CT #2

Mallicoat_2e_Ch04_Presentation_SO_Ed.pptx

Mallicoat, Women, Gender, and Crime Core Concepts, Second Edition Chapter 4: Women, Gender, and Victimization: Intimate Partner Abuse and Stalking

Introduction (1 of 4)

History of violence within relationships.

Rule of thumb.

Banning the legal right to beat wives.

Limited enforcement.

4.3. Discuss some of the historical and contemporary issues in IPA.

Introduction

History of violence within relationships:

Historically, violence within relationships has been well documented.

Women were considered the property of men, and wife beating as a form of discipline was legal and accepted.

Rule of thumb:

In the Roman times, men were allowed to beat their wives with a rod as long as its circumference is no greater than girth of the base of the man’s right thumb.

This continued as a guiding principle of legalized wife beating, which later influenced the legal structures of the early settlers in America.

Banning the legal right to beat wives:

In 1871, Alabama and Massachusetts became the first states to take away the legal right of men to beat their wives.

In 1882, wife beating became a crime in the state of Maryland.

Many states resisted the ban on the grounds that the government should not interfere in the family environment.

Limited enforcement:

Defining wife beating as a crime meant that the act would receive criminal consequences.

However, husbands rarely received any significant penalties for their actions.

Introduction (2 of 4)

Battered women’s movement.

Nonarrest policy.

Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment (MDVE).

4.3. Discuss some of the historical and contemporary issues in IPA.

Introduction

Battered women’s movement:

Rise of the feminist movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s gave a foundation for the battered women’s movement

Small scale efforts such as shelters and counseling programs appeared throughout the United States during the 1970s.

Nonarrest policy:

Police officers received training about domestic violence calls for service, and many officers saw their role as a peacemaker than as an agent of criminal justice.

Homicide rates continued to increase because of the murders of women at the hands of their intimate partners.

Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment (MDVE):

Battered women’s movement led to systemic changes in how the police and courts handled cases of domestic violence.

Recidivism rates were significantly lower when an arrest was made compared to cases in which police simply “counseled” the aggressor.

However, replication studies indicated that arresting the offender led to increases in violence.

Introduction (3 of 4)

Violence Against Women Act (VAWA).

Office on Violence Against Women (OVW).

VAWA: renewed expanded every five years.

4.3. Discuss some of the historical and contemporary issues in IPA.

Introduction

Violence Against Women Act (VAWA):

By 1989, the United States had over 1,200 programs for battered women and provided shelter housing to over 300,000 women and children.

In 1994, Congress passed the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) as part of the Federal Crime Victims Act.

Provided funding for battered women’s shelters and outreach education, and funding for domestic violence training for police and court personnel.

Provided opportunity for victims to sue for civil damages as a result of violent acts perpetrated against them.

Office on Violence Against Women (OVW): Created in 1995, it administers grant programs aimed at research and community programming toward eradicating intimate domestic and intimate partner abuse in our communities.

VAWA: renewed expanded every five years:

VAWA expired on December 22, 2018, with the federal government shut down, and the reauthorization was stalled.

Republican and Democrat representatives disagreed on key protections for transgendered victims and offenders.

In March 2021, a bipartisan bill was passed by the House and is waiting for consideration by the Senate.

Introduction (4 of 4)

The Violence Against Women Act:

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act.

Violence Against Women Act and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act.

Violence Against Women Act Reauthorization:2013 and 2021

4.3. Discuss some of the historical and contemporary issues in IPA.

Introduction

The Violence Against Women Act:

2000-Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000

Division B—Violence Against Women Act

Allocated $3.33 billion in grant funds (2001–2005)

Enhanced federal laws for domestic violence and stalking

Added protections for immigrant victims

Added new programs for elderly and disabled victims

Included victims of dating violence into VAWA protections and services

2005-Violence Against Women Act and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005

Allocated $3.935 billion in grant funds (2007–2011)

Created repeat offender penalties

Added protections for trafficked victims

Provides housing resources for victims

Enhanced resources for American Indian and Alaska Native populations

Provides increased training for health care providers to recognize signs of domestic violence

Enhanced protections for illegal immigrant victims

2013- Violence Against Women Act Reauthorization of 2013

Allocated $3.378 billion in grant funds (2013–2018)

Continues funding for grants for research and services

Maintains and expands housing protections

Expands options for tribal courts to address domestic violence

Requires reporting procedures for dating violence on college campuses

Prohibits discrimination for LGBT victims in accessing services

Maintains and increases protections for immigrant victims

2021 (Proposed)- Violence Against Women Act Reauthorization of 2021

Bars gun ownership for individuals convicted on misdemeanor domestic violence or stalking offenses

Closes the “boyfriend loop” to expand gun ownership prohibitions to dating partners.

Increases access to women’s shelters to transgendered women

Allows transgendered offenders to serve in prisons that align with their gender identity, not birth assignment.

Ends impunity for non-native perpetrators who engage in acts of sexual and domestic violence on tribal lands.

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse (1 of 3)

Wife battering.

