History of Crime in the United States

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Why Homicide Has Increased in the United States. I Author(s): Cesare Lombroso Source: The North American Review, Vol. 165, No. 493 (Dec., 1897), pp. 641-648 Published by: University of Northern Iowa Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25118920 Accessed: 02-11-2015 18:38 UTC

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NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW. No. CCCCXCIII.

DECEMBEK, 1897.

WHY HOMICIDE HAS INCREASED IN THE UNITED STATES.-l.

BY professor cesare lombroso.

One of the surest and most confident conclusions I have drawn from a study of crime is that, in those countries which are

supposed to be the most cultivated and civilized, crimes, if they do not decrease in number, are certainly decreasing in ferocity ; whilst, on the other hand, crimes destitute of the element of vio

lence, such as swindling, fraudulent bankruptcy, and kindred

offences, are constantly increasing. In other words, the assassin

and the murderer become transformed into the thief, and the transformation involves a maximum risk to property and a mini

mum risk to human life. Belgium may be cited in illustration of this fact. Statistics show that in that country homicides de creased from 1 in 83,000 inhabitants in 1882 to 1 in 93,220 in 1892. England, during the same period, shows a similar ratio of

decrease, namely, from 1 in 68,000 inhabitants to 1 in 92,000 ; but whilst sanguinary crimes in the latter country thus decreased 8 per cent., bankruptcies increased from 28 to 36 per cent., and robberies 30 per cent., the increase in population meantime

being 13 per cent. Thus it is that when we read of any singu larly atrocious crime in Europe we almost unconsciously attri

VOL. CLXV.?no. 493. 41 Copyright, 1897, by The North American Review Publishing Company. All rights reserved.

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642 THE NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW.

bute it to some community which still remains in barbarism,

though in close contact with civilization, such, for instance, as

Corsica as opposed to France, or the island of Sardinia as opposed to Italy. The statistics of homicide are a sure guide as to a

people's state of culture, and it may be safely asserted that the latter increases with increased wealth, greater density of popula tion and diminished illiteracy.* The following table shows the relative proportions of homicides in the countries named :

Italy.96 per 100,000 inhabitants. Spain.,.58 Portugal.25 Hungary.75

"

Austria.25 Sweden and Norway.13

" "

France and Belgium.18 " **

Germany.5 " "

England.,. 5 " *'

The United States stand alone in offering an extraordinary exception to what may be called the rule, for, according to sta

tistics (not always reliable, however) published there, homicides are of startling frequency in that country. This fact is of

greater significance when we consider that, whilst in all other civilized countries homicides are yearly decreasing in number, in

America the contrary is the case, such crimes being continually on the increase.

If we compare the results of the last census with those of the census of 1880, we find that in the latter year there were 4,600 arrests for the crime of homicide, whilst according to the figures published June 1, 1890, the number of similar arrests had in creased to 7,500.f From this it would appear that homicides had increased 60 per cent, within ten years, while the population had increased but 25 per cent. And what is of graver moment is the fact that this growth of the crime referred to is progressive, that is, it is, as above stated, steadily increasing year by year.

While it is true that the proportion of twelve homicides to

every 100,000 inhabitants in the United States is in startling contrast to the statistics of England, Scotland, and Germany, it is not so when compared with those of countries not so highly civilized as the latter, such, for instance, as Italy, Spain, Austria, and Hungary, over which the United States have a notable ad

vantage. *

Vide Lombroso, Criminality, Yol. III./'pages 59, 66, 209,160-171. t See Faulkner's Crime and the Census.

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WHY HOMICIDE HAS INCREASED IN AMERICA. 643

Inasmuch, however, as America prides itself upon being at

the head of civilization, representing to-day what Europe will be in the course of a hundred years, the fact that the crime of homi cide should be so much more general there than in Great Britain and Germany, and that not only is there no year showing a de crease in this crime, but on the contrary a continual increase, would seem to be so much at variance with the undeniable civil

progress ofthat country, that it becomes interesting to ascertain what are the causes of this apparent paradox.

I will endeavor to explain what I believe these to be. To this purpose I have availed myself of documents furnished by

Brice and Cook, and, especially, of Bosco's Homicide in the United States (which is probably the ablest work extant on the

subject), as also of Faulkner's Crime and the Census, 1896. At the outset I hasten to say that I at once discovered arguments tending to modify the significance which might otherwise be at

tached to the statistics I have quoted. If we take the older States of the Union?those which are the most highly civilized, which possess a pure judiciary and which furnish us with reliable statistical information*?it will be found that these sections are

almost as free from homicides as the most enlightened countries of Europe. The State of Massachusetts furnishes us with data

showing not only the number of arrests, but also the number of

deaths resulting annually from personal violence. The figures

given for the latter are 0.5 to each 100,000 inhabitants, less than the proportion furnished by England, 0.9, or by Scotland, 1.6.

The same thing is true of others of the New England States, viz.: Vermont, Khode Island, and Connecticut, where the num

ber of deaths due to homicide in the year 1893 reached only 0.6

per 100,000 inhabitants.

