplace violence is almost always perpetrated by people who are not members of the organization? Why might there be a difference between media reports and research findings?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 8.3
Review
Choose an occupation you know well and conduct a violence risk assessment for that job. (Hint: Many
provinces make sample risk assessments available online.) Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 8.4
Review
Many people who experience workplace bullying simply don’t know what to do about it. Using re-
sources found on the Web, prepare a short (one-page) guide for victims of workplace bullying.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 8.5
Review
Imagine you are tasked with creating an organizational policy on cyber-aggression. Using material
found on numerous websites, outline what should be included in such a policy. Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
Steeping some tea...
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Steeping some tea...
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17. Ibid.
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72. Ibid.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid.
TRAINING
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• discuss the importance of occupational health and safety training
• identify the components of a training program
• explain the role of a needs analysis when designing a training
program
• discuss issues that arise in training design and delivery
• describe various options for the delivery of health and safety training
programs
• discuss the role of evaluation in any training program
• evaluate the measurement concerns surrounding organizational
measures of occupational safety training effectiveness
• describe some common health and safety training initiatives
including safety orientation, first-aid training, and WHMIS
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
The Need for Training
The nation was rocked when a semi-truck ran a stop sign and collided with a bus carrying
members of the Humboldt Broncos junior hockey team. Sixteen people were killed and 13
more injured in the horrendous accident in rural Saskatchewan. Subsequently the inexperienced truck driver was sentenced to eight years in prison for his role in the
accident.
Prior to the accident, Ontario was the only province that had mandatory training for truck
drivers. In the aftermath of the accident, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba have all introduced mandatory raining for semitruck drivers. The federal government is also
developing a training standard for new truck drivers.
Training related to occupational health and safety issues must meet several criteria. Like most courses, training in occupational health and safety must be accurate and engaging—
designed so as to maximize participant learning. Training in occupational health and safety
must also be meticulously documented. In the course of an investigation employers will often be required to produce records showing which employees were trained, when they
were trained, and what training they received. They will also need to prove that any
necessary certifications are up to date and that employees have received all required
training. Failure or inability to produce the training records will, in itself, be the focus of
fines or remedial orders.
The Canadian Standards Association issued CSA Z1001—a standard for occupational health
and safety training that specifies how training programs should be developed and
evaluated in organizations.
Source: OHS Canada (April 5, 2019), “Legacies of Broncos Bus Crash Include Truck Safety,
Seatbelts and Organ Donation.” Found at: https://www.ohscanada.com/legacies-broncos-
bus-crash-includetruck-safety-seatbelts-organ-donation (accessed August 6, 2019).
Introduction
Nova Scotia has seen a dramatic increase in workers’ compensation claims related to
workplace violence among long-term care employees. In Manitoba two workers lost fingers
because of inadequate guards on machines. In British Columbia a fire in the segregation
unit of the Fraser Regional Correction Centre resulted in 19 corrections workers suffering smoke inhalation. Although these incidents occurred in different jurisdictions and different
industries, they illustrate the type of injuries that can occur when appropriate health and
safety training is not delivered in a workplace.
Workplace dangers are a reality for all workers. Workers of all ages, experience levels, and
job types can and do experience safety incidents at work. A review of the occupational
health and safety training research literature demonstrates that training in OH&S has a positive effect on worker practices and behaviour.1 However, many workers in Canada
have not received adequate safety training. A study of nearly 60 000 Canadian workers
reported that only 12 percent of women and 16 percent of men had received workplace safety training in the previous year.2 Though employees who were new to their jobs were
more likely to receive training, the proportion who did remains disappointingly low, at only
20 percent.3 Even though young workers and those in physically demanding jobs are at
higher risk for injury, neither group was more likely to receive training.
In this chapter we explore the topic of health and safety training. Canadian statistics on
access to all types of employer-supported training suggest that vulnerable workers— who include the less educated, low-wage earners, young workers, and non-union members—
face greater barriers to training access in the workplace than other groups. This
discrepancy is particularly notable if the worker who falls into one of these groups is a woman.4 Though these trends are not specific to health and safety training, they do raise a
possible red flag about access to safety training for vulnerable workers.
The type of employment may also make workers vulnerable. Contingent workers (i.e.,
those who work on short-term contracts) might not be given the training required to ensure safe work performance. Employers may not wish to pay for training for these short-
term employees. Perhaps more frequently, companies may subcontract work (e.g., hiring subcontractors to do specific tasks) and it may be difficult to ensure that the employees of
subcontractors, who themselves might be contingent workers, receive proper training.
In this chapter, we apply a basic model of training in organizations to the specific concern
of training workers in occupational health and safety. In particular, we consider the processes of designing, implementing, and evaluating health and safety training programs
in organizations. The model we present is the same model that underpins CSA Z1001 and
ensures that both individual courses and the training program as a whole is administered through a process of continual improvement. In this context, continual improvement
means that training needs are regularly assessed and training programs are evaluated and,
if required, adjusted to meet the needs of employees and the organization.
The Role of Occupational Health and Safety
Training
All workers have several rights pertaining to their health and safety while at work. Three
basic rights apply to all Canadian employees:
1. The right to know—Workers have a right to be informed about dangerous or unsafe materials and machinery in the workplace.
2. The right to participate—Workers have a right to take part actively in the protection of
their own health and safety. This participation generally involves reporting unsafe work practices and conditions.
3. The right to refuse unsafe work—Workers have a right to withhold their services if they
are asked to perform a task that they deem to be unsafe or are asked to use equipment
that is not in good repair.
One goal of occupational health and safety programs is to ensure that workers are aware of
their rights (see OH&S Today 9.1 for an example of such a program).
OH&S Today 9.1: Passport to Safety
Passport to Safety is a Canadian not-for-profit enterprise that describes itself as a “catalyst
for change.” Its vision is “a country where workplace safety is assured and Canadians return home healthy at the end of each day.” Passport of Safety focuses much of its activity
on young workers, who it believes have the ability to “influence the evolution of safe
workplace cultures.” Many youth who are injured at work report they were not aware of the
life-threatening hazards in the workplace or basic safety rules that would have helped them avoid injury. Passport to Safety strives to increase risk awareness. The program is a
creative one that focuses on a series of tests that young workers, or others soon to enter
the workforce, can take to challenge their understanding of workplace safety. Following
successful completion of a test, members receive transcripts to attach to their résumés.
Passport to Safety also partners with workers’ compensation boards, teachers, and
employers to promote workplace safety. The website contains numerous educational resources, such as videos. In provinces such as Ontario, New Brunswick, Newfoundland
and Labrador, and Nova Scotia, some students and teachers can access the Passport
testing program for free. For employers, the Passport program is designed to supplement
rather than replace job- and organization-specific training. For example, supervisors can
use a provided assessment test to gauge employees’ knowledge.
Source: Passport to Safety. Found at: https://passporttosafety.parachutecanada.org
(accessed August 4, 2019).
It is easy to see the vital role of training for the fulfillment of these basic rights. First,
employees—especially new employees—must be advised of these rights. The
communication of these basic rights can take place in a safety orientation when a person
starts a new job.
Once employees are aware of their basic rights regarding health and safety at work, safety- related training is needed to help individuals ensure that these rights are being upheld. For
instance, with respect to the right to know, employees must receive training on their
workplace’s potential dangers. Similarly, regarding the right to refuse unsafe work, effective health and safety training will help individuals judge accurately which tasks are
indeed unsafe. As such, health and safety training plays a vital role in the protection of an
employee’s basic rights, and its provision is mandated in OH&S acts across the country.
CSA Z1001 is a management standard that sets out how companies should develop and
maintain their health and safety training.5
The importance of health and safety training is recognized internationally as well. For
example, in the United States, training is prominently placed as one of five essential elements of OH&S programs, along with employer commitment, hazard surveillance,
hazard control and prevention, and program evaluation.6
Of course, it is also important to ask when organizations should not use training as an OH&S intervention. As you’ll see in the following sections, training interventions are helpful
when they address knowledge or skills needs or gaps. If a skill or knowledge gap has not
been identified, training is likely not the appropriate intervention.
That said, there are also cases where even though employees may not have a certain skill
set, training would still not be the best answer. Throughout this book, we have stressed
that engineering interventions, which focus on changing the physical environment to
reduce hazard exposure and risk, should be the first line of intervention and defence when it comes to worker safety. Generally speaking, if an engineering-based solution is available,
it should be used before administrative or behavioural interventions. For instance, one
would not recommend training workers to use a machine with a broken guard. Similarly, there are safety-related tasks for which highly specialized skills and equipment are
required. In these cases, one would not train in-house workers to perform these jobs. For
instance, carpenters who work for a contractor specializing in home renovations would
likely not be trained for a task such as asbestos abatement. In that case, an external
company specializing in hazardous substance removal would be contracted to perform the
work.
Given the importance of effectively communicating health and safety information in today’s workplaces, the question of how to develop and implement effective health and
safety training programs is vital. There are two concerns, which are interrelated. One of
these is how we can best design and implement specific courses as part of an occupational health and safety program. We know, for example, that employees need WHMIS training or
may need first-aid training. We might also want to develop training around specific hazards
in the workplace. The second concern is how we develop a training program, which is an
integrated series of courses designed to meet the training needs of the organization.
Although the focus of individual courses is typically on individual learning, from a training
program perspective it is important to document (1) how the training was developed, (2)
what training was actually delivered, (3) how the training was delivered, and (4) which
employees completed the training (and when they completed the training). The organization should also document training evaluations and how the continual
improvement principle is applied to training. Depending on the circumstances, the
organization might also keep records of what certifications were awarded as a result of
training, the details of external training providers, and any need for recertification.
Maintenance of these records is important for two purposes. First, organizations have a
responsibility to manage the training process. They need to ensure that the training being
delivered is effective and current. They also need to ensure that employees get the training they need and that any certifications are kept current. In this sense, record keeping is just
good management, ensuring that the training program is working as it should. Second, in
the event of an accident or incident investigation, a labour officer who suspects that workers were not properly trained will frequently issue an order for the company to
produce all of the documentation and records associated with the training program.
Having a program that is well documented with complete records of employee training is a form of due diligence through which the company can demonstrate that it is meeting its
obligations to run a comprehensive and effective occupational health and safety training
program.
Health and Safety Training Programs
As our starting point we take the instructional systems design (ISD) model of training7 and
apply it specifically to occupational health and safety. The ISD model of training has three parts: (1) needs analysis, (2) training design and delivery, and (3) training evaluation. This is
also the model that underpins CSA Z1001. The model is depicted in Figure 9.1. Each stage
of this model is described and discussed in the sections that follow.
Needs Analysis
The training and development process begins when a need or concern arises. With respect
to health and safety, that concern might be the occurrence of a number of safety incidents
or injuries in the workplace. Following such incidents, company officials may opt to
develop a training program to improve workplace safety. Also, a large number of workplace safety incidents in a particular company may draw attention from various OH&S
governing bodies. These groups may determine that safety training is required and
mandate training within a particular organization. Alternatively, the move toward safety training could be prompted by new legislation requiring that a particular type of health and
safety training be offered to workers in a particular industry. Whatever the case, a health
and safety training process begins with a needs analysis.
Needs analysis is the recommended starting point in many models of organizational
training because it helps determine the nature of the problems at hand. Needs analysis is a
way to determine whether there is a gap between current and desired reality.8 Needs
analysis can also be used to identify potential obstacles to the effectiveness of a training program so that they can be dealt with early in the training and development process. Such
an analysis ideally includes assessing the organization, the task or job at hand, and the
employee(s) in question. The inclusion of all three levels in the initial analysis will help
answer questions about what groundwork must be done before training begins, what the
content of the training program should be, who should receive training, and how the
program should be delivered. (For a discussion of digital training delivery see OH&S Today 9.2). Let’s consider the pertinent issues when assessing the needs of the organization, the
task or job, and the employee.
OH&S Today 9.2: Digital Safety
If you read recent articles about organizations aiming to reduce their OH&S incident rates
or increase worker safety, or reports from OH&S investigations, you’ll see an increased
focus on safety training. For example, the Workplace Safety and Prevention Services (WSPS) in Ontario offers a series of industry-specific safety courses. Some of the training
sessions are classroom-based, others involve self-guided study, and still others are offered
online. Topics covered include ladder safety, incident investigation, ergonomic
assessments, and confined-space safety.
Increasingly, online training is used by organizations—especially smaller businesses that
cannot afford to develop and deliver their own custom training courses. For example, the
Ontario Ministry of Labour has an online course focusing on the occupational health and
safety act in that province. The course is designed so employers can access the training for
free. A variety of providers, including government agencies, community colleges, and
private providers, have developed online WHMIS training courses that are available at a modest cost to organizations or individuals. Although such courses are convenient and
easy to access for most employees, recall that there is a need for companies to also maintain a complete set of training records so companies should keep track of what
training has been completed by which workers and when the training was completed.
Although digital training may be simply an online lecture (maybe with some embedded
testing), digital media also offers the potential to engage in more interactive simulations. Indeed, the emergence of virtual reality devices such as Oculus Rift have a potential
application in safety training. Such programs may be more expensive to develop than
traditional classroom training but are typically cheaper and easier to deliver because they don’t require a class of participants in one place and at one time. Moreover, simulations
and immersive technologies may offer a more intensive and realistic training experience
and thereby foster learning and transfer to the workplace
Sources: Workplace Safety and Prevention Services. Found at:
https://www.wsps.ca/Home.aspx (accessed April 28, 2019); OHS Canada, “Back to the
Future.” Found at: http://www.ohscanada.com/features/back-to-the-future (accessed April
28,2019).
Organizational Analysis
A needs analysis at the organizational level should be the starting point in any training
intervention.9 An organizational analysis should involve a study of the whole organization, considering areas such as the resources and strategy of the organization and the industry
in which it operates. Organizational analysis can identify the health and safety areas that
need knowledge and skills improvement and that may be targets for a training program. This analysis should also highlight any constraints that may limit the success of a training
program before training is designed and delivered.
Successful training initiatives tend to be in line with the organization’s overall strategy.
Similarly, it is important to consider the resources the organization can dedicate to the training process, as the extent of the available resources can influence the nature of the
training program. For example, if the organization has training facilities on-site, this may
influence decisions about how the training is delivered. The budget available for training should also be considered, as financial constraints will influence decisions later in the
training development process. Similarly, it is important to consider the industry and
environmental factors that may affect the training program. For instance, if the organization is unionized, one must consider the role of the union in training program
development.
Another major goal of the organizational analysis should be to establish organizational
support for a training intervention. This can be done by developing a relationship with management. Support from the organization is vital to the success of any training
program. An organization that truly values training will provide the necessary resources to
make the program a success and get behind the training effort by encouraging employees
to take part actively.
With respect to health and safety training, it is important that the individual conducting the
organizational needs analysis determine not only the degree of organizational support for
training and learning, but also the support for health and safety initiatives in general. The effectiveness of any health and safety efforts “will be a function of the organization’s
overall commitment to providing a safe work environment and the employee’s perception
and recognition of that commitment.”10 Certainly, studies show that organizational support plays a vital role in the success of health and safety training initiatives. In one
examination of the effectiveness of hazard awareness training among individuals in
construction trades, improvements in attitudes toward fall safety were associated with the organization’s support for safety.11 Investigations of the impact of management attitudes
toward health and safety training generally illustrate the importance of managerial
support for sustaining the positive outcomes associated with such training.
Examination of the organization’s safety climate is one way to determine the extent of
organizational support for a health and safety training program. That term relates to
perceptions about safety-related policies, procedures, and practices that are shared by all
stakeholders in the organization.12 An organization that has explicitly enacted policies on safety, that encourages safety-related training, and that promotes safety may be said to
have a strong safety climate. A company that has a strong safety climate is likely to enable
and support initiatives relating to health and safety training. These organizations will invest the necessary money and time to make the training program a success, and
employees are likely to be responsive to the effort.
In this regard, consider an organization that does not place a high value on safety—that is, a company that does not have a strong safety climate. This type of operation may be
hesitant to provide the support necessary to make health and safety training a successful
endeavour. Similarly, employees of such an organization may be suspicious of the training
program, wondering why the company suddenly seems concerned about their health and
well-being. If analysis reveals that the organization’s safety climate is not currently
conducive to safety training, the next logical step may be to emphasize to organizational
management the need for increased organizational attention to safety as well as the need to communicate to employees the intended move toward a health and safety focus. These
efforts, if launched early in training development, will lay important groundwork for a
health and safety training effort and ultimately contribute to the success of the training
program.
One situation that may arise when conducting an organizational analysis regarding health
and safety training needs involves an organization that does not generally focus on
employee health and safety and that does not have a strong safety climate, but that is
required by law to offer safety training. There is no easy answer for how to deal with such a
situation. However, we suggest that individuals involved in a training needs analysis with
such an organization emphasize the importance of a supportive organizational environment for successful training. Managers in this type of organization may respond to
a bottom-line approach—an argument based on the return on investment of training dollars. If management can be convinced that its support will result in increased training
effectiveness and tangible long-term benefits, they will be more likely to provide a -
supportive training environment.
Job/Task Analysis
The second step is to conduct a job/task analysis. The starting point here involves
identifying the jobs to be targeted for training. Some forms of training, such as a basic
safety orientation or a seminar on the role of health and safety committees, will apply to
employees in many positions within the organization. Other types of training will be far
more specific in terms of jobs being targeted. For example, training on the safe operation of
a particular piece of machinery will apply only to those individuals whose jobs bring them
into contact with that machinery.
Once the target job has been identified, one should obtain a detailed job description that
outlines the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of individuals who hold that position. By
working with a group of job incumbents and subject-matter experts, one can rate the required tasks for their importance and frequency in the job. With respect to health and
safety-related training, incumbents and subject-matter experts should be surveyed on the
health and safety risks involved in each task and the job incumbents’ perceived
competence to perform those tasks in a safe manner. The person developing the training
program may want to observe several people performing the tasks in question to identify
potential health and safety concerns that were not mentioned by the subject-matter
experts. The information can then be analyzed and interpreted.
The evaluation of the job in question and the inclusion of people with experience
performing the job can greatly inform the training program that will ultimately be offered.
The task analysis can help determine the exact nature of the problem to be solved. To
consider a health and safety example, the survey component of the task analysis might
reveal that though employees are vigilant about wearing their protective equipment, they
tend to use it incorrectly. In that case, the training program should focus more on the proper use of the equipment rather than on convincing people to wear it. This point might
have been missed were it not for the completion of a task analysis.
Person Analysis
Finally, the assessment needs to investigate the training needs of individual employees.
Individual employees’ behaviour is considered to see whether performance meets desired
standards. The ultimate goal in the person analysis is to determine who needs training.
Such a decision can be made by comparing a person’s current performance with a desired standard or level of performance. Which individuals will be included at this stage of the
analysis will be largely determined by the organization’s needs. In some cases the
consultant or training director may be asked to assess those individuals who have demonstrated poor or unsafe performance in the past. In other organizations, employees
included in the person analysis may be chosen randomly.
The next step in the individual assessment is to identify the method of assessment. Common needs assessment techniques include observation, work samples, and
tests.13 From here, the relationship between the desired standard for performance and the
actual performance can be measured and the potential reason for performance gaps can be determined. The data gathered during this stage of the process inform the next steps in
developing a training program. In some cases the person analysis may reveal that training
will not be able to address the barriers to effective performance. For instance, one might
discover that certain safety concerns are the result of worn equipment that is continually in a state of ill repair. In this case, the maintenance or replacement of equipment, rather than
a training program, would be the next logical step. In other situations, training will be a
viable or preferred option for addressing the problems uncovered in the needs analysis.
The type of training offered will depend on the nature of the problem. For example, if the
person analysis reveals that safety concerns stem from the fact that individuals are not well
versed in the operation of dangerous equipment, the training program to follow should focus on delivering knowledge about the proper operation of the machinery. Again,
consider a case where the person analysis reveals that though individuals are aware of
safety regulations in the operation of equipment and are capable of complying with those
protocols, they choose to ignore them. In this situation, the training would best focus on
safety-related attitudes in the workplace.
Training Design and Delivery
Following the needs analysis, an informed decision can be made about the potential
effectiveness of training as an option for addressing health and safety concerns. If training
has a role to play in the solution to a health and safety problem, several decisions must
now be made. These decisions involve translating what was learned from the needs assessment into the actual training initiative. Some of the pertinent decisions include the
following:
1. What are the objectives for training?
2. Will the training program be designed or purchased? 3. What is the appropriate content for the training?
4. Who will receive the training?
5. Who will deliver the training?
6. Where will the training take place?
Training Content
Let’s consider some of these questions as they apply to OH&S training. The first pressing question involves the objectives for training. In other words, what do you hope the trainees
will take away from the program? Generally speaking, the training objectives will touch on
the knowledge, skills, and behavioural changes that will be acquired through training.
Objectives serve a number of important functions; for example, they set the groundwork for the needed training content, and they provide a starting point for tools for evaluating
the effectiveness of the training program.
A second question is whether to purchase an existing training package or design an original program. In many cases, the purchase of an existing prepackaged program is more
economical and fully meets the organization’s needs. When it comes to health and safety,
many training programs are readily available for purchase. For instance, St. John Ambulance sells first aid and CPR programs, both generic and custom. For an organization
that wants to institute a first-aid training program for individuals in particular high-risk
jobs, it would make financial sense to choose a proven, prepackaged program from a
reputable provider.
In other cases the organization will decide to design a custom health and safety training
program, either in-house or with the help of a consultant. When the program’s content is
highly specific to the organization, custom program design may be necessary. For instance, a company wanting to offer a health and safety orientation for new hires would need to
incorporate information that is unique to itself; such a program would be difficult to
purchase in a prepackaged form. Also, training in the safe use of particular equipment or in the performance of particular tasks may require a training program that is not readily
available for purchase; therefore, a customized program may be the only option.
With respect to training content, it is important that the program matches the needs identified in the needs analysis and ensures trainees achieve the training objectives. Even
when the training program is purchased, there is likely some flexibility in the material that
will be presented. One way to ensure that the training content is appropriate is to consult subject-matter experts in the area in question. For instance, in a training program on the
safe handling of hazardous materials, individuals with expertise in industrial hygiene may
be consulted and asked for their input on the needed components of the training program.
Training Logistics
Who will receive the training is another important question during this phase of curriculum
development. In some cases the answer will be obvious. If the law requires that all
operators of a particular type of machinery have training in the operation of that machinery, the job of selecting who receives training is as simple as identifying the
operators. Similarly, if the training program is a health and safety orientation for all new
employees, each employee will complete the program on joining the organization. In other cases, decisions about who receives training will not be as obvious. For instance, provincial
and territorial legislation requires that organizations have a certain number of trained first-
aid providers on-site. Only a small number of employees will need to complete this
training. The decision of who enters the program is one that will have to be dealt with case
by case.
A related issue is how many people will be trained at the same time. The accumulated
research on training in general and on health and safety training in particular reveals that smaller groups make for more effective learning.14 Also, individuals in the same training
group should have similar jobs characterized by common risk exposure.15 This contributes
to the success of health and safety training initiatives.
Yet another issue is who will deliver the training (see, for example, OH&S Notebook 9.1). An
effective trainer is vital to a successful training program. The trainer should be
knowledgeable about the material as well as an effective communicator. For instance,
research has shown that occupational therapists can effectively provide workplace training on musculoskeletal disorders.16 In some cases the trainer will require certification in a
particular area—for instance, the person who delivers first-aid training will need
certification as an instructor.
OH&S Notebook 9.1: How To Select Training Providers
Once a decision has been made that health and safety training is an appropriate
intervention, organizations are in a position to decide who will deliver that training
program. If skilled trainers are not available in-house, the organization will turn to an external, professional trainer. Often the first choice will be to find an online training
provider to ensure flexibility in training delivery. What steps can the organization take to
ensure that it finds a good online training program? The following are some qualities that
organizations will want to ensure their training provider offers:
• wide selection of courses
• cost saving
• help and support
• interactive training
• competency-based training
• industry experience
• current content
Source: BIS Training Solutions, “Finding the Best Online Safety Training Programs,” OHS Canada (2016). Found at: https://www.ohscanada.com/overtime/finding-best-online-
safety-training-programs (accessed August 4, 2019).
Another effective approach is a train-the-trainer program. In these initiatives, a subject-
matter expert with the appropriate content skills is provided with coaching in areas such as
program delivery and communication. For example, an individual who is a member of an
organization’s health and safety committee may be trained to deliver the health and safety
orientation for new employees. Worker-trainers may also contribute to the evaluation of training effectiveness, further increasing a sense of worker empowerment and ownership
over the training process.17
The research literature has examined the effectiveness of subject-matter experts who have undergone train the trainer programs. Generally, it appears that trainees respond well to
subject-matter experts as OH&S trainers and that such an approach can result in improved
safety performance in the workplace.18
The final question we consider here is where the training takes place. This has long been a question of on-the-job versus off-the-job training. On-the-job training takes place while
individuals are at work performing their regular job tasks. In other words, the training is
incorporated into the performance of the task. For example, on-the-job training in the safe operation of a particular tool may have subject-matter experts demonstrate the safe use of
the tool while a new hire observes the process. The new hire can then use the tool under
the guidance of the subject-matter expert.
Off-the-job training takes place away from the area where the work is conducted. It may be
in a room on-site or in a different facility. The nature of the room will depend on the nature
of the training. Some forms of training require little more than a boardroom and
PowerPoint slides. Other forms may require simulators or particular equipment. OH&S
Notebook 9.2 reviews the training delivery method options for on- and off-the-job training.
More recently, a third dimension has been added to the question of where health and safety training will be conducted. Some health and safety training programs are now being
offered on the Web. For example, courses in the Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information System (WHMIS), a legislated program in the safe handling of hazardous materials, are now being offered online. Web-based training in programs such as WHMIS
may prove useful to a company that often has new hires who are computer savvy.
However, it may not be as appealing or effective when the individuals who require training
do not have access to nor a high degree of comfort with computers and the Internet. That said, some studies have found that computer-based instruction can be effective for some
types of health and safety training. For example, in a study of agricultural workers with low
levels of education and little computer experience, a computer-delivered training program on ladder safety saw an increase in safe ladder practices up to two months post
training.19 An online computer-based simulation emphasizing situation awareness proved
effective among licensed pilots.20 Ultimately, the program delivery choice will depend on
the unique needs of the organization and employees.
Regardless of the location, research on the effectiveness of various health and safety
training initiatives emphasizes the importance of active approaches to learning.21 As you
might conclude from a review of the training delivery options outlined in OH&S Notebook 9.2, training delivery methods vary substantially in their potential to engage trainees and
are based on different theories about how individuals learn (see OH&S Notebook 9.3). For
instance, a lecture is a passive and typically less engaging training method. On the other hand, training methods that use simulations of real events are an active and typically more
engaging approach to training. Training efforts predominantly relying on less engaging
methods such as posters or videos can result in initial improvements in safety behaviour, but the results may be short lived. More active forms of training—such as hands-on or
interactive—seem to have a stronger and more durable effect on behaviour. Training
efforts that involve behavioural modelling (such as simulations) and multiway feedback are
recognized as particularly engaging for trainees.22 Dialogue and storytelling have also been identified as training tools that engage trainees’ attention and encourage them to think
about the material being presented.23
OH&S Notebook 9.2: Training Delivery Methods
Another decision in the design of a training program is what training delivery methods will
be used. There are numerous training methods to choose from. Of course, training can be
delivered on the job or off the job. In either case, the training may or may not involve
technology. The training method chosen might depend on where the training is being offered, the content of the training, or the people being trained. Here are some training
delivery options to consider.
On-the-Job Training
Job instruction: A structured approach to training job skills that involves a trainer developing a training plan and demonstrating tasks to a trainee, which the trainee then
performs with the trainer’s guidance and receives feedback on.
Performance aid:Devices such as visual aids are used to help trainees perform tasks. For
example, a sign with visual cues that help employees follow the lockout procedure on a
piece of equipment.
Job rotation:Trainees learn various tasks by completing different jobs/tasks within the
organization.
Apprenticeships:Trainees receive on-the-job experience combined with classroom
instruction.
Coaching: An experienced employee works closely with a new employee to help develop
skills and provide feedback.
Mentoring: A senior employee is personally invested in helping a junior employee’s
development.
Off-the-Job Training
Lecture: The trainer presents the content orally to the trainees.
Discussion: The trainer and trainees have a verbal exchange about the material.
Audiovisual methods: Media are used to illustrate points and ideas.
Case incident or study: Trainees analyze a real-life problem or situation.
Behaviour modelling: Trainees attempt to imitate the actions of a model who is performing
a task.
Role-play: Trainees practise skills within the training environment.
Games: Competition-based activities are employed to help develop skills.
Simulations: Trainees engage in physical or social events that are designed to re-create real
situations. These may involve technology in terms of simulating devices or equipment.
Technology-based Training
Web-based: Trainees engage in training materials that are provided via the Internet. One
example would be a webinar in which a presentation is delivered via the Web.
Video/television:Trainees watch video-based or televised material relevant to the topic on
which they are being trained.
CD/DVD: Training materials are provided to trainees via a CD or DVD.
Teleconference: Trainees at various locations take part in audio or audiovisual exchange of
information with a trainer using technology such as conference calls or Skype.
Source: From SAKS/HACCOUN. Managing Performance Through Training and Development.
© 2004 Nelson Education Ltd.
A recent review of the safety training literature noted that highly engaging training methods are particularly important when the risk associated with the hazards in question
is high.24 When hazard severity was high, highly engaging training methods were associated
with better safety knowledge and safety performance than were less engaging methods.
The training method did not appear to influence safety knowledge or performance gained
in training when hazard severity was low. The authors of the study proposed that this effect
is due to “the dread factor.” When OH&S training involves a high-risk hazard—for instance,
use of explosives—active and engaging training helps trainees realize the true degree of
severity and experience dread for the potential outcomes associated with exposure. This
dread is a motivating factor to prompt the trainees to learn how to avoid the risks
associated with the hazard in question.
OH&S Notebook 9.3: Learning Theory and Training Delivery
Training in occupational health and safety can be associated with positive safety
outcomes, such as safer worker behaviour and a reduction in safety incidents. However,
training experts sometimes point out that potential contributions from general theories of
learning are not reflected in health and safety training programs. Thus, the training
programs may not be maximally effective.
The ultimate goal of OH&S training programs is that the knowledge and skills gained in the training environment be transferred effectively to the workplace. Principles determined
from extensive psychological research on learning can help create such a training
environment. Three major approaches to the study of learning are the behaviourist perspective, social learning, and experiential learning. How might these learning
approaches influence the design of health and safety training programs?
Behaviourist Perspective
The behaviourist approach characterizes learning in terms of observable stimuli and responses, without reference to any activity that occurs inside the individual. Behaviourists
state that learning results when a person associates particular behaviours with certain
immediate consequences or rewards. Certainly, this notion applies to the training context; the experience gained during training should influence later job performance. Thus,
according to behaviourists, training can increase the performance of desired behaviours by
following those actions with rewards. The behaviourist approach suggests that health and
safety training should target specific actions.
Several basic learning principles may be effective in helping increase the transfer of the
knowledge, skills, and abilities acquired during training to the jobsite. These include using
identical elements, such that the stimuli in the training environment are identical to those in the transfer environment. For instance, in a safety training program on the proper use of
protective equipment, the very same brand and type of safety gear used at the jobsite
should also be used in the training program. Furthermore, transfer of training may be improved when trainees are taught not only applicable skills but also general principles
that underlie the training content. For example, a training program on the safe operation of
a piece of heavy equipment should also stress underlying principles regarding the
widespread importance of safe behaviour in the workplace and the basic workings of the machinery itself. Also, multiple examples of a concept will provide the stimulus
variability necessary to promote transfer of training to the worksite. For instance, in an
emergency preparedness training program the trainers should provide examples from
several types of emergency scenarios.
Social Learning
Social learning theory reflects a cognitive approach to learning. Its premise is that people learn by observing others. Observing others can help us learn various motor skills or styles
of behaving. For instance, observing more experienced people can help a new employee
learn how to use safety equipment at work. The people we observe during social learning
are called models. The influential proponent of the social learning approach is Canadian
Albert Bandura, who proposed that four mental processes facilitate social learning:
1. Attention—Learners must notice the behavioural models and find them interesting. For
instance, new employees who are looking for models will likely look to experienced employees who attract their attention and seem willing to help.
2. Memory—Learners must remember what they have observed. New employees who are
observing senior employees operate a particular piece of machinery must remember all of the actions taken by the senior employees as they complete the task.
3. Motor control—Learners must use their observations to guide their own actions. For
instance, if new employees are modelling a work task that involves heavy lifting, they must
be capable of lifting that weight.
4. Motivation—The learner must have some reason to perform the modelled actions. For
instance, OH&S trainees must be motivated to perform the job in a safe manner.
In the training environment, the trainer is the model, who must capture the attention of the trainee and appear interesting. This person should be perceived as an expert in the
relevant field and be credible and appealing to the trainees. The information should be
presented in such a manner that the trainees store it in memory and draw from this
information to guide their future performance (i.e., when they are back on the job).
Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is a process aimed at developing knowledge and skills. Proponents of
experiential learning contend that learning is maximized when knowledge is acquired via
direct participation, when new insights are applied to realistic situations, and when
trainees reflect on prior and new experiences. This type of learning can be accomplished by
numerous methods, including problem-based learning, role-playing, and simulations. From a health and safety perspective, experiential learning approaches mean that trainees
should engage in active learning environments that incorporate the training content into
their experiences. Also, trainees should be encouraged to reflect on what they are learning and how it relates to their work setting. For example, a stress management program that
follows an experiential learning approach might explore how individuals currently manage
stress, have trainees actively incorporate new coping techniques in role-plays and their
daily lives, and ask trainees to keep a diary in which they reflect on how the new
techniques are working and help them manage their stress responses.
Sources: M. Burke, D. Holman, and K. Birdi, “A Walk on the Safe Side: The Implications of
Learning Theory for Developing Effective Safety and Health Training,” The International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 21 (2006): 1–44; M. Colligan and A.
Cohen, “The Role of Training in Promoting Workplace Safety and Health,” in J. Barling and
M. Frone, eds., Handbook of Workplace Safety (Washington: APA, 2004), pp. 223–48; M.S. Gazzaniga and T.F. Heatherton, Psychological Science: Mind, Brain, and Behavior, 2nd ed.
(New York: Norton, 2006). M. Burke, D. Holman, and K. Birdi, “A Walk on the Safe Side: The
Implications of Learning Theory for Developing Effective Safety and Health Training,” The
International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 21 (2006): 1–44. T.T.
Baldwin, J.K. Ford, and B.D. Blume, “Transfer of Training 1988–2008: An Updated Review
and Agenda for Future Research,” International Review of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Vol. 24 (1990): 41–70; A. Bandura, Social Functions of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1986); M. Burke, D. Holman, and K.
Birdi, “A Walk on the Safe Side: The Implications of Learning Theory for Developing
Effective Safety and Health Training,” The International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 21 (2006): 1–44; M. Burke, D. Holman, and K. Birdi, “A Walk
on the Safe Side: The Implications of Learning Theory for Developing Effective Safety and
Health Training,” The International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol.
21 (2006): 1–44.
Even when safety training programs have demonstrated a positive impact on safety-
related actions in the workplace, continual upgrading of skills may be important if
employees are to maintain the knowledge and skills they gained in training. Consider the case of employees who are designated first-aid providers in their workplaces. These
individuals may well experience long periods during which they are not called on to use
their first-aid skills. Yet in the event of an emergency, it is imperative that they correctly recall what they learned in training. Periodic refresher courses that reinforce what
employees learned in their initial training program will go a long way toward ensuring that
first-aid providers correctly and quickly recall their treatment skills when called on to do
so.25 In fact, retraining, upgrading, and refresher courses are valuable in all areas of safety training. The more often employees are reminded of safety-related issues in the workplace,
the more likely they are to properly enact safety behaviour.
Training Evaluation
Evaluation efforts following training programs consider the extent to which the training
program has added value to the organization and the individual employees. Information
gathered during training evaluation can be useful for identifying strengths and weaknesses
in the training program and thus guide further curriculum development. Evaluation results can also be used to estimate the economic value of a training program. In a safety training
endeavour, an economic factor that can be measured is the number of safety incidents or
injuries. A training program that reduces injury rates will save the company money in days
lost and compensation claims.
What type of information should be considered when a health and safety training program
is being evaluated? Kirkpatrick’s hierarchical model—a frequently used training evaluation model—suggests that there are four important measures that provide insight into the
effectiveness of a training program, as follow:26
1. Did the trainees have positive reactions to the training?
2. Did the trainees learn the material covered in the training? 3. Did the trainees apply what they learned in training and realize a change in their
work behaviour?
4. Did the organization see positive organizational results following training?
According to Kirkpatrick, these four form a hierarchy, with succeeding levels providing
increasingly important information regarding the value of the training program. Training
programs in which trainees report positive reactions, learn the material, apply that learning to their workplace behaviour, and contribute to positive organizational outcomes
(e.g., increased productivity, fewer lost-time injuries) are considered effective.
Individual Evaluation
How might a training evaluator go about gathering information on these four levels of training outcomes? The HR manager or training consultant has several measurement
options open to him or her. Individual reactions to the training program might be assessed
using tools such as surveys, interviews, or focus groups. Questions should be designed to
assess all aspects of the program—including overall reactions as well as attitudes toward particular aspects of the training schedule. For instance, a training evaluation
questionnaire for a workplace safety orientation might ask trainees to share their
perceptions of the presentation by the health and safety committee chairperson; to indicate whether they thought the safety walkabout—where the trainees tour various parts
of the building to discuss the safety issues at each site—was informative; to report their
degree of satisfaction with the overall curriculum; and to rate the effectiveness of the
orientation facilitator. Clearly, both affective reactions and utility-based reactions can be garnered at this stage of the evaluation. Affective reactions involve whether the trainees
enjoyed the program; utility reactions incorporate the trainees’ perceptions of the
usefulness of the program.27 Positive affective and utility reactions are important in training programs. If employees do not enjoy the training program or do not feel it is useful,
they may be less likely to give it their full attention and will be less likely to take away the
important messages delivered by the program. Some frameworks for training evaluation suggest that it is also important to assess the strength of the trainee’s attitudes about
training.28 For instance, did the trainees have intense or extreme affective responses to a
particular aspect of the training program?
Efforts to measure learning must assess trainees’ mastery of the information presented. Evaluators may be interested in how well the trainees recall the information and in the
extent to which they are able to incorporate the information into actions. For instance, in a
health and safety training program designed to teach safe operating procedures for heavy machinery, the evaluator would be interested in the trainee’s ability to recall the points on
the safety inspection checklist for a particular piece of equipment. There are a number of
ways to assess this knowledge. An evaluation could measure a trainee’s ability to recognize the material covered in training using multiple-choice tests. The mastery of skills
introduced in the training program could also be assessed using longer, written tests. To
continue the example given above, a trainee might be asked to list all the steps included in
the safety inspection for a particular piece of equipment. Obviously, a successful training program is one that results in considerable knowledge and skill acquisition on the part of
trainees.
Recently, there has been a shift in the types of cognitive outcomes that training evaluators hope to capture. The traditional focus on straight recall of verbal knowledge is increasingly
shifting toward a focus on “procedural understanding” of the material presented, including
questions about why things work in particular ways.29 Keeping with our example of safe operating procedures for heavy machinery, procedural knowledge would involve why the
safety practices are important and why they follow in a particular order.
Behavioural outcomes can be assessed during the training or after training back in the
workplace. When task simulation is incorporated into training, evaluators can assess trainees’ performance during the training program. Similarly, evaluators can assess
trainees’ motivation to incorporate new skills or knowledge by asking questions about
their performance goals and their confidence in their ability.30
On-the-job behaviour can be assessed using self-report inventories in which trainees rate their own behaviour or by having supervisors complete a report on trainees’ actions when
performing the task in question. Similarly, the training evaluator may observe the
employees’ on-the-job performance. For example, following the training program on the safe operation of heavy machinery introduced above, a supervisor might observe an
employee performing a safety inspection on the piece of equipment and rate his or her
performance. The evaluator might then use objective indices of performance to assess
behavioural change. For instance, after a training program on the importance and use of safety equipment such as earplugs for loud environments, a behavioural assessment might
include observing employees at work to see whether they have a high rate of compliance in
using their earplugs and other safety equipment.
Organizational Evaluation
Organizational results following training initiatives can also be assessed. Usually, the
assessment of organizational outcomes involves analyzing organizational records. With respect to health and safety training initiatives, a number of organizational outcomes may
be especially relevant:
1. Incident, injury, and fatality rates—Safety training programs designed to increase safe
behaviour should contribute to reduced incident rates and, ultimately, reduced injury and
death rates.
2. Incidence of close calls—Close calls or near misses occur when incidents or injuries are
narrowly avoided. Effective safety training programs should reduce the number of near misses.
3. Incidence of lost-time injuries—Lost-time injuries are those in which the employee
involved misses some work time because of the injury in the days following the incident. Successful safety training programs should see a reduction in lost-time injuries.
4. Absenteeism—This objective factor may be of particular importance in evaluating
health-related training programs designed to reduce stress.
5. Workers’ compensation claims and costs—Ultimately, health and safety training
programs should result in decreased resort to workers’ compensation programs, as
successful training programs should decrease incident and injury rates.
6. Employee benefit costs—Effective safety training can contribute to reduced use of programs such as physiotherapy and occupational therapy.
7. Safety inspection reports—If an organization is subject to internal or external safety
inspections, improved performance on these inspections should be seen in areas that have
been the subject of health and safety training.
The training evaluator will want to compare the organization’s performance after the
training program with its performance before training. Access to pre-training and post-
training information will allow the evaluator to reach conclusions about improvements in
organizational outcomes that are a result of training.
However, training evaluators will want to take great care to ensure that their
measurements of pre-training and post-training variables are accurate. The training
evaluator must consider a number of factors when assessing organizational indices of health and safety. As noted earlier, incident, injury, and fatality rates are indicators of safe
or unsafe behaviour in the workplace. Most discussions about occupational safety, whether
in the academic literature or in workplaces themselves, focus on actual safety incidents or fatalities. As a result, the focus is often on the number of incidents, the amount of lost time,
whether the incident resulted in a claim for workers’ compensation, and occasionally the
number of workplace fatalities. The focus on such variables is understandable, given their
visibility and the social and economic interest they attract.