Domestic violence.

Intimate partner abuse (IPA).

Terms vary between different research studies.

4.1. Define intimate partner abuse (IPA).

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse

Wife battering:

The term wife battering fails to identify cases of violence outside of marriage, such as violent relationships between cohabitating individuals, dating violence, or even victims who were previously married to their batterer.

This exclusion often denies these victims any legal protections or services.

Domestic violence: Combines the crime of woman battering with other contexts of abuse found within a home environment.

Intimate partner abuse (IPA): Captures any form of abuse between individuals who currently have, or have previously had, an intimate relationship.

Terms vary between different research studies:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines intimate partner abuse as physical, sexual or psychological harm by a current or former partner or spouse.

National Violence Against Women survey extended the definition of intimate partner abuse to include cases of rape/sexual assault, physical assault, and stalking behaviors.

Bureau of Justice Statistics include additional crimes within the discussion of IPA, such as homicides and robberies involving intimate partners.

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse (2 of 3)

1.2 million persons affected in 2019.

Misdemeanor offense.

Not visible to community.

4.2. Explain the rates and prevalence of IPA.

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse

1.2 million persons affected in 2019:

According to National Crime Victimization Survey, an estimated 1.2 million persons were experienced violence from domestic relationship in 2019.

59.7% of these cases involved violence by a current or former intimate partner.

In the majority of cases, men are the aggressor and women are the victim (85%).

Misdemeanor offense: Most crimes of intimate partner abuse are considered a misdemeanor offense, even for repeat offenders.

Not visible to community:

Much of the abuse is not visible, making it difficult to measure the extent of these acts or to provide outreach and services for victims.

Many are reluctant to report cases of abuse to anyone due to the high levels of shame that they feel as a result of the abuse.

Others believe that the police will be unable to help, are blamed for causing the violence, or were told to fix the relationship with the offender.

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse (3 of 3)

Emotional abuse.

Economic abuse.

Escalating to murder.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse

Emotional abuse:

Emotional abuse is a way in which perpetrators seek to control their victims, whether it be in telling them what to wear, where to go, or what to do.

They may act jealous or possessive of their partner, sometimes even turn violent.

Emotional abuse continues when a batterer blames the victim for the violent behavior by suggesting that “she made him do it” or by telling the victim that “you deserve it.”

Women are more likely to experience social isolation and property damage within the context of emotional abuse compared to men

It robs the victim of her self-esteem and self-confidence, as victims fail to identify that they are victims of intimate partner abuse if they do not experience physical violence.

Economic abuse:

Involves acts that damage the victim’s ability to be self-sufficient.

It becomes difficult for a victim to leave their batterer, as it restricts access to finances.

Extends to both jeopardizing one’s employment status or prohibiting them from working.

Escalating to murder:

For a small number of women, physical violence in an intimate relationship escalates to murder.

Death was the culmination of a relationship that had been violent over time.

The presence of a weapon significantly increases the risk of homicide.

Three-fourths of intimate partner homicide victims had tried to leave their abusers, refuting the common question of “why doesn’t she leave?”

The Cycle of Violence

Three distinct time frames:

Tension building.

Abusive incident.

Honeymoon period.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

The Cycle of Violence

The cycle of violence is made up of three distinct time frames.

Tension building:

In this stage, a batterer increases control over a victim.

As anger begins to build for the perpetrator, the victim tries to keep her partner calm by minimizing any problems in the relationship.

During this time, the victim may feel as though she is walking on eggshells because the tension between her and her partner is high.

Abusive incident: During this period, the batterer is highly abusive, and engages in an act of violence toward the victim.

Honeymoon period:

During this stage, the offender is apologetic to the victim for causing harm.

He often is loving and attentive and promises to change his behavior.

In this stage, the perpetrator is viewed as sincere and in many cases is forgiven by the victim.

Unfortunately, the honeymoon phase does not last forever, and in many cases of intimate partner abuse, the cycle begins again, tensions increase, and additional acts of violence occur.

Over time, the honeymoon stage may disappear entirely.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (1 of 9)

Dating Violence

Violence between unmarried people.

Prevalence rates vary.

Teens and young adults are at high risk.

Students are more knowledgeable.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Dating Violence

Dating violence: intimate partner abuse in relationships where people are unmarried and may or may not be living together; violence that occurs between two people who are unmarried; teenagers are seen as the most at-risk population.

Prevalence rates vary:

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey:

8.2% of students reported experiencing physical dating violence

8.2% experienced sexual dating violence

Students who identify as female, LBGTQ, and those who are unsure of their sexual identity experienced higher rates of violence.

9.3% of girls and 7.0% of boys have experienced physical violence.

Sexual violence in a dating relationship also impacts 12.6% of girls and 3.8% of boys.

13.1% of students who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, and 16.9% who are unsure of their sexual identity experienced physical violence.

Rates for heterosexual students are higher (7.2%).

Prevalence rates for cases of sexual dating violence: 16.4% of lesbian, gay or bisexual students, 15.0% of those unsure, and 6.7% of heterosexual students.