From this it would appear that, in some parts of the United

States, conditions being equal with those of favored parts of Eu

rope, there is a marked tendency toward diminution in the crime

of homicide.

Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that the legislation of almost all the States considers as murder or homicide nearly all cases of wounding followed by death, and, in fact, all crimes

resulting in fatality?even when death is merely incidental and *

Cook, Murders in Massachusetts. Quarterly Publication of the American Statistical Association, 1894. Second Annual Report Upon the Births, Marriages, Deaths, and Divorces of the State of Maine. Augusta, 1896.

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644 THE NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW.

unintentional, such as, for instance, death resulting from incen diarism, or the duel, or other causes. The law even considers as a murderer him who by false testimony has caused another to be convicted of a capital offense, and as guilty of manslaughter any person who, by his negligence or by the commission of an

illegal act, causes the death of another. Many persons, there fore, whom the law in the United States treats as homicides would not be so considered in Europe. Hence the homicidal

statistics, which apparently are so discreditable to the United States, have not the same significance as similar statistics would have in Europe. However, notwithstanding this attenuation, the statistics of homicide in the Republic, as a whole, are so porten tous that it becomes us to seek how we can account for the ac

knowledged evil.

Climate.?Let us begin by studying the effects of climate. In the United States, as elsewhere, the southern regions by reason of their warm climate are prone to engender violent passion ; hence the greater number of homicides in such sections than in colder climes?an increase of from 17 per cent, in 1880 to 40 per cent, in 1890. A similar augmentation is noted in almost all countries more or less tropical. I may note here that Holtz endorf and many others who have made a study of such matters have shown that in southern countries homicides are fifteen times more numerous than in northern countries. Thus we find

that, whereas in New England there is but one homicide to every 66,000 inhabitants, there is in Texas one to every 115. In the latter State even school children may be found with murderous

weapons in their possession. A somewhat similar condition pre vails in Southern Italy, the consequence being that while in

Northern Italy there are but seven homicides to every 100,000 inhabitants, there are in the south thirty-one. In fact, so great is the effect of temperature, that even in England it has been found that during a given period there were considerably more

homicides in the summer than in the "winter ; in other words,

they numbered in July 1,043 and in June 1,071, while in Janu

ary there were but 705 and in February 701. Hence the asser tion of Ferri that in years when the average temperature has reached a higher than the normal degree there is a notable increase of this crime.

Immigration.?The increase in homicides is more notable in

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WHY HOMICIDE HAS INCREASED IN AMERICA. 645

the Atlantic than in the Central States, but this is due to a great extent to the character of the immigration. In the Atlantic

States?especially New York and Pennsylvania?there is a great volume of immigration, consisting of Italians, Eussians, and

Hungarians, many of whom have already contributed powerfully to increase the volume of criminality in Europe. In the Central

States, on the other hand, particularly Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois, the principal immigration consists of Swedes and

Danes, to whom the crime of homicide is repugnant. Of the Italian immigrants, two-thirds in the year 1890 were

found dwelling in the Atlantic States, while of the Russian

immigrants one-half, of the Hungarian three-fourths, and of the Scandinavian two-thirds were to be found in the Northern Central States. It is curious to notice in this connection that ethnical statistics in America furnish us with the same reports as we are accustomed to in Europe. Thus, the homicides were found to be in the following racial proportions :

Scandinavians. 5.8 per 100,000 Germans. . 9.7

"

English. 10.4 "

Irish. 7.5 "

Austrians. 7.2 " "

French. . 27.4 " "

Italians. 58.1 "

Mexicans. 116.9 " "

That is, the several nationalities named furnished the same

proportion of homicides in the United States as in their respect ive countries, and even the children of these immigrants supply an analagous proportion, although greatly modified, thus:

Scandinavians. 1.3 Germans.?2 French.10*3 Irish. .11.4

The ethnical influence may become modified, but it is not eradicated, and it constitutes a coefficient of criminality which

may readily escape the observation of the statistician owing to the generality of naturalization. It must not be forgotten, however, that immigration is of itself a coefficient of crime. Joly has shown that, conditions being equal, the richest departments of France furnish us with a greater number of homicides than the other departments, solely because they contain a greater number of immigrants, especially Italians and Spaniards.

Further, in France it is found that of 100,000 natives but 8

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646 THE NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW.

are brought before the courts, whereas of a like number of

foreigners (immigrants) 41 are arrested for infraction of the laws. The same is the case in the United States, where criminality is found to keep pace with the growth of immigration.