Several factors, however, limit the reliability and utility of incident and fatality measures
for organizational research and practice. First, major incidents with injuries and especially
fatalities are relatively rare. As such, the distribution of major incidents and fatalities is skewed, rather than normally distributed, and this introduces challenges for statistical
analyses of such data. Second, there is no clear agreement across jurisdictions as to what
constitutes an occupational injury. For example, what one province or territory accepts as evidence of a back injury requiring time off work another might refuse, which renders any
comparisons of injury rates across jurisdictions limited at best. Third, there is considerable
concern that organizations’ databases on incidents and fatalities may misrepresent the
actual prevalence of problems.
Logs of lost-time injuries maintained by government agencies actually underrepresent the
magnitude of these incidents.31 In particular, initial episodes of lost-time injury may be
accurately reported, but lost time due to reinjury or the persistence of problems following return to work are underreported. Organizations’ in-house record keeping processes may
contribute to this problem.32 To offset the statistical imbalance, researchers have begun to
ask how incident reports can be improved. For example, the inclusion of close calls may provide a useful supplement to incident reports, because they occur with greater
frequency than do safety incidents. Also, the difference between a close call and an
incident may be no more than luck. Therefore, including close calls in incident reporting is
important for a more complete picture of safety-related events.
Self-reported measures of occupational events and injuries may provide a more valid
indication than compulsory reports by the organization to government agencies, as there
appears to be little incentive for workers to misreport safety incidents and injury experiences in a deliberate way.33 Though there could be legitimate errors as a result of
memory lapses, these would occur randomly across people and organizations and
therefore would not bias the reporting of injuries or safety incidents in any way. A potential solution is to use multiple sources or records in identifying the “real” rates of incidents and
injuries.34
Common Safety Training Initiatives
The health and safety training needs of any particular organization will be largely
determined by factors unique to that organization—its size and the industry in question
being two factors that contribute significantly to safety training needs. That said, several
common safety training initiatives are applicable to organizations of all sizes and sectors.
Next we review three of these: safety orientation, first-aid training, and WHMIS training.
Safety Orientation
Organizations with successful safety programs and safety records often begin to
emphasize health and safety through an orientation program at the time employees are first hired. Integrating health and safety into the employee orientation program ensures
that all employees are provided with a base level of health and safety training; it also
reinforces the development of a safety climate in the workplace. Though the details will
vary with the needs of specific workplaces, a general orientation to health and safety
should include a review and introduction to:
• fire and emergency safety procedures;
• incident policies (e.g., reporting, procedures for obtaining first aid);
• hazards unique to the workplace (e.g., material hazards, chemical
hazards, physical hazards);
• protective personal equipment (e.g., how to obtain, how to use);
• WHMIS training;
• the role of the joint occupational health and safety committee;
• the roles and responsibilities of individual employees;
• job-specific safety procedures (e.g., proper lifting technique,
decontamination, lockout procedures); and
• housekeeping and safety awareness.
First-Aid Training
Many Canadian employers are required under OH&S acts to provide first-aid training to
employees. The number of employees requiring certification in first aid in any given
organization depends on several factors. Provincial or territorial health and safety laws determine first-aid requirements based on factors such as the number of workers per shift,
the distance from fixed medical services, and the hazard level of the workplace. Larger,
isolated, higher-hazard worksites require more trained first-aid providers. The exact number of first-aid certificates and the level of certification required vary among the
provinces and territories.
Organizations such as St. John Ambulance provide first-aid training programs that help
employers meet or exceed the requirements set forth in provincial and territorial OH&S acts. In fact, St. John Ambulance provides full services in the provision and management of
workplace first-aid training programs. For instance, via its key account program, St. John
Ambulance tracks the training and certificates of employees in an organization and notifies
the organization when recertification is required.
WHMIS Training
WHMIS has been discussed throughout this book. It is the standard for communicating
information about hazards in Canada. Under WHMIS, hazardous or controlled products are labelled in a standardized manner and information regarding the safe handling of these
products is provided via material safety data sheets (MSDSs) and worker training
programs. The federal, provincial, and territorial health and safety jurisdictions all incorporate WHMIS. Employers are required to properly store and dispose of hazardous
materials and to ensure that workers receive training in handling and using controlled
products.
Summary
Canadian employees have the right to be informed about the hazards they may encounter
in the workplace, and OH&S acts require the provision of health and safety training. Even so, many Canadians report that they have never received any safety training at work.
Recent legislation means that employers who fail to provide a safe workplace may face
charges of criminal negligence.
OH&S training can be described under a general training model. The ISD model, applied to
the issue of health and safety, emphasizes the importance of a complete needs analysis
before training is designed and offered. Needs analysis includes a consideration of the
organization, the job, and the person. Key to health and safety training is ensuring that the organization is supportive of the initiative. If a company is not supportive of health and
safety issues in general, the training effort is likely to encounter roadblocks.
Several factors must be considered in the design and delivery of OH&S training, including the content of the training, who will receive training, and who will do the training.
Organizations must make certain that the training programs they offer comply with the
standards set out in their jurisdiction’s occupational health and safety act.
Health and safety training efforts should be evaluated to consider whether the trainees had positive reactions to them and learned the material. Evaluations should also consider the
extent to which employee behaviours and organizational outcomes were influenced by the
training. Health and safety training programs should be evaluated for their impact on safety-related outcomes in the workplace, such as incident, injury, and fatality rates and
the incidence of close calls. Safety training programs designed to increase safe behaviour
should reduce incident rates and ultimately reduce injury and death rates, besides
reducing the number of near misses and lost-time injuries.
Key Terms
close call
instructional systems design (ISD) model of training job/task analysis
needs analysis
organizational analysis person analysis
safety climate
train the trainer
training evaluation
training objectives
WHMIS
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 9.1
Review
Canadian statistics suggest that many Canadians are not receiving appropriate safety training in the
workplace. What are some of the reasons organizational managers might give for not providing safety
training for their employees? Imagine that you are a health and safety consultant trying to convince the
top management of a negligent organization to provide a health and safety orientation for new
employees. What are some arguments you might use to convince the organization to support the training program?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 9.2
Review
Why is organizational support for a health and safety training initiative so important for the success of the training program? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 9.3
Review
What are some important organizational outcomes that can be used to evaluate the value that a training program has added to an organization?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 9.4
Review
What are some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with the use of Web-based health and
safety training programs for individual employees? for organizations?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 9.5
Review
Search your school’s website to investigate the health and safety training programs offered in your institution.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 9.1
Review
Each provincial and territorial government has its own health and safety legislation. Each refers to the
importance and role of health and safety training. Using the Internet, look up the health and safety legislation in your province or territory. Note the ways in which training can help organizations and
employees adhere to the law.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.2
Review
Young workers are at considerable risk for safety incidents and injury in the workplace. Perform a
person analysis by interviewing a young person who has recently entered the workforce. Based on
what you have learned about occupational health and safety in this course, try to get an idea of that
individual’s awareness of health and safety in the workplace and the extent to which he or she is
worried about his or her own safety at work. If you are unable to interview a new worker, have a classmate think back to his or her very first job and try to recall his or her health and safety-related
attitudes upon entering the workforce. You will want to find out some information about the tasks this
person performed at work and identify some of the potential hazards that were associated with the
job. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.3
Review
Using various Web resources, find out more about young workers’ safety. Along with your classmates,
brainstorm ways to build health and safety knowledge among young Canadians entering the
workforce. How might we educate parents and employers about the health and safety risks associated with young workers?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.4
Review
Visit the websites of some large organizations in various industries, and look for information about
their health and safety policies. What portion of the sites you visited contained information about
health and safety training? Did the attention given to training or the type of training described vary by industry or organizational size?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.5
Review
Think back to various jobs that you have held. What types of health and safety training did you re-
ceive? Were the training programs effective? Compare your experiences with those of your class-mates. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.6
Review
To find out more about health and safety training, contact a human resource professional and ask
about health and safety training programs in his or her organization. You might use some of the
following questions to guide your discussion. a. Does your organization have a health and safety
orientation program? If so, what types of information does it cover? b. How many trained first-aid
providers are required per shift in your organization? c. What are some of the safety hazards and concerns employees in your organization encounter? Do you think that training is a useful option to
help employees manage their exposure to these risks? Why or why not? d. Under what conditions does
your organization rely on purchased, pre-existing health and safety programs? When might the company opt for custom-designed health and safety training programs? What factors influence this
decision? e. What is the general attitude toward occupational health and safety training among
employees in your organization? among management?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.7
Review
Bill C-45, the “Westray Bill,” went into effect on March 31, 2004. Research this legislation. How many
charges could you find? How many convictions? What impact do you think this legislation will have on
Canadian employees’ access to health and safety training? Do you think it will influence Canadian employers’ attitudes toward health and safety training? Debate these issues with your classmates.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 9.8
Review
Imagine that you are a health and safety training consultant who has been working with an
international courier company to offer training for its on-the-ground delivery staff regarding proper lifting procedures and safe driving. When thinking about how to evaluate the effectiveness of the
training programs, what specific measures would you include?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 9.1
Show Correct Answer
As the OHS manager for a small manufacturing firm (28 employees) you need to design and deliver an
occupational health and safety training program. Outline how you would go about designing such a
program. What barriers and challenges do you foresee and how do you plan to overcome these
challenges?
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
OH&S Training
To: You, OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Safety Training
Hi again
I was at a Chamber of Commerce luncheon the other day and the speaker was a training consultant. He
mentioned that every employer needs to have a safety training program and that we were required by
law to provide some types of training to employees. This is the first I’ve heard of it. What training are we
required to provide? More broadly, how should we go about building a cost-effective safety training
program? Can you prepare a memo outlining what you think are the top three priorities for OH&S
training in our industry and offer some ideas on how we can provide that to employees?
When completing this assignment in addition to responding to the above, address the following:
1. Suggest some of the common health and safety training initiatives including
safety orientation, first-aid training, and WHMIS.
2. Consider the role of a needs analysis when designing a training program at
Well-Mart. Identify employee and organizational deficiencies that could be
addressed with training and identify potential obstacles to the success of a
training.
3. What strategies should be used for the effective delivery of health and safety
training programs?
Upload a PDF to submit your cumulative assignment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
References
1. L.S. Robson, C.M. Stephenson, P.A. Schulte, B.C. Amick III, E.L. Irvin, et al., “A Systematic
Review of the Effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety Training,” Scandinavian
Journal of Work, Environment, and Health 38 (2012): 193–208.
2. P. Smith and C. Mustard, “How Many Employees Receive Safety Training During Their
First Year of a New Job?” Injury Prevention 13 (2007): 37–41.
3. Ibid.
4. G.B. Cooke, I.U. Zeytinoglu, and J. Chowhan, “Barriers to Training Access,” Perspectives,
July 2009: 14–25, Cat. No. 75-001-X. Found at: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/75-001-
x/2009107/pdf/10907-eng.pdf (accessed August 4, 2019).
5. Canadian Standards Association, Occupational Health and Safety Training (Mississauga,
ON: CSA Group, 2014).
6. M.J. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training in Promoting Workplace Safety and
Health,” in J. Barling and M. Frone, eds., Handbook of Workplace Safety (Washington: APA,
2004), 223–248.
7. A.M. Saks and R.R. Haccoun, Managing Performance Through Training and Development,
8th ed. (Toronto: Nelson, 2019).
8. I.L. Goldstein and J.K. Ford, Training in Organizations: Needs Assessment, Development,
and Evaluation, 4th ed. (Belmont: Wadsworth, 2002); Saks and Haccoun, Managing
Performance.
9. Goldstein and Ford, Training in Organizations; Saks and Haccoun, Managing
Performance.
10. M.J. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training in Promoting Workplace Safety and
Health,” in J. Barling and M. Frone, eds., Handbook of Workplace Safety (Washington:
American Psychological Association, 2004), 223–248.
11. R.K. Sokas, E. Jorgensen, L. Nickels, W. Gao, and J.L. Gittleman, “An Intervention
Effectiveness Study of Hazard Awareness Training in the Construction Building
Trades,” Public Health Reports124 (2009): 161–168.
12. D. Zohar, “Safety Climate in Industrial Organizations: Theoretical and Applied
Implications,” Journal of Applied Psychology 65 (198): 96–102; D. Zohar and G.A. Luria, “A
Multilevel Model of Safety Climate: Cross-Level Relationships Between Organization and
Group-Level Climates,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005): 616–628.
13. Goldstein and Ford, Training in Organizations.
14. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training”; K.R. Saarela, “An Intervention Program Utilizing Small Groups: A Comparative Study,” Journal of Safety Research 21 (1990): 149–
156.
15. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training.”
16. T.F. Fisher, B. Brodzinski-Andriae, and S. Zook. “Effectiveness of Work Injury Prevention Education and Safety Training by an Occupational Therapist,” The British Journal of
Occupational Therapy72 (2009): 450–457.
17. J.A. Daltuva, V. Williams, L. Vazquez, T.G. Robins, and J.A. Fernandez, “Worker-Trainers
as Evaluators: A Case Study of a Union-based Health and Safety Program,” Health
Promotion Practice 5 (2004): 191–198.
18. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training.” For a specific example of a successful
program see Q. Williams, Jr., M. Ochsner, E. Marshall, L. Kimmel, and C. Martino, “The
Impact of a Peer-Led Participatory Health and Safety Training for Latino Day Labourers in
Construction,” Journal of Safety Research 41 (2010): 253–261.
19. W.K. Anger, J. Stupel, T. Ammerman, A. Tamulinas, T. Bodner, and D.S. Rohlman, “The Suitability of Computer-based Training for Workers with Limited Formal Education: A Case
Study from the US Agricultural Sector,” International Journal of Training and
Development 10 (2006): 269–284.
20. S. Kearns, “Online Single-Pilot Resource Management: Assessing the Feasibility of Computer-based Safety Training,” The International Journal of Aviation Psychology 21
(2011): 175–190.
21. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training.”
22. M.J. Burke, S.A. Sarpy, K. Smith-Crowe, S. Chan-Serafin, O.S. Rommel, and G. Islam,
“Relative Effectiveness of Worker Safety and Health and Training Methods,” American
Journal of Public Health 96 (2006): 315–324.
23. M.J. Burke, M.L. Scheuer, and R.J. Meredith, “A Dialogical Approach to Skill
Development: The Case of Safety Skills,” Human Resource Management Review17 (2007):
235–250; E.T. Cullen, “Tell Me a Story,” Professional Safety, July 2008, 20–27.
24. M.J. Burke, R.O. Salvador, K. Smith-Crowe, S. Chan-Serafin, A. Smith, and S. Sonesh, “The Dread Factor: How Hazards and Safety Training Influence Learning and
Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 96 (2011): 46–70.
25. D. Arnold, “A Matter of Life and Death,” Occupational Health 55 (2003): 21–23.
26. D.L. Kirkpatrick, “Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels” (San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler, 1994); Saks and Haccoun, Managing Performance.
27. Saks and Haccoun, Managing Performance.
28. J.K. Ford, K. Kraiger, and S.M. Merritt, “An Updated Review of the Multidimensionality of
Training Outcomes: New Directions for Training Evaluation Research,” in S.W.J. Kozlowski
and E. Salas, eds., Learning, Training, and Development in Organizations (New York:
Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group, 2010).
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. B. Evanoff, S. Abedin, D. Grayson, A.M. Dale, L. Wolfe, and P. Bohr, “Is Disability Underreported Following Work Injury?” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation 12 (2002):
139–150.
32. H. Conway and J. Svenson, “Occupational Injury and Illness Rates, 1992–1996: Why
They Fell,” Monthly Labor Review 121, no. 11 (1998): 36–58.
33. L. Grunberg, S. Moore, and E. Greenberg, “The Relationship of Employee Ownership and
Participation to Workplace Safety,” Economic and Industrial Democracy 17 (1996): 221–241.
34. Conway and Svenson, “Occupational Injury and Illness Rates.”
MOTIVATION AND SAFETY
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• discuss the importance of safety behaviour in the workplace and
identify the categories of safety behaviour
• explain the importance of individual motivation in safety behaviour
• describe behaviour modification approaches to motivating safety
• recognize how goal setting and feedback influence safety behaviour
• understand the facets of self-determination theory of motivation
and how they relate to safety motivation
• evaluate the role of organizational support for safety in contributing
to safety behaviour
• discuss the role of the safety climate in the performance of safety
behaviours
• understand the role that safety leadership plays in creating a safe
work environment
• describe OH&S management systems, such as CSA-Z1000-14, and
appreciate how they help organizations promote workplace safety
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCy_QBxxjl4
Borger Group of Companies: Safety Comes First
Based in Calgary, Alberta, the Borger Group of Companies has a long history, rooted in a
family business that started 1919. In the 100 plus years since the company has grown into
key player in the province’s construction industry, specializing in underground construction, earthmoving, and transportation. It’s also a company that puts safety as an
integral part of its success.
Borger has repeatedly been recognized with many awards, including achieving a Gold
Standard as one of Canada’s best managed companies. Courtesy of Canadian
Occupational Safety.
Borger’s safety values encompass a whole person view, noting the importance of physical, social, and emotional safety. Borger’s organizational structure and values send key
messages about the importance of safety in this workplace. They describe safety as the
“cornerstone of the culture” at Borger. Reflecting the company’s dedication to safety, the
senior safety manager reports directly to the company’s CEO.
Borger’s safety programming is diverse and innovative. The company’s efforts have been
recognized with many awards, and Borger has repeatedly achieved a Gold Standard as one
of Canada’s best managed companies. It also won the Gold Award as Canada’s Safest Employer in the Construction field in 2017 and 2018 and the coveted Gold Award for Best
Health + Safety Culture (2017 and 2018).
The company has a family atmosphere that supports its many safety activities. The Borger app allows employees to access the company’s safety information, including safe work
practices, on their cellphones. After considering the potential impact of the legalization of
cannabis, the company created a series of required online training programs for its more than 400 employees. The performance-based bonus system allocates more points to safe
work than to other elements of performance. Certainly, this award-winning company sets a
good example of how to put safety at the centre of successful operations.
Sources: Borger Group of Companies. Found at: https://borger.ca (accessed May 8, 2019);
Canadian Occupational Health & Safety. “Borger Group Wins 2018 Canada's Best Health +
Safety Culture Award” (October 18, 2018). Found at: https://www.cos-mag.com/safety-
leadership-culture/38054-borger-group-wins-2018-canadas-best-health-safety-culture- award (accessed August 1, 2019); “Games, Mobile App Keep Workers Engaged at Borger,”
Canadian Occupational Health & Safety (October 18, 2018). Found at: https://www.cos-
mag.com/personal-process-safety/38053-games-mobile-app-keep-workers-engaged-at- borger (accessed August 1, 2019); Canada’s Safest Employers. Found at:
https://www.safestemployers.com/winners (accessed August 1, 2019).
Introduction
In the previous chapter we considered the importance of health and safety training in the
workplace. In this chapter we consider the equally important issue of how employees are
motivated to utilize their knowledge and skills, perhaps those gained during training, to consistently perform their work duties in a safe manner. We explore this issue by
considering safety behaviour, theories of motivation, and organizational factors (e.g.,
safety leadership and climate) that support employee safety efforts. The issues we consider here focus on preventing incidents and injuries at work rather than simply responding to
workplace incidents. We further examine how these motivational and organizational
factors of leadership and climate play important roles in occupational health and safety
management systems. However, as a starting point for our discussion, we first need to
consider the qualities of workplace safety behaviour to illustrate the value of employee
behaviour in incident and injury prevention in the workplace.
Safety Behaviour
There are several ways to categorize health and safety programs. One is in terms
of engineering interventions, administrative interventions,
and behavioural interventions.1 Engineering interventions typically focus on changing the
physical environment to reduce exposure to hazards. Administrative interventions modify
workplace procedures, policies, and exposure in the work environment. Finally,
behavioural interventions focus on changing employee attitudes, knowledge, or behaviour
regarding occupational health and safety. All three types of intervention have been at least somewhat successful in improving health and safety at work. A review of the empirical
research on comprehensive OH&S management systems—those encompassing multiple
intervention categories—reports mostly favourable results for these programs on outcomes such as safety climate, injury rates, and economic factors like insurance
rates.2 However, additional research is needed to help address some of the methodological
limitations noted in the research literature.
All things being equal, it is preferable to remove or eliminate the hazard via an engineering
solution than to rely on other types of health and safety programming. However, such
engineering controls are not always possible.3 Therefore, much of the psychological
research in the area of occupational safety has focused on behavioural interventions, particularly those designed to increase safety-related behaviours. There is a relationship
between safety behaviours and injury rates,4 and targeting employee behaviour is an
effective injury prevention strategy.5
At least eight general categories of behaviour contribute to safe working performance:6
• proper use of hazard control systems in the workplace
• development of safe work habits
• increased awareness and recognition of workplace hazards
• acceptance and use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
• maintenance of housekeeping and maintenance standards
• maintenance of accepted hygiene practices
• proper responses to emergency situations
• self-monitoring and recognition of symptoms of hazardous exposure
Health and safety programs have been aimed largely at encouraging one or more of these
general classes of behaviour. Some of these categories will be familiar to you as the targets
of the health and safety training efforts we described in Chapter 9. For example, training
programs might teach proper lifting techniques to develop safe work habits and WHMIS
training enhances the worker’s ability to recognize chemical hazards. However, workplace
safety promotion encompasses more than ability-based training.
When considering safety behaviour, a distinction is often made between safety compliance
and safety participation.7 Safety compliance is achieved when employees follow core
safety-related rules and generally work in a safe manner. Certainly, safety compliance
helps reduce injuries and safety incidents.8 Safety participation refers to employee behaviours that go beyond simply working within safety standards and safety compliance.
It involves employees behaving proactively and voluntarily to improve safety levels in the
working environment.9 For example, proactive employees engage in behaviours such as volunteering to participate in safety audits, attending safety meetings, and encouraging
their supervisor to take actions to improve safety. Both safety compliance and safety
participation are components of safety behaviour.
Generally, for individuals to work safely at least three conditions are necessary. First,
workers must have the abilityto work safely—that is, they must possess the knowledge and
skills to perform their jobs in a safe manner. This requirement is generally addressed
through the provision of OH&S training. Second, workers must be motivated to work safely—that is, they must intend to use their knowledge and skills to enhance safe working
performance. Finally, workers must have the opportunity to work safely—that is, the
environment or organization must support and encourage safe work.
These three factors combine in a multiplicative rather than an additive fashion (see Figure
10.1). Thus,
\text{Safety performance}=\text{Ability}\times\text{Motivation}\times\te
xt{Opportunity}Safety performance=Ability×Motivation×Opportunity
Safety performance relies on ability, motivation, and opportunity. This figure presents
safety behaviour as a full circle. You can see that if any one of these important components
is missing, the full circle of safety behaviour will not be achieved and thus safety
performance in the workplace will not be realized.
An important implication of this multiplicative equation is that the model of safety
performance is noncompensatory. A high level of motivation and many opportunities do
not compensate for a lack of ability. Similarly, a high level of ability and motivation cannot make up for a work environment that does not provide opportunities and support for safe
working. Safety performance relies on ability, motivation, and opportunity together. If any
one of these components is missing, safety performance in the workplace will not be realized. The question for health and safety programs is, How do we use this model to
increase safe work behaviours?
The basic premise of the multiplicative model of safety performance is that safety can be enhanced by increasing an employee’s abilities, motivation, and opportunities to work
safely. Having said this, it is important to note that all three components of the model must
be implemented for safety performance to be enhanced. For example, training (i.e.,
increasing ability) alone is insufficient to change safety behaviours over the long term.10 However, safety training coupled with motivational programs appears to be an -
effective combination in changing safety behaviours. After the great deal of attention paid
in Chapter 9 to increasing employees’ ability to perform safety behaviours, this chapter focuses on motivation and opportunity. We will consider these facets of safety
performance in turn.
Motivating Safety Behaviour
Safety motivation reflects an “individual’s willingness to exert effort to enact safety
behaviour and the valence associated with those behaviours.”11 Higher levels of safety motivation are associated with improved safety behaviour in the workplace.12 Thus, one
way to facilitate workplace safety is to increase safety motivation. Let’s consider three
major theoretical explanations of motivation: reinforcement theory (or behaviour
modification), goal-setting theory, and self-determination theory as they relate to health
and safety at work.
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory, which focuses on how consequences shape motivation, is the
foundation for workplace behaviour modification programs. Because a behaviour is more
likely to be repeated when it is followed by reinforcement, organizations rely on rewards
and incentives to influence positive workplace behaviours. For example, a financial bonus
is given as a reward if an employee meets a sales target. Or an employee is given a public
praise for becoming actively involved in the workplace’s safety program.
Using behaviour modification approaches to increase workplace safety behaviours in the
workplace has been largely successful and adaptable across various types of workplaces.13 Evidence shows that behavioural programs promote safety behaviours and
are associated with reductions in incident and injury rates14 across a wide range of work
environments, including mining,15 bus driving,16 and construction.17
Behavioural programming in the workplace relies on the ABC model of behaviour.18 Simply
stated, the ABC model holds that any behaviour occurs because of events that trigger the
behaviour (the antecedents) and the results that follow the behaviour (the consequences).
Thus, any behaviour can be represented as
\text{Antecedent}\rightarrow\text{Behaviour}\rightarrow\text{Consequen
ce}Antecedent→Behaviour→Consequence
To change a specific behaviour, we have to change either the antecedent or the consequence of the behaviour. Behaviour modification focuses on changing the
consequences of behaviour. If we want to understand why workers perform unsafe acts or
fail to engage in safe practices, a good place to begin is by considering the consequences of both safe and unsafe behaviours.19 Such consequences can be characterized along three
dimensions: positive or negative, immediate or delayed, and certain or uncertain.
Generally, behaviour that is followed by immediate, positive, and certain consequences is
more likely to occur again.20 Conversely, consequences that are delayed, negative, or
uncertain have either a minimal or an adverse effect on safety behaviour.
Unfortunately, the consequences of safe behaviour are typically delayed, negative, or uncertain. It is rare for coworkers to offer praise for using a proper lifting technique, and it
is more likely to go unnoticed by supervisors. Sometimes safe actions such donning PPE
take extra time or are uncomfortable, both of which are often perceived as negative consequences. Even when there are positive consequences for behaviour, they are often
delayed or uncertain. For example, a safety award may be given to an individual based on
behaviours that occurred a year or more ago, irrespective of the recent behaviours used by
that worker.
On the flip side, unsafe behaviours often have positive, immediate, and certain rewards.
For example, not wearing protective equipment may increase comfort and speed of work.
Any negative consequences that could follow, such as disciplinary warnings or injuries, are typically rare and often delayed. Individuals may go months and even years not wearing
safety goggles and never experience an injury as the result. Even this simplistic
consideration suggests that the decision to wear the protective clothing is unlikely to be
based on the consequences associated with not wearing the clothing.
Behavioural programs attempt to institute positive, immediate, and certain consequences
for safe working procedures. Simple feedback is a popular type of consequence in such
programs; individuals are typically observed performing their job and given immediate feedback on the safety of their actions. Incentives such as free lunches or lottery tickets are
second in popularity. You can learn about the elements of behaviour-based safety
programs in OH&S Notebook 10.1. OH&S Today 10.1 considers the possible downsides of this approach and how to mitigate them. Research generally suggests that feedback alone,
without the use of material incentives, is an effective means of behavioural change. For
example, one study illustrated that increased feedback from supervisors regarding safety incidents and PPE increased hearing protection use, reduced injury, and improved
perceptions of safety climate.21
OH&S Notebook 10.1: Elements Of a Behaviour-Based Safety Program
The content of a behaviour-based safety initiative will vary with the context in which it is offered (e.g., organization, type of job), but several basic elements are common across
behaviour-based safety programs:
1. identifying observable behaviours that affect safety related outcomes 2. outlining precise measurement of the identified behaviours
3. providing feedback on how to perform the behaviour more safely
4. highlighting the consequences of the behaviour to motivate employees
5. rewarding safe performance of the targeted behaviour
Several factors that support the success of a behaviour- based program have been
suggested. Thse include ensuring that the workplace is ready for a behaviour-based safety
intervention, customizing the program to the needs of the organization, receiving support from all levels of organizational leadership, and reflecting on the value added by the
program as it is implemented. Factors that likely hinder program success include forcing
people to be involved, using the data collected to launch employee discipline, and focusing
only on behaviour without also considering the work environment that supports it.
Sources: Adapted from E.S. Geller, “Behavior-based Safety in Industry: Realizing the Large-
Scale Potential of Psychology to Promote Human Welfare,” Applied and Preventive
Psychology, Vol. 10 (2010): 87–105; B. Sulzer-Azaroff and J. Austin, “Does BBS Work? Behavior-based Safety and Injury Reduction: A Survey of the Evidence,” Professional Safety
(July 2010): 19–24; S.M. Galloway, “What It Takes to Make Behavior-based Safety Work,”
Occupational Health & Safety (September 1, 2015). Found at: https://ohsonline.com/Articles/2015/09/01/What-It-Takes-to-Make-Behavior-Based-
Safety-Work.aspx (accessed August 1, 2019); S.M. Galloway, “The Contributing Factors of
Behavior-based Safety Failures,” EHS Today (March 1, 2011). Found at: http://ehstoday.com/safety/management/contributing-factors-behavior-based-safety-
failures-0301 (accessed August 1, 2019).
OH&S Today 10.1: A Risky Side Of Behaviour-Based Safety Programs?
Behaviour-based safety programs appear to succeed in reducing workplace incidents.
Some emphasize their positive outcomes, including encouraging employees’ participation
in safety initiatives and focusing on positive reinforcements. However, some stakeholders are wary of this approach, even questioning whether it revives the notion of “accident
proneness” as an explanation for why some workers are injured. Some workers’ groups
note the downsides of safety programs that focus exclusively on behavioural interventions.
What are their concerns?
At some point safety incentives can be intimidating for employees. No one wants to be the
person who costs coworkers a reward for achieving a reduction in injury rates. As such,
some workers feel peer pressure not to report an actual injury and may even rely on their
leave days rather than file a workers’ compensation claim.
Other workers fear discipline if they are injured; thus, an employee who sustains an injury
may fear reprisal from the organization and decide not to report the incident. Of course,
the result in these cases is the underreporting of workplace injury and illness.
Sometimes the actions rewarded under behaviourbased programs are the avoidance of
negatives that may be out of the individual’s control (e.g., the reduction in losttime injuries) rather than the achievement of positives that are under an individual’s control
(e.g., consistently wearing protective equipment, refusing unsafe work). Critics also note
that a focus on employee behaviour as an avenue for injury reduction sometimes leaves
real hazards unabated in the workplace, diverting attention from the core concern, which is to make the workplace safer. Additionally, these critics question whether such an
approach is effective at reducing occupational illnesses.
How might an HR manager address these concerns about behaviour-based safety
programs? Certainly, the use of engineering interventions whenever possible will reduce the burden placed on individual employees. Additionally, comprehensive safety programs
incorporate administrative interventions in the health and safety management program.
The organization should have a progressive health and safety policy, strive for a positive safety culture, and truly support employee safety initiatives. Employees need to have the
opportunity to work as safely as possible. If value is placed on the well-being of every
worker, rather than on the interpretation of injury or safety incident statistics alone,
employees may feel less threatened by behavioural interventions at work.
When the decision is made to include incentives as part of a behaviour-based safety
program, keep the following in mind:
1. Feedback alone may be a sufficient incentive. 2. Incentives should be tied to preventive behaviours under individual control (e.g., the
proper use of a personal protective device) rather than to outcomes such as incidents or
injuries that may be beyond an individual’s control. 3. Focus on positive reinforcement for safe behaviour rather than using approaches that
apply punishment.
4. Incentive programs should not attempt to compensate for a lack of training, shoddy
equipment, poor maintenance, or, more generally, other failures in the safety systems. 5. All employees should be eligible to earn and receive incentives.
6. Incentives should be meaningful.
Sources: Workers’ Health and Safety Centre, “Behaviour-based Safety: The Blame Game.” Found at: https://www.whsc.on.ca/Files/Resources/Hazard-Resource-Lines/Hazard-
Resource-Lines-Complete-Library/Behaviour-Based-Safety-WHSC-Resource-Line-en.aspx
(accessed May 5, 2019); UFCW Canada, “Behaviour-based Safety.” Found at: http://www.ufcw.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=40&Itemid=125&la
ng=en (accessed August 1, 2019); G. Gould, “The Pros And Cons of Behavior-based Safety
(BBS),” Enablon Insights (March 7, 2019). Found at:
https://enablon.com/blog/2019/03/07/the-pros-and-cons-of-behavior-based-safety-bbs
(accessed August 1, 2019).
Goal Setting
Goal-setting theories focus on how our internal intentions, the goals we want to achieve,
influence behaviour.22 Setting goals can have desirable behavioural effects;23 this has been extensively applied in or ganizations. As a method for changing behaviour, goal setting
concerns itself with the antecedents of behaviour—that is, the “A” of the ABC model
described above. One interesting study examined how changing the antecedents of a behaviour can influence attendance at a health and safety training program. Researchers
manipulated the type of mailing that the staff members received about the training
program. Some received messages that stressed the importance of the content of the training program and invited them to take part in a session. Others received a mailing that
asked them to commit to attending a particular session. Those who signed up for a session
in advance had a higher rate of actual attendance at the training program than did those
who received the message about the importance of the program.24
Setting a specific goal (e.g., wearing PPE 95 percent of the time) provides an antecedent for
the behaviour by reminding the individual of what he or she is expected to do. Goals serve
as antecedents to behaviour in four main ways:
1. They direct attention and action to the desired behaviour.
2. They mobilize effort toward actions to achieve the goal.
3. They increase persistence.
4. They motivate the search for effective strategies to help obtain them.
Several investigators have demonstrated that goal-setting techniques provide a valuable adjunct to feedback systems in motivating desired behaviours. It appears that five factors
augment the effectiveness of goal setting:25
1. Goals must be difficult and challenging to result in improved performance. Goals that are
a stretch for the individual have more of an impact on performance than easy goals or the absence of goals.
2. Goals must be achievable to lead to better performance. Goals that are too hard can
quickly become demotivating. 3. Goals must be specific. The goal must identify specific behaviours, specify how many
times they must be performed, and specify the performance standard. Nonspecific goals
that are too broad are more like wishes or desires—not goals. 4. Individuals must be committed to the goals. Goals that aren’t accepted aren’t acted on.
People tend to accept a goal when they see its importance, participate in setting the goal,
trust the coach, or feel they can control the behaviour.
5. Feedback regarding goal progress is also helpful in goal achievement.
Goal setting is one component of the classic management by objectives approach
introduced by Peter Drucker.26 Management by objectives is an approach to management
that focuses efforts on goal setting, employee participation in decision making, and feedback on one’s efforts and progress. Research suggests that management by objectives
interventions can positively influence employee productivity.27 Management by objectives
has been applied specifically to occupational health and safety initiatives.28 As you’ll see later in the chapter, occupational health and safety management systems draw on
elements of the management by objectives approach including goal setting and employee
involvement.
Self-Determination Theory
The self-determination approach recognizes that people are motivated by a variety of
things and have varied reasons for acting.29 Looking to various motivators for safety, we
might presume that some people wear their PPE to avoid injury while others might wear it only to comply with their employer’s behavioural safety program. People may volunteer
for the JOHSC to garner favour with their boss or they may do so because they truly value
safety.
Self-determination theory distinguishes amotivation from motivation. Amotivation reflects
a complete lack of motivation.30 Self-determination theory reflects multiple dimensions of
motivation. At one level, self-determination theory differentiates between extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation.31 Intrinsic motivation or internal motivation happens when people engage in behaviour purely out of interest and because they find the experience satisfying.
Extrinsic motivation happens when people act for more instrumental reasons, such as
gaining a reward or avoiding a negative outcome. To use a broad example, Chung is taking a dance class for fun. Mike is taking the same dance class because he wants to make his
wife happy.
It is easy to articulate extrinsically motivated examples of safety behaviour.32 For instance, Angie attends the safety meetings at work because they are required for all employees.
Sadek wears his fall protection while working at heights because his supervisor strictly
enforces safety rules. Examples of true intrinsically motivated safety behaviour are perhaps less common, but we can imagine individuals who become very interested in and enjoy
aspects of workplace health and safety such as an OH&S officer who is nominating her
employer for a safety award out of a true pleasure at sharing the company’s safety
accomplishments. That said, it is harder to imagine a person who wears earplugs, eye protection, and so on because they are so much fun to wear!33 But self-determination
theory has a more nuanced view of extrinsic motivation that may have important
implications in the realm of OH&S.
There are different types of extrinsic motivation, reflecting the extent to which the person
experiences the extrinsic motivation as controlling or as autonomous.34 Autonomous
motivation is self-directed and happens when people act on their own will and choice. Controlled motivation happens when people act in response to pressure, like
Sadek wearing his fall protection or Angie attending the safety meetings.
In particular, self-determination theory identifies four types of extrinsic motivation.35 The
most controlled form of motivation is external regulation, which occurs when pressures outside the individual—for example, a boss, a law, or a reward—prompt a person to behave
in a particular way. Consider Evan, who works in a machine shop. He consistently uses PPE
on a particular day because he knows a safety inspector is on-site and being caught without it may result in disciplinary action. Another type of controlled
motivation, introjected regulation, happens when a person acts in a particular way because
of pressure originating within him or herself. For instance, in the machine shop Gretchen
uses PPE because she’d feel guilty if she didn’t.
Extrinsic motivation can also stem from self-directed or autonomous
reasons.36 With identified regulation, people choose to act in a manner that is in line with
their own goals. At the machine shop, Ricardo consistently performs all the appropriate
lockout procedures because he wants to avoid injury and knows that the lockout
procedures will help him achieve that goal. Finally, integrated regulation, the most
autonomous form of extrinsic motivation, reflects engaging in actions that reflect one’s sense of identity. Andre, machine shop supervisor, acts safely and encourages others to do
so because he identifies himself as a safety-conscious person, whether it be in wearing PPE,
following the OH&S regulations, or driving the speed limit. Table 10.1 summarizes the relationships among the different types and levels of motivation incorporated in self-
determination theory.
Considering the ABC model described above, one can see that self-determination theory
relates to both the antecedents and the consequences of behaviour.
Like behavioural reinforcement models, controlled motivation focuses on the
consequences of actions (e.g., reward, guilt). Alternatively, like goal-setting models,
autonomous motivation focuses on the antecedents of behaviour (e.g., goals, self-identity).
Self-determination theory offers several important implications for OH&S research and
practice.37 For instance, the distinction between controlled and autonomous motivation might help us better understand people’s safety compliance efforts versus their safety
participation efforts. Self-determination theory also offers researchers and practitioners
guidance for developing autonomous motivation among workers. Certain social
conditions, particularly those that promote people’s sense of autonomy, sense of
competence, and sense of relatedness, promote self-directed, internalized
motivation.38 The development of interventions targeting workplace climate and
leadership as organizational factors to foster these social conditions may be advantageous.
Increasing Opportunity for Safety Behaviour
Even when workers are well trained and highly motivated, they may not perform safely on
the job. Workers also need to have an opportunity to perform safely through the provision
of resources and organizational support. Consider PPE use as an example; management
must make the equipment and training on its use available. Perhaps more importantly, management must demonstrate a commitment to health and safety and communicate it
throughout the organization. Organizations with a commitment to safety can help and
learn from each other as a means to improve safety across organizations, as illustrated by
Ontario safety groups program, described in OH&S Today 10.2.
OH&S Today 10.2: Peer Learning And Support To Create Safety Change: Safety Groups
In Ontario
The Workplace Safety and Insurance Board (WSIB) of Ontario offers safety group
opportunities for companies that prioritize safety. Within the groups, organizations can
learn from each others’ experiences in implementing occupational health and safety programs. Working with a group sponsor who leads the group, the groups identify safety
program elements to target and group members choose what one they want to focus on in
their workplaces. The meetings allow for shared experiences, resources, and support. There are financial incentives to participate, as groups can receive WSIB premium rebates
based on their safety activities. For instance, in 2017 groups received premium rebates
ranging from 1.43 percent to 5.53 percent. The program has been effective; group members
report improved safety outcomes such as improved injury rates and have realized savings via the rebate incentive element. Group members also report having access to networks,
training, and expert consultants.
Sources: WSIB. “Safety Groups Program.” Found at: https://www.wsib.ca/en/safety- groups-program (accessed August 2, 2019); Public Services Health & Safety Association
(PSHSA), “Safety Groups.” Found at: https://www.pshsa.ca/specialized-services/safety-
groups (accessed August 2, 2019); Kingston Partners for a Safe Community, “Safety Group Brochure.” Found at:
http://www.kpsc.ca/kpsc/assets/File/SG%20Registration%20Flyer%202017.pdf (accessed
May 8, 2019).
Management Commitment to OH&S
Management commitment to health and safety is a key requirement for improved
workplace health and safety. A review of the empirical literature on health and safety
training initiatives shows that a high level of management support for safety increases the
impact of health and safety-related training in workplaces.39 Certainly managers who are committed to health and safety can help create opportunities for employees to engage in
safety behaviours. For instance, managers can encourage safety behaviours by not placing
productivity-related goals ahead of employee safety.40 Knowing that their safety comes first will allow employees the freedom to take the time to work safely, properly use
protective equipment, and halt work operations if there is a risk to safety.
Though top management has an important role to play in the promotion of workplace health and safety, it is also apparent that that supervisors’ attitudes play an important role
in shaping risk perceptions. Similarly, coworker attitudes can influence individual
perceptions of workplace hazards and encourage or inhibit self-protective behaviour. One
study showed that workers’ perceptions of risk were influenced more by their perceptions of management, supervisory, and coworker commitment to health and safety than by their
personal experiences with incidents in the workplace.41
In short, management has a central role to play in improving safety performance. By
sending a strong message about the importance of health and safety in the organization,
by holding individuals responsible for their own and their subordinates’ safety
performance, and by taking safety concerns seriously, managers establish an orientation toward health and safety that allows individuals to perform their jobs safely. We suggest
that there are two important vehicles by means of which management communicates the
value they place on safety in their organization: the safety climate and safety leadership.
Improving Safety Climate
You will recall from the previous chapter that an organization’s safety climate reflects the
shared perceptions among all employees and organizational stakeholders regarding the importance of safety in the workplace.42 A positive safety climate is associated with a
number of positive safety outcomes such as improved safety motivation, reduced injuries,
and lower rates of underreporting for workplace injury.43
An organization can use several different strategies to promote a positive safety climate in
several ways. In Chapter 9, we illustrated that supporting safety training is one such
avenue. Another is to have explicit and enacted policies on safety. If employees are aware of the organizational safety policy and believe the organization stands behind that policy,
they should feel secure in making safety a priority in their own actions. In this way, the
policy will contribute to safe conduct. As you’ll see below, an occupational health and
safety management system can help integrate OH&S concerns across a company’s
operations.