Similar rates are noted for college students.

The Association of American Universities 2019 Campus Climate Survey found that:

14.1% of undergraduate women experienced dating violence since they entered college.

Students who identified as transgender or non-binary, this rate increased to 21.5%.

32% of students report a history of dating violence in a previous relationship.

35% of youth had experienced some violence in either their current or recent dating relationship.

Teens and young adults are at high risk:

This is a result of their inexperience in relationships and their heightened views of “romantic love.”

Adolescent victims often find themselves in a pattern of abusive relationships as adults.

Students are more knowledgeable:

Students are more knowledgeable about how to identify dating-related intimate partner abuse, how they can file a report, and where they can find support on their campuses and within their communities.

Students are most likely to seek counseling following their victimization.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (2 of 9)

Children of Intimate Partner Abuse

Not the direct victims of abuse.

Negative mental health outcomes.

Cycle of violence into adulthood.

Child welfare agencies.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Children of Intimate Partner Abuse

Not the direct victims of abuse:

Children are significantly affected by violence within the home environment, even if they are not the direct victims of the abuse.

Research indicates that 68% to 87% of intimate partner abuse occurs in the presence of children.

Negative mental health outcomes:

Children who reside in a home where violence is present tend to suffer feelings of low self-worth, depression, and anxiety.

They often suffer in academic settings and have higher rates of aggressive behavior.

While boys tend to display more negative external behaviors, girls tend to engage in more internalized issues.

Cycle of violence into adulthood:

Many children exposed to violence at a young age continue the cycle of violence into adulthood.

30% of young boys who are exposed to acts of intimate partner abuse tend to engage in violence against an intimate partner later in life.

Child welfare agencies:

Victims of intimate partner violence are advocated to connect with child welfare agencies to provide a continuum of care for children and their families.

Agencies should not label the children as potential offenders and victims, because it could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

It is key that children from IPV homes receive support for both severe outcomes as well as interventions that focus on coping skills such as conflict resolution, emotional support, and communication skills.

Treatment considers risk and protective factors for children with a diverse lens to meet needs across different ethnic, cultural, and identity groups.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (3 of 9)

LGBTQ and Intimate Partner Abuse

16.2 per 1000 persons are victims.

Same-sex intimate partner abuse.

Identity abuse.

Disclosure practices.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

LGBTQ and Intimate Partner Abuse

16.2 per 1000 persons are victims:

Data from the National Crime Victimization survey found that LGBTQ identified persons are victims of IPV at a rate of 16.2 per 1000 persons, compared to a rate of 2.4 for heterosexual and cis-gender individuals.

LGBTQ individuals experience IPV at a rate that is four times greater than of non-LGBTQ persons.

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey noted that 61.1% of bisexual women and 43.8% of lesbians report experiencing physical abuse, stalking or sexual assault by an intimate partner in their lifetime.

Rates are significantly higher than heterosexual women (35%), heterosexual men (29%) and gay men (26%).

Same-sex intimate partner abuse:

Intimate partner abuse that occurs in a same-sex relationship.

Research is significantly limited on this issue, and many victims fear reporting these acts or seeking help because of concerns of being “outed” or concerns about homophobia.

Identity abuse:

Factors such as heterosexism, external homophobia, and internalized homophobia influence on LGBTQ IPA relationships.

Over 40% of LGBTQ victims of intimate partner abuse experience identity abuse (IA) in their lifetime.

Women and transgender/non-conforming individuals experience higher rates of IA compared to men and cisgender individuals.

Disclosure practices:

Women who experienced abuse within the context of their first lesbian relationship tended to express fear about discrimination.

This fear of being “outed” also led some victims to stay in the relationship for a longer period of time.

Women who had strong networks with LGBTQ community were more likely to seek out help when their relationships turned violent.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (4 of 9)

LGBTQ and Intimate Partner Abuse

Reluctant to report their abuse.

Heteronormative and patriarchal laws.

Intersectional approach.

Restraining order.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

LGBTQ and Intimate Partner Abuse

Reluctant to report their abuse:

Decision to report same-sex IPA involves the same challenges as a heterosexual battering relationship.

Fear of exposing their sexual orientation can significantly impair help seeking through both formal and informal means.

Less than half of LGBTQ victims of intimate partner violence seek out IPV-related services.

Heteronormative and patriarchal laws: One of the key challenges is that most laws and programs are designed from a heteronormative and patriarchal lens that does not place gender identity and sexual orientation at the center of the conversation.

Intersectional approach:

The availability of LGBTQ facilitators and support groups can help support victims in ways that traditional programming may not be able to.

Historically, legal resources that are often available to heterosexual victims of IPA were expressly denied for the LGBTQ population.

Restraining order:

As of January 2021, all states now allow LGBTQ persons to seek out a restraining order against a current or former intimate.

This right was established by a state Court of Appeals ruling, who argued that limiting access to “persons of the opposite sex” violated both the state constitution as well as the 14th amendment, which provides for due process and equal protection.

