Introduction
Womanhood and femininity are constructed differently across cultures. The attributes a particular culture assigns to womanhood directly affects women in their daily lives. These attributes usually make up the cultural stereotype of women in a particular society. As these stereotypes start to spread in society, people expect all women to fit in these stereotypes. If a woman fails to fit into them, she will be deemed to live on the margins of society. African-American women made no exception to this. Stereotypes of African American women had marked American culture since the colonial days. The modernist movement at the beginning of the 20th century was instrumental in questioning the socio-cultural foundations of these stereotypes and to offer a new way of looking at womanhood. As far as African American women were concerned, the Harlem Renaissance contributed to liberate them from these stereotypes and to give them a new place in society. The writers of this movement employed gender, racism and sex to rethink the ideal of womanhood. Claude McKay’s “Home to Harlem” features a number of African American female characters who seem to be united by a search for a more humane way of living. In the novel, McKay employs race, gender and prostitution to propose a new ideal of womanhood (Cooper 98). This paper discusses MacKay’s changing ideals of womanhood. The paper employs black feminist theory to argue that sexism, class oppression, gender identity and racism make up the essence of female stereotyping. In so doing, the paper explores the extent to which Mackay’s characters conform to these stereotypes.
Stereotypes of African American Women and Prostitution during the Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance was a political, social, and cultural movement of African Americans during the early 20th century (Goeser 18). During this time period, the African American people embarked on a journey of self-discovery. The African Americans during this period in history were focused on recreating the collective image of the black person. Various African American men were involved in the movement through art explosion Alan Locke, Langston Hughes, and W.E.B. Du Bois being recognized for the role they played in redefining black culture. Although all black people played a big role during the Harlem Renaissance, the African American women rarely received the acclaim for their role in redefining the black identity (Wall 47). A lot of black women played small roles within their neighborhoods to shape the identity of the African Americans. There were also black female writers who helped to change the identity of the community’s culture through their writing, but they had to endure various struggles that affected average black women in the community. In spite of the changes in the African American community, the women continued to struggle within the stigma of gender and race.
The black women worked hard to change the stereotypical perceptions of the black women that had been developed through generations by both the white and the black communities. For instance, one common stereotype about black women was that of the ‘mammy’. This is the image of a strongly built African American woman whose main role in life is to cater for their white masters and their families. The mammy was a woman with great nurturing abilities who would provide everything the children of their masters needed, thus giving the wives of the masters the chance to live a peaceful life of luxury (Brown, Sonja and Monahan 96). Another stereotypical role of the black women was that of ‘Jezebel’. African American women in captivity during the slavery period were viewed as the sexual objects meant to fulfill the inappropriate sexual activities of their white masters (98). Although most of the sexual activities with white people were against their will, the African American women were viewed as having very loose morals and voracious sexual appetite. This stereotype was used to justify sexual relationships between black women and white men. It was used as a way of overlooking the unjust sexual treatment that the African American women got from the white men (101).
The sexual stereotypes of the African American women were strengthened both within the white and the black communities and were carried to the period of the Harlem Renaissance. The stereotypical gender roles were first developed by the white community but later reinforced within the black community. Even the black women found comfort within the stereotypical roles. This led to the development of prostitution as a source of living for a lot of black women. The black prostitutes were viewed negatively by both the white and the black communities. They were the poorest and the cheapest members of the society (Baker 266). The society did not care about the conditions that led the African Americans to prostitution; they were just viewed as immoral human beings who used their sexuality as their source of money. They were not viewed as people who could make respectable achievements within the society. During the time, there were many brothels that served as prostitution rings where high-end prices were paid in exchange for sexual activity. However, the African American prostitutes were cheaper than the ones in the brothels. Their activities were in more open areas such as the streets and in cars. They were the least respected people in the society in that time period (268).
Black Feminist Theory and African American Women Stereotypes
The black feminist theory is a school of thought which argues that class oppression, sexism, racism, and gender identity are intricately linked to one another (Collins 45). These concepts are bound together by the concept of intersectionality. Intersectionality is a concept that relates domination, oppression, and discrimination to various components of a person’s identity. When a person discriminates, dominates, or oppresses another, they think of each element that makes up a person (Yuval-Davis 194). According to intersectionality the various aspects that make up a person’s identity are not mutually exclusive but rather they work reciprocally. The various components that form inequalities and systemic injustices in the society such as racism, sexism, and classism are interrelated creating an intersection of discrimination. According to black feminism, the black women in the society are positioned in structures of power that are totally different from these of the white women (196). Black feminism acknowledges issues of intersectionality that affect the black women but fail to affect the white women.