An effective route to promoting a positive safety climate is to include safety-related
information when communicating production-related goals. A managerial focus on achieving high productivity may inadvertently deter employee safety. To the extent that
employees want to reach or exceed the organizational production expectations, they may
become so focused on working quickly that they ignore safety protocols. Certainly, such a course of events is most likely in cases where following safety procedures slows the pace of
work. Therefore, managers should be careful to stress that the achievement of production
goals does not come before employee safety at work.
Another strategy organizations use to influence safety climate is rewarding safe behaviour. Individuals or groups with good safety records benefit from various bonuses or even job
promotions. Other companies opt to withhold rewards from those who have a safety
violation on their record. Still others promote their reputation as a safe organization by making their safety records—such as number of days without a lost-time injury—available
to the public. The data are mixed as to the effectiveness of these approaches. As discussed
in OH&S Today 10.1, there is a potential risk to behavioural-based programs.
Some have considered how organizations can improve safety performance by engaging
strategies to improve a company’s safety culture. Safety culture is a broader concept than
safety climate and can be taken to reflect the qualities of the organizational culture that
affect safety attitudes and behaviour.44 In one study, an intervention to increase the quality and frequency of interactions of workers with safety committee members and among
safety committee influenced indicators of safety culture and injury data.45 Improving
communication between workers and front-line management appears to have positive
influence on safety in workplaces.46
Perceived safety climate is a strong predictor of employees’ safety performance.47 One study of restaurant employees reported that positive safety climate perceptions were
related to a reduction in safety-related events common in restaurants (e.g., knife slips,
grease spatters, trips) and this decrease in safety events in turn contributed to a reduction in occupational injuries (e.g., cuts, burns, fractured bones).48 A study of drivers in a motor
vehicle fleet found that safety climate perceptions were associated with the safety of
current work-related driving behaviour and of future driving intentions.49
Safety Leadership
Organizations can create opportunities for safety behaviour, and to achieve a positive
safety climate, via safety leadership—that is, organizational leadership that focuses on and
promotes safety. Substantial evidence suggests that when leaders actively promote safety, employees and organizations alike experience better safety records and more positive
safety outcomes.50 Employees’ perceptions of managers’ and supervisors’ commitments to
safety are strongly related to safety-related outcomes51 and employees’ perceptions of managerial receptiveness to safety issues predict individual willingness to raise safety
concerns.52 Additionally, employees’ perceptions of supervisors’ safety-related leadership
are positively associated with safety consciousness; perceptions of the safety climate; and,
through these intervening variables, safety events and actual injuries.53
Leaders need to enact active safety-focused behaviour to realize positive safety outcomes. Leaders taking a passive approach to safety predicts negative health and safety-related
outcomes.54 Leaders who ignore safety concerns and who “turn a blind eye” to safety-
related issues may think they are not doing any harm, but they are sending a message to their employees that safety issues are not important. Furthermore, inconsistent safety
leadership that jumps between active and passive approaches sends mixed messages to
workers and can reduce the positive effects of safety leadership on safety outcomes.55
Two styles of active leadership discussed in the OH&S domain are active transactional
leadership and transformational leadership.
ACTIVE TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP Via transactional leadership, leaders articulate to
workers the tasks that are required to meet leadership expectations.56 Sometimes this is achieved in a passive manner, whereby leaders intervene only to correct problems that
occur. More effectively, individuals can use active types of transactional leadership. One
such active approach is contingent reward, in which leaders reward employees who meet their communicated expectations.57 Sound familiar? Influencing safety behaviour by
rewarding consequences is an aspect of behaviour-based safety programs. In the academic
safety literature, safety-related contingent rewards have been associated with fewer
injuries, as well as increased safety compliance and participation.58 Certainly, one would imagine that being rewarded for adhering to articulated safety rules would lead to safety
compliance behaviour.
Leaders might also invoke a type of active transactional leadership called management by exception (active) where leaders monitor workers’ actions and step in with corrective
action when needed to prevent serious problems from occurring.59 The influence of
management by exception (active) on safety behaviour is not fully clear. Some research has concluded that it is an intrusive and corrective form of leadership with negative effects
on safety.60 However, in the broader sense, management by exception (active) has been
associated with positive outcomes such as perceived leader effectiveness.61 Certainly, in
safety-critical occupations, well-timed corrective actions can help avert
disaster.62 Management by exception (active) may also draw attention to safety rules, thus
promoting safety compliance.
A meta-analytic review of safety leadership found that active transactional leadership was directly associated with increased safety compliance, which in turn predicted reduced
workplace injuries. Active transactional leadership also has a positive effect on safety
climate. Safety climate was related to safety participation, which in turn predicted injuries.63 The take-home message? Active transactional leadership can exert a positive
influence on safety in workplaces.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP Another active approach to safety leadership is -
transformational leadership. Transformational leadership can help leaders become
champions of safety.
Transformational leaders are highly effective leaders who also show a substantial degree of concern for the well-being of their employees.64 They exhibit four characteristics in their
interactions with their employees: idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.65 Transformational leaders provide idealized influence in that they are admired and trusted role models. Via
inspirational motivation, transformational leaders communicate high expectations to their
subordinates and provide a sense of meaning and challenge for followers.
Transformational leaders intellectually stimulate their followers in that they encourage creativity and questioning of the status quo. Finally, transformational leaders provide
individualized consideration in that they pay attention to each employee as an individual
and act as a mentor or coach.
When these characteristics are directed toward safety-related concerns, improved safety
behaviours tend to follow.66 Transformational leadership is associated with increased
safety compliance and participation.67 For instance, a leader who communicates high expectations regarding the safe performance of work tasks, who motivates employees to
behave safely and report safety concerns, who encourages employees to question the
assumption that working safely equates to working slowly, and who individually discusses
safety concerns with employees is engaging in safety-specific transformational leadership. Such a leader is likely to foster a highly safe work environment. A research example from
the nuclear power industry shows that the promotion of open communication via
empowering leadership is associated with improved safety participation.68
For an organization looking to improve its safety climate and provide an environment in
which employees feel able to engage in safety behaviours, an increased focus on
transformational leadership may be one option. Studies suggest that transformational leadership, including safety-specific transformational leadership, can be effectively
trained.69
The accumulated evidence shows that transformational leadership has a direct and
positive effect on safety participation behaviour and an indirect effect, via its influence on
safety climate, on safety compliance. Contrast this to active transactional leadership,
which has the opposite pattern directly affecting compliance, but only indirectly affecting
participation.70 What does this pattern mean? It might mean that different types of active leader behaviour differentially predict safety outcomes. That is, active transactional
leadership on its own might promote and sustain safety compliance behaviour among
employees, but promoting and sustaining safety participation may require the safety
championing support of a transformational safety leader.
Organizational Health and Safety
Management Systems
Throughout this chapter and the previous chapter on training, we have considered how to
promote safe behaviour in the workplace. We have concluded that the utilization of safety
behaviour requires that employees have the needed skills, be motivated to act in a safe
manner, and have the opportunity to engage in safe behaviour while at work. We particularly looked at how organizational leaders can help promote a positive safety
climate and build safety motivation among employees. We now consider how all of these
come together in workplaces. One vital tool for organizations is an occupational health and
safety management system (OHSMS). These are also sometimes simply called safety management systems. OHSMS can be “characterized as a set of institutionalized,
interrelated and interacting strategic elements designed to establish and achieve OH&S
goals and objectives.”71 In other words, OHSMS reflect an interactive collection of strategic organizational approaches and programs focused on identifying, achieving, and
maintaining desired occupational health and safety targets. The role of organizational
leadership in helping to build, implement, and sustain a successful OHSMS must be emphasized. Leaders from various areas and levels of an organization need to work jointly
to prioritize workplace safety, integrate safety practices into all aspects of the
organization’s operations, and communicate the pivotal importance and value of safety to
employees and other stakeholders. OHSMS interventions have become increasingly popular over the past two decades, with organizations implementing systems and various
agencies—for instance, the Canadian Standards Association and the International Labour
Organization—developing standards and auditing practices for their development and
implementation.
Occupational health and safety management systems range in scope. An effective OHSMS
places OH&S as an integrated concern across all aspects of an organization’s business operations. For instance, all departments, such as human resources, purchasing,
maintenance, finance, and sales should consider OH&S as a core concern. What might this
look like in practice? An OHSMS might dictate that the purchasing department should
routinely consider safety as a decision factor before deciding on new equipment to buy and install. The finance department should consider OH&S in its budgeting processes, and
maintenance should keep in mind all the recommended upkeep procedures to ensure that
equipment functions safely.
What separates an OHSMS from more traditional OH&S programs? Typically, OHSMS
feature OH&S concerns in a more integrated and proactive light.72 Although OHSMS
approaches may differ across organizations, there are some common features. First and foremost in many OHSMS is a focus on organizational and leadership commitment to
safety. Similarly, employee participation, the assurance of adequate resources to support
OH&S activities, and safety goals and objectives are core features in these systems.73 For
more on these and other common OHSMS features, see OH&S Notebook 10.2. Read about
one company’s experience and success with OHSMS in OH&S Today 10.3.
OH&S Notebook 10.2: Primary Elements Of Occupational Health And Safety
Management System
There are several standards for occupational health and safety management systems
available internationally. These various models have much in common and provide
frameworks by which organizations can become more proactive about safety and integrate OH&S across their business operations. What are the core elements of an OHSMS? One
team of researchers who were developing a performance measurement tool for OHSMSs
compared a range of models. Choosing four highly comprehensive models, they identified
16 primary elements of OHSMSs to incorporate into their assessment tool. They are:
1. Management commitment and resources
2. Employee participation 3. OHS policy
4. Goals and objectives
5. Performance measures
6. System planning and development 7. OHSMS manual and procedures
8. Training system
9. Hazard control system 10. Prevention and corrective action system
11. Procurement and contracting
12. Communication system 13. Evaluation system
14. Continual improvement
15. Integration
16. Management review
Other researchers have since compared the OHSMS components and found substantial
overlap with the list above.
Sources: C.F. Redinger and S.P. Levine, “Development and Evaluation of the Michigan Occupational Health and Safety Management System Assessment Instrument: A Universal
OHSMS Performance Measurement Tool,” American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal, Vol. 59 (1998): 578; L.S. Robson, J.A. Clarke, K. Cullen, A. Bielecky, C. Severin, P.L. Bigelow, et al. “The Effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety Management System
Interventions: A Systematic Review,” Safety Science, Vol. 45 (2007): 332; J.M. Haight, P.
Yorio, K.A. Rost, and D.R. Willmer, “Safety Management Systems: Comparing Content &
Impact,” Professional Safety, 59, 5 (2014): 44–51.
OH&S Today 10.3: Setting a Goal For Safety: “Nobody Gets Hurt” At Imperial Oil
Imperial Oil is committed to a safe and productive workplace with the goal “Nobody Gets
Hurt.” The company is working toward this goal via the company-wide Operations Integrity
Management System (OIMS), which is a comprehensive health and safety framework that
focuses on several elements, with leadership, personnel and training, and risk management viewed as core drivers of the system. Imperial Oil believes that its health and
safety focus contributes to organizational performance and increases its competitive
advantage.
Imperial Oil’s commitment to health and safety is showing results. The company’s 2017
numbers tell the tale. At the end of that year, Imperial Oil employed 5523 individuals with a
total payroll of $1.4 billion. Its total recordable incident frequency was .26 per 200 000 hours worked. It also boasted innovative strategies such as using virtual reality for safety
training. Other aspects of Imperial Oil’s health and safety program include safety
leadership training, office safety, driver safety, contractor safety, and a loss prevention
program that involves employees in hazard identification and peer coaching.
Source: Imperial Oil. Found at: http://www.imperialoil.ca/Canada-
English/community_safety_people.aspx (accessed August 2, 2019); Imperial Oil, 2017
Corporate Sustainability Report. Found at:
https://cdn.imperialoil.ca/~/media/imperial/files/company/publications/corporate-
citizenship-report/corporate_sustainability_report_2017.pdf (accessed May 8, 2019).
There are several standards available internationally by which to measure OHSMS. These include the International Labour Organization’s ILO-OSH 2001, the British Standards
Institute’s OHSAS 18001, and the American National Standards Institute’s ANSI Z10. The
Canadian Standards Association published its standard for occupational health and safety
management systems, CSA-Z1000-06, in 2006, and updated it in 2014. The various
standards have much in common in guiding organizations toward effective occupational
health and safety management systems. Let’s consider the CSA-Z1000-06, and its 2014
update (CSA-Z1000-14) in more detail.
Like many other standards, the CSA-Z1000 is based on the Plan-Do-Check-Act continuous
quality improvement model.74 As illustrated in Figure 10.2, this cycle promotes OH&S in a
strategic and continuous manner. Guided by OH&S policy, the Plan stage allows organizations to consider issues such as legal requirements pertaining to safety, hazards,
and risk, and the setting of OH&S goals and objectives. At the Do stage organizations are
engaged in ongoing safety activities such as emergency preparedness, safety training, and
preventive measures. In the 2014 update, emphasis is provided on how to incorporate
workers into workplace safety management activities and programming. The Check stage
incorporates activities such as safety monitoring, incident investigation, and auditing. The
Act stage involves managerial review and continuous improvement, an aspect strengthened in the 2014 update. The Plan-Do-Check-Act model is cyclical. For instance, a
concern raised via managerial review would influence later planning and acting with
respect to OH&S.75
The standard emphasizes that commitment, leadership, and participation are “crucial to
the success of an OHSMS.”76 Its proscribed activities for senior management include establishing the OHSMS, ensuring appropriate resources for OH&S, developing OH&S
policy, and encouraging worker participation. To encourage worker participation, an
element emphasized in the recent revision, organizations need to do things such as remove barriers to participation, establish OH&S committees, and deliver appropriate health and
safety training.
The CSA Standard also recognizes the core role of an OH&S policy in the effective delivery
of an OHSMS.77 The policy should be developed in consultation with employee groups. Once adopted, it should be widely publicized by means of meetings, newsletters,
pamphlets, and so forth. The policy should be posted in management offices to serve as a
constant reminder of the commitment and responsibility of the executive branch. The corporate health and safety policy is the most visible sign of management commitment to
health and safety, so this commitment should be expressed clearly and unambiguously.
Individuals must understand their role in enacting the health and safety policy. Accountability for OH&S elements assigned to various positions should be articulated.
Employees should be held responsible for safe work practices, including the reporting of all
observed unsafe practices, procedures, and hazards to the appropriate supervisor. All employees should be required to participate in OH&S training and development programs.
As part of the OHSMS, a timetable for the review and evaluation of the policy and
regulations by the chief executive officer, president, or board should be outlined. For more
information, see the tips for writing a health and safety policy outlined in OH&S Notebook
10.3.
OH&S Notebook 10.3: Health And Safety Policy Checklist
An organizational health and safety policy must be comprehensive and effective. The CCOHS provides useful information regarding policy development and evaluation on its
website. Below are some example questions that a health and safety committee might ask
when evaluating its own organization’s policy. Responses to items like the ones here will
help guide further development and refining of the policy:
• Is a clear commitment to health and safety evident in the policy
statement?
• Is the senior officer responsible for implementing and reviewing the
policy identified?
• Is the policy signed by the president or CEO?
• Have the views of all stakeholders (e.g., employees, managers,
supervisors, safety representatives, and safety committees) been
incorporated?
• Was the safe performance of work tasks discussed with employees?
Is there a clear statement of how their performance will be
assessed?
• Is the role of employees in health and safety matters stated (e.g., the
positions on inspection teams and safety committees)?
• Are individual responsibilities for health and safety duties clearly
allocated?
• Are the people responsible for functions such as safety incident
reports, safety inspections, and first aid identified?
• Is health and safety given as great a priority as economic and
marketing matters?
• Is the employer’s duty to provide health and safety training to all
employees stated in the policy?
• Does the policy ensure that health and safety issues will be
considered when planning new methods or processes?
• Is the financing of health and safety programs detailed and ensured?
• Are all employees aware of the policy? Are copies of the policy
available to all employees?
• Are there periodic revisions and updates of the safety policy? Are the
procedures for and timing of such reviews clarified?
• Does the policy make clear that the ultimate responsibility for safety
rests with senior management?
• Is safety and health performance included in employee performance
reviews?
• Does the policy list arrangements for liaison with contractors?
• Does the policy help make individuals aware of their legal
responsibilities?
Source: CCOHS, “Guide to Writing an OHS Policy Statement” (July 12, 2017). Found at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/osh_policy.html (accessed May 8, 2019).
OHSMS interventions are embedded within organizations and several contextual factors can influence the effectiveness of the system. Organizational and leader support is
emphasized as a core aspect of program success. The energy and persistence of the
individuals involved in delivering the elements of the OHSMS are drivers of success.
Additionally, a workforce that is engaged in the program elements and feels empowered to enact safety behaviours, make safety relevant decisions, and create safety change is
associated with program success. Programs elements that are designed to reflect the concerns and interests of the workers contribute to effectiveness.78 Additionally, efforts
need to ensure that the OHSMS is a visible part of the organization that is understood by
employees.79
Elements of OHSMS can be used a motivator for firm-level and individual safety performance. One study examined administrative elements of OHSMS that focus on human
performance. Researchers considered factors such as making hiring decisions with safety
in mind, cooperation, safe work procedures, and employee involvement. Each had a
positive influence on injury and illness rates in workplaces.80
A key element of a OHSMS is continuous improvement. Information gained at all points of a
model such as the Plan-Do-Check-Act continuous quality improvement model should be used to inform continual learning and improvement. A challenge in OH&S has been that
the metrics used to evaluate success have often been things that happen “after the fact.”
For example, a company may use an increase in lost-time injury rates as an indicator that improvement is needed in some elements of the OH&S programming. However, such
“lagging” indicators mean that improvement efforts might be reactive rather than
proactive in nature. There is growing research emphasis on helping companies identify
proactive signs or indicators that can predict health and safety outcomes. For example, recent research illustrates that metrics such as participation in pre-task safety meetings,
degree of leadership involvement in safety, and safety inspections are effective predictors
of health and safety outcomes.81
Occupational health and safety management systems can be mandatory or voluntary.
Some industries require safety management systems. For instance, Transport Canada
requires them in the aviation industry.82 Requirements can also vary depending on location. In some countries, it is mandatory for organizations to have an OHSMS in place.
For example, via its regulations, Norway requires an OHSMS. In Canada, an OHSMS and
compliance with CSA-Z1000-14 is voluntary for organizations. However, despite its
voluntary nature, implementing an OHSMS that meets the CSA-Z1000-14 standards carries
numerous benefits. An effective OHSMS can help improve an organization’s OH&S
performance. One study found that organizations that adopted an OHSMS had better
safety performance on a variety of outcomes including employee safety training, articulation of safety goals, risk identification, and risk analysis.83 Another study reported
that improvements in existing OHSMSs were associated with improved safety outcomes
including safety participation.84
Another benefit of adopting an OHSMS that complies with the CSA-Z1000-14 standard is
that if a safety incident were to occur, compliance with the standard would help an
organization establish due diligence. A common misconception exists that written
programs, policies, and audits raise the liability of the corporation in terms of regulatory
compliance or in the event of a safety incident. In fact, many courts are basing the severity
of civil and criminal penalties in part on the employer’s ability to prove that it was duly
diligent in auditing and correcting deficiencies in its own operations. If the corporation does not have an OHSMS in place, how will it prove beyond a reasonable doubt that it has
taken every reasonable precaution to ensure the health and safety of the workers and the environment as required under Canadian occupational health and safety legislation?
Clearly, maintaining an OHSMS is increasingly important for Canadian employers.
Summary
A comprehensive approach to increasing health and safety in the workplace should
emphasize employees’ ability to act in a safe manner, their motivation to do so, and the
provision of opportunities to perform their tasks safely.
A number of approaches can be taken to increase employees’ safety motivation, including
the use of behaviour modification, goal setting, and a focus on autonomous motivation via
self-determination theory. Also, the organizational context in which the employee is asked
to perform his or her work should emphasize safety.
We stressed the importance of a positive safety climate and active safety leadership in
setting the stage for safety behaviours. We also considered the importance of occupational health and safety management systems, particularly those that comply with standards
such as the CSA-Z1000-14 to help integrate OH&S with other organizational functions, to
improve an organization’s safety performance, and to demonstrate due diligence.
Key Terms
active transactional leadership
amotivation
autonomous motivation contingent reward
controlled motivation
extrinsic motivation
intrinsic motivation
management by exception (active)
occupational health and safety management system (OHSMS)
safety behaviours safety compliance
safety leadership
safety motivation safety participation
transformational leadership
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 10.1
Review
Though considerable empirical data support their effectiveness, debate continues about the use of
behaviourally based safety programs in industry. Employees and unions have often rejected such
programs. Why do you think this is so? What can be done to enhance the acceptance of such programs?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.2
Review
Explain how focusing on behaviours rather than on safety incidents might be a better approach to improving occupational health and safety.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.3
Review
Why do you think setting goals can influence an employee’s safety-related actions in the workplace? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.4
Review
How might organizations help employees create autonomous motivation for safety-related
behaviours? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.5
Review
Describe the role of an organization’s safety climate in the promotion of safety behaviours at work. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.6
Review
What role must organizational leaders play in creating a safety-focused workforce?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.7
Review
What are the main characteristics of occupational health and safety management systems?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 10.8
Review
What are the main benefits of OH&S management systems, like CSA-Z1000-14? What types of chal-
lenges might an organization face when trying to implement such a program?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 10.1
Review
In discussing health and safety management systems, we have emphasized the responsibilities and
roles of management in establishing and enforcing safety standards. What is the role of employees in
these programs? To what extent should employees be responsible for taking the initiative to en-hance health and safety in the workplace?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Steeping some tea...
Steeping some tea...
Steeping some tea... Exercise 10.5
Review
Many organizations have their health and safety policies posted on their websites. With a group of
classmates, examine these policies. Each of you should choose a different organization in a different market sector. How long are the policies? What information do they cover? Do they establish the
unique responsibilities of management and employees? Do they refer to the organization’s safety
leadership? Compare your findings with those of your classmates. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 10.6
Review
Assess the safety culture of your school or workplace. The following weblink may give you some ideas
about questions that assess factors related to safety culture:
http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/publications/tp13844-menu-275.htm. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 10.7
Review
Search social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter for organizations that are using these sites to promote occupational health and safety. What are some of the messages they are getting out? Who are
they likely to reach? To what extent are they interactive? Do you think that social media are effective
tools in communicating OH&S messages?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 10.8
Review
Organizations are increasingly adopting comprehensive OH&S management systems that aim to
comply with the standards articulated by various agencies (e.g., CSA, ILO). Search the Internet for
examples of the types of management systems companies are using. Compare the programs to the
frameworks suggested by the standards’ associations. Do you think they comply? Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 10.1
Show Correct Answer
The team at your workplace is very excited. The CEO has won the City Business Association’s Health &
Safety Leader of the Year Award. You’ve been asked to draft a press release that you can share with the
public relations department. You’re in an ideal position to do this task, because not only are you on the
JHSC, but also the company’s healthy and wellness programs coordinator. In the press release you
need to comment on the organization’s health and safety programming and how Amelia, the CEO, has
championed and promoted safety in your workplace. (You can decide the type of organization, the
manner of programming, and nature of Amelia’s actions. The important thing is to paint a picture of a
positive safety climate championed by a senior executive who cares about safety.)
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
A Question of Motivation
To: You, OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Safety motivation
Hi Again
I was doing my walk through the store yesterday and I noticed a couple of things that bothered me.
Several of the employees were wearing sandals or open-toed shoes (I know it’s hot but I thought that
this was a safety issue). I saw at least one guy stocking shelves who seemed to be carrying far too many
boxes. In the warehouse area, I noticed that no one is wearing the hearing protection or work gloves
that we bought. I’m kind of frustrated given the amount of work we have done on store safety. What do
you think we should do? Should we offer some type of award system?
When completing this assignment in addition to responding to the above, address the following:
1. What might a behaviour-based reward system look like in this case? What are
the pros and cons of taking such an approach?
2. Consider the elements of safety performance: ability, motivation, and
opportunity. How can you assess what aspects of safety performance are
lacking in the types of safety violations described above?
3. What are some strategies you could suggest to improve the employees’ safety
motivation?
4. How might Well-Mart’s leaders help to improve the company’s safety climate?
Upload a PDF to submit your cumulative assignment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
References
1. L.M. Goldenhar and P.A. Schulte, “Intervention Research in Occupational Health and
Safety,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 36 (1994): 763–775.
2. L.S. Robson, J.A. Clarke, K. Cullen, A. Bielecky, C. Severin, P.L. Bigelow, et al., “The
Effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety Management System Interventions: A
Systematic Review,” Safety Science 45 (2007): 329–353.
3. M.J. Colligan and A. Cohen, “The Role of Training in Promoting Workplace Safety and Health,”in J. Barling and M. Frone, eds., Handbook of Workplace Safety (Washington: APA,
2004), 223–248.
4. S.E. Johnson, “Behavioral Safety Theory: Understanding the Theoretical
Foundation,” Professional Safety (October 2003): 39–44; B. Sulzer-Azaroff and A. Austin, “Does BBS Work? Behavior-based Safety and Injury Reduction: A Survey of the
Evidence,” Professional Safety (July 2007): 19–24.
5. E.S. Geller, “Behavior-based Safety in Industry: Realizing the Large-Scale Potential of Psychology to Promote Human Welfare,” Applied and Preventive Psychology 10 (2001): 87–
105; Sulzer-Azaroff and Austin, “Does BBS Work?”
6. A. Cohen and M.J. Colligan, “Accepting Occupational Health and Safety Regimens,” in D.S. Gochman, ed., Handbook of Health Behaviour Research II: Provider Determinants (New
York: Plenum, 1997), 379–394.
7. M.A. Griffin and A. Neal, “Perception of Safety at Work: A Framework for Linking Safety
Climate to Safety Performance, Knowledge, and Motivation,” Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology 17 (2000): 347–358.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. B. Sulzer-Azaroff, T.C. Harris, and K.B. McCann, “Beyond Training: Organizational
Performance Management Techniques,” in M.J. Colligan, ed., Occupational Safety and
Health Training (Philadelphia: Hanley and Befus, 1994), 321–340.
11. A. Neal and M.A. Griffin, “A Study of the Lagged Relationships Among Safety Climate,
Safety Motivation, Safety Behaviour, and Accidents at the Individual and Group
Levels,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91(2006): 946–953.
12. M.S. Christian, J.C. Bradley, J.C. Wallace, and M.J. Burke, “Workplace Safety: A Meta-
analysis of the Roles of Person and Situation Factors,” Journal of Applied Psychology 94
(2009):1103–127.
13. Geller, “Behavior-based Safety in Industry”; J. Saari, “When Does Behaviour Modification Prevent Accidents?” Leadership and Organizational Development Journal 15
(1994): 11–15.
14. T. Setenay, H. Lotlikar, S. Salen, and N. Daraiseh, “Effectiveness of Behaviour-based Safety Interventions to Reduce Accidents and Injuries in Workplaces: Critical Appraisal and
Meta-analysis,” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science7 (2006): 191–209.
15. J.S. Hickman and E.S. Geller, “A Safety Self-Management Intervention for Mining
Operations,” Journal of Safety Research 34 (2003): 299–308.
16. K.A. Hutton, C.G. Sibley, D.N. Harper, and M. Hunt, “Modifying Driver Behaviour with
Passenger Feedback,” Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 4
(2001): 257–269.
17. M.D. Cooper, R.A. Phillips, and I.T. Robertson, “Improving Safety on Construction Sites
by Psychologically based Techniques: Alternative Approaches to the Measurement of
Safety Behaviour,” European Review of Applied Psychology 43 (1993): 33–37.
18. L.M. Frederiksen, ed., Handbook of Organizational Behaviour Management (New York:
Wiley, 1982); Geller, “Behavior-based Safety in Industry.”
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1986), 301–319.
20. A. Daniels. “Positive Reinforcement: The Best Way to Change Any Work
Behavior,” Leadership Excellence, 31(3) (2014): 9.
21. D. Zohar, “Modifying Supervisory Practices to Improve Subunit Safety: A Leadership-
based Intervention Model,” Journal of Applied Psychology87 (2002): 156–163.
22. M.L. Ambrose and C.T. Kulik, “Old Friends, New Faces: Motivation Research in the 1990s,” Journal of Management 25 (1999): 231–292; E.A. Locke and G.P. Latham, “Building a
Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year
Odyssey,” American Psychologist 57 (2002): 705–717.
23. Locke and Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory.”
24. P. Sheeran and M. Silverman, “Evaluation of Three Interventions to Promote Workplace
Health and Safety: Evidence for the Utility of Implementation Intentions,” Social Science
and Medicine 56, no. 10 (2003): 2153–163.
25. Locke and Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory.”
26. P.F. Drucker, “What Results Should You Expect: A User’s Guide to MBO,” Public
Administration Review 36 (1976): 12–19.
27. R. Rodgers and J.E. Hunter, “Impact of Management by Objectives on Organizational
Productivity,” Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (1991): 322–336.
28. E. Rune, “Road Safety Management by Objectives: A Critical Analysis of the Norwegian
Approach,” Accident Analysis and Prevention40(2008): 1115–122.
29. E.L. Deci and R.M. Ryan, Handbook of Self-Determination Research(Rochester, NY: The
University of Rochester Press, 2002).
30. M. Gagné and E.L. Deci, “Self-determination Theory and Work Motivation,” Journal of Organizational Behaviour 26 (2005): 331–362; and E.L. Deci and R.M. Ryan, Handbook of
Self-Determination Research.
31. Ibid.
32. N. Scott, M. Fleming, and E.K. Kelloway, “Understanding Why Employees Behave Safely
from a Self-Determination Theory Perspective,” in M. Gagné, ed., The Oxford Handbook of
Work Engagement, Motivation, and Self-Determination Theory(New York: Oxford University
Press, 2014).
33. Ibid.
34. M. Gagné and E.L. Deci, “Self-determination Theory and Work Motivation.”
35. Ibid.; E.L. Deci and R.M. Ryan, Handbook of Self-Determination Research.
36. Ibid.
37. N. Scott, M. Fleming, and E.K. Kelloway, “Understanding Why Employees Behave Safely
from a Self-Determination Theory Perspective.”
38. M. Gagné and E.L. Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and Work Motivation.”
39. Colligan and Cohen, “The Role of Training.”
40. M.J. Smith, B.T. Karsh, P. Carayon, and F.T. Conway, “Controlling Occupational Safety
and Health Hazards,” in J.C. Quick and L.E. Tetrick, eds., Handbook of Occupational Health
Psychology (Washington: APA, 2003), 35–68.
41. T. Cree and E.K. Kelloway, “Responses to Occupational Hazards: Exit and
Participation,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 2 (1997): 304–311.
42. D. Zohar, “Safety Climate in Industrial Organizations: Theoretical and Applied
Implications,” Journal of Applied Psychology 65 (1980): 96–102; Idem, “The Effects of Leadership Dimensions, Safety Climate, and Assigned Priorities on Minor Injuries in Work
Groups,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 23 (2002): 75–92.
43. J. Barling, C. Loughlin, and E.K. Kelloway, “Development and Test of a Model Linking Safety-Specific Transformational Leadership and Occupational Safety,” Journal of Applied
Psychology87 (2002): 488–496; A. Neal and M.A. Griffin, “A Study of the Lagged
Relationships Among Safety Climate, Safety Motivation, Safety Behaviour, and Accidents at
the Individual and Group Levels,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006): 946–953; T.M.
Probst, T.L. Brubaker, and A. Barsotti, “Organizational Injury Rate Underreporting: The
Moderating Effect of Organizational Safety Climate,” Journal of Applied Psychology 93
(2008): 1147–154.
44. K.J. Nielsen, “Improving Safety Culture Through the Health and Safety Organization: A
Case Study,” Journal of Safety Research, 48 (2014): 7–17.
45. Ibid.
46. A.R. Hale, F.W. Guldenmund, P.L.C.H. Van Loenhout, and J.I.H. Oh, “Evaluating Safety
Management and Culture Interventions to Improve Safety: Effective Intervention
Strategies,” Safety Science, 48(8) (2010): 1026–1035.
47. M. Hemingway and C.S. Smith, “Organizational Climate and Occupational Stressors as Predictors of Withdrawal Behaviours and Injuries in Nurses,” Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology 72 (1999): 285–299; D.A. Hofmann and A. Stetzer, “A Cross-Level
Investigation of Factors Influencing Unsafe Behaviours and Accidents,” Personnel
Psychology 49 (1996): 307–339.
48. Barling et al., “Development and Test of a Model.”
49. A. Wills, B. Watson, and H. Biggs, “An Exploratory Investigation into Safety Climate and
Work-related Driving,” Work: Journal of Prevention, Assessment, and Rehabilitation 32
(2009): 81–94.
50. Barling et al., “Development and Test of a Model”; C.-S. Lu and C.-S. Yang, “Safety
Leadership and Safety Behaviour in Container Terminal Operations,” Safety Science 48 (2010): 123–134; J. Mullen, “Testing a Model of Employee Willingness to Raise Safety
Issues,” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 37, no. 4 (2005): 273–282; H.S. Shannon, J.
Mayr, and T. Haines, “Overview of the Relationship between Organizational and Workplace
Factors and Injury Rates,” Safety Science 26 (1997): 201–217.
51. Cree and Kelloway, “Responses to Occupational Hazards.”
52. J. Mullen, “Testing a Model of Employee Willingness to Raise Safety Issues,” Canadian
Journal of Behavioural Science 37, no. 4 (2005): 273–282.
53. Barling et al., “Development and Test of a Model.”
54. E.K. Kelloway, J. Mullen, and L. Francis, “The Divergent Effects of Transformational and
Passive Leadership on Employee Safety,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 11
(2006): 76–86.
55. J. Mullen, E.K. Kelloway, and M. Teed, “Inconsistent Style of Leadership as a Predictor of
Safety Behaviour,” Work and Stress 25 (2011): 41–54.
56. B.M. Bass, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (New York: Free Press,
1985).
57. Ibid.
58. D. Zohar, “The Effects of Leadership Dimensions, Safety Climate, and Assigned Priorities on Minor Injuries in Work Groups,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 23 (2002): 75–92; and
E.A. Kapp, “The Influence of Supervisor Leadership Practices and Perceived Group Safety
Climate on Employee Safety Performance,” Safety Science 50 (2012): 1119–124.
59. B.M. Bass, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations.
60. D. Zohar, “The Effects of Leadership Dimensions, Safety Climate, and Assigned Priorities
on Minor Injuries in Work Groups.”
61. T.A. Judge and R.F Piccolo, “Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-
analytic Test of Their Relative Validity,” Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004): 755–768.
62. S. Clarke, “Safety Leadership: A Meta-analytic Review of Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles as Antecedents of Safety Behaviour,” Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86(1) (2013), 22–49, doi: 10.1111/j.2044-
8325.2012.02064.x.
63. Ibid.
64. B.M. Bass, Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations; T.A. Judge and J.E. Bono,
“Five-Factor Model of Personality and Transformational Leadership,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 85 (2000): 751–765.
65. Idem, “From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the
Vision,” Organizational Dynamics 18, no. 3 (1990): 19–31.
66. Barling et al., “Development and Test of a Model.”
67. E.A. Kapp, “The Influence of Supervisor Leadership Practices and Perceived Group
Safety Climate on Employee Safety Performance.”
68. M. Martínez-Córcoles, M. Schöbel, F.J. Gracia, I. Tomás, and J.M. Peiró, “Linking Empowering Leadership to Safety Participation in Nuclear Power Plants: A Structural
Equation Model,” Journal of Safety Research 43 (2012): 215–221.
69. J. Barling, T. Weber, and E.K. Kelloway, “Effects of Transformational Leadership Training on Attitudinal and Financial Outcomes: A Field Experiment,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 81 (1996): 827–832; J.E. Mullen and E.K. Kelloway, “Safety Leadership: A
Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Transformational Leadership on Safety
Outcomes,” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 82 (2009): 253–272.
70. S. Clarke, “Safety Leadership: A Meta-Analytic Review of Transformational and
Transactional Leadership Styles as Antecedents of Safety Behaviour.”
71. P. Yorio, D.R. Willmer, and S.M. Moore, “Health and Safety Management Systems Through a Multilevel and Strategic Management Perspective: Theoretical and Empirical
Considerations,” Safety Science 72 (2015): 221–228.
72. L.S. Robson, J.A. Clarke, K. Cullen, A. Bielecky, C. Severin, P.L. Bigelow, et al., “The Effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety Management System Interventions: A
Systematic Review.”
73. C.F. Redinger and S.P. Levine, “Development and Evaluation of the Michigan Occupational Health and Safety Management System Assessment Instrument: A Universal
OHSMS Performance Measurement Tool,” American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal 59 (1998): 572–581.
74. L.S. Robson, J.A. Clarke, K. Cullen, A. Bielecky, C. Severin, P.L. Bigelow, et al., “The Effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety Management System Interventions: A
Systematic Review”; Canadian Standards Association, CSA Standard Z1000-06—
Occupational Health and Safety Management and International Labour Organization, OSH
Management System: A Tool for Continual Improvement (2011).
75. Canadian Standards Association, CSA Standard Z1000-06: Occupational Health and
Safety Management; CSA Group. “CAN/CSA-Z1000-14. Overview.” Found at: http://shop.csa.ca/en/canada/occupational-health-
and-safety-management/cancsa-z1000-14/invt/27024062014 (accessed August 2, 2019).
76. Canadian Standards Association, CSA Standard Z1000-06: Occupational Health and
Safety Management.
77. Ibid.
78. A.R. Hale, F.W. Guldenmund, P.L.C.H. Van Loenhout, and J.I.H. Oh, “Evaluating Safety
Management and Culture Interventions to Improve Safety: Effective Intervention
Strategies.”
79. P. Yorio, D.R. Willmer, and S.M. Moore, “Health and Safety Management Systems
Through a Multilevel and Strategic Management Perspective: Theoretical and Empirical
Considerations.”
80. P.L. Yorio and J.K. Wachter, “The Impact of Human Performance Focused Safety and
Health Management Practices on Injury and Illness Rates: Do Size and Industry
Matter?” Safety Science, 62 (2014): 157–167.
81. S. Sinelnikov, J. Inouye, and S. Kerper. “Using Leading Indicators to Measure
Occupational Health and Safety Performance,” Safety Science, 72 (2015): 240–248; Wael M.
Alruqi and Matthew R. Hallowell, “Critical Success Factors for Construction Safety: Review and Meta-Analysis of Safety Leading Indicators,” Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management145, no. 3 (2019): 04019005.
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2019).
83. E. Bottani, L. Monica, and G. Vignali, “Safety Management Systems: Performance
Differences Between Adopters and Non-adopters,” Safety Science 47 (2009): 155–62.
84. S. Torp and B.E. Moen, “The Effects of Occupational Health and Safety Management on Work Environment and Health: A Prospective Study,” Applied Ergonomics, 37 (2006): 776–
783.
Chapter 11
EMERGENCY PLANNING
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• define an emergency
• list the key elements in emergency preparedness
• describe the concept of an emergency plan
• explain the necessity of having emergency and evacuation plans
• describe the principles of fire prevention and suppression
• discuss postcontact efforts of helping individuals deal with the
stresses associated with emergency situations and getting back to
normal operations
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lk7FcwY2kfs
Emergency Plans
The historic floods in Ontario and Quebec in the spring of 2017 are estimated to have
caused at least $223 million in insured damage. There is no clear estimate of the amount of uninsured damages although in Quebec alone the flood cost the provincial government an
additional $376 million. As of this writing, in the spring of 2019, floods are once again
wreaking havoc in Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick. Cities such as Ottawa and Pettawawa have declared states of emergency. In Montreal a state of emergency was
exacerbated when the flood waters burst the dikes at Sainte-Marthe-sur-le Lac just west of
the city. A recent report by the Intact Centre on Climate Adaption at the University of
Waterloo identified the costs associated with flooded basements as the single largest cost
associated with climate change to date; on average, a flooded basement resulted in $43
000 of costs.
Although our focus during natural disasters is often on the individual costs (e.g., evacuation, damage to homes), it is important to realize that businesses experience the
same costs and risks. The initial focus during a disaster is often evacuating the business
and ensuring that neither employees or customers are placed at risk. During a flood or similar disaster, businesses often have to close, resulting in significant loss of revenue.
Flood waters can damage buildings, equipment, and stock, increasing the costs. After the
waters recede, the business needs a plan to restore the business and re-open as soon as
possible.
All of these effects point to the need for businesses to have an emergency plan—a plan to
mitigate (i.e., reduce the initial impact of the disaster), to recover (i.e., restore the business
to its original condition after the disaster has ended), and to ensure the continuity of the
business.
Sources: Montreal Gazette, “Spring Floods in Quebec and Ontario Cost $223 Million,
Insurance Board says” (Sept 1, 2017). Found at: https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-
news/spring-floods-in-quebec-and-ontario-cost-223m-insurance-board-says (accessed August 5, 2019); The Globe and Mail, “Quebec Dike Breaks, Triggering Emergency
Evacuation Near Montreal and Pushing Flood Waters to Record Levels” (April 28, 2019).
Found at: https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-quebec-dike-breaks- triggering-emergency-evacuation-near-montreal-and (accessed August 5, 2019): L.
Adriano, “Report: Basement Flooding Is the Top Climate Change Cost in Canada” (April 19,
2019). Found at: https://www.insurancebusinessmag.com/ca/news/flood/report- basement-flooding-is-the-top-climate-change-cost-in-canada-165200.aspx (accessed
August 5, 2019).
Introduction
The widespread impact of the 1998 ice storm in Ontario and Quebec; the events of -
September 11, 2001; the subsequent rash of anthrax-related scares; the outbreak of severe
acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Canadian cities; the predicted H1N1 pandemic of 2009; the devastation by Hurricane Juan in Nova Scotia in 2003; and, of course,
the Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010, are all examples of emergencies. The fire in Fort
McMurray and the 2014 shooting in the Canadian parliament are more recent examples of
emergencies. What do these events have in common?
Emergencies are by definition catastrophic stressors (see Chapter 7). First, they are sudden.