Many LGBTQ individuals experience identity abuse when they seek help, which results in verbal and physical harassment, a risk for being arrested, and a lack of understanding of gender dynamics in LGBTQ battering relationships.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (5 of 9)

Effects of Race and Ethnicity on Intimate Partner Abuse

Gender inequality.

Black women are at an increased risk.

Black women may not seek out help.

Latina women: higher rates of violence.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Effects of Race and Ethnicity on Intimate Partner Abuse

Gender inequality:

For women of color, issues of gender inequality become secondary in the discussion of what it means to be a battered woman.

Cultural differences and structural inequality play a major role in understanding experiences of IPV in ethnically diverse communities.

Research needs to reflect the different factors such as age, employment status, residence, poverty, social embeddedness, and isolation to explain higher rates of abuse within black communities, and not just race or culture.

Black women are at an increased risk:

As a population, Black women are at an increased risk of being victimized in cases of intimate partner violence.

Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey notes that black women between are more than twice as likely to report cases of intimate partner violence to the police, compared to white women.

Reporting rates are significantly impacted by other structural factors such as age and education, as well as case characteristics such as substance use by the offender, weapon use, and level of injury.

Black women may not seek out help:

Research notes that some Black women may not seek out help and did not feel that they need help.

Some women of color may not want to further criminalize the men in their communities.

In cases of severe cases of physical IPV, 13.8% of Black women did seek out support from a psychiatrist, 14% sought help from other mental health professionals and 13.4% reached out to a family doctor for assistance.

Latina women: higher rates of violence:

Latina women face disproportionately higher rates of intimate partner violence compared to white women.

Gender role expectations can play a unique role in both placing women at risk for IPV as well as impact help-seeking behaviors.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (6 of 9)

Effects of Race and Ethnicity on Intimate Partner Abuse

Machismo, simpatia and familismo.

Challenges in Asian community.

Physical and psychological issues.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Effects of Race and Ethnicity on Intimate Partner Abuse

Machismo, simpatia and familismo:

Machismo: patriarchal model whereby the men in the household are responsible for making the decisions.

Simpatia: belief that women should be non-confrontational

Familismo: belief of family loyalty and respect in decision-making

These three combined may mean that Latina women who embrace these beliefs may not see their partner’s violence as a problem and as such, not seek out help in these situations.

Challenges in Asian community:

It is difficult to determine the prevalence of the issue, because most surveys do not highlight the unique differences between different ethnic groups.

Unique cultural issues within Asian communities that can make identifying and reporting intimate partner abuse as an act of violence difficult.

Physical and psychological issues:

Women who experience IPA may be faced with a multitude of physical and psychological issues, and race and ethnicity can affect whether a victim will seek out support and resources from social service agencies.

Research indicates that Black women were significantly more likely to use emergency hospital services, police assistance, and housing assistance, compared to White and Hispanic/Latina women.

Women of color also express a need for culturally relevant support in their communities.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (7 of 9)

Unique Issues for Immigrant Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Regain control and power.

Strain against traditional roles.

High levels: verbal, physical, sexual abuse.

Ethiopian-immigrants: violence is accepted.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Unique Issues for Immigrant Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Regain control and power:

Men in immigrant communities often batter their partner to regain control and power in their lives.

Battering becomes a way in which these men regain their sense of masculinity.

Strain against traditional roles:

Many immigrant women are faced with the need to work, which many immigrant men find to be in opposition to traditional cultural roles and a threat to their status within the family.

This strain against traditional roles leads to violence.

Many men blame the American culture for the gender clash occurring in their relationships and accept the violence as part of the relationship.

Violence is accepted behavior in Vietnamese cultures, wherein men are seen as aggressive warriors and women are seen as passive and meek.

High levels: verbal, physical, sexual abuse:

Research on intimate partner violence within this community reveals high levels of verbal (75%), physical (63%), and sexual abuse (46%), with 37% experiencing both physical and sexual abuse.

Within immigrant Asian communities, feelings of shame significantly impact the help-seeking behaviors.

Ethiopian-immigrants: violence is accepted:

For Ethiopian-immigrant women, the violent behavior of men is also accepted within the community, making it difficult for women to understand that battering is a crime.

Help seeking is seen as a complaint by women, and in such cases, members of the community turn to support the perpetrator, not the victim.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (8 of 9)

Unique Issues for Immigrant Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Russian-immigrant women.

Fear of deportation.

Negative experience of law enforcement.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Unique Issues for Immigrant Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Russian-immigrant women:

Intimate partner abuse is a normal part of relationships for Russian-immigrant women.

These cultural expectations may inhibit women from seeking out assistance, because it would bring shame on the victim and her family, both immediate and extended.

Fear of deportation:

Many perpetrators use the fear of deportation to prevent victims from leaving an abusive relationship.

Latina immigrants are less likely to seek out help for intimate partner abuse compared to Latina nonimmigrants.

Negative experience of law enforcement:

Perpetrators often build on a negative experience of law enforcement from their home country in an effort to create a sense of distrust of the U.S. legal system.

