CJ Administration

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Justice Administration Police, Courts, and Corrections Management

Ninth Edition

Chapter 2

Organization and Administration: Principles and Practices

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Defining Organizations

The word organization has a number of meanings and interpretations that have evolved over the years.

It can be a company, business, club, and so forth

An organization is "a consciously coordinated social entity, with a relative identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.“

Social entity: organizations are composed of interacting people and interact with other organizations.

Relatively identifiable boundary: the organization’s goals and the public served.

The Evolution of Organizational Theory

Organizational Theory:

The study of organizational designs and structures that includes the behavior of administrators and managers within organizations

The history of management can be divided into three approaches and time periods.

Scientific management (1900–1940)

Human relations management (1930–1970)

Systems management (1965–present)

A school of management thought that is concerned primarily with the efficiency and output of workers.

Frederick W. Taylor is known as the Father of Scientific management.

Scientific Management

In 1935, Luther Gulick formulated the theory of POSDCORB.

Planning

Organizing

Staffing

Directing

Coordinating

Reporting

Budgeting

Human Relations Management

Beginning in the 1930s, people began to realize the negative effects of scientific management on the worker.

A view arose in policing that management should instill pride and dignity in officers.

The movement toward human relations management began with studies conducted during the late 1920s to mid-1930s by the Harvard Business School, which found that:

Worker productivity is more closely related to social capacity than to physical capacity.

Noneconomic rewards play a prominent part in motivating and satisfying employees.

Employees do not react to management and its rewards as individuals, but as members of groups.

Systems Management

In the mid-1960s, features of the human relations and scientific management approaches were combined in the systems management approach.

Designed to bring the individual and the organization together, it attempted to help managers use employees to reach desired production goals.

The systems approach recognized that:

It was necessary to have some hierarchical arrangement to bring about coordination.

Authority and responsibility were essential.

Overall organization was required.

To be effective, groups must have the ability to recognize and deal with conflict and change.

Team cooperation is required to achieve organizational goals.

Bureaucratic Management (1 of 2)

Criminal justice agencies fit the description of an organization.

They are managed by being organized into a number of specialized units.

They consist of people who interact within the organization and with external organizations, and they exist to serve the public.

Criminal justice organizations are bureaucracies as well.

A bureaucracy:

includes structuring of an organization so as to function efficiently, as well as rules, division of labor, hierarchy of authority, and expertise among its members.

Bureaucratic Management (2 of 2)

For a bureaucratic structure to function efficiently, must have:

Rulification and routinization

Division of labor

Hierarchy of authority

Expertise

Written rules

Organizational Inputs/Outputs

Another way to view organizations is as systems that take inputs, process them, and thus produce outputs.

A police agency, for example, processes reports of criminal activity and, like other systems, attempts to satisfy the customer (crime victim).

Organizational Structure Primary Principles (1 of 2)

All organizations have an organizational structure or table of organization, be it written or unwritten, very basic or highly complex.

An experienced manager uses this organizational chart or table as a blueprint for action.

The size of the organization depends on the demands placed on it and the resources available to it.

Growth precipitates the need for more personnel, greater division of labor, specialization, written rules, and other such elements.

Organizational Structure Primary Principles (2 of 2)

In building the organizational structure, the following principles should be kept in mind:

Principle of the objective

Principle of specialization

Principle of authority

Principle of responsibility

Principle of definition

Principle of correspondence

Span of control

Span of Control and Unity of Command

Span of control:

The number of subordinates a chief executive, manager, or supervisor in a criminal justice organization can effectively supervise

Unity of command:

The principle holding that only one person should be in command or control of a situation or an employee

FIGURE 2-3 Chain of Command

FIGURE 2-4 Organizational Pyramid

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Organizational Pyramid

The pyramidal structure (shown above) has the following characteristics:

Nearly all contacts take the form of orders going down and reports of results going up the pyramid.

Each subordinate must receive instructions and orders from only one boss.

Important decisions are made at the top of the pyramid.

Superiors have a specific span of control, supervising only a limited number of people.

Personnel at all levels, except at the top and bottom, have contact only with their boss above them and their subordinates below them.

Closed versus Open Systems

Closed systems are closely aligned with bureaucratic management.

Open systems are more closely aligned to human relations management.

Communication within the Organization

People communicate in and through offense reports; in affidavits; via general orders, policies, procedures, rules, and regulations; on the courtroom witness stand; and in competency, parole, or probation hearings.

Communication is exceedingly important and sensitive in criminal justice organizations.

Process and Characteristics (1 of 2)

Elements that compose the communication process:

Encoding

Transmission

Medium

Reception

Decoding

Feedback

Communication within a criminal justice organization may be downward, upward, or horizontal.

Horizontal communication thrives when formal communication channels are not open.

Process and Characteristics (2 of 2)

Five types of downward communication within a criminal justice organization:

Job instruction

Job rationale

Procedures and practice

Feedback

Indoctrination

Upward communication in CJ may be like trying to swim upstream.

Communicating in Police Organizations

Police officers must possess the ability to communicate internally and externally.

The ability of the police to communicate effectively using both oral and written means is paramount.

Officers must be prepared to converse with highly educated people.