There is a defined starting point for each of these emergencies and the events are usually time limited. Note that this is not to say that the events could not be anticipated or that it
was not possible to have a planned response. Although we might not be sure when an
emergency might happen, there are many emergencies that require a response that we can
anticipate in advance. Second, each of the events are severe—in many cases, they threatened the lives of affected individuals and, in some cases, resulted in the loss of life.
Moreover, although emergencies are typically time limited, the consequences of the event
may linger for years. Thus, although the immediate focus in Alberta has been to evacuate individuals and ensure that they were safe, we can anticipate an extended recovery period
during which the city will be rebuilt and things will slowly get back to “normal.” Although
the emergency is likely to be over within a period of weeks, the recovery process will most
likely extend for years.
Aside from the immediate physical perils and the recovery process, organizations may also
be judged by how they respond to emergencies; indeed, there are now firms that specialize
in advising companies on how to respond to crises and emergencies. For example, the owners of Chapman Ice Cream in Markdale, Ontario, were lauded for their response to the
fire that destroyed their factory. The owners committed to rebuilding their plant and to “taking care of” their 350 employees by keeping them on salary while the plant was being
rebuilt. In doing so, the company solidified its reputation as a good corporate citizen.
Emergencies can also extend well beyond the company—the Lac Mégantic fire resulting from a railcar derailment killed 47 people in the town and resulted in the railway company
being widely vilified for causing the tragedy. As these examples illustrate, the way that a
company handles an emergency reflects on its image as a corporate citizen.
In Canada, emergency response is largely up to individuals, and each individual is responsible for knowing what to do in an emergency. As events overwhelm an individual’s
capacity to respond, governments take action in a progressive manner. This might include
involving organizations such as companies. For example, during a weather emergency such as a snowstorm, governments might ask employers to suspend work (i.e., declare a snow
day) in order to keep traffic off the streets to allow for snow-clearing operations.
First, local emergency organizations (e.g., municipal emergency services, emergency
measures organizations) respond. At the next level, each province and territory has an emergency measures organization (EMO) that is tasked with managing large-scale
emergencies and with supporting local organizations as required. Finally, the federal
government and its agencies may become involved in emergency response efforts,
depending on the nature of the disaster. For example, during Hurricane Juan in Nova
Scotia, the Canadian Forces were deployed to assist in the cleanup efforts.
Organizations must consider the possibility of a disaster, in which the potential for loss is very high. No safety program is complete without a planned response to the threat of a
disaster. Such plans comprise part of a company’s due diligence on safety. In cases like the
Deepwater Horizon, the company’s liability for disasters may be increased by the failure to plan for emergencies that a reasonable person might anticipate. Many would suggest that
there is also a moral responsibility (i.e., in addition to a legal responsibility) for companies
to have emergency plans in place. This responsibility might be enhanced when companies
engage in activities that are thought to pose a special risk to the environment or to
workers.
In this chapter, we consider two central aspects of emergency planning in organizations.
First, we consider issues related to emergency preparedness. Second, we address the organization’s response to emergency. We finish the chapter with a specific consideration
of fire and evacuation plans.
Emergency Preparedness
An emergency is any sudden set of circumstances demanding immediate action. For the
most part, we are concerned with emergencies that either cause or threaten to cause the
loss of, or damage to, life or property. Being a victim of a computer virus or having your
computer crash is also an emergency (and one that business needs to be concerned with),
but we will limit our consideration to health and safety–related emergencies.
Emergencies can be naturally occurring or caused by humans. Naturally occurring emergencies include disease epidemics (animal, human, plant) and weather conditions
(e.g., blizzards, hail, hurricanes, earthquakes, storm surges, torrential rain). Some natural
emergencies may be deceptive, in that their severity may not be immediately apparent. For example, at the beginning of the SARS outbreak, nobody recognized the seriousness of the
impending crisis—indeed, the initial diagnosis was atypical pneumonia. It was a month
after the initial reports from China that the World Health Organization issued a health alert.
Other emergencies are caused by humans. These emergencies can include explosions, accidents, fires, and chemical and oil spills. They can also include riots, civil disorder,
terrorism, and acts of workplace violence. Riots and civil disorder have always been
concerns of health and safety professionals; we now also recognize the need to anticipate
and respond to terrorism and acts of violence.
The general probability of any of these emergencies actually happening may be low, but
they can happen, and a company (or the home) is remiss if it does not institute an
emergency plan. A disaster may be prevented or mitigated by an effective emergency plan.
Many organizations focus on how they will respond during an emergency; true emergency
planning, though, begins long before the onset of any emergency and continues long
afterward. Emergency planning involves anticipating and planning for emergencies,
putting those plans into action as needed, and then getting back to work and refining plans
in light of new learning.
One study describes a five-stage crisis management process that generates specific strategies at each stage.1 The first step, signal detection, is targeted at prevention and
begins with the recognition that an emergency is possible or imminent. The next
step, preparation, involves senior management in the adoption of a crisis management mindset, the creation of a response plan, and the introduction of response training. The
third stage, damage containment, consumes most of an organization’s crisis management
resources. The literature on organizational communication, organizational support,
employee assistance programs (EAPs), and stress interventions focuses largely on activities at this stage. The fourth stage, recovery, involves developing short- and long-term plans to
resume normal business.2 The final stage is learning, where the focus is on assessing and
reflecting on the incident with a view to improving operations and procedures.3
Though the benefits of a proactive response to emergencies are well known,4 many
organizations resist and do not do any systematic preparation for
emergencies.5 Management commitment to preparedness seems to be a critical determinant of how organizations prepare for emergencies. Response strategies typically
begin with organizational leaders.6 Moreover, organizational leaders are responsible for
both minimizing risk and responding to events in an effort to aid recovery and
readjustment after the events have occurred.7
With respect to workplace violence, organizations make a huge mistake when they “focus
on systems, operations, infrastructures and public relations and ignore the people . . .
[Employees] need to be assured of their safety and have their trust in leadership reinforced.”8 The importance of “people” issues was shown by a study in the aftermath of
the Mount Allison University Norwalk outbreak (see OH&S Today 11.1).9 Students’
perceptions of how well the university administration handled the crisis were a better predictor of their fear of future contamination and resulting stress than students’ own
experiences with the virus. Clearly, given the importance of these issues, HR has a major
role to play in developing and implementing emergency plans.10
OH&S Today 11.1: Norwalk Outbreak at Mount Allison
Mount Allison University, a small undergraduate university in Sackville, New Brunswick,
reported an outbreak of the Norwalk virus on October 12, 2006. The outbreak had apparently begun five days earlier, and more than 300 students were thought to be
affected. The university cancelled classes on Friday, October 13, and suspended all campus
activities for the weekend. Hand-washing stations were established throughout the university, and all public areas of the university underwent decontamination procedures.
These strategies were effective, and classes resumed on Monday without further incident.
However, students who were still recuperating from the illness were encouraged to not
attend classes. On the advice of Public Health officials, the university resumed
extracurricular activities and events on Wednesday, October 18.
Norwalk is actually a family of viruses that are spread primarily through fecal–oral contact. Contamination of food, water, or other vehicles as well as person-to-person transmission is
possible. As such, Norwalk is highly contagious, and the Norwalk virus is the likely culprit
behind many outbreaks of “stomach flu.” Outbreaks are fairly frequent, especially in institutional settings (e.g., nursing homes, hospitals) and in close quarters (e.g., cruise
ships). The virus results in a variety of gastro-intestinal symptoms and “is characterized by
acute onset of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea.” The symptoms
typically last one or two days.
Sources: CBC, “Mount Allison Virus Spread Through Bathrooms, Cafeteria: Officials”
(October 13, 2006). Found at: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/mount-
allison-virus-spread-through-bathrooms-cafeteria-officials-1.583864 (accessed August 5, 2019); Centers for Disease Control, “Norwalk-Like Viruses,” Public Health Consequences and
Outbreak Management (Atlanta: 2001).
As was the case with other forms of hazard control (see Chapter 4), an emergency plan needs to consider issues at the precontact, contact, and postcontact stages of any
emergency. Issues at the precontact stage include assessing hazards and planning
potential responses. Issues at the contact stage include evacuation, caring for the injured,
and ensuring emergency response. Issues at the postcontact stage include dealing with the
emotional trauma of an emergency and issues regarding the orderly return to work.
Precontact
The necessary elements in managing emergencies include an emergency plan, an
emergency manager, a fire plan, an evacuation plan, and a medical attention plan. Type
caption for image (optional)
An Emergency Plan
The first thing required is a formal, workable, well-controlled, rapid-response emergency
plan. Ensuring low levels of loss is dependent on a well-developed plan. The joint
occupational health and safety committee, as well as the local government, should be
involved in developing the plan.
An organization requires the following: hazard evaluation, an emergency response plan, an
evacuation plan, a means to notify the authorities, supplies, and drills.
HAZARD EVALUATION OH&S professionals (and managers) must evaluate the hazards that could cause an emergency (e.g., storage of flammable solvents near static electricity
or ignition sources), as well as the hazards with the greatest risk and loss potential. They
must also understand how emergency plans could be aborted or sidetracked if an
emergency were to occur; the extent of possible damage and injuries or fatalities; and the possibility of the loss (including financial) of the total plant, its individual departments, and
critical equipment or processes.
An emergency is a rare occurrence; knowledge of these hazards can be augmented by consulting Public Safety Canada, provincial and territorial Emergency Measures
Organizations (EMOs), and fire departments and insurance companies. Planning for
disasters involves both knowing the hazards and having a plan to mitigate and recover
from these hazards (see OH&S Notebook 11.1).
OH&S Notebook 11.1: Futureproofing
Writing for the Canadian Centre for Emergency Preparedness, Geary Sikich uses the term
“futureproofing” to denote an integrated approach to emergency preparedness. Futureproofing is based on the notion that organizations have to anticipate and assess the
potential risk and consequences of a wide range of emergencies in order to be protected
from unexpected events. This approach is based on “graceful degradation” and “agile restoration”—that is, on the ability of the organization to identify an event, determine its
consequences, establish a minimal functionality, and begin to direct efforts toward
restoration in a timely fashion.
Source: G. Sikich, Futureproofing—The Process of Active Analysis. Found at:
http://www.continuitycentral.com/ActiveAnalysisFutureproofing.pdf (accessed April 28,
2019).
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN A response plan for different types of emergencies must be developed (see, for example, OH&S Today 11.2). These plans should be written, published,
and posted. There must be good alarm facilities with emergency communication devices,
and everyone in the plant must be familiar with their locations and use. Type caption for
image (optional)
OH&S Today11.2: Pandemic Planning
Health experts generally agree that there is a real risk of a pandemic flu outbreak in the
near future. Indeed, many commentators maintain that the outbreak of swine flu, or H1N1
virus, in 2009 was the pandemic that had been predicted for the past 10 years or so.
Possibly as a result of mass immunization and a large-scale public health response, the predicted pandemic did not occur. However, the possibility of such an outbreak is still very
real. Any such outbreak will present substantial challenges to businesses. Imagine, for
example, how businesses will cope with absenteeism rates in the neighbourhood of 35 - percent to 50 percent, disruptions in key supplies, and the loss of key customers—
conditions that may last for six weeks or more. Health care organizations will be
particularly hard hit, as they are expected to experience the same staff and material
shortages while at the same time being overwhelmed by the sudden increase in demand for their services. Staff will experience exceptionally high levels of stress from workloads—
and the predicted mounting death rate will also extract a toll on health care workers. To
begin preparing for the potential outbreak, the federal government has launched a coordinating website. As is the case for emergency planning in general, these plans
attempt to forecast the likely effects of a pandemic and outline the necessary responses of
various organizations.
A list should be published of the people in charge of every aspect of any emergency activity. Accompanying the list should be information on the actual event, security and
protection for the workers, protection of what is left, documentation of damage and
injuries, and liaison with bureaucrats, insurance firms, and the media.
EVACUATION PLAN Plans for evacuating employees and clients in the event of a major
emergency or disaster are a key element in emergency preparedness (see OH&S Notebook
11.2). Every worker in the plant must know exactly where to congregate when the need
arises and be aware of at least two evacuation routes. There should be well marked, unobstructed evacuation paths with well-lit exits. Notices about exit procedures should be
posted, along with instructions about notifying appropriate personnel of the emergency.
Designated assembly areas and assigned assistance should be part of the plan.
OH&S Notebook 11.2: Evacuation Plans
As with all aspects of emergency planning, evacuation plans must consider the possibility
of individuals who are uniquely vulnerable to some hazards. For example, evacuation plans should consider the need to evacuate employees who may have vision, hearing, mobility,
or other physical problems that may impede them from using a particular evacuation
route. In the case of a fire, for example, evacuees are typically told to use the stairs rather
than the elevators. Such plans need to make special provision for individuals with limited vision who may need assistance in using the stairs or individuals with mobility issues that
preclude the use of stairs.
Many types of organizations need well-developed evacuation plans that specify what should happen in case of an emergency such as a fire. Public institutions (e.g., schools,
universities, hospitals, etc.) are examples of organizations that require specific evacuation
plans. However, many workplaces are now located in high-rise towers that require specific planning for emergencies. The National Fire Protection Association offers information on
high-rise evacuations.
A roll call (head count) should be done at the assembly site, and a list of missing employees should be given to the command centre. No one should be allowed to re-enter a building
until all personnel are accounted for, debriefed, and emergency personnel have confirmed
that it is safe to re-enter the building.
The following are some basic requirements of evacuation plans:
1. The site must be divided into small, related areas. The workers in each area must be
identified and trained to recognize and remember workers who are not part of their
section. This probably happens routinely during working hours, but the noted presence of
these “outsiders” must become second nature. In case of a major emergency, all workers
must be accounted for.
2. Outside the building and away from any roadways there should be assembly points that allow for the movement of emergency vehicles. The personnel from each work area noted
above must be trained to quickly move to their respective assembly points and remain
there until a head count is complete and missing workers are accounted for. 3. Once every employee has been accounted for and the extent of the emergency has been
determined, and depending on the instructions of emergency personnel, employees can be
instructed to return to work or to go home and report when called.
4. Any critical equipment or process that may increase the overall risk of the emergency should be addressed. For example, the supply sources of flammable materials such as gas
must be shut off. These tasks should be undertaken only by maintenance personnel who
are highly trained in emergency procedures. 5. The end of the emergency can be called only by the senior person responsible for the
operation’s emergency procedures.
6. A post-evacuation assessment must be done to identify problems in the evacuation plan.
Remedial measures can then be taken.
The Canadian Standards Association has developed a standard for emergency response
plans (ERPs) that provides further information on evacuation requirements (CAN/CSA-
Z731-03). Many organizations are now adopting two-stage alarm systems to alert building
occupants to the possibility of an emergency and to provide instructions. In contrast to a
one-stage alarm (e.g., in which a bell or horn sounds when the alarm is triggered and
immediate evacuation is necessary), a two-stage alarm allows for different signals depending on the condition and locale. For example, at a university with many connected
buildings, a fire in the Science building may trigger an evacuation alarm. Additionally,
however, connected buildings might receive an alert telling them to gather their belongings and be ready but not necessarily to evacuate. Two-stage alarms allow for the
programmed evacuation of a building or buildings—when coupled with a voice system the
alarms may also provide specific instructions to building occupants. If conditions worsen,
then occupants of the second building can also be evacuated. The capacity to deliver announcements makes the alarm system more adaptable to a wide variety of emergency
situations beyond fires.
NOTIFICATION OF AUTHORITIES Companies should be aware of any legislative requirements—such as the requirement to notify the Ministry of Labour, police, and so on—
related to an emergency. In locations with the 911 emergency system, an industrial call for medical assistance will automatically bring police, ministry, and other associated
specialists, along with medical assistance.
SUPPLIES Emergency first-line equipment such as fire extinguishers must be in well-
defined, easily accessible locations. Designated workers must be trained in their use.
DRILLS Regular emergency drills, with the occasional unannounced drill to keep everyone
current and knowledgeable, are a standard part of most plans. Rehearsals are an
important part of training. Simulating disasters will help employees deal effectively with
real emergencies. Fire drills are rehearsals that require employees to be aware of reporting
requirements and the locations of exits and fire extinguishers. Drills test the response
capability of the organization. The results (evacuation times, etc.) are monitored and reported to management. A full-scale dress rehearsal involves simulated injuries and
provides a measure of an organization’s ability to respond.
In planning and conducting training or emergency drills, companies need to be aware of
the complete circumstances of their workforce. For example, if an organization works shifts it is important to conduct training and drills on all of the shifts, not just the day shift.
Similarly, if the company uses temporary or contingent workers it is important to ensure
that they are included in any training or drills.
Emergency Manager
Any emergency plan must have a senior person—generally the plant manager—who will be
in charge of all emergency activities. This individual should speak for the organization and must be committed to the plan. If the emergency manager works a regular day shift and
the plant is on multiple shifts, there must be assistants on each of the other shifts with the
authority and training to handle emergencies. The command centre, with a designated
chain of command, is a critical component of the plan (see OH&S Notebook 11.3).
OH&S Notebook 11.3: Emergency Operations Centres (EOCS)
Also called the command post or the command centre, an EOC is a geographic space
dedicated to the strategic management of an emergency. An EOC is typically geographically separate from the actual emergency site. The role of the EOC is to designate
the individual in charge of the emergency site, facilitate communications with the public,
disseminate emergency public information, and initiate the recovery process.
The requirements for an EOC vary with circumstances but in general should include
communications capabilities sufficient to allow coordination of efforts, and space for
briefings and decision making. Basic supplies (e.g., office supplies) should also be available
along with connectivity through networks, radios, and so on.
Source: Province of New Brunswick, Planning Guide for the Emergency Operations Centre. Found at: https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/ps-
sp/pdf/emo/opscentre-e.pdf (accessed August 5, 2019).
Contact
Fire Plan
The fire plan will have the same characteristics as the main emergency plan, though some
of the requirements dealing with major damage and fatalities may not be followed if the fire gets out of control and a full-blown emergency results. A group of workers must be
trained in firefighting techniques and be part of the plant’s fire brigade. In small to mid-
sized businesses in which an in-house fire brigade is not economically feasible, workers
should receive fire extinguisher training and participate in ongoing practice sessions.
The local fire department is a good source of training for any in-house firefighting team
that may be required. The fire department can also assist in fire hazard evaluations and
regular inspections. Fire prevention and suppression is discussed next.
Fire Prevention and Suppression
A fire is a chemical process in which fuel, oxygen, and heat combine to create a disastrous
condition. The products of fire are gases, flame, heat, and smoke.
The fire process can be graphically represented by means of the fire triangle (see Figure
11.1). The new model is the fire tetrahedron (see Figure 11.2). The triangular model shows
that the three elements—fuel, oxygen, and heat—must come together for a fire to be sustained. The second model adds a fourth element: the chain reaction. Once a fire starts,
it is perpetuated by the ongoing (or chain) reaction of the other three elements.
Fire has four stages. In general, it is easier to stop a fire at the early, rather than the later
stages. The four stages are:
1. The incipient stage. At this stage, a source of ignition (e.g., a cigarette butt or a hot electrical wire connection) and fuel (e.g., papers or wood) come together. This stage can
continue for hours until the resultant heat from the initial reaction becomes great enough
to cause combustion. The air is filled with molecule-sized products of combustion. The airborne particulate can be detected with an ionizing (smoke) detector. In the case of an
explosion, this stage (and the next) is very short. Recognizing the fire at this stage (and
removing the source of ignition) provides the easiest way to prevent a fire from erupting.
2. The smouldering stage. The three elements are present and are causing the heat to rise through limited chain reaction. The area begins to fill with smoke, which increases in
amount as the process continues. With visible airborne particulate (smoke) now present, a
photoelectric detector is effective. This stage is short and can be measured in minutes. The fire is now more easily detectable (because of smoke) and can be suppressed by removing
one of the elements necessary for combustion.
3. The free-burning stage.This is the stage at which flames first appear. The rate of energy release (heat) is increasing very rapidly, and the surrounding combustible materials are
beginning to burn. The free-burning stage is very short and can be measured in minutes or
less. A rate-of-rise detector can be effective at this stage because it senses the rapid
temperature increase. This detector works well in conjunction with a sprinkler system. Active firefighting efforts (e.g., fire extinguishers, sprinklers, etc.) are required.
4. The uncontrolled fire stage. The fire is out of control, and major property damage is
under way. All personnel must be evacuated. This stage can be measured in seconds.
The fire triangle or tetrahedron (see Figures 11.1 and 11.2) can serve to illustrate the
requirements for extinguishment. If any one of the parts of these models is removed, the
fire cannot be sustained and will be put out. For instance, a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher blankets a fire with a gas that displaces the oxygen, thereby smothering the fire. Similarly,
water sprayed on the fire reduces the heat, also resulting in extinguishment (see Table
11.1).
Hazardous byproducts of fires, besides heat and smoke, include carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, and hydrogen chloride.
These toxic materials are produced when the burning materials (fuel) are broken down into their original chemicals under extreme heat and chain reactions. (See OH&S Notebooks
11.4 and 11.5.)
OH&S Notebook 11.4: Toxic Fumes
Although most of the dangers of fire seem self-evident, fires may also contain hidden dangers. Reduced oxygen levels and carbon monoxide are common hazards contained in
the smoke from a fire but other forms of toxins are also present in smoke. For example, the
use of synthetic materials in construction and furnishings means that toxic fumes can be produced by the fire and inhaled by building occupants and firefighters. The use of
synthetic polymers may result in the production of hydrogen cyanide when set alight and
create a risk of cyanide poisoning in individuals exposed to the smoke. The use of a self-
contained breathing apparatus is one means of protecting firefighters from these toxins.
Source: Y. Alayrie, “Toxicity of Fire Smoke,” Critical Review of Toxicology, 32 (2002): 259–
289.
OH&S Notebook 11.5: Chemical Spills
A chemical spill is an uncontrolled release of gas, liquid, or solid chemical. Chemicals can,
of course, be highly toxic, and emergency procedures must be oriented toward avoiding
exposure to the chemical. Good procedures for a chemical spill include the following:
• Avoid coming into contact with the chemical and warn others in the
area.
• Isolate the area around the spill.
• Assist those who are injured but do not risk exposing yourself to the
chemical.
Determine the level of response. If the spill is minor and trained personnel are available
with the necessary protective gear and materials, the material should be cleaned up.
Otherwise, the authorities should be contacted.
Source: University of Alberta, Environmental Health and Safety, “How to Clean Up a Spill.”
Found at: https://ssl.eas.ualberta.ca/safety/?page_id=189 (accessed August 5, 2019).
When a fire prevention program is being developed, the following should be considered:
1. Structural design—Standards for the construction of buildings are detailed in the
federal and provincial or territorial fire codes, as well as by the fire marshal and in building
codes and regulations.
2. Barriers—Walls and floors can delay or prevent the spread of fire. Specially constructed fire barriers should be maintained.
3. Detection and suppression—Most buildings have a detection system that senses heat
and smoke. When triggered, sprinklers are activated to suppress the fire. 4. Storage—Combustible materials should be rated and stored in separate or isolated
areas. They should not be stored near exits, and reactive materialsshould not be stored
near flammable materials.
Many fires are triggered by unsafe acts (e.g., a person tries to weld a container holding
flammable liquid residue without cleaning it first) and unsafe conditions (e.g., faulty or
improper equipment is installed near a potentially flammable material).
First Aid And Medical Attention
The various provincial and territorial regulations spell out in detail the requirements for
first aid and medical aid facilities. Medical services run the gamut from a first aid kit in a
small firm to a fully equipped hospital with doctors in very large firms. Degree of risk can be an additional factor in determining the extent of medical services. An insurance office with
a staff of 4000 would not likely need the same facilities as an automobile manufacturer
with the same number of workers (see OH&S Notebook 11.6).
OH&S Notebook 11.6: Legislated First Aid Requirements
First aid training and supplies are mandated in OH&S legislation. The exact requirements
vary by (1) jurisdiction,(2) the number of workers in the workplace, (3) the nature (and
danger) of the work, and (4) the distance to the nearest medical facility.
Regulations typically specify the number of trained first aiders, the level of training
required, and the amount and type of first aid equipment that must be present.In remote workplaces, employers may also be required to provide emergency medical
transportation.
Source: Saskatchewan Department of Labour, “First Aid in Saskatchewan Workplaces.” Found at:
http://publications.gov.sk.ca/documents/283/108781First%20Aid%20in%20Saskatchewan
%20Workplaces%20Guide.pdf (accessed April 28 2019).
Beyond conforming to legal requirements, every company should arrange to have at least
one trained first aid attendant present on each shift. All employees should be given the
opportunity to take a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) course. A cost–benefit analysis
may show that there would be advantages to contracting with a local occupational health clinic for medical aid services. These services might include pre-employment and post-
employment medicals, exposure medical testing, and potential occupational illness
identification. Complete first aid records must be kept and maintained.
Postcontact
Postcontact efforts focus on two areas: helping individuals deal with the stresses
associated with experiencing or witnessing an emergency situation, and getting back to
normal operations
Stress
An emergency is an acute or catastrophic stressor (Chapter 7), and individuals may
experience long-lasting consequences as a result. Acute stressors can be more psychologically devastating, and their effects more enduring, than chronic stressors, which
suggests that their effects need to be understood. For example, individuals exposed to hurricanes and other traumatic stressors have reported ongoing impairments of
psychological well-being, including symptoms of post-traumatic stress that endure for
much longer than the actual precipitating event.11 Studies of a variety of traumatic stressors suggest several dimensions that may be important to understanding the impact
of stressors on individuals.
Studies have highlighted the role of control perceptions when individuals are exposed to
stressful situations, including acute stressors.12 Natural disasters such as hurricanes or blizzards may involve an almost total lack of control, suggesting that their effects may be
pronounced.13
The multivariate risk/resilience model has been developed to explain individual reactions to disasters.14 The model incorporates situational factors such as the extent to which the
individual receives social support on an ongoing basis, targeted social support, or social
support in direct response to the disaster, as well as the individual’s exposure to the
disaster.15
One approach to crisis response has been referred to as critical incident stress debriefing
(CISD). The characteristics of CISDs vary; generally, though, they involve psychologists (or
other trained personnel) providing assistance immediately following a traumatic event in
order to prevent the development of serious or lasting negative consequences. Elements of
CISDs include ensuring confidentiality; providing individuals with the opportunity to talk
about their perspective on, thoughts about, and emotional reactions to the incident; assessing psychological and physical symptoms; and providing information about stress
responses and coping strategies.16CISD interventions are popular among individuals who
are regularly exposed to traumatic stressors. For example, almost every police, fire, and ambulance service in the country has some form of CISD intervention for its employees.
The Canadian Forces uses CISD to debrief returning peacekeepers.
One study of the effectiveness of CISD compared the coping strategies and levels of anger
of two groups of police officers who had experienced a traumatic event.17 One group of officers received CISD, the other did not. The results suggested that the CISD group
exhibited more adaptive coping strategies and lower levels of anger than did those in the
non-CISD group. The lack of random assignment to conditions casts some doubt on the validity of these findings, though they do provide preliminary evidence of the efficacy of
CISD following exposure to traumatic work-related events. If these results are replicable, it
would be unethical to withhold such debriefings from employees who experience
traumatic events.
Unfortunately, despite these promising results, the research literature also provides a basis
on which to question the effectiveness of CISD. First, a review of 67 studies concluded that
debriefing does not mitigate the effects of traumatic stress.18 Second, based on a meta- analytic review, other authors found that single-session debriefing was less effective than
other forms of intervention and less effective than no intervention in reducing the effects of
traumatic stress.19 Finally, growing lists of studies suggest that individuals receiving CISD
interventions may experience exacerbated traumatic reactions and more adverse outcomes.20 These findings violate the widely accepted maxim that psychological
interventions should in the first instance do no harm. The inconsistent findings as to the
effectiveness of CISDs suggest the need for more research in this area, to identify whether some elements of CISDs are helpful and should be retained and whether some are harmful
and should be removed from such programs.
Getting Back to Normal
Getting back to normal after an emergency is not as straightforward as a simple return to
work. Depending on the circumstances, individuals may continue to experience stress
reactions. They may also continue to live with the effects of the emergency (e.g., damaged
housing, loss of income, transportation) long after its acute phase has passed. For example, although the fire in Fort McMurray was over in a relatively short period of time,
some people were displaced for over a month. Still others who might have to rebuild their
house and replace lost possessions may be dealing with the aftermath of the fire for a year
or more.
Given these potential reactions and experiences, it is unlikely that individuals will return to
the workplace focused on the task at hand. Employers should display some tolerance for
distractions and for employees’ need to share their experiences. Adjusting to normal work
may take some time (see OH&S Notebook 11.7).
OH&S Notebook 11.7: Business Continuity Planning
Even during an emergency, critical services must be continued. Some employers may have
to continue operations during an emergency, and all employers will eventually have to return to normal operations. Business continuity planning is a proactive approach to
ensuring that critical services and products continue during an emergency. Developing a
business continuity plan will help ensure that employers recover data, assets, and facilities
and have the necessary resources (including human resources) to continue business.
Source: Adapted from Public Safety Canada, A Guide to Business Continuity Planning. Found
at: https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/bsnss-cntnt-plnnng/index-en.aspx
(accessed April 28, 2019).
Employers may inadvertently increase or decrease employee stress as a result of how they
handle personnel decisions related to the emergency. In Fort MacMurray, for example,
many of the oil-producing firms took special steps to help displaced employees. These
steps included continuing to pay employees, offering employees interest-free loans, and
even offering employees lump-sum payments.21
Summary
The goals of an emergency plan are to reduce injuries and property damage and to restore
the organization to its normal operations. Organizations must consider the possibility of a
disaster, in which the potential for loss is very high. A safety program requires a planned
response to the threat of a disaster. Such plans comprise part of a company’s due diligence
on safety.
Emergency preparedness consists of preparing an emergency response plan, designating
and training those responsible for its implementation, and communicating it to employees. Developing an evacuation plan, establishing a fire prevention and suppression program,
and controlling fire hazards are other elements of emergency preparedness. Organizations
must also focus on helping individuals deal with the stresses associated with experiencing or witnessing an emergency situation, and on getting back to normal operations. Adjusting
to normal work may take some time.
Key Terms
critical incident stress debriefing (CISD)
emergency
fire
free-burning stage incipient stage
reactive materials
smouldering stage
uncontrolled fire stage
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 11.1
Review
Who should be involved in developing emergency response plans? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 11.2
Review
What types of emergencies should organizations in your area be prepared for?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 11.3
Review
Decide what type of fire extinguisher would be most effective in the following fire situations: a. a hair
dryer engulfed in smoke b. grease burning in a frying pan c. rags smoking in a garage d. a log that has
rolled from the fireplace onto the living room floor e. a coffee machine whose wires are shooting flames
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 11.4
Review
Though this chapter has focused on health and safety implications, there are also public relations
issues in an emergency. What principles would be appropriate for an organization to adopt in dealing
with the media and public during an emergency?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Excercise 11.1
Review
Determine whether your workplace or school has an emergency response plan. Compare this plan with
the one outlined in this chapter. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Excercise 11.2
Review
Each province and territory has an emergency planning organization (EMO) as does the federal
government. Find the website for the EMO in your jurisdiction. What information/resources are
available? What is the structure and function of your EMO?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Excercise 11.3
Review
What emergencies have occurred in your local area in the past five years? How effective was the emergency response? (Hint: Local EMO sites often have debriefing reports on past emergency
responses.)
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Excercise 11.4
Review
What plans are being made for the predicted flu pandemic in your area? (Hint: What information is
available from government agencies; what firms are publishing pandemic plans?) Your Answer
No answer submitted
Excercise 11.5
Review
Prepare a fire prevention and suppression plan for your own home or apartment.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Excercise 11.6
Review
What does it cost to create and maintain a comprehensive emergency plan for a specific organization? Choose a specific organization and try to estimate these costs. Consider the costs (e.g., time)
associated with developing a plan, training employees in the plan, drills or practice (e.g., evacuation
drills), and maintaining the plan to ensure currency.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 11.1
Show Correct Answer
Assume that you have been employed by the University of Guelph to review its Emergency
Management Plan (https://www.uoguelph.ca/police/campus-safety/emergency-management-plan).
Write a brief review of the plan identifying both strengths and weaknesses.Is there anything that needs
to be included, added, or changed in the plan?
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Steeping some tea...
References
1. C.M. Pearson, J.A. Clair, S.K. Misra, and I.I. Mitroff, “Managing the
Unthinkable,” Organizational Dynamics 26 (1997): 51–64.
2. B.T. Blythe, Blindsided: A Manager’s Guide to Catastrophic Incidents in the
Workplace (New York: Portfolio, 2002).
3. Pearson et al., “Managing the Unthinkable.”
4. C.M. Pearson and J.A. Clair, “Reframing Crisis Management,” Academy of Management
Review 23, no. 1 (1998): 59–76.
5. I.I. Mitroff, C.M. Pearson, and L.K. Harrigan, The Essential Guide to Managing Corporate
Crises(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
6. Blythe, Blindsided.
7. Pearson and Clair, “Reframing Crisis Management.”
8. M. Braverman, “Managing the Human Impact of Crisis,” Risk Management 50, no. 5
(2003): 10–14.
9. E.K. Kelloway, J. Mullen, and L. Francis, “The Stress (of an) Epidemic,” Stress and Health,
29 (2012): 91–97.
10. N.R. Lockwood, “Crisis Management in Today’s Business Environment: HR’s Strategic
Role,” HR Magazine 50 (2005): 1–9.
11. F.H. Norris, M.J. Friedman, P. J. Watson, C.M. Byrne, E. Diaz, and K. Kaniasty, “60,000
Disaster Victims Speak: Part I. An Empirical Review of the Empirical Literature, 1981–
2001.” Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65(3) (2002): 207–239.
12. A.C.H. Schat and E.K. Kelloway, “Reducing the Adverse Consequences of Workplace
Aggression and Violence: The Buffering Effects of Organizational Support,” Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology 8 (2003): 110–122.
13. A. Baum, R. Fleming, and L.M. Davidson, “Natural and Technological
Catastrophe,” Environment and Behavior 15 (1983): 333–354.
14. J.R. Freedy, M.E. Saladin, D.G. Kilpatrick, and H.S. Resnick, “Understanding Acute
Psychological Distress Following Natural Disaster,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 7, no. 2
(2004): 257–273.
15. K. Byron and S. Peterson, “The Impact of a Large-Scale Traumatic Event on Individual
and Organizational Outcomes: Exploring Employee and Company Reactions to September
11,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 23, no. 8 (2002): 895–910.
16. J. Mitchell and G. Bray, Emergency Services Stress (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall,
1990).
17. R. Leonard and L. Alison, “Critical Incident Stress Debriefing and Its Effects on Coping Strategies and Anger in a Sample of Australian Police Officers Involved in Shooting
Incidents,” Work and Stress 13 (1989): 144–161.
18. M. Arendt and A. Elklit, “Effectiveness of Psychological Debriefing,” Acta Psychiatry
Scandanavia104 (2001): 423–437.
19. A.A.P. Van Emmerik, J.H. Kamphuis, A.M. Hulsbosch, and P.M.G. Emmelkamp, “Single
Session Debriefing After Psychological Trauma: A Meta-Analysis,” The Lancet 340 (2002):
768–771.
20. I.V.E. Carlier, R.D. Lamberts, A.J. Van Uchelin, and B.P.R. Gersons, “Disaster-related
Posttraumatic Stress in Police Officers: A Field Study of the Impact of Debriefing,” Stress
Medicine 14 (1998): 143–148; R.A. Mayou, A. Ehler, and M. Hobbs, “Psychological Debriefing for Road Accident Victims: Three-Year Follow Up of Randomized Control Trial,” British
Journal of Psychiatry 176 (2000): 589–593; R. Small, J. Lumley, L. Donohue, A. Potter, and U.
Waldenstroem, “Randomized Controlled Trial of Midwife Led Debriefing to Reduce
Maternal Depression After Operative Childbirth,” British Medical Journal 321 (2001): 1043–
1047.
21. C. Tait and K. Cryderman, “Oil Sands Producers Helping Workers Affected by Fort
Mcmurray Wildfire,” The Globe and Mail (May 15, 2016). Found at: http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/industry-news/energy-and-
resources/oil-sands-producers-helping-workers-affected-by-fort-mcmurray-
wildfire/article30027628 (accessed August 5, 2019).
INCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the intent and steps of an incident investigation
• gather information to analyze the human, situational, and
environmental factors contributing to incidents
• outline the legal requirements of incident investigation results
• explain the concept of a walkthrough survey
• list the steps to conducting interviews concerning an incident
• conduct a re-enactment
• complete the various types of incident and injury reports
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHnTWYblHBw
Workplace Fatality Investigation
Niklas Jay Kristen Taylor was killed on the job at Fountain Tire. He was unloading a truck
full of tires when one fell on him. The tires were industrial tires—some of which stood over
2 metres high and weighed more than 800 kilograms. As with most incident investigations,
the subsequent investigation noted that the fatality resulted from a number of causes:
• This was not the employee’s regular job; he was called in to replace
another employee who was unavailable.
• It was early in the morning and he was working alone.
• Although there was a forklift available, it was awkward to use with
oversized tires.
• The company did not have a written “safe work procedure” for this
task.
Although the company was subsequently charged with not having a written work
procedure and not doing a risk assessment for lone workers, it is likely that it was the combination of factors rather than one individual factor that resulted in the fatality. If the
worker had used the forklift, it might not have happened. If the regular employee was
there, or another employee was there to help, it might not have happened.
Investigations, particularly when conducted by the Department of Labour or as a result of a
serious incident or fatality, often result in charges and orders being written. However, the
real goal of incident investigation is not to blame individuals or find out who was at fault; rather, the goal is to identify the cause of incidents so that preventive actions can be taken
to ensure that the incident is not repeated. In a very real sense, the focus of investigation is
on prevention.
Source: C. Fortens, “Two Violations Noted in Workers’ Death at Fountain Tire in 2015, Accidents News,” Kamloops This Week (April 28, 2016). Found at:
https://www.kamloopsthisweek.com/news/two-violations-noted-in-worker-s-death-at-
fountain-tire-in-2015-1.23233210 (accessed April 28, 2019). Adapted with the permission of
the publisher.
The investigation of incidents is a vital component of an organization’s health and safety
program. This chapter describes the rationale for incident investigations, the critical factors in the investigative process, the types of information to be collected, and the
investigative methods and tools for conducting an investigation. The importanc of
reporting and keeping records is also discussed.
Rationale for Incident Investigation
The investigation of incidents is an important component in a hazard recognition,
assessment, and control (RAC) program, which in turn is an integral part of a health and
safety program. One study identifies the benefits of incident investigation as follows:1
1. Determines direct causes—An investigation uncovers the direct causes of an incident,
thereby allowing for the subsequent exploration of corrective measures. 2. Identifies contributing causes—Some incidents may be the result of many factors. For
example, the direct cause of an incident may be inadequate safeguards on equipment, but
there may also be contributing factors, such as loose clothing on the employee and a lack of instruction in the proper procedures for equipment use.
3. Prevents similar incidents—Once the direct and contributing causes are identified,
corrective measures such as training programs or equipment design improvements can be implemented to prevent similar incidents.
4. Creates a permanent record—The reports generated by an investigation can be used by
HR and safety specialists to identify trends (e.g., sites of frequent incidents, inefficient layouts and designs, unsafe acts, improper operating procedures). Reports can also be
valuable in the event of litigation or compensation claims. Actions taken to improve safety
records can be cost efficient in the sense that money and time are being allocated to sites
or equipment that generate the most frequent or most severe incidents and injuries. 5. Determines cost—The delineation of the exact situation may help the organization
determine the actual costs accruing from an incident. All factors, even a worker’s lost time,
count more than once if there were multiple activities by this worker directly related to the event.
6. Promotes safety awareness among employees—When a thorough investigation is
conducted, employees realize that management is serious about safety and interested in their well-being. This should motivate employees to show greater concern for safe
practices.
Critical Factors in the Investigative Process
Incident investigations are strongly influenced by timing, severity, and legal requirements.
Timing
Timing is a critical factor in incident investigations. Time affects several types of
information. Delays in an investigation may lead to partial or complete memory loss by the
witnesses, changes at the incident site, and removal of important evidence. Furthermore,
those directly involved in the incident, be they witnesses or late arrivals, tend to discuss the
incident, and details may become distorted in the retelling.
Of course, the investigation should start only after any injured people have received
medical attention and the incident site has been secured to prevent access, further injuries,
and attempts by helpful observers to “fix” the hazard.
Severity
Given that investigations are time consuming, companies tend to examine only those
incidents that have the most serious consequences (see OH&S Today 12.1). Yet incidents
that result in minor injuries often signal a hazard that may one day have more serious
consequences.
OH&S Today 12.1: What to Investigate
A wide variety of safety-related events may be subject to investigation. OH&S legislation may mandate post-incident investigations in some cases, depending on the nature and
severity of the incident. For example, when a workplace death occurs, it is clear that
external agencies such as the police will become involved and assume the primary investigative role. When injury-causing incidents are severe or constantly recurring,
provincial or territorial and federal health and safety agencies (such as the Labour Program
of Human Resources and Social Development Canada) may appoint an investigator to
inspect the workplace and may require the submission of a formal report. In B.C., for example, employers are required to investigate (1) any incident that requires reporting to
the board (e.g., incidents resulting in serious injury or death, incidents involving major
structural collapses, incidents involving release of a hazardous substance); (2) incidents resulting in an employee requiring medical treatment, and (3) incidents that could have
resulted in serious injury but did not.
Standards for determining which incidents need to be investigated may also be set by the employer (note that the employer’s standards must meet or exceed those required by
legislation—the employer can investigate incidents that are not specified by legislation but
must investigate any incident specified in legislation). The OH&S program at Saint Mary’s
University, for example, mandates the reporting of the following types of incidents:
1. any injury to an employee, including all medical aid, including first aid, and lost time
incidents and any incident where a claim is made to the Workers’ Compensation Board;
2. any injury to another member of the Saint Mary’s Community requiring medical treatment;
3. any incident that is included in the definition of the University’s Violence in the
Workplace Prevention Policy; 4. any non-injury (near miss) incident that had the potential of causing an injury to the
employee, or another member of the Saint Mary’s Community or causing serious property
damage;
5. any serious property damage incident; 6. any major spills or releases of chemicals;
7. any major flooding;
8. any fires or explosions.*
*Reprinted with permission from Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, NS, OHS Program.