Most victims did not want to have their partner arrested or prosecuted for domestic violence but rather they wanted to send a message that the abuse was wrong.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse (9 of 9)

Unique Issues for Immigrant Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Language barriers.

Lack of understanding of the American legal system.

4.4. Distinguish between the different types of IPA and how it impacts victims.

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Unique Issues for Immigrant Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Language barriers: Language barriers may affect victims’ ability to communicate with law enforcement and court personnel, particularly when resources for translators may be significantly limited.

Lack of understanding of the American legal system:

Can prevent an immigrant/refugee woman from leaving her violent relationship.

In 2001, California amended its domestic violence laws to ensure that legal documents in domestic violence cases would be made available in multiple languages.

Today, paperwork to request a restraining order and other related documents is available in five different languages: English, Chinese, Spanish, Vietnamese, and Korean.

Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship (1 of 2)

Financial limitations.

Leaving the abuser and returning to them.

Children: a major factor.

Other negative relationship characteristics.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship

Financial limitations:

Women who lack economic self-sufficiency are less likely to report intimate partner abuse and less likely to leave the relationship.

The support from extended family and friends can play a critical role in a victim’s ability to successfully depart from an abusive partner.

Leaving the abuser and returning to them:

The average battered woman leaves seven to eight times before she is successful in leaving for good.

Violence does not always end when women report their crimes or leave their abuser.

Acts of violence can involve not only the initial victim but can spread out, placing children, friends, and extended family members of woman at risk.

Children:

For some women, their children are the reason why they leave an abusive situation and seek help.

For some women, the desire to provide their children with a happy childhood was their motivation to leave.

For others, it was to demonstrate that abusive and violent behaviors are not normal parts of a healthy relationship.

Other negative relationship characteristics: Negative relationship characteristics such as emotional abuse or difficulties in communication could lead to the ending of the relationship.

Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship (2 of 2)

Acceptance by parents and peers.

Religious institutions.

Struggle to leave an abusive relationship.

Pressure outside of the family unit.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship

Acceptance by parents and peers: Those whose significant other was viewed favorably by their family and friends were more likely to stay, while negative perceptions were more likely to influence the decision to leave the relationship.

Religious institutions:

Some women may turn toward religious institutions for assistance in leaving a relationship characterized by intimate partner abuse.

For many women, their faith gives them strength to leave.

Unfortunately, for some of these women, their spirituality may hinder their abilities to leave.

Congregations encourage women to forgive the violence that their partners display.

Struggle to leave an abusive relationship:

Some women may still love their partner, despite the violence that exists within the relationship.

Others may hope that their partner will change and believe the promises made by their loved one for a different life.

Pressure outside of the family unit:

In some multicultural communities, there is a greater pressure outside of the family unit to return to one’s batterer.

Members of these communities often place significant pressures on victims to reunite with their batterer.

For many women, they fear what their lives will be like without their partner.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections (1 of 6)

Asking for assistance involves the police.

Gender of the responding officer.

The proceeding of the case.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections

Asking for assistance involves the police:

The first step in asking for assistance often involves the police.

The victim can either request the presence of the police or the police may be summoned on behalf of a victim.

Women who felt that the officer listened to their concerns and provided information and referrals for help were most satisfied with their experience with the police.

Gender of the responding officer:

Victims indicated that female officers were more receptive to their concerns overall and were not just focused on facilitating an arrest.

These positive experiences can encourage victims to seek out police assistance in the future should they need it.

The proceeding of the case:

If a perpetrator has a history of violent behavior, both the prosecutor and the victim are more likely to want to see the case move forward.

First-time offenders are more likely to have their charges dismissed or to be handled informally.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections (2 of 6)

Justice system not an effective deterrent

Discretionary arrest policies.

Mandatory arrest policies.

Varying state laws.

Clarified roles for officers.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections

Justice system not an effective deterrent:

If an offender is let off with a “slap on the hand,” victims may experience increased risks of violence in the future.

Victims often minimized the severity of the verbal violence in order to discourage the police from making an arrest.

Negative experiences with the police can also contribute to experiences with posttraumatic stress disorder for victims of IPV.

Discretionary arrest policies: Police officers have the option to arrest or not arrest the offender based on their free choice within the context of their professional judgment.

Mandatory arrest policies:

Refer to the legal duty of a police officer to make an arrest if the officer has reason to believe that domestic violence has occurred.

The laws vary from state to state, but most state laws recognize both current and previous spouses or cohabitants as protected categories under the law.

Currently, 22 states have some form of mandatory arrest policy in place.

Laws vary when a mandatory arrest can be made.

Laws in Alaska and Missouri require that a report be made within 12 hours of the assault, whereas Mississippi and Nevada extend the time frame to 24 hours.

Washington State and South Dakota represent some of the most narrowly defined time frames and require that the police make an arrest within 4 hours of the assault.

Washington State law is also unique in that it limits cases to individuals who are 16 or older.