The stereotypical view of the black women during the Harlem Renaissance can be explained using the black feminist theory. The stereotypes of the African American women were not developed only because they were women. There are many intersectional issues that contributed to the development of the negative perception of the African American women, and particularly the prostitutes, in the society. The combination of racism and sexism contributed to the development of the immoral perception of the black women. During the slavery period, the black women were the most vulnerable members of the society in that they were members of the minority race and at the same time the minority gender. The white women took advantage of their vulnerability and used them for their sexual satisfaction leading to the development of the immoral black woman stereotype. During the Harlem Renaissance, the black women stereotypes continued to be strengthened because of classism. Majority of the women engaging in prostitution were from the lower classes. Due to the systematic inequality in the society, a big percentage of them had no choice but to end up into prostitution. Therefore, black feminism theory helps to demonstrate how class, sex, and race contributed to the development of the negative stereotypes of the African American women.
The Presentation of Womanhood in “Home to Harlem”
In the book “Home to Harlem”, Claude McKay depicts the African American culture as it appeared in 1928, at the height of the Harlem Renaissance. The book tells the study of young African Americans as they struggle through the prejudice of the American society. McKay touched on various themes of the Harlem Renaissance but this essay will focus on the themes of prostitution and the struggle to re-define the identity of the African American women. In particular, McKay depicted the character of the African American women in a positive light; hence, helping to destroy the stereotypical views created through history.
There are two main female characters, which are used to create a positive perception of the African American women in the society and redefine the stereotypes about these women. These include Felice, the prostitute and Congo Rose, the night club entertainer. In general, McKay describes the women in her book as a work of art. For instance, she described the women as the wonderfully beautiful pictures of the women in ancient Egypt (105). In another scene, Jake describes a woman as “a breathing statue of burnished bronze…with their arresting poses and gestures and their deep shining painted eyes” (104). The choice of words to describe women in this novel shows the author’s effort to put them in a positive light. Rather than use the ‘dirty’ words that would typically be used to describe women who perform the roles like theirs n the society, the author chooses to make them seem like they are a piece of art; like they are important. There are various other ways that the novel tries to redefine the African American women stereotypes in the society.
The character of Felice has been used to redefine the black women’s stereotypes in the book. Felice was a prostitute who Jake Brown, the protagonist in the book, met on his first night in Harlem back from the World War I in London.She is described as a ‘burning little brown skin’ girl (300). She is very honest about her professional activities, and is always happy and joyful. The first redefinition of the African American women stereotypes is in the scene where Felice met Jake. When he got back to Harlem, Jake visited restaurants, saloons, and a cabaret, where he had the chance to meet Felice for the first time. They spent that night together. He agreed to pay her $50 after their sexual encounter, even though his original proposal was only $5. However, when he woke up in the morning, Felice had put the $50 in his pocket alongside a note reading, “just a little gift from a baby girl to a honey boy”. The actions of Felice in this scene are the opposite of the character that would have been expected on a prostitute. First, the fact that she declined the initial proposal of $5 is against the stereotype that African American prostitutes were very cheap and the lowest members of the society. This demonstrates a black woman with the ability to demand what she believed she deserves. Additionally, the fact that Felice did not take the money she was paid for her sexual services can be interpreted as her demand for respect from Jake. Her decision not to take the payment could have played a role in him wanting to look for her again; since, the rest of the book is based on his journey before he could see her again. According to the negative stereotypes about prostitutes, they are low class black women who have poor moral grounding ad interested in selling their bodies for the money. By not taking this money, Felice broke this belief about African American prostitutes. The elimination of the payment for the sexual action removes the aspect of the female body as a commodity for the man. Therefore, what Jake and Felice had was basically consensual sexual relation between a man and a woman.
Towards the end of the novel, Felice and Jake are reconnected. They both appear to have a genuine both towards each other. Throughout Jake’s journey he always wanted to be with Felice. Even when Congo Rose had taken him under her wing, he still yearned for the brown skin beautiful girl that he had met on his first night in Harlem. Felice asked Jake why he did not come back after their first encounter because she had waited for him. On the other hand, Jake was ready to do anything she wanted. For instance, when Jake wanted to go eat at Aunt Hattie’s but Felice wanted to eat at a ‘niftier’ place, so they went to Nile Queen Restaurant on the Seventh Avenue (314). The interaction between Felice and Jake towards the end of the novel gives Felice a humane character, outside the immoral character of a typical African American prostitute. The normal relations between the prostitute and her customer do not constitute any form of friendship. The prostitutes are often dehumanized and seen only as sexual objects. Contrary to the stereotype, Felice, the prostitute in this case, is given a happy and joyful character. She is depicted as a human being capable of loving as opposed to the inhumane and immoral prostitute using her body as a commodity. She is somewhat an important part of Jake’s life even though she was first introduced to him as a sexual worker. Therefore, even though Felice conforms to the stereotype of the African American prostitute, McKay has presented her character differently, thus; hiving the readers the chance to understand her as a human being rather than just viewing her as a commodity like in the real life of African American prostitutes during the Harlem Renaissance. The main difference between the character of Felice and people in her position in the Harlem Renaissance is that her presence is enjoyed. She is viewed as an important person, at least to Jake’s life.