Sources: Occupational Health and Safety Program Manual, Chapter 15: Incident
Investigation and Analysis, https://smu.ca/webfiles/Chapter15- IncidentInvestigationandAnalysis.pdf (accessed July 4, 2019); WorkSafeBC, “Incident
Investigations.” Found at:
http://www2.worksafebc.com/topics/accidentinvestigations/home.asp (accessed April, 28,
2019); E.K. Kelloway, V. Stinson, and C. MacLean, “Can Eyewitness Research Improve
Occupational Health and Safety? Towards a Research Agenda,” Law and Human Behavior,
Vol. 28 (2004): 115.
One corporate director of health and safety recommends that the following types of incidents be investigated: those resulting in lost-time injuries beyond the day of the
incident; those in which the injury was minor, but the employee was treated by a doctor
and there was potential for a serious injury; close calls; incidents without injuries but property damage in excess of $1000; and lost-time incidents resulting from aggravation of
a previous injury.2 Regardless of the system used to judge seriousness, organizations have
a legal obligation to report injury-related incidents. Type caption for image (optional)
Legal Requirements
Depending on the seriousness of the incident, the presence of an injury, and the
jurisdiction in which the incident happened, employers have reporting requirements to
fulfill. Certain types of events—those in which an injury requires medical aid or results in lost time, for instance—must be reported to a workers’ compensation board, normally
within three days. Forms are supplied by the board.
Types of Information Collected
Most incidents are the result of many contributing factors. The Three Mile Island disaster (a
nuclear plant disaster near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, on March 28, 1979) was preceded by
multiple contributing factors ranging from inadequate emergency training, through equipment failing to shut down, to “fail-safe” systems that failed to consider the human
equation. Although no lives were lost in that incident, public trust in the nuclear power
industry plummeted.
The area supervisor should conduct the investigation, assisted by a human resource or
occupational health and safety specialist. When investigating an incident, the human
resource or occupational health and safety specialist should concentrate on three factors:
human, situational, and environmental. These factors, while similar in name, are not the
same as the sources of hazards described in Chapter 4 (see OH&S Notebook 12.1).
OH&S Notebook 12.1: The Steps Of An Incident Investigation
To some extent, every incident investigator has his or her own method of conducting incident investigations. Legislative or policy requirements may mandate an investigation
but often do not specify how the investigation is to be conducted. The Canadian Standards
Association has published a standard–Z1005-17, Incident Investigation–that oulines
principles and requirements for incident investigation.
A general approach to incident investigation would be to:
1. Secure the scene—The initial response to an incident should be to secure the scene— ensure that injuries are treated, that individuals are evacuated if necessary, and that
immediate steps are taken to control hazards. The investigator will also need to ensure
that the scene of the incident, and any relevant evidence, is protected until the investigation is concluded. The incident should be reported as soon as possible.
2. Gather evidence—After the scene is secured, the investigation should commence
immediately. The investigator will want to gather evidence—including witness reports,
pictures, and physical evidence—before too much time has elapsed or the scene of the incident is disturbed.
3. Analyze the information—Information must be collected in order to identify the probable
cause(s) of the incident. Rarely will an incident have just one cause, and it is important to consider the contributions of human, situational, administrative, and environmental
factors to the incident.
4. Report the results of the incident investigation—Reports must be made to the relevant authorities. Internally, this may be to a JHSC or to a health and safety coordinator;
externally, this may be to the Department of Labour or the workers’ compensation board.
5. Make recommendations—A primary reason for conducting an incident investigation is to
prevent the recurrence of incidents. Every incident investigation should result in specific recommendations to ensure that similar incidents are not repeated.
6. Follow up—The process does not stop with making recommendations. The JHSC or its
designate needs to follow up to ensure that the recommendations have been implemented
and to assess whether they are achieving the desired effects.
Human Factors
Studying the worker as a source of incidents does not mean that the investigator is looking
for a scapegoat. As emphasized throughout this text, the intent is to collect facts, not
assign blame. The following questions could be asked when investigating human factors:
• What was the worker doing at the time of the incident? Was he or she
performing a regular task or a different task, doing maintenance
work, or helping a coworker?
• Was the work being performed according to procedures? Were the
tasks or procedures new?
• Was a supervisor present?
• What was the employment status of the worker—seasonal, part-
time, or full-time?
• How much experience did the employee have with respect to this
particular operation?
• What was the posture and location of the employee?
• Did some unsafe act contribute to the event? Type caption for image
(optional)
Situational Factors
An analysis of the unsafe conditions that led to the incident is a critical step in an incident
investigation. The equipment and tools must be examined. The following questions could
be asked when investigating situational factors (see OH&S Notebook 12.2):
• Was the machine operating in a satisfactory manner?
• Were all the control and display positions working and
ergonomically sound?
• Were the safety measures satisfactory and functioning?
• Does an analysis of failed materials or equipment indicate how the
incident happened? For instance, if a shaft broke, causing a
machine part to fly off, an engineer can examine the break and
determine the mode of failure. A failure of metal through shear or
bending will leave definite patterns at the failed ends. Once the
mode is known, the cause is usually easily determined.
• What was the site or location of the incident?
• What tools, equipment, or objects were involved in the incident?
• Was the correct equipment available and being used to do the job?
• What personal protective equipment (gloves, goggles, etc.) was
being worn?
• Were guards in place?
• What time of day did the incident occur?
• What shift was being worked?
OH&S Notebook 12.2: The Eyewitness
Most incident investigations rely on eyewitness accounts and those of individuals involved in the incident. Yet there is good reason to suspect the accuracy of eyewitness statements.
A review of the literature on eyewitness testimony indicated that “what we know about
eye-witness memory comes from hundreds of studies ... Overall, this body of research tells us that eyewitness testimony is not like a videotape recorder; memory is fragile, malleable,
and susceptible to forgetting, even in optimal conditions.” The authors cite an example of
an airplane crash that killed nine people. Dozens of people witnessed the crash and at least
one insisted at the inquest that the plane had nosedived into the ground. Photographic evidence proved that, in fact, the plane had coasted down and skidded for nearly 300
metres.
Source: E.K. Kelloway, V. Stinson, and C. MacLean, “Can Eyewitness Research Improve Occupational Health and Safety? Towards a Research Agenda,” Law and Human Behavior,
Vol. 28 (2004): 115.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors such as light and noise may increase the likelihood that an incident
will occur. The setting sun may blind the driver of a delivery truck; the noise of a machine
may mask the approach of a vehicle; the vibrations of a certain piece of equipment may
dislodge another tool.
Who Investigates?
Numerous individuals may be involved in incident investigations, including the following:
• The supervisor—The supervisor possesses a detailed knowledge of
the work and the working conditions and is, therefore, well
positioned to conduct the investigation. In most companies,
supervisors assume principal responsibility for the investigation.
• Technical advisers and specialists.—It may be appropriate to bring in
technical advisers or specialists when incidents are serious and
involve highly technical processes. Bringing in outside expertise
may also enhance the objectivity of the investigation.
• Safety and health officer—The department or company health and
safety officer can offer guidance in coordinating an incident
investigation. The health and safety representative may be more
aware of, and familiar with, health and safety issues than is the
supervisor.
• Safety and health committee or representative—Where there is an
established health and safety committee, that committee must
take part in the investigation.
• A safety team—In the event of a serious incident—especially when it
is difficult to determine the cause of an incident—a team approach
is highly recommended. The team would include the supervisor,
the health and safety officer, members of the health and safety
committee, and, possibly, outside experts.
Investigative Methods
A variety of methods may be used in conducting the investigation (see OH&S Notebook
12.3).
OH&S Notebook 12.3: Analysis Of An Incident
A carpenter is making some tool holders and needs to trim about 0.5 cm off the length of a
piece of 4 × 4 wood. The 4 × 4 is 121 cm long. The carpenter spends 15 minutes adjusting
the table saw to remove the correct width of material. In the process, the carpenter also
removes the legally required saw guard because it tends to interfere with cutting. The supervisor had been after the company to purchase a new and proper guard for the saw.
The usual answer has been: “Why buy a new guard when one came with the machine?” The
carpenter decides not to replace the guard for this cut because the last time this operation was performed, the wood snagged on the guard support and allowed the blade to burn the
cut surface. This necessitated extra sanding to remove the stain. However, this time, even
though the carpenter uses the proper hand pusher and guides, the saw hits a knot, causing the work piece to jump up from the spinning blade. Luckily, the carpenter receives only
minor lacerations.
The unsafe acts in this incident are (1) the carpenter removing the guard and leaving it off
during the operation, (2) the supervisor allowing the saw to be used with the poor guard and not insisting on replacing the defective guard, (3) the carpenter continuing to use a
piece of unsafe equipment, and (4) the company purchasing the saw without specifying the
correct type of guard.
The unsafe conditions are (1) having the improper guard on the machine, (2) providing a
machine without a proper guard, and perhaps (3) the supervisor being unaware of the use
of the improper guard.
In most provinces and territories, a company official such as the plant manager may be
found liable if an identified unsafe act or condition is ignored. The carpenter displayed
voluntary risk in that the saw was used even though it was known to have a defective
guard.
Observations or Walkthroughs
At the beginning of an investigation, an overall picture of the total environment is achieved
by means of a walkthrough. Observation of causal factors, physical conditions, and work habits will help the occupational health and safety specialist identify potential causes of
the incident. Because the manager may not be totally familiar with the details of the
operation, the specialist should turn to the supervisor for any necessary information.
Interviews
The following are some basic rules for conducting an interview:
1. Interview witnesses on the spot as soon as possible after the event, while their
memories are still fresh. Inform each witness of the purpose of the interview and of what
you hope to accomplish. 2. Interview witnesses separately and in a neutral location, such as the cafeteria. Do not
use your office, since it could have an authority stigma associated with it. The witness
should be permitted to have a worker representative present if he or she desires. Make sure
the representative listens and says little or nothing.
3. Put the witness at ease. If the person witnessed a serious injury, he or she may well be
shaken or upset. If the person witnessed a death, counselling may be necessary before any discussion can take place. Reassure the witness that you are simply trying to gather
information, not to lay blame.
4. Let the individual recall the event in his or her own way. Do not try to bias the account
with questions that are pointed or directed. “Will you please tell me in your own words what you saw or heard?” is much better than, “Can you think what prompted John to do
what he did?”
5. Ask necessary questions at appropriate times, without interrupting the speaker’s
train of thought. The questions should serve to clarify a point or fill in gaps, not to support
conclusions you may be forming. “Can you explain again how you knew the machine was
turned off?” is preferable to, “You commented that the table saw was not running—did you see the worker turn it off?”
6. Give the witness feedback. “Based on what you said, this is my understanding of what
you saw. If there is something I missed or haven’t got right, please add to or clarify it.” By
the time you have finished, both you and the witness should be able to agree that the statement is a factual representation of what was said.
7. Make sure that critical information—either from the witnesses or from your own
observations—is recorded in a timely fashion. The longer the delay, the more bias will affect the results. Supplement your written record with visuals (e.g., sketches,
photographs, videos).
8. End the interview on a positive note by thanking the witness for his or her valuable time and assistance. Encourage the witness to come to you with any further information
that may emerge (see OH&S Notebook 12.4).
OH&S Notebook 12.4: Cognitive Interviewing
Cognitive interviewing is a technique developed for police officers conducting forensic
investigations. A great deal of research suggests that cognitive interviews are effective in
retrieving accurate eyewitness testimony. Cognitive interviews result in more information
and a higher accuracy rate than do “regular” investigative interviews. Some preliminary
evidence shows that the cognitive interview elicits more accurate statements from incident
witnesses. A typical cognitive interview follows this sequence:
1. Introduction—Develop rapport, communicate needs, encourage active participation.
2. Open-ended narration—Establish mental context, note mental images, develop plan
for probing. 3. Probing—Use richest images to probe, ask questions related to images.
4. Review—Review information reported.
5. Close—Finish official business and encourage future contact.
Sources: C. MacLean, V. Stinson, and E.K. Kelloway, “Cognitive Interviewing of Incident
Witnesses: An Initial Test,” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian
Psychological Association, St. John’s, 2004; R.P. Fisher, “Interviewing Victims and Witnesses of Crime,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol. 1 (1995): 732–764; R.P. Fisher,
R.E. Geiselman, and M. Amador, “Field Test of the Cognitive Interview: Enhancing the
Recollection of Actual Victims and Witnesses of Crime,” Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 74 (1995): 722–727; R.P. Fisher, M.R. McCauley, and R.E. Geiselman, “Improving Eyewitness
Testimony with the Cognitive Interview,” in D.F. Ross, J.D. Read, and M.P. Toglia, eds., Adult
Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1994), pp. 245–272.
Re-Enactments
Re-enactment is a powerful incident recall method that requires careful handling and
planning. The most obvious problem is the danger that simulating an actual injury will
produce another one.
Circumstances will dictate whether a re-enactment is essential to complete a thorough
investigation. In one documented case, the occupational health and safety professional
was on site when a worker was impaled between the couplers of two boxcars in a company’s railyard. That person filmed the car separation and the removal of the body.
Then, while all the witnesses were present and all of the details were fresh—horribly so—in
their minds, he had each witness walk through what he or she saw. The local coroner complimented the safety officer on the thoroughness of the evidence, and a re-enactment
was obviously unnecessary.
The following are some guidelines for conducting a re-enactment:
1. A qualified observer is necessary—If none are available, the in-house specialist will have to do the job. If it appears that evidence is being gathered for an inquest or court hearing,
every possible explanation—even suicide—must be considered.
2. Do not show—tell—The witnesses must relate in their own words what they observed. The analyst must know precisely what took place during the event. Their stories will
provide that information. The company cannot afford any surprises that might lead to additional injury. Filming the witness can be very helpful, but if, and only if, the witness
agrees.
3. Shut down every energy source and lock them out—Follow the lockout procedures discussed in Chapter 4. The professional who is conducting the re-enactment should
control the major key for the lockout.
4.Carefully act out the events—The witness should describe what happened at each step
(just as he or she did when interviewed about the event), and then, with the specialist’s approval, will act out that step. For obvious reasons, the re-enactment will stop before the
point of incident.
Investigative Tools
The walkthrough, the interview, and the re-enactment can be supplemented by the
following:
• Photographs—Incident photography is helpful and even necessary
for efficient incident investigation. When pictures are being taken,
ensure they show the whole area, as well as every angle and every
nook and cranny. Colour is best, though black and white can be
useful. One advantage of black-and-white photographs is that they
can be scanned and included in the incident report; colour photos
can also be scanned although the colour may not reproduce. Point-
and-shoot cameras, including the cameras available on most
smartphones, also require minimal operator skill. Digital video
cameras are effective and preferred, since the film can be viewed
immediately and the data can be entered into the computer.
• Drawings—After the interview, prepare a series of sketches or
drawings of the incident scene. A good CAD program will facilitate
the drawing process. If the in-house specialist does not have access
to CAD software and the training to use it, then a scale pencil sketch
is fine. All parts of the drawing should be well labelled.
• Computers—Incident recall involves gathering and recording large
amounts of information. A computer with a user-friendly database
is a necessity. Portable laptops can be taken directly to the scene of
an incident. Any computer will facilitate the structured entry of
data and facts into the safety files.
• Other tools—Depending on the circumstances of the event, other
tools such as tape measures, clipboards, water-resistant pens, and
flashlights will assist the investigator.
• Record check—Training records and maintenance or production
schedules can offer the investigator some valuable insights. A
careful review of training records can provide the answers to some
questions: Was the worker properly instructed in the accepted and
safe methods of doing the job or task? Was he or she aware of the
rules of operation, and were they followed? Has the worker signed a
training attendance sheet or examination form? Maintenance logs
and records should provide information about potential hazards
within the company and about what, if anything, was done to
address them. Preventive maintenance data are particularly
important, since they can be used to predict possible future failures
in equipment.
Incident Reports
Once all the information from the investigation has been gathered, incident reports must
be completed. These reports should provide some explanation of causal factors. Though
the principal causes will be unsafe acts (e.g., not using a personal protective device) or
unsafe conditions (e.g., a broken guard), there may be other explanatory factors. The factor
most closely associated with the cause of an incident is referred to as the agency. The
following are some examples of agents:
• animals (insects, dogs, raccoons, etc.)
• pressure vessels (boilers, piping)
• chemicals (solvents, explosives)
• materials-handling systems (conveyers, forklift trucks)
• dust, fumes, smoke, mists (silica, wood)
• electrical equipment (motors, fuses, wiring)
• elevating devices (elevators, vertical stop belts)
• tools (hammers, wrenches)
• lifting devices (hoists, cranes)
• machine tools (lathe, drill press)
• motive power sources (engines, vehicles)
• radiation (X-ray, ultraviolet)
The agency refers to the subgroup of the factors listed above. For example, a dog bite
would be the agency part of the animal group.
Another consideration in reports is the incident type, which attempts to categorize the
nature of the incident. Some examples:
• caught in or between (e.g., crushed between two moving machines)
• struck by (impact or blow to the body by an object)
• struck against (walking into a door)
• fall to the same level (tripping on a level walkway)
• fall to a lower level (falling off a ladder)
• fall to a higher level (tripping while walking up steps)
• abraded, scratched, or punctured (an injury such as hitting the face
when falling)
• overexertion (sprains, strains, etc., caused by a greater-than-average
effort)
• contact with an energy (mechanical, kinetic, electrical, chemical,
thermal, gravity, or radiation)
Personal factors (e.g., lack of knowledge, fatigue, restricted vision) should also be included
on the incident investigation form to assist in entry, recordkeeping, and analysis.
The actual report format will vary by company. (Samples of short and long reports are provided in the Appendix Figures 12A.1 and 12A.2, respectively.) Organization and layout
should be straightforward. Accuracy and thoroughness are also important. Where
information is unknown or is not applicable, the respondent should indicate “information unknown” or “not applicable.” Abbreviations such as “n/a” for “not applicable” should not
be used (it can mean “not available” as well). Do not leave the space blank!
Reports that must be submitted to outside parties such as OH&S agencies or WCBs should
include basic information about the company (i.e., type of industry, number of employees,
etc.).
A description of any injury that was sustained should be included. A separate physician’s
report (see Appendix Figure 12A.3) should also be provided, along with a witness report
(see Appendix Figure 12A.4).
Completed reports are submitted to the senior managers, the JHSC, others directly
involved, and possibly the Ministry of Labour if the incident involved serious injury. It is
then up to the senior manager directly responsible for the operation in question to
implement the recommendations contained in the report.
Incident Analysis
Once the data are collected, the next task is to analyze the information to identify the
cause of the incident (see OH&S Today 12.2). A variety of analytic models and techniques
are available for use in assessing the cause of an incident.
OH&S Today 12.2: Hazardous Occurrence Investigation In the Canadian Forces
The Canadian Forces through the Director—General Safety advocates the analysis of
hazardous occurrences as a means of preventing their recurrence. The focus here is on
identifying the root causes of incidents by assembling, categorizing, and analyzing all relevant data. In their view, the fact that an incident has occurred is evidence of a failure in
one or more of five major categories: materials, task, management, personnel, or the
environment.
Source: Ministry of National Defence, “Hazardous Occurrence Investigation and Reporting.”
Found at: http://www.njc-cnm.gc.ca/aux_bin.php?auxid=508 (accessed April 28, 2019).
Domino Theory
Every event—incident or disaster—comprises a series of happenings that result in some negative condition. The domino theory, developed by H.W. Heinrich, is based on a set of
five dominos, labelled as follows:3
1. Social, environmental, and behaviour: How a person was raised and educated
2. Faults of the person either inherited or acquired 3. Personal and mechanical hazards that result from carelessness or improper
maintenance
4. Accidents resulting from hazards
5. Injuries resulting from accidents
Heinrich’s model emphasizes that injuries and incidents result from a whole chain of
actions and situational characteristics. However, it is clear that Heinrich’s original formulation focused on the individual and was seen by many as blaming the victim. A more
modern incorporation of the domino principle maintains the principle of sequential
causation but broadens the focus so that the dominos are labelled:
1. Background—a lack of control over the management function (planning, organizing, leading, controlling)
2. Personal defects—personal factors such as physical or mental problems, and job factors
such as normal wear and tear of equipment
3. Unsafe acts and conditions—(described earlier)
4. Incident—a series of undesired events with release of energies that can cause harm
5. Injury—the most undesired result (e.g., trauma or property damage)
Though there are other models, such as those dealing with the release of energy4 and with
the theory of multiple factors,5 the domino model is the easiest to illustrate. The domino
theory asserts that if any one of the domino categories does not happen, injury probably
will not occur (see Figure 12.1). For example, if a worker is trying to make a production
quota (background), is wearing loose clothing (personal defects or unsafe conditions), and
is operating a machine at unsafe speeds (unsafe act), an incident or injury will be more
likely to occur. However, if the worker is wearing well-fitting clothes or operating the machine at the proper speed (removal of domino number 2 or 3), the risk of an incident is
greatly reduced.
The Swiss Cheese Model
J. Reason presented an updated version of the domino model that is often depicted as
series of dominoes with holes in them.6 In this view (often called the “Swiss cheese
model”), an incident results when the holes line up (i.e., there are failures at multiple
levels). Reason’s model focuses on the series of events that must occur for an incident to occur. His model emphasizes that unsafe acts cannot be viewed in isolation; they are a
product of the organizational culture, the level of supervision, and a variety of other
contextual factors. It follows that incident analysis focuses on identifying these factors to
“plug the holes” in the Swiss cheese (see Figure 12.2).
Reason’s incident causation model specifies four levels of defence:
1. organizational influences
2. local working conditions 3. unsafe acts
4. defences, barriers, and safeguards
For example, an organization with a poor safety culture may not have a high incident rate if
it has well-developed safe working procedures or safety-conscious supervisors. Similarly, committing an unsafe act may not result in an incident if appropriate safeguards are in
place. It is only when organizational influences and local working conditions allow for an
unsafe act and there are no safeguards against such an act that an incident results.
Bow-Tie Analysis
A more modern way of analyzing risks in the workforce is known as bow-tie analysis. It gets this name because the figure that results from the analysis resembles a bow-tie (see Figure
12.3). Essentially a bow-tie analysis combines a fault tree with an event tree. On the left of
the diagram is a listing of potential hazards and the measures taken to control those hazards. On the right of the diagram are the measures taken to mitigate the consequences
of an event and the resulting consequences. The “knot” in the bow-tie is the event or
incident to be prevented. An overview of the bow-tie methodology can be found here.
Normal Incidents
The theory of normal incidents,7 especially in high-reliability organizations (e.g., chemical
plants, nuclear plants),8 suggests that incidents result from the interactive complexities in
the technological system. That is, no single event causes an incident, and the search for a
single discrete cause, analogous to a single perpetrator, may well be fruitless in such an environment. The futility of the endeavour may be difficult to recognize, given the common
tendency to make sense out of organizational events. As one researcher notes, “people
who know the outcome of a complex prior history of tangled, indeterminate events remember that history as being much more determinant, leading ‘inevitably’ to the
outcome they already knew.”9
The Psychology of Incidents: Cognitive
Failures
In many incident investigations, focus is placed on human error. As a result, we often end
up concluding that highly trained and experienced workers simply “made a mistake” in the
routine performance of their duties. In fact, the most common types of human errors
responsible for fatalities and accidents are skill-based slips and lapses resulting from
inattention.
Psychologists refer to these slips or lapses as a “cognitive failure.”10 There seem to be at
least three forms of cognitive failure; these relate to memory, focus, and physical skills.
Forgetfulness is when you forget (even momentarily) things you ordinarily know (e.g., the name of your spouse or partner). Distractability is a failure in focus—finishing reading a
page of text and realizing you have no idea what you just read is a common example of
distractability. Finally, physical blunders include actions such as tripping over your own feet or bumping into things. Though much more research is required, we know that
cognitive failures are often a sign of individuals under stress and that cognitive failures are
related to the occurrence of both motor vehicle and work-related incidents.11
Summary
Incident investigation is a very important part of an OH&S program. The reasons for
conducting an investigation are primarily to identify direct and contributing causes and to
ensure that the incident does not recur. Timing and severity are the important variables in
investigations. The types of information collected can be grouped under human factors,
situational factors, and environmental factors. The investigative methods include
observations or walkthroughs, interviews, and re-enactments, all of which are
complemented by investigative tools such as cameras and computers. Records also supply
information that may be important in determining causes. The reporting and analysis of
the information collected is the last step in incident investigation.
Key Terms
cognitive failure
domino theory high-reliability organizations
normal incidents
RAC program re-enactment
walkthrough
Discussion Questions
Steeping some tea... Discussion Question 12.2
Review
Describe the methods that can be used in incident investigation.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 12.3
Review
What tools can assist the incident investigator?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 12.4
Review
What steps should be taken to properly re-enact an incident?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 12.5
Review
Give an example of how human, environmental, and situational factors can combine to result in an incident.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 12.6
Review
Given our focus on analyzing and understanding incident causation, it is worth noting that some
occupational health and safety professionals now refuse to use the term “accident.” They claim that
doing so implies that incidents are random, unforeseeable events, whereas we know that most incidents result from a foreseeable series of events. What are the merits (pros and cons) of this
position? Do “accidents happen,” or are all incidents preventable?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 12.7
Review
Some safety professionals now talk about the notion of “system risk.” In essence, they suggest that
incidents do not result from single causes. Rather, they suggest that incidents are the result of multiple
events working together. How might the factors identified in this chapter interact to result in an
incident? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 12.1
Review
Many incident investigations, such as traffic and airline incident investigations, conclude that “human
error” was the principal cause. We know that situational and environmental factors also play a role.
Why do we emphasize the role of humans in incident causation? Does this result in an under-emphasis
of these other factors? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 12.2
Review
Search news media and online reports to find accounts of workplace incidents. For at least one such
report, try to identify the human, situational, and environmental factors contributing to the incident.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 12.1
Show Correct Answer
In my small business we have had a lot of incidents and injuries. Even though I have only 10 employees
we seem to always have somebody on the injured list. I think that my employees are just careless. What
do you think I should do about this?
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Cumulative Assignment: Well mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well mart
Show Correct Answer
Conducting an Investigation
To: You,OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Incident in the Warehouse
Hi there
I know that you have heard about Jerry in the warehouse hurting his back this morning. He’s at the
hospital now and we are waiting to see how bad it is. I think we need to get to the bottom of exactly
what happened so that we can ensure that it won’t happen again. Can you put together a plan to
investigate what went on? Thanks. If you can send that along in an email, we can then start
documenting the process.
When completing this assignment in addition to responding to the above, address the following:
1. What are the intent and steps of the incident investigation?
2. What are legal requirements to investigate the incident?
3. Which factor, or agency, is most closely associated with the cause of this
incident?+
Upload a PDF to submit your cumulative assignment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
Appendix
Incident Report Forms
References
1. P. Laing, ed., Incident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry: Administration and
Programs, 10th ed. (Washington: National Safety Council, 1992).
2. T. Ryan, “Incident Investigations: II Group Investigations,” in F. Briggs, ed., Guide to
Health and Safety Management (Toronto: Southam, 1991).
3. H.W. Heinrich, Industrial Incident Prevention (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1936).
4. W. Haddon, Jr., “The Changing Approach to Epidemiology, Prevention and Amelioration of Trauma: The Transition to Approaches Etiological Rather Than Descriptively
Based,” American Journal of Public Health 58 (1968): 8.
5. S.R. Zein, and F.P.D. Navin. “Improving traffic safety: a new systems
approach.” Transportation research record 1830, no. 1 (2003): 1–9.
6. J. Reason, Human Error (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
7. C. Perrow, Normal Incidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (New York: Basic, 1984);
idem, “Incidents in High-Risk Systems,” Technological Studies 1 (1994): 1–20.
8. K. Roberts, “Some Characteristics of High-Reliability Organizations,” Organization
Science 2 (1989): 160–176; K.E. Weick, K.M. Sutcliffe, and D. Obstfeld, “Organizing for High
Reliability: Processes of Collective Mindfulness,” Research in Organizational Behavior 21
(1999): 81–123.
9. K. Weick, Sensemaking in Organizations (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1995).
10. J.C. Wallace and S.J. Vodanovich, “Can Incidents and Industrial Mishaps Be Predicted?
Further Investigation into the Relationships Between Cognitive Failure and Reports of
Incidents,” Journal of Business and Psychology 17 (2003): 503–514.
11. Ibid.
DISABILITY MANAGEMENT
AND RETURN TO WORK
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• articulate the financial and legal motivations for disability
management programs
• describe the goals and values of disability management programs
• discuss the important outcomes used to evaluate disability
management efforts
• discuss the best practices in disability management programming
• consider the benefits of return-to-work planning
• describe the common methods and approaches used in workplace
accommodation
• identify the stakeholders in disability management programs
• consider potential barriers to successful disability management
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrBcFqhNKTc
Return To Work: High-Profile Style
We the North! We the Champs! In 2019, the Toronto Raptors became NBA Champions for the
first time. Among a strong roster, Kawhi Leonard stood out. In one of the best-ever playoff
runs, Leonard scored 732 points, placing him third to Michael Jordan (759 points) and LeBron James (748 points) in points in a single playoffs in NBA history. Of course, Leonard
also made a dramatic buzzer-beater shot—the NBA’s first ever in game seven of a playoff
series—taking the Raptors to the Eastern Conference finals. However, Leonard’s time with the Raptors has not been without controversy. In the 2017–2018 season with the San
Antonio Spurs, he played just 9 games due to a quadriceps injury; as a result, after his trade
to the Toronto Raptors, fans worried that the injury would linger. Nevertheless, in the
2018–2019 season, Leonard played 60 of 82 regular-season games. Even then, fans would
sometimes groan to learn that Leonard would not play in certain games. However, the
Raptors staff, using “load management,” rested him throughout the season. Leonard said it
was to ensure he was “improving instead of declining on the health side.” It certainly to
seemed to pay off.
Perhaps the most talked-about hockey injuries in recent years are the multiple concussions
suffered by NHL superstar Sidney Crosby. Two on-ice hits to the head in January 2011 resulted in long-lasting, concussion-like symptoms that kept him largely out of the game
for nearly two years—two prime playing years. During his initial recovery period he eased
back to work; for example, with no-contact practices. He officially returned to the ice with
the Penguins in late 2011, but less than a month later symptoms forced him off the ice once
again for three additional months. In other words, his initial return to competitive play was
not sustained. Now, Crosby is back strong. Kawhi Leonard? An altered playing schedule
facilitated strong play when he is on the court.
There are other stories of elite athletes who return to high-level competition following
injury or illness. WNBA star Jessica Breland beat cancer to return to competitive play.
Italian race car driver Alex Zanardi, whose legs were severed in a horrific racing crash during the 2001 CART racing league’s season, returned to professional racing in a race car
adapted for hand controls.
In these stories we see evidence of determination and learn that it is possible to return in a
meaningful way to one’s work after experiencing serious injury or illness. These athletes dug deep into their inner strength and used specific strategies and equipment to rebuild
their physical strength to return, perhaps gradually, to competition. In this chapter we
explore how disability management programs can help injured or ill workers return
successfully to the workplace.
Sources: D. Smith, “Raptors Crowned NBA Champions for the First Time in History,” The
Star (June 13, 2019). Found at: https://www
.thestar.com/sports/raptors/2019/06/13/follow-live-raptors-vs-warriors-nba-finals-game- 6.html (accessed August 5, 2019); L. Ewing, “Load Management 101: How the Raptors Have
Treated Kawhi Leonard” Canadian Press (April 18, 2019). Found at:
https://www.cbc.ca/sports /basketball/nba/load-management-101-how-the-raptors-have- treated-kawhi-leonard-1.5103502 (accessed August 5, 2019); B. Botkin, “2019 NBA Playoffs
Star Rankings: Kawhi Leonard, Giannis in a League of Their Own” (May 8, 2019). Found at:
https://www.cbssports.com/nba /news/2019-nba-playoffs-star-rankings-kawhi-leonard- giannis-in-a-league-of-their-own-steph-curry-doesnt-crack-the-top-10 (accessed August 5,
2019); D. Zarum. “By the Numbers: Kawhi’s 2019 Playoff Run Among the Best All-Time,”
Sportsnet (May 24, 2019). Found at: https://www.sportsnet.ca/basketball/nba/numbers-
kawhi-leonards-2019-playoff-run-among-best-time (accessed August 5, 2019); D. Zarum. “What They’re Saying About the NBA Finals-Bound Raptors,” Sportsnet (May 26, 2019).
Found at: https://www.sportsnet.ca/basketball/nba /numbers-kawhi-leonards-2019-
playoff-run-among-best-time (accessed August 5, 2019); L. Ewing, “Kawhi Leonard Hits
Buzzer Beater for Wild Game 7 Win over Sixers,” Canadian Press (May 12, 2019). Found at: https://www.cbc.ca/sports/basketball/nba/toronto-raptors-philadelphia-sixers-game-7-
1.5133188 (accessed August 5, 2019); CTV News, “Sidney Crosby Ready to Put Concussions
Behind Him.” Found at: http://www.ctvnews.ca/sports/sidney-crosby-ready-to-put- concussions-behind-him-1.1115158 (accessed August 5, 2019); Postmedia News, “Sidney
Crosby Cleared for Practice with the Penguins.” Found at:
http://www.canada.com/Sidney+Crosby+cleared+practice+with+Penguins/5413600/story.
html (accessed August 5, 2019); M. Isaacson, “The Miracle That Is Jessica Breland,” Espn.com (June 18, 2014). Found at: http://espn.go.com/wnba/story/_
/id/11100323/wnba-jessica-breland-playing-better-ever-chicago-sky (accessed August 5,
2019); The Independent, “Alex Zanardi: A Fierce Spirit Triumphs in Return to the Track.” Found at: http://www .independent.co.uk/sport/motor-racing/alex-zanardi-a-fierce-spirit-
triumphs-in-return-to-the-track-19383.html (accessed August 5, 2019).
As we saw in the opening vignette, workplace injuries and illness happen in all types of
work environments. As a society we’re used to following injured athletes on their roads to recovery, aspects of which are often made public in news releases and press conferences.
However, we might be less familiar with disability management and return-to-work
practices in other work environments. In this chapter we explore how organizations can
use disability management approaches both to prevent injuries and illnesses and to
facilitate successful return to work following an employee’s recovery after injury or illness
occurs. In contrast to Chapter 3, where we focused on workers’ compensation as an insurance program for injured or ill workers, here we consider the active processes,
strategies, and stakeholders involved in managing work-related disability during recovery
and eventual resumption of work activities.
Motives for Disability Management
Financial Motives
Work-related injuries are prevalent and costly. Each year an estimated 317 million
workplace incidents occur worldwide, with many leading to prolonged work absence. The International Labour Organization estimates the annual cost of these incidents is about 4
percent of global Gross Domestic Product.1 Canadian estimates suggest that occupational
injuries cost the Canadian economy $9.7 billion per year in direct costs (e.g., compensation benefits). This number jumps to $19 billion per year when indirect costs are also
included.2 In 2017, workers’ compensations boards across Canada accepted 251 625 claims
for lost-time injuries at Canadian workplaces.3 That same year, for every 100 employees
who worked for employers covered under workers’ compensation boards, there were 1.58
compensated lost-time injuries.4 Looking at the costs of absenteeism in general, workplace
absenteeism costs the Canadian economy more than $16 billion annually.5 Furthermore,
there is growing concern that the various costs of workplace injury and illness will continue to increase. The prevalence of chronic disorders among the workforce, due in part to
demographic factors such as labour shortages and an aging population, may result in even more lost work time.6 Thus, there are financial motivations for workplaces to reduce costs
associated with injury and illness. Disability management programs can help achieve this
goal. Learn more about the business case for disability management programs in OH&S
Notebook 13.1.
OH&S Notebook 13.1: The Business Case For Disability Management
Organizations have an obligation to facilitate timely and safe return to work for injured
employees. However, an effective disability management and return-to-work program also makes good business sense. There are numerous employer benefits of effective disability
management and return-to-work programs. These include:
• minimizing the costs of disability
• a quicker return to previous productivity levels
• reduced work delays
• improved employee morale
• retaining skilled employees
• improvement in the company’s reputation and image
• reduced training costs
• may help reduce insurance costs
• avoiding grievances or litigation for failure to accommodate
Sources: WorkSafeNB, “Workplace Disability Management: Enabling Return-to-Work.”
Found at: http://www.worksafenb.ca/docs/Workplac.pdf (accessed May 9, 2019); Canadian
Society of Professionals in Disability Management, “Making a Business Case for Disability
Management” (n.d.). Found at: http://www.cspdm.ca/dm-in-context/dm-programs-
benefits/making-a-business-case-for-disability-management (accessed August 5, 2019).
Moral and Social Motives
The human and social costs of workplace work-related injury and illness are intolerably
high. OH&S professionals are motivated by ethical arguments in support of safety
initiatives.7 Certainly, injured individuals experience social costs over and above the
financial costs that they and others (e.g., employers, public and private insurers, and the
health care system) incur. There are emotional costs for injured workers, which include psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress
disorder.8 Further, work is an important source of meaning, social support, and identity for
individuals, and these factors may motivate injured and ill workers to return to work.9
Legal Motives
In Canada, legislation protects the rights of disabled workers, including those who lose
work time due to an injury or work-related illness. Under Canadian human rights
legislation, employers have a duty to accommodate individuals as they return to
work.10 That is, employers are held to a high standard in their obligation to accommodate workers who are attempting to return to work following an injury or illness, in that they are
required to implement changes in job tasks and or the work environment to enable
workers with a temporary or permanent disability to perform work productively.11 For example, a worker who has sustained a back injury may return to work on light duties that
do not involve heavy lifting. Organizations are expected to engage in reasonable
accommodations up to the point of undue hardship. Undue hardship is evaluated in the context of the organization in question; there is no precise legal definition of the
concept.12 However, it is generally interpreted to mean that employers must accommodate
the needs of a disabled worker unless the neUndue hardship is evaluated in thecessary
accommodation would lead to health and safety difficulties or present unsustainable economic or efficiency costs. For instance, a company would not be expected to
accommodate an injured worker if the cost of the specialized equipment the worker
required would result in bankruptcy or if the employee wished to return to a given job before the employer felt certain that the worker could perform the job safely. The duty to
accommodate and the concept of undue hardship are outlined in more detail in OH&S
Today 13.1. You can also learn more about the employer’s obligations to re-employ ill or
injured workers in OH&S Notebook 13.2.
OH&S Today 13.1: The Duty to Accommodate and Undue Hardship
Canadian employers have a legal obligation to accommodate individuals and to be proactive in removing discriminatory workplace practices. When exploring
accommodation options for returning workers, both employers and employees have
responsibilities to fulfill. For example, employers need to ensure their workplaces are inclusive. They must also inform employees about their right to accommodation and to
accommodate workers to the point of undue hardship
Employees’ roles and obligations include informing the employer that accommodation is needed and when it is no longer necessary. This will likely involve providing medical
information outlining the nature of the accommodation required. Employees also need to
cooperate to help find a suitable accommodation, which may require the employee to be
flexible when considering possible accommodation solutions.
Employers report that they often face challenges in determining how to provide
appropriate accommodations. For example, it is difficult to design suitable
accommodation when there is very little or vague information from the health care providers involved. Without understanding the medical limitations for the returning
worker, it is difficult to identify appropriate work arrangements. Having a proactive disability management system can help alleviate these challenges. A return-to-work
coordinator or a disability management consultant can work with the current health care
team or seek a third-party medical opinion.
Employers also report questions about what constitutes undue hardship. Such uncertainty reflects the fact that undue hardship is defined on a case-by-case basis. Furthermore, the
wording of human rights legislation pertaining to undue hardship can differ across
provinces. For example, the Ontario Human Rights Code considers only the following three factors in evaluating undue hardship: cost, the possibility of outside funding assistance,
and health and safety concerns. However, the PEI Human Rights Act is broader in the
factors considered in assessing undue hardship, including financial pressure, health and safety concerns, employee morale, collective agreement provisions, and the size of the
organization. Exploration of case law decisions can help define the boundaries of undue
hardship. An Alberta Human Rights tribunal found that a school division had discriminated against an injured caretaker due to its perfunctory attempts to find modified work before
letting the employee go. A BC Human Rights tribunal concluded that a university did not
have to create a new position to accommodate a research employee who had developed
an allergy from working with mice.
Sources: Government of Canada, “The Fundamentals—Duty to Accommodate: Roles and
Responsibilities” (2011). Found at: https://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/psm-fpfm/ve/dee/dmi-
igi/fun-fon/dta-oda-eng.asp#Toc297620654 (accessed May 9, 2019); L. Johnson, “Employers Face Challenges with Duty to Accommodate” (June 7, 2012), Canadian
Occupational Safety. Found at: https://www.cos-mag.com/ohs-laws-regulations/30200-
employers-face-challenges-with-duty-to-accommodate/~/safety-awards/canadas-safest- employers-awards (accessed August 5, 2019); Ontario Human Rights Commission, “Policy
on Ableism and Discrimination Based on Disability” (revised June 2016). Found at:
http://www.ohrc.on.ca/sites/default/files/Policy%20on%20ableism%20and%20discrimina
tion%20based%20on%20disability_accessible_2016.pdf (accessed August 5, 2019); Prince Edward Island Human Rights Commission, “Duty to Accommodate and Undue Hardship”
(July 2012). Found at:
http://www.gov.pe.ca/humanrights/index.php3?number=1043553&lang=E (accessed August 5, 2019); OHS Insider, “University Accommodated RA with Mice Allergy to Point of
Undue Hardship” (November 3, 2014). Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/search-by-
index/disabilities/university-accommodated-ra-mice-allergy-point-undue-hardship (accessed August 5, 2019); OHS Insider, “School District Didn’t Accommodate Caretaker
Injured on the Job” (March 16, 2015). Found at: https://ohsinsider.com/search-by-
index/disabilities/school-district-didnt-accommodate-caretaker-injured-on-the-job
(accessed August 5, 2019).
OH&S Notebook 13.2: Re-Employment Obligations
Under Canadian human rights legislation, Canadian employers have a duty to accommodate employees with disabilities to the point of undue hardship. That said,
workers’ compensation acts for various Canadian jurisdictions differ in their requirements
pertaining to duty-to-accommodate and re-employment obligations. For example, in Manitoba employers with 25 or more employees are required to re-employ injured workers
who worked for them for at least 12 continuous months prior to the injury. Moreover, the
employers must accommodate those employees to the point of undue hardship. Several
other jurisdictions have exemption policies for small employees; for instance, New Brunswick exempts employers with fewer than 10 employees. In some provinces, such as
British Columbia, the relevant acts are silent on the issue of re-employment obligations,
though Canadian human rights legislation pertaining to the duty to accommodate workers
with disabilities still applies.