Clarified roles for officers:

The movement toward mandatory arrest clarified roles for officers when dealing with domestic violence calls for service.

Women believed that an arrest would decrease levels of violence and send a message to offender that battering is a crime and he would be punished.

They acknowledged that the decrease in violence was only a temporary measure and that there existed a possibility of increased violence after an offender returned to the family home following an arrest or court proceedings.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections (3 of 6)

Some unintentional consequences.

Dual arrests.

Arrests has implications for women.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections

Some unintentional consequences:

Victims can feel disempowered by the mandatory arrest process, because it takes away their decision-making abilities.

In many cases, a victim’s call to the police for help resulted in her own arrest, leaving many victims feeling betrayed by the system that they sought help from.

Other victims may be less likely to call for intervention knowing that their batterer (or themselves) would be arrested.

Dual arrests:

When state laws or policies do not include a primary aggressor designation, officers are required to determine who the “real” offender is.

Officers may lack the training or experience to make a professional judgment about whom to arrest, resulting in both parties being arrested.

These dual-arrest practices result in women being arrested for domestic violence with their partner.

Many women victims find themselves labeled as offenders of IPA by police and the courts for engaging in acts of self-defense.

Same-sex couples were more likely to be involved in dual-arrest situations (female-to-female = 26.1% and male-to-male = 27.3%) compared to heterosexual couples (3.8%).

Arrests has implications for women:

The increase in arrests has far-reaching implications for women, including the refusal of help by shelter services and challenges in child custody battles as a result of their “criminal” history.

Therapeutic options should focus on the rationale and factors behind women who engage in IPA.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections (4 of 6)

No-drop policies.

Subsequent victimizations.

Specialized courts.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections

No-drop policies:

Evidence-based practices that would allow the prosecutor to present a case based on the evidence collected at the scene of the crime are employed.

Such policies were developed in response to a victim’s lack of participation in the prosecution of her batterer.

When victims feel that their voice is not being heard by criminal justice system, they may be less likely to report incidents of abuse.

Subsequent victimizations:

When victims feel that the criminal justice system does not meet their needs in a case of intimate partner violence, they are less likely to seek assistance for subsequent victimizations.

Several victims were concerned about how contacting the police could lead to potential negative consequences for themselves or their families.

Victims expressed concerns over the possibility of mandatory arrests or dual arrests, custody battles, and fear of how the offender would respond.

Specialized courts:

Many jurisdictions have developed specialized courts that deal exclusively with cases of domestic violence.

The professionals in these specialized courts (prosecutor, judges) often have specific training on issues such as the cycle of violence and the role of power and control within an intimate partner relationship.

Evaluation of a domestic violence court program in South Carolina: collaborative courtroom environment between the prosecutor, victim advocate, and judge had a significant effect on victim satisfaction levels.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections (5 of 6)

Programming Concerns for Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Substance use.

Criticism of battering intervention programs.

Culturally diverse and reflect unique issues.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections

Programming Concerns for Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Substance use:

Given the high correlation between substance use and intimate partner abuse, most programs also include substance abuse treatment as a part of their curriculum.

Group therapy: cost-effectiveness and can serve as an opportunity for program participants to support and mentor one another.

Criticism of battering intervention programs:

One criticism is that they generally assume that all batterers are alike.

This approach does not offer the opportunity for programs to tailor their curriculum to address the differences among men who abuse.

Culturally diverse and reflect unique issues:

Intimate partner abuse attacks every community, age, religion, race, class, and sexual identity.

Need for culturally relevant programming also extends to shelter programs for victims of domestic violence.

Feeling culturally connected to program practitioners helped survivors understand what they were going through.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections (6 of 6)

Programming Concerns for Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Based within the targeted community.

Need to be proactive.

Need to attack the systems.

4.5. Identify the barriers to leaving abusive relationships.

Victim Experiences With Police and Corrections

Programming Concerns for Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Based within the targeted community: If programs are difficult to access geographically, women are less likely to seek out services as a result of time, money, and transportation limitations.

Need to be proactive: Programs also need to be proactive and engage in prevention efforts with young women and men in the community.

Need to attack the systems:

Intervention efforts need to attack the systems that create social inequalities—racism, sexism, classism, and so on.

Legal system and program providers need to understand how these issues are interrelated and not dominated by a single demographic factor.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence (1 of 5)

Stalking: conduct at a specific person.

Harassment: acts that are indicative of stalking behaviors.

Acts that constitute stalking.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Stalking: A course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear.

Harassment:

Acts that are indicative of stalking behaviors but do not ignite feelings of fear in the victim.

The 2016 Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS) indicate that more than 3.8 million persons age 16 or older experience behaviors defined as stalking or harassment over the past year.

Women are more than twice as likely to experience stalking compared to men, and younger persons (ages 20–24) are experience higher rates of stalking compared to individuals age 35 and older.

Acts that constitute stalking:

Sending letters or gifts, making phone calls, and showing up to visit, are not inherently criminal.

