Your Career in Psychology

Introduction

Relationship Between Pica and Environmental Stimuli

Kern, Starosta, and Adelman (2006) experimented with examining whether there is any link between pica and environmental stimuli. A study that focused on reducing pica by teaching children to exchange inedible items for edible indicated that there was no direct link between pica and any environmental setting. Kern et al. (2006) experimented with two boys who exhibited developmental disabilities to examine the effect of ecological factors on pica. However, the study indicated that there was no association between pica and environmental contingencies. However, a further study that included interventions indicated a reduction in pica for both participants. Kern et al. (2006) reiterated that similar studies had recorded the absence of any significant relationship between pica and environmental factors or setting. However, they argued that intervention measures could contribute to the reduction of pica, mainly when the interventions are applied at an early age in which children’s behavior disorders could be easily influenced. Additionally, the scholars argued that despite having credible interventions to help in reducing pica, it remains prevalent since it has proved to be resistant to most treatment methods. Regarding treatment challenges, the researchers noted that it is not easy to identify interventions that exclusively reduce pica based on the role of automatic reinforcement and its maintenance, thus making it difficult to address adequately.

Kern et al. (2006) also cited that it has been challenging to identify intervention for pica due to other assumptions that there are no social consequences that are relative to its functions. Another reason behind the difficulties facing the identification of interventions is the hypothesis that the mediation must compete with a continuous schedule of reinforcement provided by automatic reinforcement. It is also argued that where there is no specific source of reinforcement, it is impossible to relate the intervention to the assessment information (Kern & Adelman, 2006). As a result, many interventions make use of default strategies like mechanical restraints, water mist, and physical restraint. Further, Kern et al. (2006) indicated that other studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of stimuli competition for reducing pica.

On the other hand, they alluded that some researchers have demonstrated that pica occurred across environmental conditions, as well as situations with no social consequences. Preference assessments revealed that participants engaged in the highest levels of interactions and the lowest level of pica when presented with oral stimulation items or food items. The studies made use of preference assessment (food items) indicated that there is a need for further research due to noncontingent access and reinforcement using food satiation. Other reasons cited as major contributing factors for inaccurate results include dietary balance, as well as the limited valuation of intervention effectiveness across all settings. In a nutshell, the interventions identified by Kern et al. (2006) successfully reduced pica in all participants and also replicated across multiple contexts in which the participants spent their time. Therefore, the above summary signifies that pica is not related to any environmental stimulus.

Impact of Social Reinforcement Pica

Moreover, the research claimed that deprivation could strengthen behaviors like physical exercise, sexual activity, and social interactions (Smith & Iwata, 1997). Many variables were identified as having a significant influence on pica. Emotional behaviors or emotional stimuli significantly elicit reflex responses, thus evoking responses that influence developmental operations (Smith & Iwata, 1997). Deprivation and satiation are affected by psychological factors, which are core components of antecedents though they do not impact the maintenance of pica (Smith & Iwata, 1997). The effects of the antecedent exercise were found to be specific to maladaptive behavior. Yet, it is not clear why the impact of antecedent behavior generalizes across all behaviors (Smith & Iwata, 1997). Problem behaviors treated by antecedent exercise can clarify the effects of antecedents and maladaptive behaviors (Smith & Iwata, 1997). Lastly, the use of the restraint method to treat severe behavior disorders, as well as protective devices to manage problem behaviors is common. However, consequences for problem behavior might be irrelevant to the effectiveness of antecedent control (Smith & Iwata, 1997).

Effects of Automatic Reinforcement on Pica

Call, Simmons, Mevers, and Alvarez (2015) found out that automatic reinforcement impacts pica. Call et al. (2015) indicated that pica is potentially deadly and self-injurious behavior. The study alluded that pica can decrease through the use of behavioral interventions. However, despite having found a high level of efficacy in the use of behavioral interventions, the overall success of the treatments is still not well-understood (Call & Alvarez, 2015). Further, Call et al. (2015) found out that behavioral interventions are incredibly effective treatments for pica. The differences in ages significantly influence how children consume a variety of items. For example, the study found out that some children with developmental disabilities consume a wide range of food products as opposed to others that consistently ingest specific items (Call & Alvarez, 2015). While examining the prevalence of pica in terms of gender, the study demonstrated that pica occurs across all gender, ages, races, geographic and economic status.

Moreover, the study also indicated that prevalence increases with the severity of the intellectual disability. This showed that pica is highly prevalent among children with developmental disabilities (Call & Alvarez, 2015). The reason behind high prevalence among individuals with developmental disabilities is due to high risk for many forms of problem behavior. According to Call et al. (2015), any single occurrence of pica would easily attribute to threatening medical consequences to the victims (Call & Alvarez, 2015). Apart from other dangerous problems associated with pica like blockage of intestine and perforation, it is also causing distress, nutritional deficiency, and constipation, among other medical issues. Other concerns include social stigmatization and inherent social isolation, thus leading to a lack of social contact (Call & Alvarez, 2015). In summary, the study held that behavioral interventions could highly reduce pica to rates of about zero occurrences.

Conclusion

Many factors influence the occurrence of pica and its maintenance. Though environmental factors have been widely mentioned in many works of literature, many scholars believed that emotional behaviors have significant effects on the maintenance of pica as opposed to environmental influence. The use of behavioral interventions, therefore, records high efficacy when it comes to the prevention of pica, as well as its maintenance. Though environmental stimulus does not show significant influence on pica, other factors such as social reinforcement might be affected by environmental impact. When treating this dangerous problem, it is necessary to take into consideration the evaluation of antecedents as it influences behavior disorders. Lastly, automatic reinforcement plays a significant role in behavioral treatments for pica; thus, it should be highly considered as the basis for treatment interventions for a behavioral disorder.

References

Call, N. A., & Alvarez, J. P. (2015). Clinical outcomes of behavioral treatments for pica in children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 2105-2114.

Kern, L. S., & Adelman, B. E. (2006). Reducing pica by teaching children to exchange inedible items for edibles. Behavior modification, 30(2), 135-158.

Smith, R. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1997). Antecedent influences on behavior disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(2), 343-375.