The limits of re-employment also differ by jurisdiction. In Manitoba, for instance, the
obligation to re-employ ends two years after the date of the injury, six months after the worker is medically able to perform his or her pre-injury job, or the normal retirement date
of the worker, whichever comes first. Those working in the field of disability management
should check the local requirements of their province or territory to ensure that they are
upholding the relevant legislation.
Sources: Workers’ Compensation Board of Manitoba, “Reemployment Obligations” (July
2015). Found at:
https://www.wcb.mb.ca/sites/default/files/resources/2826%20WCB%20Re- Employment%20Brochure%20Web.pdf (accessed May 9, 2019); Association of Workers’
Compensation Boards of Canada, “Rehiring Worker/Obligation to Re-employ and Duty to
Accommodate.” Found at: http://awcbc.org/wp-
content/uploads/2013/12/rehab_return_to_work.pdf (accessed August 5, 2019).
At present, Canada does not have a federal law for the protection of persons with
disabilities. Currently, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the mechanism by which
protection against discrimination is offered. There is movement toward the development of a federal act in Canada, with a proposal for the Accessible Canada Act introduced in
2018. Some Canadian provinces have provincial accessibility legislation. Ontario was the
first province to introduce legislation; the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (AODA) has been phased in since 2005 with a goal of a completely accessible Ontario by
2025. The AODA has implications for disability management and return-to-work practices
for employers in Ontario. For instance, as of January 1, 2017, small employers with 50 or
fewer employees must have accommodation plans for disabled workers under the accessible employment standard. Other provinces have followed Ontario’s lead.
The Accessibility for Manitobans Act (AMA) became law in 2013 and the Nova Scotia
Accessibility Act was passed in 2017. Other provinces have legislation or strategic plans in development. BC introduced the Accessibility 2024 initiative and has introduced Bill M 219,
a proposed Accessibility Act, which as of mid-2019 had received first reading in the
legislature.13
Disability Management
Organizations can use disability management programs as an effective response to the
motives described above. These programs outline strategies to prevent workplace injury and illness and to accommodate workers in a manner that facilitates early and safe return
to work, thus addressing financial, moral, and legislative realities.
Disability management encompasses a set of proactive employer practices whose goals
are to prevent or reduce workplace disability; to intervene early in the event of risk or
injury; and to provide coordinated management and rehabilitation functions that promote
workers’ recovery and safe and timely return to work.14 The goals of disability management
programs include promotion of safe workplaces; coordinated programming in health, rehabilitation, and accommodation interventions; and representation of all stakeholders,
including workers, unions, management, government, and insuring agencies.15
Disability management programs are most effective when developed and applied using a systems approach.16 A systems approach to disability management emphasizes the work
and organizational context—for instance, the type of work and the safety record of the
organization—instead of focusing solely on individual employees. When disability
management efforts are fully integrated into the workplace, the workplace culture reflects
the overarching commitment to prevention and restoration. Senior managers and frontline
employees alike appreciate the value of safety and support the goals of the disability
management initiatives.
The research indicates that workplaces with a people-focused workplace culture, positive
safety attitudes, and articulated policies on disability management tend to report shorter
absences, lower disability costs, and less frequent absences arising from workplace injury.17 The value of this type of support from the top makes sense; the most intense
efforts of frontline supervisors to help injured employees return to work will be futile if
organizational policy and practice do not support return-to-work practices, such as
modified or light-duty work.
Assessing Disability Management Programs
Two primary values of disability management programs are (1) safe and productive
employment for individuals, including those with disabilities; and (2) reduced incidence and impact of workplace injury and illness.18 As we move deeper into our
discussion of disability management programs, it is important to keep in mind the
indicators of a successful intervention. In other words, how do we measure the success of a
disability management program? As you work through the remainder of this chapter, keep
the following financial and social indicators in mind:
1. The rates of safety incidents and occupational illnesses—Decreases in incidence of
incidents and exposures can support the effectiveness of disability management programs.
2. Duration of the work disability—Duration of the disability is the most commonly used outcome in research in this area. It is often reported as the amount of time that a worker
receives benefits.19 Longer absences are more both more costly for the employer and may
also be associated with negative emotional experiences for the individual workers. 3. Associated costs—Various associated costs, such as wage replacement, health care
costs, and intervention costs, are used in evaluation.20 Reducing the duration of the
disability can help decrease associated costs.
4. Sustained return to work—Whether workers are able to sustain their return to the workplace provides important information about disability management efforts. A quick
but unsustainable return to work might indicate problems with the return-to-work
planning. In fact, researchers are increasingly looking at the work attitudes and quality of work experiences for those who are returning, in addition to the timing and sustainability
of return to work when evaluating disability management programs.21
5. Quality of life—Workers’ quality-of-life indicators, such as symptom severity and general health, are important outcomes in disability management and return-to-work
programs.22 Programs are viewed as more successful when injured workers report exhibit
fewer symptoms and improved health.
Best Practices in Disability Management
The severity of a worker’s injury or illness and the physical demands of that worker’s job
are obviously important predictors of initial and sustained return to work.23 For example,
for a worker who has sustained a musculoskeletal injury, returning to a job that involves heavy physical labour or working in awkward positions may take longer, or require more
substantial accommodations, than returning to a job that is more sedentary.24 A more
serious injury, such as losing a limb, will obviously require a longer recovery than a less
serious injury, such as sustaining a deep cut that requires stitches.
However, the nature of the injury and the job are not the only important predictors of
return-to-work and effective disability management. Research has identified several best
practices that can reduce the incidence and impact of workplace disability. These are
outlined below.
People-focused Climate
A disability management program can be most effective when it is embedded in an organizational system that values its human resources and is supportive of safety
initiatives. Employees should have a voice in the development and delivery of disability
management programs.25 Furthermore, all employees should be educated on their
company’s safety values and disability management program, including their rights and responsibilities within that program. Injured workers need to feel that they are welcome to
return to the workplace and that the organization values their contributions. Injured
workers are empowered when they are given an active role in their rehabilitation and
return-to-work plans, including any necessary workplace accommodation.26
Prevention Focus
A common theme in disability management is “prevention first.”27 Prevention efforts that
reduce the incidence of illness and injury result in cost savings for organizations.28 A good
starting point when developing a disability management program is to examine the
organization’s safety record. Are there particular jobs or worksites where injuries are prevalent? Are there injuries that employees report frequently? Aiming prevention efforts
at injuries that are frequent or particularly costly will increase the company’s return on
investment. For example, if an analysis reveals that carpal tunnel syndrome is a common experience among press operators in a particular company, that organization might
engage in directed prevention efforts, such as training on proper techniques to operate the
press and the provision of personal protective equipment such as wrist braces. Or, the organization might use benefits programs as a way to promote prevention. For instance, by
regularly using services such as massage therapy, workers may avoid sustaining certain
types of injuries.
Early Intervention
Organizations with progressive disability management programs continually assess risk for
injury or illness in workplaces and take swift and early steps to eliminate or reduce these
risks. These organizations track and understand patterns in employee absenteeism and sick/disability leaves and engage efforts to prevent short-term absences from extending
into longer-term leave.29 They extend this model of early intervention to cases where an
injury has occurred. A core aspect of disability management is for employers to make “early and considerate” contact with injured workers and to begin rehabilitation efforts as
soon as possible.30 The exact timing of early contact from the employer depends on the
worker’s situation. However, within a week or two is a suggested guideline for the
immediate supervisor to place a call to the employee.31 The goal of this contact is to express that the employer cares about the worker and his or her well-being. Early referral
to a disability management program can decrease the length of absences and result in net
savings for companies.32 One study showed that early contact with the worker predicted increased perceptions of fair treatment among injured workers, which in turn predicted
higher commitment to their organizations and better mental health.33
Education
Supervisors are called upon to support the disability management, in its preventive and
return-to-work senses. Thus, they need to be educated about disability management
programming and factors that support return to work. For example, it is often the
supervisor who makes early contact with an injured employee.34 Supervisors can engage in various practices to show their support for returning employees. For instance, they can be
inclusive of returning employees by doing things such as meeting them when they return
to work, trying to make the first weeks back to work less stressful, and explaining any changes in work practices. Supervisors should also be careful to avoid negative actions
such as losing patience or excessively questioning the returning employee.35 The
supervisor will also have to work with the return-to-work coordinator to ensure that work modifications for a returning employee address the needs of both the returning worker and
the supervisors and coworkers. Coworkers or supervisors may be suspicious or resentful of
a work modification that increases coworkers’ workloads or that threatens the group’s
ability to meet production goals.36
Return-to-Work Case Management
Health and social services provided to those who are injured, disabled, or ill should be
coordinated so that services are appropriate, timely, and efficient. The goals of case management are to enhance the injured worker’s quality of life and, if possible, reduce the
costs associated with care. A return-to-work coordinatorcan be responsible for case
management. Outcomes such as duration of absence and disability costs are improved when organizations have a return-to-work coordinator.37 The coordinator ensures that
there is ongoing communication among the stakeholders, including the worker, the
supervisor, and those providing treatment such as a physician or an occupational
therapist.38 The coordinator works with these stakeholders to plan return to work. There is
strong evidence that this type of contact reduces the duration of absences.39
Integrated Claims Management and Monitoring Systems
When workers require a leave from work due to illness or injury, they submit compensation claims to a benefits program. The particular provider will vary. Depending on the type of
job and industry, and various other eligibility criteria, injured or ill workers may apply for
compensation through the public workers’ compensation system or via a private insurer.40 In an integrated claims management system these processes are facilitated
within the disability management program, which ideally leads to a more timely resolution
of the compensation claim, thus ameliorating a potentially adversarial aspect of workplace
disability insurance claims. If claims are not processed in a timely and sensitive fashion, workers may become frustrated because they are without an income for a period of time or
begin to develop doubts about rehabilitation and return to work.41
Integrated systems also allow ready tracking of where a worker is in the claims, recovery, and rehabilitation process, which is helpful in return-to-work planning.42 It may also help
organizations monitor their safety and disability management performance. For example,
potential risks may be uncovered if certain injuries are commonly occurring, or weaknesses in the return-to-work offerings may be identified if patterns about the success of return-to-
work experiences emerge. For instance, examining amalgamated data may permit a
return-to-work coordinator to detect which worksites appear to have a good record of
sustained return to work and others where the record is not as strong. Particular
interventions can be developed on the basis of this information.
Employee databases can be a vital tool in an integrated disability management program.
In-house databases that log employee information such as sick time, injury dates, and contacts with health care providers can help manage individual cases. They can also help
track valuable statistics, like average days post-injury until first contact, or the average
length of short-term leaves. In larger organizations, such databases might be Web-based and integrated across sites. OH&S Today 13.2 describes PepsiCo’s Canada integrated
absence management system.
OH&S Today 13.2: Absence Management at Pepsico Canada
PepsiCo Canada’s corporate website proudly bears the logos of several “Top Employer”
distinctions. For 2019 PepsiCo Canada is included among Canada’s Top 100 Employers.
The company is noted for its ownership culture, financial rewards, and flexible health, wellness, and family-friendly benefits. However, one particular distinction is of substantial
relevance in this chapter. PepsiCo has also previously won the Benefits Canada Award for
its Absence Management Programming.
Like many companies, PepsiCo Canada faced challenges in balancing operational
efficiency needs with efforts to ensure regulatory compliance, support the health and
safety of employees, and manage the accuracy in reporting and costs of its employee-leave
administration systems. PepsiCo Canada partnered with an external provider, Morneau
Shepell, to implement a comprehensive and integrated absence and leave management
system. In doing so, the company has turned its challenges into successes.
PepsiCo now has a single leave-management system for all types of leaves, from jury duty
to parental leave to short-term disability, etc. It is easy for employees to access. A single
phone call links to a centralized system that incorporates referrals to additional employee supports, such as the Employee Family Assistance Program, if needed. There is
communication to other employee functions (e.g., payroll), which reduces the burden of
paperwork and reporting. The system also includes return-to-work planning and support for employees returning from disability leaves. The program has been highly successful:
employees feel supported and understand why absences matter; managers have access to
the information they need; and the company is saving money.
Sources: PepsiCo Canada website. Found at: http://pepsico.ca/en/index.html (accessed
August 5, 2019); R. Yerema and K. Leung, “PepsiCo Canada 2016 Winner,” Mediacorp
(November 8, 2015). Found at: http://content.eluta.ca/top-employer-pepsico-canada (accessed August 5, 2019); Morneau Shepell, “Case Study: PepsiCo Canada” (2015). Found
at: http://www.morneaushepell.com/permafiles/62690/case-study-pepsico-canada.pdf
(accessed May 9, 2019); Benefits Canada, “Who Are the Winners of the 2015 Workplace
Benefits Awards?” (October 8, 2015). Found at: http://www.benefitscanada.com/benefits/health-benefits/the-2015-workplace-benefits-
awards-winners-are-72694 (accessed August 5, 2019).
Another valuable resource in disability management programming is broad-based databases that provide resources to disability management specialists. For instance, the
National Institute of Disability Management and Research (NIDMAR) provides free access to
its REHADAT Canada database.43 This database contains information on disability
management practices, assistive devices, case studies, and current research. Clearly, such a tool could be useful to help create or improve disability management programming and
rehabilitation efforts.
Return-to-Work Planning
An effective disability case management will involve individualized return-to-work
planning for injured or ill workers. In return-to-work planning, workers, employers, case managers, and health care providers work together to identify the worker’s return to work
goals. These goals will consider the type of job the employee wishes to return to. This
ideally is the pre-injury/illness job, but depending on the nature of the situation could involve modified work or retraining. The planning will also outline timeline targets, actions
required by the employer and employee, and health care needs. As the recovery unfolds,
the plan can be discussed and revised as necessary.44 Research illustrates that return-to-
work plans that consider the individual’s capabilities and workplace demands, and have
identified time frames are effective.45
Work Accommodation
Workplace accommodation, also called offers of modified work arrangement, is a vital
aspect of return to work planning. An offer of work modification is strongly associated with
reduced disability duration and reduced disability costs for permanently and temporarily
disabled workers.46 Estimates based on a comprehensive literature review suggest that injured workers who receive offers of work modifications return to work twice as often and
that their absence durations are about half as long as for workers who are not given an
accommodation offer.47 There are several categories of modified work. Some common
types of modified work arrangements include the following.48
Light-Duty Work
When injured workers are offered light-duty accommodations they return to light-duty work in a capacity that is less demanding than their regular job. This might involve
adapting the tasks of the person’s pre-injury job or placing the person in a different job in
the organization. For example, a courier who has sustained a lower-back injury might
return to her work but be assigned tasks that do not involve heavy lifting. Alternatively, a master mechanic with an upper-extremity musculoskeletal injury who can no longer
sustain certain positions—such as reaching above his head for long periods of time—might
return to modified work tasks that involve quick diagnostics of potential problems with vehicles, after which he passes the detailed repair off to another mechanic; or the modified
task might involve more interfacing with clients of the service centre. These arrangements
can be permanent or temporary, depending on the worker’s condition and changing
abilities.
Gradual Work Exposure
Gradual work exposure is a form of light-duty work in which a person’s hours and expected duties slowly increase until the worker is able to perform his or her pre-injury job without
any problems. This type of modification is also referred to as work hardening.
Work Trials
Workers may return to work on a trial basis to evaluate whether they are able to withstand
the demands of the workplace, given the current state of their recovery. The length of
the work trial may be at the discretion of the employer, the worker, or (possibly) the
worker’s physician.
Supported and Sheltered Work
These types of modified work arrangements are designed to help those with permanent
disabilities who have not succeeded in competitive work environments or who require
substantial support to return to work. This type of accommodation may be offered in
regular work environments (supported) or in special worksites offered via social services
(sheltered). For example, an individual who sustained a traumatic head injury after a fall off
a ladder while working in a large hardware store may require supervision from a job coach
to return to supported work in a retail environment.
Note that any of the above categories of work accommodations could also involve
modifications to the work equipment or work environment to facilitate a safe and early
return to work. Consider the following examples. Amara’s employer provided a new ergonomic computer mouse for her to use during her gradual return to work following
surgery for a repetitive-use injury to her wrist. Awan’s employer switched out the lights
used in his lab after the usual lights triggered his post-concussion headaches during a work trial. Sometimes, the change in equipment will be permanent, as in the case of a lasting
disability. For example, Milton’s employer purchased a motorized wheelchair for him to
access different parts of the company’s large worksite after a hip injury left him with a
permanent limp and difficulty walking long distances.
Work accommodations are among the most cost-saving strategies in disability
management. Bringing employees back to work once they can perform at least some of their tasks can speed up recovery by giving an employee practical goals to achieve during
rehabilitation. It can also serve a work-hardening function by gradually strengthening the
employee’s ability, thereby reducing the risk of re-injury. In many jurisdictions the early
return to work via modified work is a formalized aspect of workers’ compensation, and workers’ compensation boards may offer programs designed to promote early and safe
return to work.49
Physical Demands Analysis
Part of devising a return-to-work plan is to match the recovering worker’s current and
forecasted future capabilities with the demands involved in the job. This is commonly
achieved by conducting physical demands analyses for the jobs in question and assessing
the functional capabilities of the employee. A physical demands analyses (PDA) is a standardized evaluation of the physical and cognitive demands of a job.50 A PDA should be
completed by someone highly familiar with the job in question. It could be an employee
who performs the job, a supervisor, or an external expert contracted by the employer. The PDA will involve identifying the types of activities involved in the job as well as the
frequency and intensity for the activity. For example, the analysis might reveal that light
lifting is frequently necessary in the job, but heavy lifting is needed only occasionally. Many movements and demands can be assessed from walking to neck movement to vision
requirements. Various WCBs across the county have PDA forms to guide an employer
representative through the analysis.
PDA can be used to inform all aspects of the disability management process.51 In a preventive sense it can help identify risk factors and heavy demands in various jobs that
can result in changing the job design, equipment and PPE used, or training. It can also be
used once an injury has occurred. For example, it can help medical care providers determine if the recovering worker is ready to resume the job. It can also help the
stakeholders in the disability case management team determine what types of job
modifications and accommodations would help the worker return to work.
Functional Ability Assessment
In the case of return-to-work planning, the PDA can be used in conjunction with
a functional ability assessment. A functional ability assessment, sometimes called a functional capacity evaluation, is a standardized assessment of a person’s abilities to
perform work-related tasks.52 This inventory would be completed by a member of the
health care team treating the injured worker. When mapped onto the results of the PDA,
the disability case management team can see what aspects of the existing job an injured
worker can return to and what tasks are still barriers to return to work. This mapping can
help identify the types of job modification and accommodations that would lead to a safe
and early return to work.
Stakeholders in Disability Management
Obviously, there are several important stakeholder groups in disability management and
return to work, each with its own roles and responsibilities. You can learn more about
becoming involved in the disability management field in OH&S Today 13.3, which explores
careers in this field. Coordinated efforts on the part of all stakeholder groups can improve the return-to-work outcomes.53 Each of these stakeholders has been referenced at various
points in this chapter; let’s bring them all together in a summary.
OH&S Today 13.3: Careers in Disability Management
Throughout this chapter we have referred to staff positions in disability management
programs, such as return-to-work coordinator. What type of training prepares a person to work in disability management? Several institutions in Canada offer certificate or degree
programs in disability management and return to work. For instance, Dalhousie University
offers a certificate in disability management that is designed to supplement work
experience in that field. McGill University offers a Master of Science, Applied, in occupational health for individuals with a background in disciplines related to
occupational health and safety. Pacific Coast University, a new institution in BC, specializes
in workplace health sciences. Professionals with sufficient experience working in disability management and with the appropriate education can write national exams to earn the
Certified Return to Work Coordinator (CRTWC) or Certified Disability Management
Professional (CDMP).
Sources: Dalhousie University, Certificate in Disability Management. Found at:
https://www.dal.ca/faculty/health/occupational-
therapy/news/news/2016/11/24/certificate_in_disability_management.html (accessed
August 5, 2019); McGill University, Master of Science, Applied, Occupational Health. Found at: https://mcgill.ca/study/2019-2020/faculties/medicine/graduate/programs/master-
science-applied-msca-occupational-health-non-thesis-resident (accessed August 5, 2019);
Pacific Coast University. Found at: http://www.pcu-whs.ca (accessed May 9, 2019); NIDMAR, “Expanding Your Horizons: A Career in Disability Management.” Found at:
http://www.nidmar.ca/career/career_horizons/horizons_contents.asp (accessed May 9,
2019).
1. Injured or ill workers—Workers who have been injured or who have sustained an occupational illness are major stakeholders in disability management. Broadly speaking,
workers should be empowered in disability management programs. They should have
input into the development of related workplace policies and procedures, and they should be educated on their organization’s disability management program.
Injured or ill workers also have several responsibilities to uphold in the disability
management process.54 They must report their condition as soon as possible and take an
active role in developing a return-to-work program. They need to comply with treatment recommendations, work to maintain and improve their health, and keep their employer up
to date on their health status during the return-to-work process.
2. Employers—Employers need to foster a workplace that supports the goals of disability
management. They should ensure that adequate resources are available to the program.55
Supervisors of returning workers have particular responsibilities in return-to-work case
management. They need to help identify options for work modifications and monitor the safety of returning employees. In doing so they should keep in close contact with the
employees in question and their return-to-work case managers. Supervisors should also be
available to coworkers who might have concerns about work modifications.56
The disability management or return-to-work coordinator will work closely with returning employees and play a large role in return-to-work planning. That person will also assist the
injured or ill employee in applying for financial benefits and seeking treatment. Besides
working with the employees who are enrolled in the program, disability management coordinators will play a liaison role with other stakeholders and contribute to policy
development and evaluation of the disability management program.57
3. Unions—Ideally, workplace unions will help develop the disability program, perhaps through a joint labour/management committee. Union officials need to support and
promote disability management goals when negotiating collective agreements. They can
also serve as advocates for employees with disabilities and communicate the benefits of
disability management to their members.58
4. Health care providers—Working with injured, ill, or disabled workers and employers,
health care providers need to review the job requirements so as to suggest possible job
modifications that would facilitate return to work.59 With the employee’s permission, it can be beneficial for the health care provider to have direct contact with the employer.60
5. Insurance providers—Public and private insurers provide benefits to workers who are on
leave. They may also be involved in identifying and facilitating return-to-work options and return-to-work readiness among injured, ill, or disabled employees. The services they
provide differ somewhat from provider to provider. As an example, WorkplaceNL, the
public insurer in Newfoundland and Labrador, has released “Leadership in Prevention Through Collaboration: A Workplace Injury and Illness Prevention Plan for Newfoundland
and Labrador, 2015–2017.” This strategic plan outlines how all stakeholder groups can
work together to create safer workplaces.61
6. Governments—Governments can develop legislation that supports the values of
disability management; for example, the availability of rehabilitation options and disability
programs for employees, and return-to-work clauses in collective agreements.62
7. Disability management contractors—Some private firms provide disability management services to organizations on a contract basis. These services may include
case management and rehabilitation. We saw an example of this in OH&S Today 10.2 with
PepsiCo Canada and Morneau Shepell. Private firms should stay in close contact with the employees who are using their services and with the employer to facilitate early and safe
return to work.
Barriers to Return to Work
Early and safe return to work has many benefits to employees and employers. However,
there are potential barriers that can interfere with the goal of returning injured, ill, or
disabled workers to the workplace. Problems or delays can stem from several stakeholder groups and can ultimately pose barriers to return to work. One study illustrated that
seemingly mundane factors such as health care providers being too busy to quickly file
paperwork, employers inaccurately reporting their ability or willingness to accommodate, an individual being referred to a retraining program that is not suitable, or injured workers
not understanding formal letters issued by WCBs can interact to increase the length of
absence from work.63 Psychosocial factors, such as those we discussed in Chapter 7, can affect return to work. Low-quality jobs—for instance, those with high demands, job stress,
and/or a lack of control—are associated with delayed return to work.64 Fear of stigma is
another barrier to return to work; you can read more about stigma in OH&S Notebook 13.3.
OH&S Notebook 13.3: Stigma and Return to Work
The social context of the workplace can influence return-to-work outcomes. Ill and injured workers sometimes report feeling stigmatized during the return-to-work process. These
experiences include things such as discrimination and being avoided or ignored.
Returning workers can feel stigmatized in their interactions with workers’ compensation
systems, health care providers, coworkers, and their employers, leading to feelings such as
humiliation, anxiety, and depression.
Returning employees often worry about social aspects of their return. Some feel that
coworkers and supervisors question their condition and may resent job modifications. For
some workers, negative stereotypes about various illnesses and types of injuries are
associated with poor treatment. Some workers report that they have been treated as either
malingerers or criminals. Feeling devalued at work can undermine the goals of timely and safe return to work. For example, some may return to work too early in order to show that
they are committed and diligent workers.
Workers who have “invisible” conditions may feel particularly vulnerable to stigma. For
instance, for people with mental health conditions, fear of stigma is a barrier both to disclosing their condition and in seeking treatment. The fear of disclosure can hinder all
aspects of the disability management process. If an employer is unaware that a person has
a particular condition, the employer cannot provide support. Without support, the
condition may worsen, and ultimately result in a lengthy disability leave or unsustained
return to work.
What Can an Organization Do?
Organizations and individuals can work to reduce stigma for returning workers. In Canada,
human rights legislation places considerable onus on employers to work to eliminate
sources of workplace discrimination. Therefore, employers must look for ways to manage
the stigma and its negative outcomes. Education programs may help replace myths about injury and illness with accurate information. Promoting contact between injured and
noninjured workers can also help alleviate stigma. Also, organizations can diminish
barriers between workers by emphasizing similarities such as the fact that they are all employees of a single organization. On-site disability case managers have important roles
to play in implementing these types of strategies. Organizations should also ensure that
their safety values are not communicated in a way that devalues those who have experienced a near miss, a safety incident, or a lost-time injury. Publicly emphasizing the
company’s safety record—such as number of days without a lost-time injury—may add to
the stigma experienced by a returning employee. Therefore, organizations may be wise to emphasize the importance of employee well-being and safety in general, instead of safety
in the narrower sense of reducing lost-time injuries or costs.
Sources: L. Francis, J. Cameron, E.K. Kelloway, V.M. Catano, A. Day, and C.G. Hepburn,
“Working Wounded: Stigma and Return to Work,” in P.Y. Chen and C.L. Cooper, eds., Wellbeing in the Workplace: From Stress to Happiness (pp. 339–356) (Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2014); M. Ilic, J. Reinecke, G. Bohner, H.O. Röttgers, T. Beblo, et al., “Belittled,
Avoided, Ignored, Denied: Assessing Forms and Consequences of Stigma Experiences of People with Mental Illness,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 35, 1 (2013): 31–40; K.E.
Toth, and C.S. Dewa, “Employee Decision-making about Disclosure of a Mental Disorder at
Work,” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation24, 4 (2014): 732–746; A.M. Santuzzi, P.R. Waltz, L. Finkelstein, and D.E. Rupp, “Invisible Disabilities: Unique Challenges for
Employees and Organizations,” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 7, 2 (2014): 204–
219; J. M. Eakin, “The Discourse of Abuse in Return to Work: A Hidden Epidemic of
Suffering,” in C.L. Peterson and C. Mayhew, eds., Occupational Health and Safety: International Influences and the “New” Epidemics (Amityville: Baywood, 2005), pp. 159–174;
K. Lippel, “Workers Describe the Effect of the Workers’ Compensation Process on Their
Health: A Québec Study,” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, Vol. 30 (2007): 427–
443.
Without proper assurances, employees may resist return-to-work opportunities out of fear.
They may think that taking a modified job means they won’t get their regular job back.
They may also fear re-injury or exacerbation of their condition, or they may simply feel
unable to return to work.
Disability-related absence is often described as having three stages: acute (1–30 days),
subacute (31–90 days), and chronic (91+ days).65 Long absences can be a barrier to successful return to work. Estimates from private insurers suggest that the average length
of a chronic disability is nearly three years.66 Certainly, the amount of time someone is
away from work on a disability leave reflects heavily the severity of the injury or illness. That said, to the extent that early and safe return is possible, facilitating early return is
important for all stakeholders.
What happens when an employee’s return to the original workplace is not possible? Labour
market re-entry programs can help an individual who cannot return to the original workplace owing to the nature of the injury or the former employer’s limited ability to
accommodate. During a labour market re-entry process, the injured, ill, or disabled
worker’s capabilities, experience, and training are reviewed. Additional skills training may be provided to help that worker find employment that provides earnings comparable to
those in the previous job.
Summary
Throughout this chapter we have explored the costs of workplace injury and the benefits
that disability management programs bring to employees, employers, and society at large.
In Canada, human rights legislation protects the rights of disabled workers, and employers
have the duty to accommodate—to the point of undue hardship—injured, ill, or disabled
workers. In general, disability management programs that focus on prevention and early
intervention when injuries or illness do occur are associated with improved outcomes,
including earlier return to work and sustained return to work. These disability management programs are most effective when fully integrated into a workplace system
that is supportive of safety and return to work.
Individualized return-to-work planning that considers the physical demands of the job, the
functional abilities of the worker, and possibilities for modified work arrangements help achieve early and safe return to work. When the stakeholders in disability management,
including employers, employees, unions, and health care providers, work together they
can overcome the barriers to return to work and help employees achieve the psychosocial
and financial benefits that come with full and active participation in the workforce.
Key Terms
disability management
duty to accommodate
functional ability assessment
gradual work exposure
light-duty work physical demands analysis
return-to-work coordinator
return-to-work plan supported and sheltered work
systems approach
undue hardship work trials
workplace accommodation
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 13.1
Review
What are some ways to empower employees when developing and implementing a disability man-
agement program?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 13.2
Review
How can organizations create a climate/culture that supports a safe working environment?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 13.3
Review
Can the organization really prevent stigma from occurring? If so, how? How can we reduce injured or ill
employees’ fears about stigma?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 13.4
Review
Do you think any of the disability management best practices are more important than others? For
example, do you think an organization focused solely on prevention will be equipped to handle inju- ries and compensation when they do occur?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 13.5
Review
Can you think of any reasons employees may be hesitant to use their disability management pro- grams, particularly those offered in-house?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 13.6
Review
What are some concerns that people might raise about the use of an absence management program in their workplace? How could an occupational health and safety professional help alleviate those
concerns?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 13.1
Review
Think of policies and practices that were in place in an organization where you have worked. What were the risks for injury? Could the organization do anything to prevent them? Were safeguards in
place? Did the organization appear to support the overarching values of disability management?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 13.2
Review
Companies that use in-house disability management programs tend to employ nurses and other staff solely focused on health and safety and disability management. Other organizations contract out their
disability management services. Contrast and compare the pros and cons of in-house and con-tracted
disability management services.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 13.3
Review
What are the challenges faced by small organizations when facing accommodations, disability man-
agement, and return to work? How do these compare with the challenges faced by large organiza-
tions? Outline how an organization can play to its strengths when addressing disability management
issues. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 13.4
Review
Many organizations post their disability management policies online. Search out companies
representing different sectors (e.g., manufacturing versus universities) and compare their programs. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 13.5
Review
Look up the WBC guidelines in your jurisdiction to seek its policies and practices on return-to-work
programs. Compare them to those of another jurisdiction. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 13.6
Review
Compare Canadian human rights and disability management guidelines and practices in disability management and return to work to those of another country of your choosing.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 13.7
Review
Some organizations rely on external providers to provide their disability management services. Search
out a company that specializes in providing external disability management services. What types of programs does it offer?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
OH&S in Action 13.1
Show Correct Answer
You work as a kinesiologist and have been consulted by a house-painting firm to help one of their crew
supervisors conduct a physical demands analysis for the job of interior painter (residential). Locate a
PDA form (Hint: various WCBs across the country have online forms, as do health and safety associa-
tions) and fill it out to reflect the job duties of an interior house painter. Note that ideally you would be
working directly with a painter to get details on the job. However, for this exercise, you could use online
tools such as the National Occupational Classification (NOC) for information on the job tasks.
Zoë is a painter with this organization. She is returning to work following a knee injury sustained when
she slipped on a scaffold. Her functional capacity evaluation shows that she is able to sustain most
working postures, but cannot maintain a position involving bended knees. Additionally, although she is
able to stand for periods of time, she needs to rest at least 10 minutes per hour and to perform a short
series of knee flex exercises. Using the information you have, make three suggestions for ways you can
modify the painting job to accommodate Zoë’s injuries.
Upload a PDF to submit your plan.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
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Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
Return to Work Planning
To: You, OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Jerry’s leave
Hello,
Jerry phoned today to say that he is going to be off work for a while. He is sending in the doctor’s note
but basically it looks like he is going to be off for at least six weeks. It’s not even clear that he will ever
be able to return to work—or if he comes back, if he will be able to do his old job in the warehouse an-
ymore. Jerry’s a good employee and I would hate to lose him. I also know that this is going to cost us in
terms of our WCB rates. What can we do to help Jerry, while he’s off and when he comes back? Could
you make some suggestions of how we can help Jerry return to work?
When completing this assignment in addition to responding to the above, address the following:
1. What are the financial and legal motivations that Well-Mart has for helping Jerry
manage his work-related disability and a future return to work?
2. What are some of the best practices that Well-Mart should employ to
communicate with Jerry while he is off work and during his return to work?
3. What are the various workplace accommodations that could be provided for
Jerry to facilitate a timely and sustained return to work?
4. What might be some of the barriers Jerry could face in returning to work?
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References
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11. Ibid.; National Institute of Disability Management and Research (NIDMAR), Code of
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12. Canadian Human Rights Commission, “Duty to Accommodate.”
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15. Ibid.
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Workplace,” in C.A. Marshall, E. Kendall, M.E. Banks, and R.M.S. Gover, eds., Disabilities:
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the Impact of Organizational Behaviors on Work Disability Prevention and Management,” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation10, no. 1 (2000): 21–38; T.H. Tveito, G.
Sembajwe, L.I. Boden, J.T. Dennerlein, G.R. Wagner, C. Kenwood, et al., “Impact of
Organizational Policies and Practices on Workplace Injuries in a Hospital Setting,” Journal
of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 56(8) (2014): 802–808.
18. NIDMAR, Code of Practice for Disability Management.
19. R.L. Franche, K. Cullen, J. Clarke, E. Irvin, S. Sinclair, J. Frank, and Institute for Work and Health Workplace-based RTW Intervention Literature Review Research Team, “Workplace-
based Return-to-Work Interventions: A Systematic Review of Quantitative
Literature,” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation15, no. 4 (2005): 607–631.
20. Ibid.
21. H.L. Hees, K. Nieuwenhuijsen, M.W.J. Koeter, U. Bültmann, and A.H. Schene, “Towards a
New Definition of Return-to-Work Outcomes in Common Mental Disorders from a Multi-
Stakeholder Perspective,” PLOS One 7(2012): e39947; C.G. Hepburn, E.K. Kelloway, and R.-L.
Franche, “Early Employer Response to Workplace Injury: What Injured Workers Perceive As
Fair and Why These Perceptions Matter,” Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology 15(2010): 409–420.
22. Franche et al., “Workplace-based Return-to-Work Interventions.”
23. N. Krause and T. Lund, “Returning to Work After Occupational Injury,” in J. Barling and
M. Frone, eds., The Psychology of Workplace Safety(Washington: APA, 2004).
24. N. Krause, L. Dasinger, and A. Weigand, “Does Modified Work Facilitate Return to Work for Temporarily or Permanently Disabled Workers? Review of the Literature and Annotated
Bibliography,” unpublished report prepared for the Industrial Medical Council of the State
of California and the California Commission on Health and Safety and Workers’
Compensation, University of California, 1997.
25. NIDMAR, Code of Practice for Disability Management.
26. Buys and Randall, “Disability Management.”
27. NIDMAR, Code of Practice for Disability Management.
28. Buys and Randall, “Disability Management.”
29. Chénier, Louise. Creating an Effective Workplace Disability Management
Program(Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada, 2013).
30. Institute for Work and Health (IWH), “Seven ‘Principles’ for Successful Return to Work”
(Toronto: March 2007).
31. IWH, “Seven ‘Principles.’”
32. Franche et al., “Workplace-based Return-to-Work Interventions.”
33. C.G. Hepburn, E.K. Kelloway, and R.-L. Franche, “Early Employer Response to Workplace Injury: What Injured Workers Perceive as Fair and Why These Perceptions Matter,” Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology 15(2010): 409–420.
34. K. Thorpe and L. Chénier, Disability Management: Opportunities for Employer
Action (Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada, 2013).
35. F. Munir, J. Yarker, B. Hicks, and E. Donaldson-Fielder “Returning Employees Back to
Work: Developing a Measure for Supervisors to Support Return to Work (SSRW),” Journal of
Occupational Rehabilitation 22(2012): 196–208.
36. IWH, “Seven ‘Principles.’”
37. Buys and Randall, “Disability Management.”
38. IWH, “Seven ‘Principles.’”
39. Franche et al., “Workplace-based Return-to-Work Interventions”; S. Schandelmaier, S.
Ebrahim, S.C. Burkhardt, W.E. de Boer, T. Zumbrunn, G.H. Guyatt, et al., “Return to Work
Coordination Programmes for Work Disability: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled
Trials,” PloS one, 7(11) (2012): e49760.
40. NIDMAR, Code of Practice.
41. Buys and Randall, “Disability Management.”
42. NIDMAR, Code of Practice; Williams and Westmorland, “Perspectives on Workplace
Disability Management.”
43. NIDMAR, REHADAT database. Found at: http://rehadat.nidmar.ca/db (accessed April 29,
2016).
44. WSIB Ontario. “Return to Work Plan Package” (n.d.). Found at:
https://www.wsib.ca/sites/default/files/documents/2019-01/samplertwpackage.pdf
(accessed May 13, 2019).
45. M.V. Ntsiea, H.Van Aswegen, and S. Lord, “The Effect of a Workplace Intervention Programme on Return to Work After Stroke: A Randomised Controlled Trial,” Clinical
Rehabilitation, 29(7) (2015): 663–673; N. Hoefsmit, I. Houkes, and F.J. Nijhuis, “Intervention
Characteristics That Facilitate Return to Work After Sickness Absence: a Systematic
Literature Review,” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 22(4) (2012): 462–477.
46. Franche et al., “Workplace-based Return-to-Work Interventions”; N. Krause, L.K.
Dasinger, and F. Neuhauser, “Modified Work and Return to Work: A Review of the Literature,” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation8, no. 2 (1998): 113–139; and C.G.,
Hepburn, R.-L. Franche, and L. Francis, “Successful Return to Work: The Role of Fairness and Workplace-based Strategies,” International Journal of Workplace Health
Management 3(2010): 7–24.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. J.M. Eakin, “The Discourse of Abuse in Return to Work: A Hidden Epidemic of Suffering,”
in C.L. Peterson and C. Mayhew, eds., Occupational Health and Safety: International
Influences and the “New” Epidemics (Amityville: Baywood, 2005), 159–174.
50. Workplace Safety & Prevention Services, “Performing a Physical Demands Analysis”
(2011). Found at:
http://www.wsps.ca/WSPS/media/Site/Resources/Downloads/PDA_Instructions_Final.pdf
(accessed May 13, 2019).
51. Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers Inc. (OHCOW), “Physical Demands
Analysis” (n.d.) Found at:
https://www.ohcow.on.ca/edit/files/general_handouts/PhysicalDemandsAnalysis.pdf
(accessed May 13, 2019).
52. D.P. Gross, and M.C. Battié, “Factors Influencing Results of Functional Capacity
Evaluations in Workers’ Compensation Claimants with Low Back Pain,” Physical Therapy,
85(4) (2005): 315–322.
53. C. Carroll, J. Rick, H. Pilgrim, J. Cameron, and J. Hillage, “Workplace Involvement
Improves Return to Work Rates Among Employees with Back Pain on Long-Term Sick Leave: A Systematic Review of the Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of
Interventions,” Disability and Rehabilitation, 32(8) (2010): 607–621.
54. NIDMAR, Code of Practice.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
60. IWH, “Seven ‘Principles.’”
61. WorkplaceNL. “Leadership in Prevention Through Collaboration: A Workplace Injury and Illness Prevention Plan for Newfoundland and Labrador, 2015–2017. Found at:
http://www.whscc.nl.ca/search.aspx?ss=leadership%20in%20prevention (accessed August
6, 2019).
62. NIDMR, Code of Practice.
63. E. MacEachen, A. Kosny, S. Ferrier, and L. Chambers, “The Toxic Dose of Systems
Problems: Why Some Injured Workers Don’t Return to Work as Expected,” Journal of
Occupational Rehabilitation 20(2010): 349–366.
64. N. Krause, L.K. Dasinger, L.J. Deegan, R.J. Brand, and L. Rudolph, “Psychosocial Job
Factors and RTW After Low Back Injury: A Disability Phase-specific Analysis,” American
Journal of Industrial Medicine 40(2001): 374–392.
65. Krause and Lund, “Returning to Work After Occupational Injury.”
66. Canada Life, “Disability Insurance.” Found at:
http://www.canadalife.com/003/Home/Products/DisabilityInsurance/index.htm (accessed
August 6, 2019); Great-West Life, “Disability Insurance.” Found at: http://www.greatwestlife.com/001/Home/Individual_Products/Insurance/Disability_Insur
ance/index.htm (accessed August 6, 2019).
WORKPLACE WELLNESS:
WORK-FAMILY AND HEALTH
PROMOTION PROGRAMS
Chapter Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• discuss the concept of healthy workplaces
• describe the goals of worksite health promotion and family-friendly
programs
• discuss the various types of worksite health promotion and family-
friendly programs
• comment on the effectiveness of various types of worksite health
promotion and family-friendly programs
• identify variables critical to the success of worksite health
promotion and family-friendly programs
• discuss the importance of systematic evaluation of worksite health
promotion and family-friendly policies
Visual Summary
Watch this summary of the concepts you will be learning in this chapter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtGGfO8I0Bs
Snoozing on the Job: Not Such a Bad Idea After All?
You snooze, you lose? Maybe not. Not that long ago, suggesting that someone was asleep
on the job was a severe criticism. It implied that a person was lazy or not respectful of
company time. Recent research on sleep deprivation suggests that a nap at work might be
just what the doctor—and HR manager—ordered.
Today’s busy workplaces and lifestyles are prompting many people to sacrifice their sleep
hours to meet all their work and family demands. This strategy is detrimental to one’s health. Not getting enough sleep is associated with a number of health problems, including
hypertension, heart disease, and depression. A study in Archives of Internal
Medicine demonstrated that afternoon naps are associated with a decreased risk for
coronary mortality. From a business perspective, estimates suggest that sleep deprivation costs American employers $63 billion annually in reduced performance. A power nap might
be the solution.