These acts appear harmless to the ordinary citizen but can inspire significant fear and terror in victims of stalking.

24% of victims noted that they were stalked for two years or longer.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence (2 of 5)

Actions of John Hinckley Jr. in Taxi Driver.

Madonna’s stalker Robert Dewey Hoskins.

Social understanding of stalking.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Actions of John Hinckley Jr. in Taxi Driver:

John Hinckley Jr. who became infatuated with Jodie Foster when she first appeared as a child prostitute in the film Taxi Driver.

Hinckley’s obsession with Foster continued, but he failed to gain her attention.

In 1981, Hinckley attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan in an effort to impress Foster.

He was found not guilty by reason of insanity for his crimes and was committed to St. Elizabeth’s Hospital for treatment.

Madonna’s stalker Robert Dewey Hoskins:

He was convicted in 1996 for making threats against the star.

During one event, he successfully scaled the security wall of her home and was shot by one of her bodyguards.

Social understanding of stalking:

The attention to stalking limited the social understanding of the crime to celebrities and the Hollywood circuit.

Many of these cases involved perpetrators who suffered from mental disease or defect.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence (3 of 5)

Stalking Behavior, number and percent of victims:

Total traditional stalking.

Total stalking with technology.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Stalking Behavior:

Total traditional stalking:

Number of Victims: 2,472,440.

Percent of Victims: 100%

Percent of all persons: 1.0%

Followed victim around / watched victim:

Number of Victims: 1,450,740.

Percent of Victims: 58.7.

Percent of all persons: 0.6.

Showed up at / rode by/ drove by places victim was when the offender had no business being there:

Number of Victims: 1,283,540.

Percent of Victims: 51.9.

Percent of all persons: 0.5.

Harassed/repeatedly asked victim’s friends/family for information about their whereabouts:

Number of Victims: 996,710.

Percent of Victims: 40.3.

Percent of all persons: 0.4.

Waited for victim at home/work/school/any other place when the victim did not want them to be there:

Number of Victims: 901,480.

Percent of Victims: 36.5.

Percent of all persons: 0.4.

Left/sent victim unwanted items/ cards/ letters/ presents/ flowers:

Number of Victims: 604,000.

Percent of Victims: 24.4.

Percent of all persons: 0.2.

Sneaked into victim’s home/ car/ any other place and did things to let victim know they had been there:

Number of Victims: 472,990.

Percent of Victims: 19.1.

Percent of all persons: 0.2.

Total Stalking with Technology:

Number of Victims: 3,085,550.

Percent of Victims: 100%

Percent of all persons: 1.2%

Made unwanted calls to victim/left voice messages/ sent text messages/ used telephone to excessively contact victim:

Number of Victims: 2,070,400.

Percent of Victims: 67.1.

Percent of all persons: 0.8.

Sent victim unwanted emails/ messages using the internet or social media apps/ websites like Instagram/ Twitter/ Facebook:

Number of Victims: 1,542,570.

Percent of Victims: 50.0.

Percent of all persons: 0.6.

Monitored victim’s activities using social media apps/websites:

Number of Victims: 1,067,800.

Percent of Victims: 34.6.

Percent of all persons: 0.4.

Posted-threatened to post inappropriate/ unwanted/ personal information about victim online:

Number of Victims: 818,550.

Percent of Victims: 26.5.

Percent of all persons: 0.3.

Spied on victim/ monitored victim’s activities using technologies such as a listening device, a camera, or computer/ cellphone monitoring software:

Number of Victims: 585,770.

Percent of Victims: 19.0.

Percent of all persons: 0.2.

Tracked victim’s whereabouts with electronic device/ application such as GPS/ app on victim’s cell phone:

Number of Victims: 283,630.

Percent of Victims: 9.2.

Percent of all persons: 0.1.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence (4 of 5)

Relationship begins in an ordinary sense.

Self-blaming.

Not reporting their victimization.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Relationship begins in an ordinary sense:

A victim’s relationship with her future stalker began in a very ordinary sense.

Victims described these men as attentive, charming, and charismatic.

Once these endearing qualities disappeared, their interactions became controlling, threatening, and violent.

Self-blaming:

Many women blamed themselves for not recognizing the true colors of their stalker earlier.

This pattern of self-blaming affected their ability to trust their own judgment and led these women to be hesitant about their decision-making abilities in future relationships.

Not reporting their victimization:

Victims of stalking often do not report their victimization to police.

For many victims, their decision to not report these crimes stemmed from a fear of intensifying or escalating the stalking behaviors.

Others dealt with their victimization in their own way, believing that their experience was a private and personal matter.

Many believed that stalking was not a serious enough offense to warrant intervention from the criminal justice system

Some victims felt that nothing could be done to stop the behavior.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence (5 of 5)

Self-reflection.

Victims avoid community events.

Renegotiating definitions of relationship.

Victims moving against their attackers.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Self-reflection:

Some victims attempted to solve the trauma through self-reflection and sought out therapeutic resources.

Women also made significant changes to their behavior patterns.