Grapevine:

An informal means of circulating and communicating information or gossip.

Gossip zigzags back and forth across organizations.

The grapevine can be harmful.

Oral and Written Communications

Organizations promulgate written rules, policies, and procedures because:

The requirement for administrative due process.

Civil liability.

Accreditation movement.

E-mail and text messaging are easy to use and instantaneous.

Other Barriers to Effective Communication

Not being good listeners

Time constraints

Inadequate and excessive information

People saying what we think others want to hear

Failure to select the best words

Not having the same “big picture” as superiors

Differences in different cultural nonverbal cues

CJ agencies are becoming more open and responsive and are using social media more as a means of communication.

Primary Leadership Theories

Leadership:

Influencing and working with and through individuals or a group to generate activities that will accomplish organizational goals.

Leaders take the macro view.

Their role might best be defined as "the process of influencing organizational members to use their energies willingly and appropriately to facilitate the achievement of the [agency's] goals."

Trait Theory

A theory based on the notion that good leaders possess certain character traits that poor leaders do not.

Stogdill and Goode believed that a leader could be identified through a two-step process:

Study leaders and compare them to non-leaders to determine which traits only the leaders possessed.

Seek people who possess these traits to be promoted to managerial positions.

FIGURE 2-5 Traits and Skills Commonly Associated with Leader Effectiveness

Style Theory (1 of 2)

A theory that focuses on what leaders do; leaders engage in two distinct types of behaviors:

Those relating to task

Those relating to relationships

Leaders must give task direction to their followers.

Closeness of supervision directly affects employee production. High-producing units had less direct supervision; highly supervised units had lower production.

Leaders must be employee oriented.

Style Theory (2 of 2)

Autocratic leaders are primarily authoritarian in nature and prefers to gives orders rather than invite group participation.

Personal with criticism.

Democratic leaders stress working within the group and strive to attain cooperation from group members by eliciting their ideas and support.

Laissez-faire leaders take a hands-off approach to leadership.

Organization in effect runs itself.

FIGURE 2-6 Style Theory

Situational Leadership Theory

Popularized by Hersey and Blanchard.

Assumes leaders are most effective when they are adaptable.

Interaction between task behavior and relationship behavior:

“Telling” leaders

“Selling” leaders

“Participating” leaders

“Delegating” leaders

Katz's Three Skills

Katz identified three essential skills that leaders should possess:

Technical: specialized knowledge, analytical ability within that specialty, and facility in the use of the tools and techniques of the specific discipline

Human: involve working with people, including being thoroughly familiar with what motivates employees and how to utilize group processes.

Conceptual: coordinating and integrating all the activities and interests of the organization toward a common objective.

The Hawthorne Studies

Hawthorne effect:

A theory meaning that employees' behavior may be altered if they believe they are being studied—and that management cares.

Hawthorne studies revealed that people work for a variety of reasons, not just for money and subsistence.

FIGURE 2-7 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

Source: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs from MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY, edited by Kenneth J. Peak.

McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y

Douglas McGregor designated one set of human assumptions as Theory X and the other as Theory Y:

Theory X

Management’s view that people inherently dislike work, will avoid it, and thus punishments and other "drivers" must be used as motivators.

Theory Y

The view that people inherently like to work, seek greater responsibility, and are inherently motivated rather than by punishment.

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Maintenance and hygiene factors:

Elements of one's career that provide one with their need to avoid pain.

E.g., adequate pay, benefits, job security, decent working conditions, supervision, interpersonal relations.

Motivational factors:

Those psychosocial factors providing intrinsic satisfaction on the job, serving as an incentive to devote more of their time, energy, and expertise in productive behavior.

Expectancy and Contingency Theories (1 of 2)

Expectancy theory holds that employees will do what their managers or organizations want them to do if the following are true:

The task appears to be possible (employees believe that they possess the necessary competence).

The reward (outcome) offered is seen as desirable by the employees (intrinsic rewards come from the job itself, while extrinsic rewards are supplied by others).

Employees believe that performing the required behavior or task will bring the desired outcome.

There is a good chance that better performance will bring greater rewards.

Expectancy and Contingency Theories (2 of 2)

Contingency theory is an effort to determine the fit between the organization’s characteristics and its tasks and the motivations of individuals.

Tells mangers to tailor jobs to fit people or to give people the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to become competent.

Motivation through Job Enrichment

Enrichment includes:

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Employees then experience meaningfulness of work, responsibility, and knowledge of results.

Preparing for Employees of the Future: Generation Y

Generation Y (born between 1980–2000) was raised in an environment where they received awards just for showing up.

Their parents have emphasized self-esteem building and feelings of success rather than having winners and losers.

Generation Y will probably be more team-oriented.

CJ administrators must determine whether to try to mold the Gen Y employee so as to fit the traditional ways of behaving at the work site, or change his or her approach to leadership in order to attract and keep these coming employees.

Coming Challenges

Finding them

Training them

Keeping them

Body art

Technology

Becoming a Learning Organization

Agency administrators must promote what is termed a "learning organization" culture, where communication and collaboration are promoted so that everyone is engaged in identifying and solving problems.