California, 0.30 criminals per 100 inhabitants Nevada, 0.31

" " "

Wyoming, 0.35 " *? "

Montana, 0.19 * " "

Arizona, 0.16 " " "

New York, 0.27 a

New Mexico, 0.03 " " "

Columbia, 0.11 "

These figures would seem to dispose of the assertion that crime is largely due to density of population ; for, as is well

known, the population of Montana, Wyoming, Nevada and Arizona is exceedingly sparse, and yet, owing to the greater pro

portion of immigrants in those States, the ratio of criminality is far in excess of what it is in New York, Pennsylvania, and Col

umbia, where the population is a hundred times denser but with a smaller proportion of immigration. Nor need this greater

tendency toward criminality among the immigrant class surprise us when we consider that those composing it are derived from a

social element which is driven by poverty to overcome that habit of immobility which is common to the human race, and if they are possessed of greater enterprise and activity than their fellows,

they are at the same time more anomalous, and are as a rule at

that age (from 20 to 30) which furnishes the largest number of

recruits to criminality. Separated from their friends and far

from their native country, they are not restrained by shame from

committing crime, and being often crowded together, nearly all of

them young men, often without work and with no hope of out

side aid, they are unable to resist the impulse to violate the laws.

In their native cities nothing but some very exceptional circum stance would have driven th^m to crime, but in their new sur

roundings the slightest incident frequently serves as a pretext, and as opportunities for crime are being constantly offered them,

they are dragged along by the current. These immigrants, in

fact, represent that agglomeration of humanity to which is offered

the greatest facility for and the strongest incentive to crimes of

opportunity. It is owing to this fact that in many instances

bands of brigands are composed of nomads and immigrants.

33 per cent, immigrants 33 38 29 " 39

u "

23

* Tenth Census (1890) of the united States, Vol. II., page 1659.

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WHY HOMICIDE HAS INCREASED IN AMERICA. 647

I should add here that, as very many of the immigrants referred to are of necessity employed in servile labor, they are

frequently brought into close contact with wealth, which arouses

their envy and cupidity. Negroes and Mongolians.?But

a much greater cause of

homicide in the United States is the vast number of colored

people in that country. If immigration tends to the increase of

crime even among the descendants of immigrants who may have

become assimilated, how much greater is it increased by the

presence of a race which finds itself in a state of civil inferiority. If we are to accept the statement that 60 per cent, of the homi

cides are furnished by the whites and the remaining 40 per cent,

by the colored race, it must be remembered that the former con

stitute 88 per cent, of the population and the latter but 12 per cent. ; therefore it is clear that were it not for the negro population the crime of homicide would be almost as rare in the United States as it is in the most civilized countries of Europe. The colored race furnishes to the statistics of this crime, proportionately,

more than five times as many cases as the whites ; in other

words, among the former there are forty-five homicides to every

100,000 inhabitants, while among the latter there are but eight to every 100,000. It should not be forgotten, however, that the

proportion of colored criminals, according to population, is ap

parently always greater because the average term of imprison ment is frequently longer than for the white criminal. This

tends to increase the number of those in prison in proportion to the colored population. Moreover, such is the prejudice against the negro, especially in the Southern States, that it is reflected even in the administration of justice, with the result that the colored offender against the law is judged and condemned

with greater severity than the white offender. If we add to this dis

advantage the negro's greater shiftlessness, his greater carelessness

to conceal his crime, his greater proneness to confess, we can

understand how much his chances of conviction are increased.

But the greatest obstacle to the negro's progress is the fact

that there remain latent within him the primitive instincts

of the savage; for notwithstanding that the garb and the

habits of the white man may have given him a veneer of mod

ern civilization, he is still too often indifferent to and careless of

the lives of others ; and he betrays that lack of the sentiment of

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648 THE NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW.

pity, commonly observed among savage races, which causes them

to regard homicide as a mere incident, and as glorious in case it is the outcome of revenge. To this latter the negro is frequently impelled by a spirit of resentment of the prejudices of his white fellow-citizens ; and just as frequently the motive for his crimes

may be found in the gratification of his brutal instincts.

Further, there may be adduced in explanation of the ne

gro's tendency to crime the fact that he is still practi cally in servitude ; for while the law has emancipated him, it cannot be denied that the law in this respect is to a great extent a dead letter. It has been amply demonstrated that from a servile condition spring the greatest of criminals.

Again, a supreme cause of the homicidal tendency found in the negro race of the United States may be sought in their moral and material conditions, which in some respects are rendered worse by the abolition of slavery, producing, as it did, a ferment in the minds of the colored people and exposing them to social problems in the presence of which even a stronger race

would have stood appalled and powerless. With a diminished

surveillance, and an increased antagonism between whites and

blacks, rendered inevitable by an emancipation which was not due to but in spite of the Southern whites, it is not difficult to

conceive that the law decreeing equality of the two races must

inevitably have become practically ineffective, the negro still re

maining morally, if not bodily, the white man's slave. Even in

the British West Indies where the negroes have long enjoyed

ample liberty, they still preserve their primitive habits, with a

marked tendency to homicide and a rarity of suicides.*

As to the Chinese, they are more given to infanticide, which

they do not regard as a real crime. Considering their restricted

numbers, they furnish a large percentage of criminals ; but while

the prisons have for years been full of these Mongolians, their

contribution to criminality is not increasing, for the law prohibits Chinese immigration, and there is little or no natural increase of

such population in the United States, owing to the very limited

number of women of that race in the country. Cesare Lombroso.

{To be continued.)

* Sec Hoffmann, The Negroes in the West Indies ; Strahan, Suicide and Insan ity, 1896.

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