Victims avoid community events:

Might avoid community events out of a fear that their stalker would show up at the same function.

Other women moved out of the area yet still expressed fear that their stalker would find them.

Renegotiating definitions of relationship: Some victims tried to renegotiate the definitions of their relationship with their offender through bargaining, deception, or deterrence.

Victims moving against their attackers: Some victims moved against their attackers by issuing warnings or pursuing a legal case against them.

Victims and Offenders of Stalking (1 of 2)

Female victims: 74.59%.

High in victims of abuse.

Abusers use drugs and alcohol.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Victims and Offenders of Stalking

Female victims:

A meta-analysis of 22 studies on stalking found that female victims made up 74.59% of stalking victims, while 82.15% of perpetrators were male.

In most cases, perpetrator was someone known to victim, with 30.3% of all cases occurring as a result of a current or former intimate relationship.

High in victims of abuse:

Stalking is a common experience for victims of intimate partner abuse.

Degree to which victims are stalked is directly related to the levels of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse that they experienced with their intimate partner.

Women who are no longer in a relationship with their abuser are more likely to experience stalking compared to women currently involved in an IPA relationship.

Domestic violence abusers who are more controlling and physically violent toward their victims are more likely to stalk them.

Abusers use drugs and alcohol:

Abusers who use drugs and alcohol are more likely to stalk their partners.

Almost three fourths of women who had moved on to new relationships indicated that their new partner was harassed, threatened, or injured by their stalker.

Victims and Offenders of Stalking (2 of 2)

Impact of economics.

Effect on a woman’s mental health.

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Victims and Offenders of Stalking

Impact of economics:

Many victims find that they do not have the economic resources or abilities to move out of their communities to escape their stalker.

This lack of mobility made it easier for their perpetrators to continue to stalk and harass their victims.

Close-knit nature of many of these communities led to cases where a batterer’s friends and family members were able to help the offender harass and intimidate their victim.

Effect on a woman’s mental health:

Rates of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder are higher for women who blame themselves for the behaviors of their perpetrator.

Victims indicate feelings of powerlessness, depression, sleep disturbances, and high levels of anxiety.

Likely to develop a chronic disease or other injury in response to the high levels of stress that victims of stalking experience.

Cyberstalking

Use of technology as a tool.

Anonymity used to create fear.

Youth and young adults at greater risk.

Use information to publicly post information

4.6. Define stalking and discuss its impact on victims.

Cyberstalking

Use of technology as a tool:

The term cyberstalking was created to address the use of technology as a tool in stalking.

As the use of technology continues to expand in our social world, so will its use to stalk, harass, and engage in acts of violence against individuals.

Anonymity used to create fear:

Cyberstalking involves incidents that create fear in the lives of its victims.

Anonymity under which cyberstalkers can operate creates significant opportunities for offenders to control, dominate, and manipulate their victims, even from a distance, because there are no geographical limits for stalking within the domain of cyberspace.

In cases of intimate partner abuse, technology and cyberstalking is a way in which abusers can continue to control and harass victims from afar.

Some perpetrators text and phone repeatedly, creating dread and fear in the victim that the harassment will never end.

Youth and young adults at greater risk:

Youth and young adults appear to be particularly at risk for these forms of victimization, given their connections to the electronic world through the Internet, blogs, text messaging, and social networking sites, such as Facebook.

Participation in activities such as sexting can increase the likelihood that one will be victimized online.

Research indicates that 38% of study participants had either sent or received sexually explicit texts or photos.

Participation in these activities increases the likelihood of cybervictimization.

Use information to publicly post information: Stalkers can use information to publicly post information that is not only embarrassing but could jeopardize their relationships with friends, family, and employers.

Laws on Stalking

Murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer.

Victims experiencing fear.

Not perceived as a significant event.

Victim blaming.

4.7. Assess the legal remedies and policy implications for IPA and stalking cases.

Laws on Stalking

Murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer:

The first law criminalizing the act of stalking was created in 1990 by the state of California following the murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer in 1989 by an obsessed fan.

Robert Bardo had become obsessed with “Patti,” the character played by Schaeffer on the show, and made several attempts to contact her on set.

On contacting Schaeffer at her residence, he shot her in the chest, killing her.

Bardo was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison.

Majority of state laws on stalking include details on stalking via electronic methods.

Experience fear:

To prosecute someone for stalking, many state laws require victims to indicate that they experienced fear as a result of the offender’s actions.

Fear levels are also predicted by the severity and frequency of the contact.

Not perceived as a significant event:

The challenge with stalking is that many do not perceive stalking to be a significant event.

Perceptions about stalking vary based on the gender of the victim and the offender and the type of relationship as well as the gender of the study participant.

Men are more likely to view stalking as a minor event and to engage in victim blaming toward stalking victims.

Victim blaming:

Victim blaming can be predicated by the type of relationship between the victim and the offender.

Victims are the least blameworthy if the offender is a stranger but are considered culpable if the stalking results from a casual sexual relationship, such as a one-night stand.