The role of Congo Rose has also been somewhat used to redefine the role of black women in the society during the Harlem Renaissance. Congo Rose was a black dancer at a night club, which is also not a very respectable role in the society. She was Jake’s lover when he was broke. He was uneducated and unable to secure a good job; hence, she took him under her wings. She manages to take care of him even though he is the man and she is the women. The African American community has always promoted the role of the man as the sole provider while the women are under the care of the men. However, the relationship between Congo Rose and Jake s different since he is the party in the relationship that is depicted as broke. Even though she is a nightclub dancer, her decision to take Jake in shows her as a strong African American woman who is capable of responsibility. As described in the previous part of the essay, the African American women in the society during the Harlem Renaissance played smaller roles n redefining black culture within their communities but they were not recognized. Congo Rose’s role in Jake’s life is an example of the little forgotten roles that the black women played in the society. Although small, this role contributes to the strengthening of the male character. In this case, Congo Rose caring for Jake helped to sustain him for a while when he was broke. McKay’s decision to include this part in the novel demonstrates her intention to acknowledge the work that African American women did in the society. Though not major, their role needs to be recognized as it also contributed to the successful re-imaging of the African American culture in this period.
Discussion and Conclusion
From the discussion presented above, it is clear that McKay managed to convert the character is Felice from a mere prostitute to a fully sexual to a figure of wholesome sexuality. She is presented as a person who is interesting and entertaining to be around rather than the stereotypical prostitute who is only available for sexual relations and nothing more. There are many factors that contributed to the generation of the respect that Felice is accorded in the novel. First, her action to refuse the payment by Jake was one of the main factors that made him feel like he wanted to find her again. He was broke and was not sure he had money for breakfast and coincidentally found that Felice had left behind the payment he had given. There are various factors of intersectionality that play a role in the relationship between Felice and Jake. First, the issue of class highly affects the interaction between the two. The fact that Jake was uneducated and unemployed affected his interactions with Felice. Her gesture to leave behind the money he had paid probably made such a great impact to him because of his lack of money. That was probably the only money he had hence, he felt happy that she did not take it. Felice’s character cannot be understood by just looking at her as a black woman who happens to be a prostitute. Her role in the society is much more important than what a typical description of a prostitute would show. She is like the symbol of Jake’s happiness. Throughout the novel, he is not completely happy until he is re-united with her. Similarly, the role of Congo Rose has been used to recognize the significant role that women played in the society in the Harlem renaissance. The promotion of the negative African American women’s stereotypes prevented the society from recognizing the positive roles that women played, no matter how small they were. The African American women, through the character of Congo Rose, are shown as responsible people who are capable of taking care of responsibilities in their life. It also shows how black women complemented the black men in their efforts to redefine the African American culture. In conclusion, McKay was successful in creating a different perception about the African American women. Their sexuality and hard work has been highlighted and presented in a positive light. Through the characters, one no longer views the black women as sexual commodities or women who are dependents on the benefits they get from the men.
Works Cited
Baker Jr, Houston A. Modernism and the Harlem renaissance. University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Brown Givens, Sonja M., and Jennifer L. Monahan. "Priming mammies, jezebels, and other controlling images: An examination of the influence of mediated stereotypes on perceptions of an African American woman." Media Psychology 7.1 (2005): 87-106.
Collins, Patricia Hill. "Gender, black feminism, and black political economy." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 568.1 (2000): 41-53.
Goeser, Caroline. Picturing the new Negro: Harlem Renaissance print culture and modern black identity. University Press of Kansas, 2007.
McKay, Claude. Home to Harlem. UPNE, 1928.
Wall, Cheryl A. Women of the Harlem renaissance. Indiana University Press, 1995.
Yuval-Davis, Nira. "Intersectionality and feminist politics." European Journal of Women's Studies 13.3 (2006): 193-209.
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