Sara Mednick’s book Take a Nap! Change Your Life advocates naps at work. It prescribes a nap during a work shift as a potential remedy for the productivity and health and safety
costs associated with a sleep-deprived workforce. A NASA study found that a short nap of
less than 30 minutes was associated with improved alertness and performance. The idea that an afternoon nap is valuable is not new; after all, some cultures have siesta built into
their work arrangements. Now some North American employers are taking notice and
providing nap rooms for sleep-starved employees. For example, the Huffington Post
provides nap rooms to employees as do Nike and Google. The afternoon power snooze
might just be the coffee break of the future when it comes to revitalizing employees.
The “nap room” is a novel idea for employee health promotion. It can benefit both the
employee and the employer in many ways. It will be interesting to see how this novel
health promotion effort affects health and productivity in the companies that implement it.
Some companies report great success with their nap rooms, while others have found it
harder to manage. The trick, it appears, is keeping the power naps short. In this chapter, we
explore a variety of workplace wellness programs designed to improve employee health,
well-being, and productivity.
Sources: S. Mednick and M. Ehrman, Take a Nap! Change Your Life (New York: Workman
Publishing, 2006); A. Naska, E. Oikonomou, A. Trichopoulou, T. Psaltopoulou, and D.
Trichopoulos, “Siesta in Healthy Adults and Coronary Mortality in the General Population,” Archives of Internal Medicine, Vol. 167 (2007): 296–301; M. Rosekind, R.C.
Graeber, D.F., Dinges, L.J. Connell, M.S. Rountree, C.L. Spinweber et al., “Crew Factors in
Flight Operations 9: Effects of Planned Cockpit Rest on Crew Performance and Alertness in
Long-Haul,” NASA technical memorandum 108839, 1994. Found at: http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19950006379 (accessed August 6, 2019); Zoë Henry, “6
Companies (Including Uber) Where It’s OK to Nap,” Inc. (September 4, 2015). Found at:
http://www.inc.com/zoe-henry/google-uber-and-other-companies-where-you-can-nap-at- the-office.html (accessed August 6, 2019); “Sleeping at Work: Companies with Nap Rooms
and Snooze-Friendly Policies” (May 11, 2019). Found at:
https://sleepguidelines.com/sleeping-at-work-companies-with-nap-rooms-and-snooze- friendly-policies (accessed August 6, 2019). M. Plenke. “The Science Behind Why We Should
All Be Taking Naps at Work.” Mic, September 2015. Found at:
https://www.mic.com/articles/126102/naps-at-work-increase-productivity (accessed
August 5, 2019); Lisa Evans, “Why You Should Let Your Employees Nap at Work,” Entrepreneur (August 24, 2014). Found at:
https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/236755 (accessed August 5, 2019); Willa Frej,
“Arianna: Office Nap Rooms Will Soon Be as Common as Conference Rooms,” The
Huffington Post (April 4, 2016). Found at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/arianna- huffington-office-nap-rooms-conference-rooms_us_57025cbfe4b0a06d58060ff1 (accessed
August 5, 2019); Michelle Goodman, “Nap Rooms Gone Bad,” BBC Capital (April 10, 2014).
Found at: http://www.bbc.com/capital/story/20140409-nap-rooms-gone-bad (accessed
August 5, 2019).
Workplace Wellness Initiatives
Given that people spend a substantial portion of their time at work, most would agree that
active attempts should be made to ensure a healthy and safe work environment. Over the
past couple of decades the concept of wellness at work emerged as an occupational health
concern, augmenting organizations’ more traditional concerns about employee safety. This interest in workplace wellness continues to grow. Some estimate that health-related
programs are found in about 75 percent of American organizations with more than 50
employees and more than 90 percent of American companies with more than 200 employees. The most common interventions focus on exercise and weight loss.1 The major
motivators of this trend include a desire to reduce rising health care costs, improve
productivity, and build a supportive organizational culture.
Workplace wellness initiatives are also present in Canadian companies. Offerings can include programs such as vaccination programs, nutrition and fitness programs, weight
control programs, stress management support, preventive health screenings, and chronic
disease management. Although estimates of prevalence vary somewhat from study to study, uptake for worksite health promotion programs is generally lower than in the United
States. One estimate is that the participation rate in workplace wellness offerings among
Canadian employees is 31 percent.2 Another report, a survey of Canadian benefits programs, reported that 40 percent of plan members reported that their company offered
wellness programming, with fitness programming being the most widely offered. Of
members with access to wellness programming, almost half indicated they utilized these
benefits. Not surprisingly, wellness programming was more common in larger than in smaller employers. Only 19 percent of plan members in companies with fewer than 50
employees had access to health promotion offerings, compared to 54 percent in
companies with 500 or more employees.3
Why does the picture differ between Canada and the United States? Many suggest that
because Canada has a public health care system, Canadian companies assume less of the
cost for illness and therefore have less of a financial impetus to develop employee health initiatives. However, the focus on health at work is now rapidly growing in Canada. For
instance, in 2013 the Canadian Standards Association released CSA-Z1003-13, a voluntary
workplace standard for psychological health and safety in the workplace (see also
Chapters 1 and 7). This standard was developed in conjunction with the Mental Health Commission of Canada. The presence of a national standard on psychological health at
work not only directs attention to the issue of psychological well-being at work, but also
likely sets a new standard for organizations wanting to exercise due diligence in the
provision of programs to promote psychologically healthy workplaces.4
Companies appear to be keeping pace with change and report increased intentions to
increase wellness programming. The majority of Canadian companies (86 percent)
included in a recent survey of workplace priorities and wellness reported that they intend to increase commitment to health and wellness programming in the coming years. Among
the concerns noted by Canadian employers were high levels of employee stress and lower
levels of physical activity. The majority of employers indicated that building a positive workplace health culture was their intended strategy to improve their healthy workplace
programming.5
It makes sense to focus on health at work. Employed adults spend a great deal of time in the workplace, so the worksite provides a convenient means of reaching many adults. Also,
the health of employees affects their performance at work; therefore, companies should be
interested in promoting worker health. In this chapter, we consider two broad categories of initiatives that companies can take to promote well-being at work: family-friendly policies
and health promotion programs (see Figure 14.1). The OH&S Today boxes will highlight the
successes and strategies of three Canadian organizations from very different sectors
(financial, telecommunications, and steel production).
Work–Family Conflict: Family-Friendly
Policies in the Workplace
Most people in today’s workforce are attempting to balance work demands with nonwork
demands, such as family responsibilities. A large-scale study of work–life conflict in Canada
provided compelling evidence of the struggles to balance competing demands. This group of more than 25 000 working Canadians worked an average of 50 hours/week. About two-
thirds were working parents, more than 60 percent reported eldercare obligations, and
about one-third experienced both childcare and eldercare responsibilities.6 We introduced work–family conflict in Chapter 7, where we learned that demographic realities
such as the large proportion of working parents and the prevalence of dual-income families
means that employees need to constantly balance work and family commitments. In this
chapter we explore programs that organizations can provide to help employees manage
their work and family commitments.
Work–family conflict is expensive for organizations. High work–family conflict is associated
with reduced work performance and higher rates of absenteeism. The estimated costs associated with work–life conflict for Canadian organizations is staggering. For example,
absenteeism stemming from work–family conflict costs in the range of $2 billion per year.
One must also consider the estimated $2.8 billion in costs on the health care system for
conditions that results from work–life conflict.7
Work–family conflict is also associated with substantial health and well-being costs for
individuals. A high degree of work–family conflict, be it work demands interfering with
family commitments or family demands interfering with work commitments, contributes to perceived stress, poorer physical health, decreased family functioning, increased mental
health concerns (depression, anxiety, psychological distress), and increased alcohol
use.8 So it is important that individuals and organizations attempt to reduce this type of inter-role conflict. In the following sections, we examine some of the family-friendly
policies that organizations have implemented in an effort to reduce work–family conflict
and thereby avoid the resulting negative outcomes. Such policies are assuming greater importance as companies recognize that a growing number of employees have both
childcare and eldercare responsibilities in addition to work responsibilities. The existence
of these policies can help organizations recruit and retain employees. Most family-friendly
policies are attempts to help employees balance their work and family responsibilities. Given that this chapter focuses on workplace policies and programs, we will be
emphasizing organizational rather than individual efforts to reduce work–family conflict.
We will consider three broad categories of family-friendly programs: flexible work
arrangements, work leave systems, and family-friendly employee benefits.
Drawing on the preventive stress management framework introduced in Chapter 7, one
could consider these programs as interventions designed to manage stressors related to work–family demands. Depending on the circumstances in which they are introduced,
these programs can reflect primary, secondary, or tertiary interventions. For example, Ella
uses a flexible work arrangement offered by her company as a primary intervention to help
avoid her work demands becoming a stressor that disrupts her family life and vice versa. However, for Sylvia, who is experiencing high family stress because of a recent divorce, the
flexible work arrangements offered by her workplace are helping her to manage her family
stressors and avoid strain. In this case flexible work arrangements are being used as a
secondary intervention.
Family-Friendly Policies
Flexible Work Arrangements
Flexible work arrangements (FWAs) are modifications to the traditional work schedule.
There are two basic versions of FWAs. First, some programs are designed to help mitigate
work–family conflict by reducing the amount of time spent in the workplace. An example of this type of FWA is the compressed workweek. Under this option, employees can choose to
work full-time hours in fewer days; for instance, 40 hours in four days rather than five. A
modified version of work compression is to add a short amount of time to every workday to
accrue hours for an earned day off. For example, Youssef works an extra 30 minutes per day
and is able to take every third Friday off. The compressed work schedule can help
employees reduce work–family conflict by allowing longer stretches of time at home,
which also cuts down on commuting time.
Job-sharing and job-splitting programs also fall under this category of FWA. In job-
sharing programs, two employees share the responsibilities of a single position. In this
case, the two employees have overlapping duties and must be sure to communicate with each other about all aspects of the work. For instance, Ellie and Anu job share a grade 1
teaching job, with Ellie working Monday, Wednesday, and Friday and Anu working
Tuesdays and Thursdays. They share duties such as report cards and lesson planning. In job splitting, two employees split job responsibilities so that each takes sole responsibility
for various components of the job. Kyle and Chen share the bookkeeping work at a
construction organization. Kyle handles payroll and benefits, and Chen manages accounts payable and receivable. Job-sharing and job-splitting arrangements typically benefit
employees who want to work part-time hours. Job-sharing and -splitting options reduce
the amount of time an employee must spend on work-related tasks and likely lead to a
reduction in work role overload. As such, these types of arrangements may reduce the
incidence of work–family conflict.
The second large category consists of FWA programs designed to increase the amount
of control that individuals have over their work schedule. A common example of this type of arrangement is flextime. In flextime schedules, employees are permitted variable start and
finish times to their workday. For instance, one employee at a company offering flextime
may choose to work from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. Another employee may opt to start work at 10 a.m. and work until 6 p.m. In this case, during several hours of the day all employees are at
work and group or team-related matters can be dealt with. This degree of control over start
and finish times can help employees better manage work and family demands. For
instance, Edward, a working father who worries about his children being home alone after school, prefers to start early and finish at 3 p.m. so that he can supervise his children after
school or help them get to and from after-school activities.
Flexplace work options offer a second example of this category of FWA. Flexplace work programs (also known as telecommuting, telework, or work-at-home programs) allow
employees to complete their work assignments away from the office. The employee uses
telecommunications technology to keep in touch with the worksite. This option can help some employees better blend their work and family responsibilities. For instance, a person
who works from home can delay the start of the workday until children leave for school
and then immediately start working without losing time to commuting. Flexplace arrangements may also be helpful for individuals who have elders living with them, as they
are able to be at home in case of emergency. Some may choose to work away from the
office to facilitate other goals or to build creativity.
Personal Leave Systems
Another broad category of family-friendly policies involves the provision of leave time to
employees. Examples are maternity leave, parental leave, personal days, family leave, and
sick leave. These leave programs are designed to help employees meet their family demands, thereby reducing the occurrence of family-to-work conflict. Consider an
employee who has a chronically ill child. This individual may use family leave and personal
days to accompany the child on doctor’s visits and to care for the child. The existence of such a leave program should reduce the incidence of unexcused absenteeism and
tardiness. Maternity leave programs allow new mothers to take paid time away from work
shortly before and for some time after the birth of a child. Parental leave programs permit
new mothers and fathers to take a leave from work responsibilities when a child is born or placed with them through an adoption. In Canada, the federal government provides a one-
year maternity and parental leave program that permits an individual to collect a portion
of his or her regular earnings through the Employment Insurance program. Some companies have chosen to provide additional parental benefits that top up the amount the
parent earns while on leave. For instance, a company may continue to pay employees a
top-up amount so that their total earnings while on leave equal 95 percent of their regular earnings. Employment Insurance pays an employee 55 percent of insurable earnings. In
2016, the maximum insurable earnings was $53 100; thus, the maximum employment
insurance payment was $562 per week.
OH&S Today 14.1: Awarded for Excellence: ATB Financial
All across the country, organizations are excited about workplace wellness. More than ever, companies are making efforts to promote health and well-being among their employees.
One Canadian company that has excelled at these efforts is ATB Financial and it is being
recognized for its successes. For more than 80 years, ATB Financial has provided banking services to Albertans. It now employs more than 5500 people, and has more than 170
branches and more than $54 billion in assets. It is also considered a wonderful place to
work. It has been repeatedly recognized as one of Canada’s Best Places to Work by Aon,
noted as Top Employer in Alberta (Mediacorp), named one of the 50 Most Engaged Workplaces in North America (Achievers), and credited as one of Canada’s Best Workplaces
for Inclusion. You just have to ask its employees. Employee reviews on the job site
Glassdoor are highly favourable on dimensions from culture to work–life balance to career
opportunities.
ATB Financial offers a customizable benefits package that can be tailored to meet
individual needs, an employee recognition program, tuition supports, and a health care and wellness support program. The organization has flexible work options, and provides
financial support for setting up a home office and a subsidy for home Internet costs.
ATB’s commitment to its employees is not only a list of options but also embedded in its
culture and is core to its values and strategy. Employee wellness is a pillar of its approach
to corporate social responsibility. There is support for employee-focused wellness initiatives from the highest levels of organizational leadership. The initiatives are informed
by employee input. ATB Financial’s recruitment material highlights the quality of the work
environment and benefits. Its Glassdoor page features a culture quiz about person– organization fit that highlights fun at work, meaningful work, professional/personal
development, and innovation.
Sources: ATB Financial, “About Us, Our Business, Awards, Corporate Social Responsibility,
and Benefits.” Found at: http://www.atb.com/about/Pages/default.aspx, https://www.atb.com/about/Pages/our-business.aspx,
http://www.atb.com/about/Pages/awards.aspx, http://www.atb.com/community /social-
responsibility/Pages/default.aspx, and http://www.atb.com/careers/Pages/Benefits-at- ATB.aspx (accessed August 6, 2019); ATB Financial, “2019 Annual and Corporate Social
Responsibility Report.” Found at: https://annualreport.atb.com (accessed August 6, 2019);
Aon, “2019 Aon Best Employers in Canada.” Found at: http://solutions.aon.ca/best- employers/winners.aspx (accessed August 6, 2019); Achievers, “50 Most Engaged
Workplaces 2018.” Found at: https://www.achievers.com/engaged/winners (accessed
August 6, 2019); Great Place to Work, “Best Workplaces for Inclusion.” Found at:
https://www.greatplacetowork.ca/en/best-workplaces/best-workplaces-for-inclusion- 2019 (accessed August 6, 2019); Workplace Wellness Online, “Best Practices and Success
Stories.” Found at: http://workplacewellnessonline.ca/success-stories.php (accessed
August 6, 2019); R. Yerema and K. Leung, “ATB Financial: Recognized as One of Alberta’s Top Employers (2019),” Mediacorp Canada. Found at: https://content.eluta.ca /top-
employer-atb (accessed August 6, 2019); Glassdoor, “ATB Financial Rating Trends and
Culture Quiz.” Found at: https://www.glassdoor.ca/Reviews /ATB-Financial-Reviews- E331202.htm#trends-overallRating and https://www.glassdoor.ca/Overview/Working-at-
ATB-Financial-EI_IE331202.11,24.htm#WhyWorkForUsTab-22876 (both accessed August 6,
2019).
Leave-related benefits aim to reduce the amount of work–family conflict experienced by
employees. Consider the case of a new parent: Having to return to work shortly after the
birth of a child will probably result in a high degree of work–family conflict. The new parent
is adjusting to newly increased family demands, and these demands can often interfere with work performance. The availability of company-sponsored financial benefits for
parental leave also reduces the considerable financial strain that would otherwise prompt
an individual to return to work earlier than initially planned.
Family Care Benefits
The final category of family-friendly policies we discuss in this chapter is family care benefit
programs. Daycare and eldercare benefits fall under this category. Employers can help
employees who have children reduce their experience of work–family conflict by supporting daycare programs. This might involve an on-site daycare, which reduces the
stress associated with dropping children off at various locations before arriving at work.
Additionally, on-site daycares may reduce some of the stress associated with having children in nonparental care. When the daycare is at the work location, the working parent
knows that he or she is nearby in case of an emergency. Additionally, the parent can drop
in to see the child while at work. The parent may also have increased trust in the daycare provider, as it is a division of their own workplace. In some cases, employers who cannot
provide on-site daycare can arrange to have daycare facilities near the worksite.
Another option under this category of family-friendly programs is subsidized dependant care. Here, organizations might provide employees with money to help cover the cost of
eldercare or childcare, or to enroll elders or children in various programs. For instance, an
employee who cares for an elderly parent might use this budget to enroll the parent in a seniors’ program. As another example, an organization might sponsor summer camps for
children of employees. In each case, we can see how these programs could reduce worries
about responsibilities for dependant care.
Family-Friendly Policies: An Evaluation
There are challenges associated with evaluating the effectiveness of family-friendly
programs in Canadian workplaces. First, it is difficult to gauge how widely they are available to Canadian employees due a high degree of variability across different studies
and data sources. A large-scale report based on more than 30 000 Canadian workers indicated that flexible work arrangements were available to 49.4 percent of respondents,
paid personal days to 42.2 percent, job sharing/part-time hours to 45.3 percent, and
telework to 21.1 percent. Less than 10 percent had access to dependant care support or resources. More commonly available, accessible to 75 percent or more respondents, were
reactive, emergency-driven programs such as unpaid days off.9 However, a more recent
study reflected on the concerning fact that access to family-friendly work programs
seemed to be declining in Canadian workplaces, with only 27 percent of a sample of more
than 25 000 working Canadians indicating they had high levels of flexibility at work.10
It is also difficult to summarize family-friendly programming because the availability of
programs and the types of programs differ across types of workplaces. For example, larger organizations often offer greater access to organized programs. From an industry
perspective, certain sectors, such as health care, finance, and technology, appear to have
the widest array of programs.11
The research that has been conducted on the effectiveness of the family-friendly policies
described in this chapter is often inconclusive or methodologically flawed. Certainly,
anecdotal evidence attesting to their effectiveness in reducing work–family conflict is
readily available. However, the available research provides mixed results as to their actual impact on work–family conflict.12 For example, flextime has been associated
with an increase in the degree to which people feel they are in control of their work and
family lives.13 Yet, other studies report that flextime does not affect the occurrence of work– family conflict.14 Still other studies report that flextime can possibly even increase work–life
conflict.15 Contradictions aside, the bulk of the meta-analytic evidence, that is evidence
derived from studies that statistically summarize the literature, suggest that there are modest positive effects for family-friendly programming. OH&S Notebook 14.1 describes
how organizations can use the programs described here to help employees with work–life
balance. One possible explanation for the contradictory findings is that flexible work
arrangements differentially affect work demands interfering with family commitments and family demands interfering with work commitments. One meta-analysis illustrated this
point nicely. Work flexibility was associated with decreased work interference with family
commitments, but not vice versa.16
OH&S Notebook 14.1: Reducing Work–Life Conflict: Strategies For Organizations
Most families face the challenge of balancing work roles and family life. In 2014, 69 percent
of households headed by couples who had at least one child were dual-income families.
Professors Linda Duxbury and Christopher Higgins have been tracking the Canadian workplace landscape since the early 1990s. They report that the demands of work have
risen steadily, absenteeism has increased, and overall life satisfaction has decreased over
time. Workplace supports for work–life balance by means of flexible work arrangements
and supportive management are very important.
To help employees reduce work–family conflict, employers are advised to reduce
demands placed on employees and increase the control that employees have over their
work. Here are some specific strategies that employers can engage to achieve these goals:
• Develop an organizational culture that values work–family balance.
• Recognize unrealistic work demands and acknowledge that such
loads are not sustainable.
• Track the costs of understaffing and unrealistic work demands.
• Avoid reliance on overtime work; hire more people if the need arises.
• Track the direct and indirect costs of role overload and work–life
conflict (absenteeism, overtime, employee assistance programs,
turnover).
• Have policies about the use of office technology (e.g., change
expectations about after-hours email).
• Offer “cafeteria-style” benefits programs so that employees can
choose the services that benefit them.
• Support child- and dependant-care needs (paid leave, care options).
• Offer flexible work options and support employees who use them.
• Reduce the incidence of non-supportive management.
Sources: Statistics Canada. “Satisfaction with Work-Life Balance: Fact Sheet” (April 14,
2016). Found at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-652-x/89-652-x2016003- eng.htm (accessed August 6, 2019). L. Duxbury and C. Higgins. “Revisiting Work–Life Issues
in Canada: The 2012 National Study on Balancing Work and Caregiving in Canada” (2012).
Found at: http://newsroom.carleton.ca/wp-content/files/2012-National-Work-Long- Summary.pdf (accessed June 2, 2019); L. Duxbury and C. Higgins, Work–Life Conflict in
Canada in the New Millennium: A Status Report, Final Report (October 2003). Found at:
http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/H72-21-186-2003E.pdf (accessed August 6, 2019); C. Higgins, L. Duxbury, and S. Lyons, “Reducing Work–Life Conflict: What Works?
What Doesn’t?” (2008). Found at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/alt_formats/hecs-
sesc/pdf/pubs/occup-travail/balancing-equilibre/full_report-rapport_complet-eng.pdf
(accessed June 2, 2019).
Contextual and individual factors also seem to play a role in the outcomes of flexible work
arrangements. For example, people who spent more of their working hours engaged in
telework reported reduced work-to-family interference but increased family-to-work interference. Furthermore, those who had higher degrees of autonomy and flexibility in
their jobs reported a greater positive effect of telework on their experiences of work–family conflict.17 Gender may also moderate the relationships between family-friendly
arrangements and various outcomes. For example, one study found that women used
workplace flexibility to promote their work–life balance, whereas men used flexibility to
increase work commitments.18
Researchers have also examined the impact of family-friendly policies on organizations.
Again, there are mixed results for the effectiveness of family-friendly initiatives. Flexible
work has been associated with increased commitment to the organization and reduced intentions to quit.19 It appears that flexible work options, such as flextime, telecommuting,
and compressed work weeks have a positive impact on job satisfaction and
performance.20 One study reported a positive return on investment of $1.68 for every $1 invested in a particular work–life initiative.21 However, the impact of these policies on
organizational performance is uncertain: some studies report that flexible arrangements
contribute to improved productivity; others report no significant effects.22
Given the mixed findings in the research literature, but the sustained use of family-friendly
programming in workplaces, additional research on the organizational and individual
impacts of work–family policies is warranted. Specifically considering the type of work–
family policy, the nature of the conflict (i.e., work-to-family versus family-to-work), and the influence of both organizational and national culture on work–life balance may help clarify
the current inconsistencies.23 Future work should also consider why companies choose to
implement the particular family-friendly policies they do. The existing work on work–family policies as strategic human resource initiatives suggests that such programs may be
important in terms of factors such as recruiting or retaining high-quality employees.24
Finally, future studies should distinguish between the availability of family-friendly policies and the extent to which employees actually use them or are able to use them. Some
employers who have family-friendly options make those programs available only to a
select group of employees—for instance, people in a particular job classification—or at the
manager’s discretion.25 Also, the data suggest that in some organizations, employees
choose not to use family-friendly policies such as flextime because they fear that doing so
will negatively affect their career progress or stigmatize them among their
coworkers.26 Clearly, the formal existence of a policy does not guarantee that employees will make use of it. People appear more likely to make greater use of family-friendly
programs when their workgroups and organizations are truly supportive of these
initiatives.27 The importance of organizational support for family-friendly initiatives is clear. If employees fear that they will be looked down on or damage their career prospects, they
may choose not to take advantage of available family-friendly programs.
Health Promotion Programs
Wellness or health promotion programming is the active attempt to improve employee
well-being through worksite interventions. The rationale for such programming is that
many health-related concerns can be prevented through lifestyle changes such as diet,
exercise, and smoking cessation. Given that employed adults spend many hours in the workplace and that the health of employees affects organizational and individual
functioning, the workplace is a convenient and appropriate venue for reaching many
adults. This is why more and more workplaces have launched health promotion programs. In OH&S Notebook 14.2, you can read about how health promotion programs are viable in
even small organizations.
OH&S Notebook 14.2: Wellness In Small Businesses
It’s clear that the wellness programs a company can offer will depend on a number of factors, including its size. Some might even ask if workplace health promotion is a
reasonable effort for small businesses. The answer appears to be a resounding yes.
Some argue that wellness efforts might be even more important in small workplaces. When there are fewer employees, the impact of a team member who is absent or lower
performing due to health concerns, work–life conflict, or lifestyle factors can be
substantial. Creative workplace wellness activities for smaller budgets can be developed.
Things like walking meetings, lunch-and-learn awareness sessions, or healthy lunch
challenges don’t have to cost a lot of money. Smaller workplaces might even have some
advantages when it comes to worksite health promotion. Coworker cohesiveness and the
visibility of leaders might lead to increased workplace participation.
The academic research supports the argument that wellness programs in small workplaces
can thrive and carry substantial benefits for employees and employers. Companies with
fewer than 50 employees have developed wellness programs with very high participation rates that result in improved health behaviour and life satisfaction. Small businesses can
achieve a positive return on their investment in health promotion. Barriers such as lower
budgets and time pressures can be overcome with the presence of a wellness champion in
the organization and by consulting with a wellness consultant or facilitator external to the
workplace.
Sources: S. Aldana, “Why Small Business Wellness Is the Future,” Well Steps (January 10,
2018). Found at: https://www.wellsteps.com/blog/2018/01/06/small-business-wellness (accessed August 6, 2019); A Dwyer, “The Big Save: Wellness Programs Can Pump Up the
Bottom Line,” The Globe & Mail(May 15, 2018). Found at:
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/wellness-programs-can-pump-up- the-bottom-line/article26825942 (accessed August 6, 2019); R.M. Merrill, “A Small Business
Worksite Wellness Model for Improving Health Behaviors,” Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Medicine, 55 (2013): 895–900; R.M. Merrill, S.G. Aldana, J.E. Pope, D.R.
Anderson, C.R. Coberley, T.P. Vyhlidal, et al., “Evaluation of a Best-Practice Worksite Wellness Program in a Small-Employer Setting Using Selected Well-being Indices,” Journal
of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 53 (2011): 448–454; R.Z. Goetzel, M.Tabrizi, R.M.
Henke, R. Benevent, C.V.S. Brockbank, K. Stinson, et al., “Estimating the Return on
Investment from a Health Risk Management Program Offered to Small Colorado-based Employers,” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine/American College of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 56 (2014): 554–560; S.J. Williams and D.M. Snow,
“Promoting Health in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises,” Journal of Small Business and
Enterprise Development, 19 (2012): 729–744.
Health promotion efforts combine diagnostic, educational, and behavioural change
initiatives with the goal of helping people attain and maintain positive health. In
workplaces, health and productivity management programs promote the core value of employee health and integrate health promotion activities in ways that simultaneously
increase employee well-being and decrease the organization’s health-related costs, such
as absenteeism and reduced work performance.28 It would be useful here to trace the development of employee and family assistance plans (EFAPs) as the precursor to diverse
array of health promotion programs (HPPs) we see in workplaces today.
Employee and Family Assistance Programs (EFAPs)
Employee and family assistance programs (EFAPs) provide counselling and assistance to
members of an organization and to members of their families. Generally, these programs
help individuals address personal concerns—such as alcoholism, drug use, and stress—that
may affect their performance at work.29 The roots of EFAPs date back to the 19th century and the social betterment movement. Initiatives included inexpensive housing, company-
sponsored unions, sanitary working conditions, insurance, pension plans, banking,
recreation, medical care, and education facilities. After the social betterment movement
subsided in the 1920s and 1930s, personal counselling emerged. Management trained some shop workers to listen to workers’ problems to reduce those problems’ interference
with productivity. For example, in 1917, Macy’s Department Store established a program to
assist employees who were dealing with personal problems. By 1920, one-third of the 431 largest companies in the United States had a full-time welfare secretary whose major role
was as a counsellor.30
The 1940s saw the rise of the Occupational Alcohol Movement, generally acknowledged to be the direct predecessor of the EFAP.31 Alcoholism was recognized as a serious
impediment to productivity, and these programs sought to help workers troubled by this
problem by offering alcohol-related and personal problem counselling. The 1970s were a
period of rapid growth for EFAPs. In the 1980s, EFAPs expanded to include stress management. Today, EFAPs address all types of problems that may interfere with worker
productivity, including alcohol and other drug abuse, emotional or behavioural problems
among family members, and financial or legal problems.32
Today, workplace health promotion programs are viewed as subsuming the earlier EFAPs.
The primary objectives of EFAPs are to help employees and their immediate family
members address personal concerns that affect their workplace productivity. These
services are delivered in a manner respecting confidentiality and accessibility.33
Typically, health promotion programs include interventions aimed at stress
management and lifestyle changes (e.g., diet, smoking cessation, physical fitness). We next
turn our attention to these two classes of health promotion initiatives.
Stress Management Programs
The goals of stress management programs are to educate workers about the causes and
consequences of stress and to teach skills for managing physiological and psychological symptoms. Again, we can reflect back to the models of stress introduced in Chapter 7.
Persistent exposure to stressors can contribute to the experience of stress. Likewise,
prolonged or intense experiences of stress can contribute to symptoms of strain such as
psychological concerns, physical health problems, or negative behaviours.
In terms of helping employees recognize the causes of stress, programs might draw
attention to the pertinent workplace stressors such as workload and work pace, role
stressors, and interpersonal relations. Programs that help people reduce their exposure to these stressors would be primary interventions. Other programs offer secondary
interventions and focus on helping employees manage stress that they are experiencing.
Still other programs are tertiary in nature and help people who are experiencing the symptoms of strain. There are several approaches to stress management including
programs that promote cognitive-behavioural skills development, relaxation, increasing
social support, and a growing area of mindfulness.
Cognitive-Behavioural Skills Training
Cognitive-behavioural programs are developed in terms of the cognitive model of stress,
which posits that emotional responses to situations are largely determined by how they
are thought about and interpreted. This training helps people think purposefully about
events in new ways, be aware of how they are viewing stressful events, and adapt those
thought patterns. Such programs can also help develop skills for coping with stress. The
goal is to alter both one’s thoughts about stressful events and behaviour toward them. For example, Akilah has been feeling excluded by her coworkers, leading to considerable stress
and thoughts about leaving her job. In her cognitive talk therapy program provided
through her EFAP, her counsellor is helping her rethink her attributions about why her coworkers do not invite her to lunch. She has always thought it is because they don’t like
her, but now she can generate other explanations, such as the fact she usually brings lunch
and eats at her desk. In her sessions she will be trained in self-instruction, cognitive
restructuring, and problem solving. The training program itself might use techniques such
as role-playing or group sessions and classroom instruction. In a comprehensive review of
stress management interventions, cognitive-behavioural interventions proved to be
effective.34
Relaxation Training, Meditation, and Mindfulness
Relaxation training teaches things such as progressive muscle relaxation and breathing
exercises. If you have ever taken a class in yoga, martial arts, or even aerobics, you have
probably experienced something similar to this. The instructor may ask you to lie down on
the floor, close your eyes, and focus your mind on your body and your muscles. Then, he or she may ask you to relax every muscle in your body, slowly working from the bottom up or
the top down. For instance, part of Kasem’s routine is to repeatedly make a fist and then
release his grip while making cold calls to potential clients. This is a part of his job he finds stressful and a stress management counsellor at his work said this simple process can let
go of tension. The purpose of this type of training is to provide people with skills to
physically relax the body. Over time, individuals will learn to recognize the physical feelings associated with stress and to counteract these feelings by calling on the relaxation
response. In doing so, they prevent stress leading to the type of strain reactions discussed
earlier.
Relaxation training focuses on relaxing the physical body; meditation focuses on quieting
the mind. There are many approaches to meditation, and you are probably familiar with at
least some of them. Meditation helps individuals withdraw from a stressful situation and
re-energize through mental exercise. A widely used form of meditation in the workplace involves sitting quietly for 20 minutes, repeating a single word on each
exhalation.35 Meditation practice can lead to positive outcomes for workers experiencing
stress.36 Similarly, relaxation training interventions seem to be moderately effective in
reducing employee stress.37
Mediation can be based in a stress management technique known as mindfulness, which
has gained popularity in the workplace. Mindfulness means to bring one’s attention to the present moment in a purposeful and non-judgemental way.38 In addition to meditation,
bringing one’s focus to the present can be accomplished by techniques such as focusing on
the senses or focused breathing exercises. Mindfulness-based methods are proving to be a
valuable tool to reduce workplace stress. For example, individuals’ use of mindfulness
techniques has been associated with reduced stress and improved performance.
Importantly, workplace mindfulness interventions appear to be associated with reduced
stress and burnout.39
Increasing Social Support
A different strategy for reducing work-related stress is to provide a more supportive
environment. One way of doing this is by training workers in how to seek social support and in how to create a more supportive workplace. For example, caregiver support
programs are designed to help people deal with the stresses of providing care for others.
Caregiver support programs are designed to teach employees the benefits of support
systems, enhance their skills in mobilizing support, educate them about participatory problem-solving approaches, and show them how to build skills to implement these
approaches in team meetings. Consider the case of Marisol, whose father has recently
moved in with her and her three children because of his advancing dementia. Marisol
joined a lunch-time caregiver support group offered at her work. Just talking with others who understood her challenges was helpful. She learned that there are several not-for-
profit organizations that provide daytime services that could help her father. She also got
some good ideas about ways to talk to her brothers about the type of help she needs.
Effectiveness Of Stress Management Training
Results are mixed regarding the effectiveness of stress management training programs.
The lack of comprehensive, well-designed studies on workplace stress management
interventions makes it difficult to assess the effectiveness of such programs.40 Some
programs appear to be effective at reducing the experience of job-related stress; others are
not. A recent meta-analytic review found that web-based programs can improve
psychological well-being among employee participants.41 Review studies suggest that cognitive-behavioural interventions appear to be the most effective.42 For example, in one
study on stress management training, participants were exposed to a variety of stress
management techniques, including cognitive restructuring, positive self-talk, deep muscle
relaxation, autogenic instructions, and imagery exercises.43 The training program included nine hours of instruction over six sessions. The researchers found that compared to a
control group, those receiving training did not show a significant increase in learning or job
satisfaction, or a significant decrease in blood pressure, somatic data, or anxiety. However,
when a self-management module was included as part of the training, significant
differences were found for all measures except job satisfaction. The self-management
module included three hours of training in self-monitoring, specifying goals, evaluating behaviour against goals, and self-reinforcing. This study suggests that simply providing
training is not enough to make a difference; participants must be provided with strategies
to help them apply what they have learned.
Worksite Health Promotion: A Focus On Lifestyle Changes
Worksite health promotion programming can be classified into three categories: screening,
education, and behavioural change. Many types of programs are being delivered in each of
these various categories. The most common are those designed to affect an employee’s health practices or physical lifestyle (e.g., in terms of exercise, eating habits, sleep patterns,
weight control, alcohol use, smoking cessation, substance abuse). These efforts are often
referred to as “lifestyle programming.” It is generally thought that a healthy lifestyle helps
promote physical and mental health on the job. Employers are trying to capitalize on this connection. A recent survey of Canadian benefits programs reported that 41 percent of
Canadian benefits plan sponsors incorporate wellness programming for their
employees.44 Some programs include activities designed to improve psychological aspects of an individual’s lifestyle (e.g., social relations, intellectual activity, occupational
conditions), but these programs are still the exception rather than the rule.
On-site programs may include fitness facilities, nutritional assessment and counselling, weight control groups, and smoking cessation. Typically, these opportunities are available
on a voluntary basis. Some may be offered only to individuals at a certain level in the organization (e.g., membership in an off-site health club for managers). Though the
organization may provide incentives for using such programs, it would have difficulty
mandating that employees alter their lifestyle. Though it is possible to make safety training (even stress reduction training) mandatory, it would be difficult to insist that all employees
quit smoking or have a perfect body mass index. Indeed, doing so might violate human
rights legislation. Instead of attempting to mandate such programs, organizations involved
in worksite health promotion should develop cultures and environments that are highly
supportive of healthful lifestyle practices.
Though health promotion programs are diverse, many are secondary-level interventions
designed to help individuals who are feeling stress and who are at risk for illness. Worksite
health promotion (WHP) programs typically include three steps:
Step 1: Physical or psychological assessment
Step 2: Counselling concerning the assessment findings and recommendations about personal health promotion
Step 3: Referral to in-house or community-based resources
If we focus on WHP programs that are more tertiary in nature—that is, those designed to
help people who are currently experiencing symptoms or illness, such as alcohol and other
substance abuse, hypertension, or psychological stress—the key components in such
programs should include the following:
• the identification of currently symptomatic as well as high-risk
individuals
• the appropriate referral or treatment of individuals
• treatment directed at the symptoms, delivered by the appropriate
professionals
• follow-up with the client to ensure the treatment was effective
• evaluation of health improvement and cost efficacy.
Components of an effective employer-sponsored health promotion effort include
employee education for health promotion or disease prevention; management training to
raise awareness and identification of occupational health issues; EFAP services; redesigned benefit programs to provide easy access to interventions; a comprehensive data collection
plan for use in program decision making; the integration of corporate health-related
services; and greater attention to organizational health. We next turn our attention to some
specific categories of WHP programs. In particular, we look at efforts focused on changing
some aspect of an employee’s lifestyle (i.e., lifestyle programming).
OH&S Today 14.2: Awarded for excellence: rogers communications inc.
Rogers is a giant in Canadian telecommunications. Headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, it
has business operations throughout Canada and employs 26 000 people. Rogers views its
employees as key to success and lists “People” as the first of its six organizational values. In
doing so, the organization illustrates the value it places on employees and recognizes
strategic benefits of building an engaged workforce.
Rogers’ employee initiatives involve employee training and development opportunities for
front-line and managerial employees. Rogers has family-friendly programming, including
maternity/parental leave, salary top-ups, and flexible work arrangements. The
organization also focuses on health promotion with benefits such as an onsite fitness
facility, healthy cafeteria offerings, and a mental health awareness campaign. Via the bWell progarm, employees access on-site and online health resources designed to educate and
support employees in their wellness efforts. Rogers’ commitment to its employees is clear
and the organization has been widely recognized for its wellness offerings. It has been awarded by Excellence Canada with the Canada Award for Excellence (CAE), is recognized
as one of Canada’s Top 100 employers, and is acknowledged as one of Canada’s Best
Diversity Employers, and is noted as having one of Canada’s most engaged workforces.
Sources: Rogers Communications Inc. Found at: https://about.rogers.com/ (accessed June
2, 2019); Rogers Communication Inc., “Together We’ll Make More Possible: Rogers
Communications Inc. 2017 Corporate Social Responsibility Report.” Found at:
https://about.rogers.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/2017-Rogers-CSR-Report-en.pdf (accessed June 2, 2019); R. Yerema and K. Leung, “Rogers Communications Inc Recognized
as One of Canada’s Top 100 Employers (2019) and Greater Toronto’s Top Employers
(2019),” Mediacorp. Found at: http://content.eluta.ca/top-employer-rogers- communications (accessed August 6, 2019); Excellence Canada, “Canada Awards for
Excellence Recipient Profile—Rogers Communications Canada Inc: 2017 Gold Recipient
Healthy Workplace.” Found at: https://excellence.ca/rogers-communications-inc (accessed
August 6, 2019); Canada’s Best Diversity Employers, “2019 Canada’s Best Diversity
Employers.” Found at: https://canadastop100.com/diversity (accessed August 6, 2019);
Achievers, “Achievers Announces Eighth Annual 50 Most Engaged Workplaces™ in North
America Award Winners” (August 29, 2018). Found at: https://www.newswire.ca/news- releases/achievers-announces-eighth-annual-50-most-engaged-workplaces-in-north-
america-award-winners-691976941.html (accessed August 6, 2019).
Smoking Cessation
One of the most popular worksite health promotion interventions in recent years has been
smoking cessation. As worksites have increasingly banned smoking, either voluntarily or
because of legislation, more and more employers have seen the wisdom of helping
employees quit smoking. Research has consistently documented that smokers are absent more than non-smokers; this provides employers with an economic incentive for smoking
cessation programs. A recent quantitative review out of the United Kingdom showed that smokers were absent 2.74 more days per year than non-smokers with an estimated annual
cost of £1.4 billion.45 There are estimates that in Canada each smoker costs his or her
workplace more than $4000/year in lost productivity due to unauthorized breaks and
absenteeism.46
Smoking cessation programs may combine education, group support, counselling,
nicotine replacement options, and behavioural change techniques. Other programs
incorporate things like poster campaigns about the dangers of smoking. The success rates of such programs have varied between 25 percent and 60 percent. Several studies support
the effectiveness of various targeted worksite interventions for reducing smoking.47 A
recent comprehensive review suggests that some types of programs are more successful than others. In particular, programs involving group or individual counselling, medication
options, or a combination were more successful than programs such as awareness
campaigns or social support.48 However, characteristics of individual smokers can influence their likelihood of success. For example, older smokers and those with
respiratory concerns may have higher rates of success, and those with high dependency on
nicotine and intense cravings lower rates of success.49 Interestingly, organizational bans on
smoking do not seem to be associated with reduced smoking behaviour among
employees.50
Alcohol and Drug Testing Programs
Research suggests that alcohol and drug use have negative effects in the workplace. For example, there are studies linking the prevalence of heavy drinkers in a workplace to
increased incidence of gender harassment and the frequency of heavy drinking to
increased absenteeism.51 Furthermore, to the extent that alcohol and drug use may decrease alertness and quick thinking, they may lead to performance concerns,
particularly relating to safety. As described earlier, EFAPs, both historically and currently,
are avenues for employees to seek guidance and explore means of treatment for alcohol
and drug addictions.
Because of the potentially severe outcomes associated with alcohol and drug use, some
employers have introduced direct alcohol and drug testing programs to screen employees
for recent drug or alcohol consumption. These programs are controversial. Some argue in support of drug testing because there is research to support the claim that workplace
testing deters drug and alcohol use.52 For example, a recent European study found that
there were fewer accidents among employees subject to random alcohol testing compared to those who were not tested. That said, a recent systematic review of the literature found
that the majority of studies on the topic suffer from methodological problems, limiting
their interpretability.53 Others argue against the practice for a variety of reasons, including
the fact that drug testing detects exposure to a drug but not necessarily current
impairment. Besides this, the practice violates employee privacy.54
Canadian employers are subject to the Canadian Human Rights Commission’s position on alcohol and drug testing. The Canadian Human Rights Commission considers such testing
a discriminatory practice. While drug testing can assess exposure, it does not assess ability
impairment at the time of the screening. There are some apparent exceptions relating to alcohol screening for individuals who are in safety-sensitive positions because alcohol
detection is indicative of impairment at the time of the test. If such alcohol screens are in
place, employers must accommodate the needs of those who test positive and are
identified as being dependent on alcohol. As with other discriminatory practices, Canadian
employers can justify drug and alcohol testing if they can demonstrate that it is a bona
fide occupational requirement. In those cases, testing may occur for reasonable cause (e.g.,
the employee is unfit for work) or following a significant safety incident in which the
employee is implicated.55
Hypertension Screening
Hypertension, or high blood pressure, has been called the “silent killer.” Individuals can have hypertension for a long time without knowing it or without experiencing symptoms.
Hypertension is considered one of the major (and most easily controlled) risk factors in
heart-related diseases. Workplace programs aimed at cardiovascular disease reduction, like hypertension screening, with medical and lifestyle follow-ups, have numerous
benefits.56 Workplace programs aimed at addressing hypertension vary widely but typically
consist of four interrelated steps:
1. Education—Employees are alerted to the dangers of hypertension and the benefits associated with treatment.
2. Screening—Employees are screened using blood pressure clinics in which participants
have their blood pressure read by a medical professional. 3. Referral—Employees with elevated readings are referred to medical treatment.
4. Follow-up—Referred employees are followed up to verify the outcome of treatment and
to monitor progress.
The incidence of hypertension is high in the Canadian population. More than 30 percent of individuals have blood pressure readings higher than their targeted levels, with an even
higher incidence in those who also have diabetes. While people who are identified as
having high blood pressure typically seek treatment, data suggests that 17 percent of Canadians are unaware that they are hypertensive.57 In one study, a hypertension
screening program targeted at taxi drivers was successful in getting individuals to seek
follow-up medical care.58 Thus, workplace screening programs can help those who are
diagnosed monitor their condition and help to diagnose others.
Nutrition and Weight Control
Nutrition programs in the workplace typically take one of two forms. First, educational
programs are aimed at providing instruction or information on the selection of foods, the
basics of meal planning, and so on. Posters in the cafeteria promoting healthy eating are an
example of educational programming. The second type of activity is to actually change the
food available in the workplace. Providing healthy, low-fat alternatives in the cafeteria and changing the contents of vending machines in the workplace help employees maintain a
healthy diet. There is empirical evidence for the effectiveness of some nutrition-focused
worksite health promotion programs.59
Weight control programs are becoming increasingly popular and are often offered in
conjunction with established weight-loss programs. Again, such programs rely on
education, counselling, and group support. Workplaces are cautioned to treat all
employees with respect as they engage in workplace weight-loss programs. Things like group weigh-ins and shared weight-lost amounts can be perceived as supportive by some
people, but aversive to others. Some workplaces now offer online versions of weight-loss
programs. Several studies indicate that worksite weight-loss programs can be effective; but program drop-out rates can be high and potentially influence the results. In other words,
those who stay with the program may lose weight, but with a high attrition rate there are a
large number of people for whom the programs are not effective. A trend in workplace weight management programs in the United States is financial incentives for weight loss.
However, research suggests that this approach is not successful and in many ways
undermines the collaborative approach to workplace wellness programming.60
Physical Fitness Programs
Fitness programs in workplaces can take several forms. Some are simple and focus
on awareness through programs like posters to encourage taking the stairs, health fairs in
the workplace, and so forth. Others constitute organized programs aimed at changing behaviour. For instance, a company may sponsor lunch-time fitness programs or subsidize
gym memberships. Some organizations take things a step further by creating a workplace
that promotes a healthy lifestyle; for example, encouraging walking meetings, providing shower facilities for those who wish to work out at lunch time or run or bike to work, or
offering onsite gym facilities.61 Advancing technology introduces new elements to
workplace fitness programs. For instance, fitness trackers are being incorporated into
worksite wellness programs.
It seems that workplace physical activity programs are effective. Some studies report that
workplace fitness programs are associated with important individual and workplace
outcomes. These include increased physical activity, improved job satisfaction, decreased health care costs, decreased hospital admissions, and decreased absenteeism for those
who take part.62 That said, review studies report that the size of the change, while
significant in a statistical sense, is nonetheless small. Research does show that individually tailored programs, those solidly based on theory, and motivational focus appear to be
more successful than generic fitness programs.63 Thus, additional high quality studies are
needed to provide further evidence to the efficacy of workplace fitness programming.
Developing A Successful Worksite Health Promotion
Program
A worksite health promotion (WHP) program will succeed only if employees are making use
of what it offers. Research on worksite health promotion efforts has provided some key
evidence-based insights on the best practices that contribute to successful program
implementation. The following key practices were identified in a comprehensive review.64
1. The health program should be in line with the workplace’s goals and values.
2. Multiple factors that influence health, including those at the individual, cultural, and
policy factors should be considered.
3. The program should target a range of health issues.
4. The program should be tailored to meet specific needs,
5. Efforts need to be made to achieve high participation.
6. Thorough evaluation is necessary.
7. Program success must be communicated to the stakeholders.
OH&S Today 14.3: Awarded For Excellence: Arcelormittal Dofasco
ArcelorMittal Dofasco Inc. is a Hamilton-based company that is one of the most profitable
steelmakers in North America. Further, it has been recognized by The Globe and Mail as one
of Canada’s best places to work and was awarded Excellence Canada’s Canadian Award for Excellence as recognition of its healthy workplace strategy. The company has also been
acknowledged as one of the 50 most engaged workplaces for 2018. Its longstanding slogan—“Our Product Is Steel. Our Strength Is People”—reflects ArcelorMittal Dofasco’s
emphasis on employee engagement and well-being. ArcelorMittal Dofasco provides
numerous family-friendly and health-focused options, including employee access to a multisport recreation and learning centre and several health promotion initiatives such as
smoking cessation programs, a comprehensive employee assistance program, and flexible
work options. ArcelorMittal Dofasco is active in its support of mental health awareness in
the workplace. This company’s high investment in employees has been a success. There is a high degree of program participation and attendance among employees. From a financial
perspective, there has been a marked reduction in lost-time injuries, workers’
compensation premiums, and incidence of non-work-related injuries since the health programs were initiated. ArcelorMittal Dofasco’s commitment to its people gives it a
recruitment and retention advantage and makes it a good place to work.
Sources: ArcelorMittal Dofasco. Found at: https://dofasco.arcelormittal.com(accessed August 7, 2019); R. Yerema and K. Leung, “ArcelorMittla Dofaso G.P. Recognized as One of
Canada’s Top 100 Employers (2019) and Hamilton-Niagara’s Top Employers (2019),”
Mediacorp Canada Inc. Found at: https://content.eluta.ca/top-employer-arcelormittal-
dofasco (accessed August 7, 2019). D. Jermyn, “Many of Canada’s Top Employers Have Staying Power,” The Globe and Mail(November 25, 2015). Found at:
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/top-employers/many-of-
canadas-top-100-employers-have-staying-power/article27484362 (accessed August 7, 2019); Achievers, “50 Most Engaged WorkplacesTM Award Winners for 2018.” Found at:
https://www.achievers.com (accessed August 7, 2019). Excellence Canada, “ArcelorMittal
Dofasco Wins Excellence Canada Platinum and Silver” Found at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQyZjuoOPkA (accessed August 23, 2019); J. Paterson,
“ArcelorMittal Dofasco Reinforces Focus on Employee Mental Health,” Benefits
Canada (January 26, 2016). Found at: http://www.benefitscanada.com/benefits/health-
wellness/arcelormittal-dofasco-reinforces-focus-on-employee-mental-health-76317 (accessed August 7, 2019); R. Wright, “Injury Prevention Program: Decreasing the Risk of
Musculoskeletal Injuries,” Rehab and Community Care Medicine (February 25, 2015). Found
at: http://www.rehabmagazine.ca/healthcare/workplace-health/corporate-wellness
(accessed August 7, 2019).
These program elements are considered best practices across several review studies. One
expert noted the importance of engaging but relentless communication about the program
to employees and that the program must develop over time. Others have noted that leaders play a particular role in the success of WHPs, but that success must also be
achieved in partnership with employee groups. The importance of rigorous evaluation is
widely noted.65 You can learn some evaluation pointers in OH&S Notebook 14.3.
OH&S Notebook 14.3: Using Evaluation To Build A Business Case For Health Promotion
and Family-Friendly Programs
For OH&S professionals and HR managers to make a strong business case for continued or
increased funding for workplace wellness and family-friendly programs, they need to
demonstrate that the programs work. The outcomes associated with such programs should be subjected to careful study via well-designed evaluation studies. How does one
conduct a thorough evaluation study? Here are factors to keep in mind:
1. Evaluation should be considered from the early stages of program planning. Even as
the program is being designed, it is important to consider and define the key features and
goals of the program. This might involve questions such as what types of organizational
changes might follow from the programs, how will one know if the program is successful, and how many resources will the program need to help achieve the identified goals.
2. Good evaluation studies measure important outcome factors. You must ask, what
are the variables the intervention should influence? These might be individual factors like weight loss, perceived stress, or life satisfaction. They should also be workplace issues such
as absenteeism, workers’ compensation rates, injury data, turnover rates, or productivity.
The evaluation for some interventions might call for biological data that can be gathered
by researchers who invite participants to use equipment such as blood pressure monitors or activity trackers. It is important to emphasize that employees’ privacy must be
respected during the evaluation process. Some information is clearly available to the
organization. For example, whether or not an employee was absent is tracked by many workplaces. However, organizations have less right to know about the particular illness
prompting the absence. If sensitive or personal data such as blood pressure or health
symptoms are being tracked as part of the evaluation process, this information can be submitted confidentially, noting only whether or not the individual in question took part in
the program and not his or her name. To track such information over time, employees can
be assigned an evaluation identification number, rather than their names or employee IDs,
that they can use to submit their information to the evaluators. Researchers who are conducting evaluation studies, whether they are internal or external to the organization,
must be aware of and respect privacy laws and adhere to any research ethics protocols
relevant to their organizations. 3. Good evaluation studies include pre-intervention and post-intervention
assessments of the outcome factors. You need to have a baseline to assess the extent of
improvement experienced by the program participants and the organization. Thus, intervention studies require planning. These variables need to be identified and the pre-
intervention information gathered during the planning stages of the study.
4. Good evaluation studies include reliable and valid measures of important
variables. These measures should consider different aspects of the participants’ experience in the program. You should ask formative questions about the participants’
reactions to the program. Formative questions would be things like whether the program
met the participants’ needs and if they liked the program. There should be process questions that tap into participants’ experiences in taking part. For example, were there
barriers to taking part in the intervention? Finally there must be outcome evaluation to
determine if the program achieved its initial goals, be it weight loss, reduced job stress,
fewer smokers, etc. 5. Good intervention studies have long-term follow-up on the important outcome
factors. To really know how successful the program is, you need to ask whether people
maintain their weight loss, their improved mood, or increased work engagement etc. over time. Ideally, there should also be multiple post-intervention assessments to allow
researchers to gain an understanding of the long-term effectiveness of the program.
6. Good evaluation studies consider the extent to which employees joined,
participated in, or abandoned the program. These process variables can help you understand the study results. For example, if there does not appear to be improvement in
important variables, you can determine if the lack of change is related to low participation
or attrition. You might also gain insight into whether this is the type of program that employees want.
7. Good intervention studies include a control group. Really good intervention studies
have control groups and intervention groups that are assigned at random Control groups are people who are not taking part in the program. You can then compare the outcomes of
those employees who took part in the program with a comparable group. If you see
improvements in those who took part (i.e., the intervention group), but not in the control
group, you have evidence that your wellness intervention is effective.
Sources: CDC, “Workplace Health Promotion: Evaluation.” Found at:
https://www.cdc.gov/workplacehealthpromotion/model/evaluation/index.html (accessed
August 7, 2019); J. Grossmeier, P.E. Terry, A. Cipriotti, and J.E. Burtaine, “Best Practices in Evaluating Worksite Health Promotion Programs,” American Journal of Health
Promotion, 24 (3)(2010), TAHP-1–11; P.B. Sparling, “Worksite Health Promotion: Principles,
Resources, and Challenges,” Preventing Chronic Disease, 7 (1) (2010), 1–5; D. Nutbeam, “Evaluating Health Promotion—Progress, Problems and Solutions,” Health Promotion
International, 13 (1)(1998): 27–44.
Unintended Consequences of WHP Programs
The goal of health promotion is to reduce costs to the organization in terms of health care, lost time, turnover, and so on. However, some unintended consequences of WHP programs
need to be considered. First, the reduction of health care utilization by employees (offered
through benefits plans) may lead to a higher unit cost for those employees who do use health and medical benefits. The individual cost of offering certain benefits decreases with
a high enrolment rate because the risk to insurance companies of having to pay out on
claims is reduced with a large subscription. Reduced enrolment in some aspects of a
cafeteria-style benefits plan (in which employees have some options concerning the coverage they want in areas such as medical, dental, life insurance, etc.) may make it
prohibitive for those employees who need access to those benefits. A second potential
consequence is that participation in exercise or fitness programs may cause work disruptions, increase fatigue, lower performance, and increase accidents among those who
are beginning such a program.
Also, health promotion can cause friction among workers. For example, smoking restrictions may produce conflict between smokers and non-smokers, produce negative
attitudes about smoking, and reduce productivity among smokers if they must leave the
workstation to smoke. Finally, the diagnosis of previously unknown risk factors may contribute to absenteeism (e.g., doctor’s appointments). For example, individuals who did
not know they were hypertensive may exhibit increased absenteeism as a result of being
informed of their condition.
Overall Evaluation
How successful are worksite health promotion programs? Once again, we find “success” to
be a difficult thing to assess. To quote the authors of a recent review of the literature on
workplace health promotion: “… it appears that some programs work some of the time, with some people, for some criteria.”66 Some studies show that these programs can be
effective. In fact, in one study evaluating a multifaceted worksite health promotion
program’s effect on absenteeism reported that program participants were absent an average of three fewer days per year than nonparticipants. The associated cost savings for
the organization was $15.60 returned for every $1 initially invested in the program.67 An
ongoing Canadian evaluation of wellness programs, the Sun Life-Ivey Canadian Wellness
Return on Investment Study, is showing supportive results. Its preliminary literature review concluded that wellness programs reduce absenteeism, saving organizations 1.5–1.7 lost
days per worker each year. As part of this study, several organizations implemented a
wellness program. The results indicate that employees taking part in the program show improved physical activity, nutrition, and energy.68 So, for every dollar spent on program
expenses such as extra staff to run the program, advertisements for the program, or
equipment and facilities to support the program, companies can experience substantial cost savings by way of factors such as reduced absenteeism, benefits costs, or health care
costs.
However, not all studies support the success of WHP programs. In fact, some authors argue
that there is simply not enough systematic research on the various categories of WHP
programs to reach a definitive conclusion about their efficacy.69 Some point out that
evaluation studies often have methodological weaknesses—lacking vital elements such as
control groups, randomization of participants, and well-defined outcome measures—that can inflate the estimate financial success of the program. That said, when looking at
studies high in methodological rigour, it appears the return on investment estimates
remain positive, but are smaller in magnitude.70
Summary
A broad array of programs can be offered in organizations under the rubric of work–family
and worksite health promotion programming. For the most part, the jury is still out on whether these programs offer significant benefits to organizational outcomes. However,
some evidence shows that work–family programs have some positive impact on the
experience of work–family conflict. Similarly, health promotion programming can succeed
in changing individual behaviour to enhance health. One positive spinoff of the programs for organizations is the general increase in employee morale (e.g., satisfaction,
commitment) that is associated with making health promotion and family-friendly
programs available in the workplace.
Key Terms
compressed workweek
employee and family assistance programs (EFAPs)
flexible work arrangements (FWAs)
flexplace
flextime
health promotion hypertension
job-sharing
job splitting
work–family conflict
Discussion Questions
Discussion Question 14.1
Review
EFAPs often have two routes of entry. An individual can voluntarily contact the EFAP for assistance with
a problem, or a supervisor can refer the individual. In the latter case, a supervisor who notes a decline in performance can insist that an individual seek assistance or be disciplined (including dismissal). Is
this degree of coercion justified? Is it likely to facilitate a change in behaviour?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 14.2
Review
The logic of health promotion programs in the workplace is based on the observation that the
workplace provides a convenient way to reach large segments of the population. Yet many individuals wonder whether organizations have the right to get involved in employees’ lifestyle choices. What do
you think? Should organizations be involved in these programs?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 14.3
Review
What benefits would you expect to see from implementing a physical fitness program (e.g., paid memberships in the local health club) in your workplace?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 14.4
Review
Is stress management training an effective approach to dealing with workplace stress? Why or why not? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Discussion Question 14.5
Review
Generate some strategies that a dual-income couple might use to help them manage work and family
demands more effectively. How might their employers help them enact some of these strategies? Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercises
Exercise 14.1
Review
With a small group of classmates, discuss the following scenario: Imagine your current work hours are
Monday to Friday, 9 to 5. At present, the start time of 9 a.m. is strictly enforced. However, the company is considering implementing a new flextime approach to work scheduling. Under this program,
employees will be able to start their eight-hour workday any time between 7 a.m. and 11 a.m. However,
each employee must work a continuous shift (i.e., there is no flexibility midday). Each person in the group should reflect on how such a change would benefit or disadvantage him or her, given current
circumstances. Additionally, discuss how the move to flextime might affect the following individuals or groups: a. a working parent who has young school-aged children b. someone who is not a morning
person c. a person who commutes a long distance to work d. an individual who has substantial
eldercare responsibilities e. coworkers of individuals who opt to use the flextime arrangement f. the
organization implementing the change What other types of flexible scheduling might help some of these people manage their multiple responsibilities to work and family?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 14.2
Review
In this chapter we have discussed the importance of evaluating health promotion programs. For any
program, a number of outcome variables might offer insight into the success or failure of the program. One approach would apply the four types of strain introduced in Chapter 7 (psychological, physical,
behavioural, organizational). With your classmates, brainstorm some of the pertinent outcome
variables relating to each of these broad categories; then incorporate those variables into each of the
following types of health promotion programs. The group should also consider how they might
measure each of these variables: a. smoking cessation b. on-site physical fitness centre c. lunchtime
Weight Watchers program d. off-site, call-in EFAP e. subsidized yoga classes
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 14.3
Review
Visit the websites of a number of companies representing a variety of job sectors (e.g., manufacturing,
high tech, communications, medical). Search the sites to find information on the types of health
promotion programs (e.g., smoking cessation, fitness) and family-friendly policies (e.g., flextime,
telecommuting) they offer. a. Identify the proportion of the companies that offer health promotion
programs or family-friendly policies. b. Which health promotion programs and family-friendly policies appear to be most commonly available? c. What are some of the company characteristics that appear
to be related to the programs they offer? For instance, are companies in a particular sector or of a
particular size more likely to offer health promotion and family-friendly programs? d. Discuss with your classmates the extent to which the availability of health promotion and family-friendly programs is
important to them when they are looking for a job. Which programs appear to be the most desirable to
job seekers?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 14.4
Review
Health promotion programs are more likely to succeed if they are based on a thorough needs
assessment (i.e., assessments of the needs of the organization and its employees). Design a needs
assessment instrument for measuring the need for health promotion programming in your current or a former workplace. If your work experience does not provide a suitable example for this Internet
exercise, interview someone about his or her workplace and develop a needs assessment instrument
for that work environment. The Internet will be very helpful in this task. Search the Internet using keywords such as “wellness” and “health promotion.” This search will help you identify many
components of such a needs assessment instrument. Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 14.5
Review
Search the Internet to learn details about government-sponsored mandatory parental or maternal
leave benefits in different countries (e.g., Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom). Compare
the policies in each country. Also, search the websites of various organizations that have operations in
each of the countries you chose to determine whether they provide additional parental leave benefits to their employees. Afterward, discuss the following issues in class: a. What impact would the policies
in each of these countries and companies have on a new parent’s experience of work–family conflict?
Would these policies help a working parent balance work and family roles? b. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of these programs for the person taking the leave? c. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of these programs for the organizations that have employees taking leave? d. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these programs for families?
Your Answer
No answer submitted
Exercise 14.6
Review
Each year, award lists are published for the best places to work in Canada. Search out a recent “Best
Places to Work” list from a recent year, and search the websites of five of these top employers. Assess the extent to which they offer work/familyfriendly and worksite health promotion programs. Describe
some of the programs they offer.
Your Answer
No answer submitted
OH&S in Action
Steeping some tea...
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Cumulative Assignment: Well-Mart
Show Correct Answer
A Wellness Program
To: You, OHS Manager
From: Store Manager
Re: Wellness programs
Hi again,
I was at a conference yesterday and heard a store manager describing the wonderful results they were
seeing from their lunchtime yoga program. She said that employees were happier, and that
absenteeism seemed to be down. Would this work for us? I know that wellness programs are big right
now. Can you source some data on the return on investment for work wellness programs? Do you think
it’s worth look-ing into for Well-Mart?
When completing this assignment in addition to responding to the above, address the following:
1. What are the different types of worksite health promotion programs available?
Is yoga the only or even best option for Well-Mart?
2. What does the accumulated evidence say about the return on investment for
wellness programs? Are there things Well-Mart needs to consider or be
cautious about before moving ahead?
3. If you do suggest moving forward with a wellness programming initiative, what
are the key factors to consider to help the program be successful? How would
you evaluate the program’s impact and success?
Upload a PDF to submit your cumulative assignment.
Students can browse their computer or drag and drop file
Max file size:50MBAccepted file types:PDF, JPG, JPEG, PNG
References
1. S. Mattke, C. Schnyer, and K.R. Van Busum, “A Review of the U.S. Workplace Wellness
Market,” RAND Health (2012).
2. Towers Watson. 2015/2016 Staying@Work Report—Canada Summary(2016). Found at: https://www.willistowerswatson.com/en/insights/2016/08/2015-2016-staying-at-work-
canada-research-findings (accessed August 7, 2019).
3. Sanofi Canada, “The Sanofi Canada Health Care Survey” (2012).
4. CSA Group, “CAN/CSA-Z1003-13 Psychological Health and Safety in the Workplace—
Prevention, Promotion, and Guidance to Staged Implementation” (January 2013).
5. Towers Watson. 2015/2016 Staying@Work Report—Canada Summary.
6. L. Duxbury and C. Higgins. “Revisiting Work–Life Issues in Canada: The 2012 National Study on Balancing Work and Caregiving in Canada” (2012). Found at:
http://newsroom.carleton.ca/wp-content/files/2012-National-Work-Long-Summary.pdf
(accessed June 15, 2019).
7. C. Higgins, L. Duxbury, and S. Lyons, “Reducing Work–Life Conflict: What Works? What
Doesn’t?” (2008). Found at: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-
canada/services/environmental-workplace-health/reports-publications/occupational-
health-safety/reducing-work-life-conflict-what-works-what-doesn.html (accessed August
7, 2019).
8. G. Grennhaus and T.D. Allen, “Work–Family Balance: A Review and Extension,” in J.C.
Quick and L.E. Tetrick, eds., Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology, 2nd ed.
(Washington: APA, 2011), 165–183.
9. C. Higgins, L. Duxbury, and S. Lyons, “Reducing Work–Life Conflict: What Works? What
Doesn’t?”
10. L. Duxbury and C. Higgins. “Revisiting Work–life Issues in Canada: The 2012 National
Study on Balancing Work and Caregiving in Canada” (2012). Found at:
http://newsroom.carleton.ca/wp-content/files/2012-National-Work-Long-Summary.pdf
(accessed August 7, 2019)
11. R. Ireson, B. Sethi, and A. Williams, “Availability of Caregiver-friendly Workplace Policies
(CFWPs): An International Scoping Review,” Health & Social Care in the Community (2016).
12. T.D. Allen, R.C. Johnson, K.M. Kiburz, and K.M. Shockley, “Work–Family Conflict and
Flexible Work Arrangements: Deconstructing Flexibility,” Personnel Psychology, 66(2)
(2013): 345–376.
13. H.H. Nijp, D.G. Beckers, S.A. Geurts, P. Tucker, and M.A. Kompier, “Systematic Review on
the Association Between Employee Worktime Control and Work–Non-Work Balance, Health
and Well-Being, and Job-related Outcomes,” Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment &
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Fullscreen
GLOSSARY A
Accident proneness The notion that some individuals are inherently more likely than
others to be involved in accidents, as a result of individual characteristics.
Act A federal, provincial, or territorial law that constitutes the basic regulatory mechanism for occupational health and safety. Active transactional leadership A form of leadership
based on the foundation that leaders actively communicate to followers the tasks that are
required to meet expectations. Administrative control Management involvement, training
of employees, rotation of employees, environmental sampling, and medical surveillance to
protect individuals. Aerosols Airborne respirable contaminants, such as liquid droplets or
solid particulate, dispersed in air, that are of a fine enough particle size (0.01 to 100
micrometres) to remain suspended for a time.
Agents Any substances—chemical, biological, or physical—to which a human may be
exposed at work or at home.
Aggression Behaviour by an individual or individuals within or outside an organization that is intended to physically or psychologically harm a worker or workers and that occurs in a
work-related context.
Alveoli Tiny air sacs.
Ambient All-encompassing condition associated with a given environment, being usually a
composite of inputs from sources all around us.
Amotivation Complete lack of motivation.
Assault cycle A model suggesting that violence occurs only after a period of escalation.
Assumption of risk The belief that a worker accepted the risks of employment when he or
she accepted a job.
Attenuated Reduction of noise at one location compared to another farther from the
source.
Autonomous motivation Motivation self-directed motivation reflecting an individual’s
free will.
B
Behavioural involvement The amount of time a person spends in a particular role.
Biohazards Hazards created by exposure to infectious microorganisms, proteins, or
nucleic acids.
Boiling point Temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric
pressure.
Brown lung A disease of the lungs caused by excessive inhalation of dust; the disease is in
the pneumoconiosis family and often afflicts textile workers.
Buffer A variable that protects people from the negative effects of stress.
Bullying Aggressive, nonphysical behaviours perpetrated by organizational members over
a prolonged period of time.
C
Chain of infection The process and conditions by which biological agents are spread from
one host to another.
Chemical agent Hazards created by exposure to chemicals.
Close call A series of events that could have led to a safety incident but did not.
Cognitive failure A mistake or failure in the performance of an action that an individual is
normally capable of performing.
Collective liability Where all employers in a class or other rate group are liable for the
costs of any or all accidents and occupational diseases that occur in the operations of
those employers.
Compressed workweek Flexible work arrangement in which employees work full-time
hours in fewer days per week.
Conduction Heat transfer occurring when two surfaces are in contact.
Confined space Any space that is enclosed or partially enclosed and restricts entrance and exit by the location and size, and is potentially deficient in oxygen or could contain toxic
gases.
Consequences The results or severity of the injury.
Constructor In health and safety legislation, a person or company that oversees the construction of a project and that is ultimately responsible for the health and safety of all
workers.
Contingent reward A form of active transactional leadership in which leaders reward
employees who meet their communicated expectations.
Controlled motivation Motivation based in response to pressure.
Convection Heat transfer occurring when one surface adds heat to the surroundings.
Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) A post-trauma intervention focused on
providing victims with an opportunity to discuss their experiences and reactions to a
traumatic event.
D
Decalcification Loss of lime salts (calcium) in the bones.
Dermatitis The inflammation of the skin from any cause.
Disability management Proactive employer practices with the goals of preventing or reducing workplace disability, intervening early in the face of risk or injury, and providing
coordinated management and rehabilitation functions to promote workers’ recovery and
safe and timely return to work.
Distributive justice The perceived fairness of outcomes.
Domino theory The theory that every incident results from a series of events.
Due diligence An expected standard of conduct that requires employers to take every
reasonable precaution to ensure safety.
Duty to accommodate Legislated responsibility of employers to accommodate workers
who are attempting to return to work following an injury or illness via changes in job tasks
and/or the work environment to enable workers with a temporary or permanent disability
to perform work productively.
E
Early warning change A deterioration of hearing in the upper frequency—the earliest
detectable sign of noise-induced hearing loss.
Elimination Process of removing a hazard.
Emergency A sudden, generally unexpected occurrence or set of circumstances
demanding immediate action.
Emotional abuse Another term for bullying.
Employee and family assistance programs (EFAPs) Programs designed to help
employees and members of their families with problems that may interfere with worker productivity, including alcohol and other drug abuse, emotional or behavioural problems
among family members, and financial or legal problems.
Engineering control Modification of work processes, equipment, and materials to reduce
exposure to hazards.
Extrinsic motivation Motivation rooted in instrumental reasons for acting.
F
Family-to-work conflict A form of work–family conflict in which family demands interfere
with the fulfillment of work responsibilities.
Fault tree An illustration of things that can go wrong.
Fire A chemical process in which fuel, oxygen, and heat are combined.
Flexible work arrangements (FWAs) Family-friendly policies that involve modifications to
the traditional work schedule.
Flexplace Flexible work arrangement in which an employee regularly makes use of telecommunications technology to complete work assignments away from the office,
usually at home.
Flextime Flexible work arrangement that permits employees to have variable start and
finish times to their workday.
Free-burning stage The stage at which flames first appear.
Functional ability assessment A standardized assessment of an injured or ill worker’s
ability to perform job tasks that is completed by a member of the health care team treating
the injured worker.
G
Gender harassment Comments or actions seen as creating a hostile environment based
on gender.
General adaptation syndrome The body’s way of gearing up for fight or flight (i.e., to
confront or run away from a predator).
General duty A primary duty directly articulated in the occupational health and safety act.
The general duty provision requiring employers to take every reasonable precaution to
ensure employee safety is represented in health and safety acts across Canada.
GHS An international standard for the classification and labelling of chemicals being
adopted by countries around the world.
Gradual work exposure A type of light-duty accommodation where job demands slowly
increase until the workers are performing the full requirement of their pre-injury jobs.
Guidelines and policies More specific rules that are not legally enforceable unless referred
to in a regulation or act.
H
Harassment Engaging in annoying or embarrassing conduct against a worker in a
workplace—conduct that is known or ought reasonably to be known to be unwelcome.
Hazard Any object, action, or condition that can be a source of potential adverse health
effect, damage, or harm to people, processes, or equipment within the workplace.
Health promotion A combination of diagnostic, educational, and behavioural
modification activities designed to support the attainment and maintenance of positive
health.
High-reliability Organizations in hazardous industries that maintain an excellent safety
record over time.
Human factor When a worker causes an incident by commission (doing something), poor
judgment, or omission (failing to do something).
Homeostasis (or thermal homeostasis) The balance of heat generation human factor
when a worker causes an incident by commission (doing something), poor judgment, or
omission (failing to do something).
Hyperreflexia The condition of unusually quick reaction by the nerves to some external
stimulus.
Hypertension Elevated blood pressure.
I
Illness Physical and mental conditions resulting from hazards.
Imminent risk The short-term risk of violence occurring in the current situation.
Incident An event or occurrence that had or could have had a negative impact on people,
property, or processes.
Incipient stage A source of ignition and fuel come together.
Incivility Rude or discourteous behaviour.
Injury Any trauma, physical or mental, direct or indirect, acute or chronic, experienced by a
human being.
Instructional systems design (ISD) model of training A general model of the training process that incorporates needs analysis, training design and delivery, and training
evaluation and that notes the interdependencies among the three major components of
the training process.
Interactional justice The perceived fairness of interpersonal treatment.
Internal responsibility system (IRS) The system of shared responsibility for health and
safety that is the basis for most Canadian OH&S legislation.
Intrinsic motivation Motivation based on one’s interest and enjoyment.
J
Job description The content and hierarchy specific to a job.
Job sharing Flexible work arrangement in which two employees share the responsibilities
of a single position.
Job specifications The requirements necessary to perform the various functions of a job
(e.g., ability to lift weight, education level).
Job splitting Flexible work arrangement in which two employees divide the
responsibilities of a single position.
Job/task analysis A component of the training needs analysis process during which the
jobs and specific job tasks that are in need of training are identified and studied.
K
Kickback Action of having a work piece suddenly thrown backward into the operator.
L
Latency period The time between exposure to a cause and development of a disease.
Light-duty work Workplace accommodation where workers return to a job that is less
demanding than their previous job.
Loss of functional capacity Limit of ability or dexterity depending on the seriousness of an
injury.
Lost-time injury A workplace injury that results in the employee missing time from work.
M
Machine guarding Protection for workers from the hazards and energies created by
moving machinery.
Management by exception (active) A form of active transactional leadership in which
leaders monitor workers’ actions and step in with corrective action when needed to
prevent serious problems from occurring.
Mobbing A term used mainly in Europe to refer to bullying.
Mode of transmission The means or channel by which an agent is carried from one host to
another.
Moderator A variable that changes the relationship between two other Variables.
N
Necrosis Death or decay of tissue.
Needs analysis The initial stage of the training development process, intended to identify
employee and organizational deficiencies that can be addressed with training and to
recognize potential obstacles to the success of a training program.
Negative affectivity A dispositional dimension reflecting persistent individual differences
in the experience of negative emotion.
Net earnings Salary after mandatory deductions (income tax, Canada Pension, and
employment insurance).
Normal incidents The theory that incidents are expected outcomes of interactive
complexities.
O
Occupational health and safety (OH&S) The identification, evaluation, and control of
hazards associated with the work environment.
Occupational health and safety management system (OHSMS) Reflects an interactive
collection of strategic organizational approaches and programs focused on identifying,
achieving, and maintaining desired occupational health and safety Targets.
Occupational illness Any abnormal condition or disorder caused by exposure to
environmental factors associated with employment.
Occupational injury Any cut, fracture, sprain, or amputation resulting from a workplace
accident.
Organizational analysis An analysis of the entire organization designed to examine its
resources, strategy, and environment in order to assess the organization’s support for
training.
Overexertion injuries Injuries resulting from excessive physical effort; repetitive motions;
and, possibly, awkward working positions.
Overt traumatic Injuries resulting from coming into contact with an energy source.
P
Person analysis A component of the training needs analysis process during which
individual employees’ behaviour is studied to identify gaps in performance.
Physical agents Sources of energy that may cause injury or disease.
Physical demands analysis (PDA) A standardized evaluation of the physical and cognitive
demands Of a job completed by a person familiar with the job.
Physical rehabilitation The steps taken to restore, fully or partially, the worker’s physical
function.
Portal of entry The path by which a biohazardous agent gains access to a new host.
Portal of exit The path by which a biohazardous agent leaves its host.
Positive tree Shows, graphically, how a job should be done.
Prescribed duty Under OH&S legislation, a duty to be undertaken because of health and
safety regulation.
Preventive maintenance The orderly, continuous, and scheduled protection and repair of
equipment and buildings.
Preventive stress management An approach to managing stress in the workplace that emphasizes that the health of an organization and its employees are interdependent;
encourages the reduction of stressors in the workplace as well as the recognition and
management of occupational stress and strain.
Primary interventions Stress interventions that involve the reduction or removal of actual
stressors.
Probability The chance or likelihood that an event will occur and will result in harm or
loss.
Procedural justice The perceived fairness of decision-making processes.
Psychological involvement The degree to which a person identifies with a particular role
and sees the role as a central component of his or her self-concept.
Psychologically healthy and safe workplace A workplace that promotes workers’
psychological well-being and actively works to prevent harm to workers’ psychological
health including in negligent, reckless, or intentional ways.
Psychosocial model of health Approach to the study of health that highlights the
importance of both the social environment and psychological factors.
RRAC program A hazard recognition, assessment, and control program; a key element in
most health and safety programs.
Radiation Heat transfer occurring when energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves.
Reactive materials Cause a violent, explosive reaction when they come in contact with
another material, such as acetylene with water, or bleach with chlorinated cleaner.
Re-enactment A simulation designed to recreate the circumstances leading up to an
incident.
Regulations Explain how the general intent of the act will be applied in specific
circumstances.
Reservoir The home or environment where the biological agent grows and multiplies.
Resonance The effect that occurs when an object reacts strongly to some particular
frequency.
Return-to-work coordinator Person who is responsible for return-to-work case
management.
Return-to-work plan A collaboratively developed individualized plan that identifies an
injured or ill worker’s return-to-work goals.
Risk assessment The process of hazard and risk identification, analysis, and control.
Risk The probability or the extent to which a hazard is likely to cause harm to people,
processes, or equipment.
Risk factor A variable that increases the negative effects of stress.
Risk perception An individual’s interpretation of the potential for harm based on values,
beliefs, and experience with a hazard.
S
Safety behaviours Behaviours leading to safe performance of a particular job.
Safety climate Employees’ shared perceptions of the importance of safety in the
workplace .
Safety compliance The extent to which employees follow safety rules and procedures.
Safety leadership Organizational leadership that is actively focused on and promotes
occupational health and safety.
Safety motivation An individual’s willingness to exert effort to enact safety behaviour and
the valence associated with those behaviours.
Safety participation The extent to which employees go beyond compliance and engage
proactively and voluntarily to actively improve safety.
Safety sampling A systematic survey procedure undertaken by safety personnel who
record their observations of unsafe practices on a sampling document.
Secondary interventions Stress intervention techniques that focus on minimizing
negative consequences once a person is feeling stress.
Segmental vibration Vibrations that affect only parts of the body.
Sexual coercion The attempt to extort sexual cooperation; can take the form of subtle or
explicit job-related threats.
Sexual harassment Intentional, persistent, and unwelcome sexual conduct or remarks
that occur despite resistance from the victim.
Smouldering stage Fuel, oxygen, and heat are present and are causing the heat to rise
through limited chain reaction.
Social rehabilitation The psychological and practical services that help workers with
severe disabilities cope with daily life.
Standards and codes Provide practical guidance on the implementation of occupational
health and safety practices; often established by agencies such as the CSA or the ILO.
Strain The result of stress; it is classified into four categories of reactions: psychological,
physical, behavioural, and organizational.
Stress An individual’s internal response to, or evaluation of, stressors; often characterized
by negative feelings of arousal.
Stressor An objectively verifiable event that occurs outside the individual that has the
potential to cause stress.
Substitution Replacing or changing equipment materials or work processes for less
hazardous ones.
Supported and sheltered work Modified work arrangements designed to help those with
permanent disabilities who have either not been successful in competitive work
environments or require substantial support to return to work.
Surfactant layer Layer of liquids in the digestive tract and elsewhere (e.g., the
cardiovascular system) that modify or reduce the surface tension within the conductors—
intestine, blood vessels—to allow material— blood, food, stools, and so on—to move easily.
U
Uncontrolled fire stage Fire is out of control and major property damage is under way.
Undue hardship Aspect of human rights legislation that means that employers must
accommodate the needs of a disabled worker unless the necessary modifications would
lead to health and safety difficulties or present unsustainable economic or efficiency costs.
Unsafe act A deviation from standard job procedures or practices that increases a worker’s
exposure to a hazard.
Unwanted sexual attention Persistent and unwelcome sexual comments or attention.
V
Vasoconstriction The process of causing a constriction of the blood vessels.
Violence An actual physical assault or threat of an assault.
Vocational rehabilitation The steps undertaken by WCBs to help injured workers return to
their place of employment or find similar or suitable work elsewhere.
W
Walk-through survey A survey in which a safety professional walks through a worksite and
notes hazards.
Walkthrough Inspection of the incident scene to get a picture of the total environment.
WHMIS Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System; a legislated training program in the handling of potentially hazardous chemicals in the workplace that ensures Canadian
workers recognize hazardous materials and are knowledgeable in emergency procedures
following a chemical spill.
Whole-body vibration Vibrations that affect the whole body as a unit.
Work trials A form of accommodation where workers return to work on a trial basis.
Workers’ compensation A form of insurance governed by an act of Parliament to help
workers who are injured on the job to return to work.
Work–family conflict A type of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures experienced
in the work and family domains are incompatible.
Workplace accommodation Modifications to the arrangement of work that promote early
and safe return to work for injured, ill, or disabled workers.
Work-to-family conflict A form of work–family conflict in which work demands interfere
with the fulfillment of family responsibilities.
Susceptible host An individual or animal that becomes infected with a biohazardous
agent.
Systems approach An approach to disability management that emphasizes the work and
organizational context.
T
Target organs Tissues or organs that are most affected by exposure to a particular
substance.
Tertiary interventions Interventions stress intervention techniques that are used to help
those individuals who have not been able to manage workplace stress effectively and who
are now experiencing symptoms of strain.
The three Es A traditional approach to occupational health and safety that emphasized
engineering, education, and enforcement.
Toxicity Ability to cause injury to human biological tissue.
Train the trainer Programs designed to offer subject-matter experts in various content
areas skills in program delivery and communication.
Training evaluation A component of the ISD training model designed to assess the value
added for individuals and organizations following the implementation of a training
program.
Training objectives Statements regarding the knowledge, skills, and behavioural changes
that trainees should acquire in the training program.
Transformational leadership Highly effective approach to leadership that emphasizes
employee well-being and is characterized by idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
Turbinates Spiral or spongy sections of the respiratory system that have a centrifugal
effect to help remove aerosols.
Type A behaviour Action–emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is
aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve increasingly more in
increasingly less time.
Type I violence Violence committed by someone with no legitimate relationship to the
organization, often while committing another criminal act.
Type II violence Violence committed by clients or customers of the organization.
Type III violence Violence committed by coworkers (e.g., other employees of the
organization).
Type IV violence Violence committed by committed by the spouse or partner of the victim
in the workplace.
