Literature review

Abstract

This paper includes a review of literature relating to the need for teacher and paraprofessional training in the area of function-based interventions (FBIs). The literature on the subject falls into three main categories: (1) Paraprofessionals lack necessary training in function-based interventions, (2) There is a gap in teacher training and implementation of function-based interventions, and (3) Pre-service teacher preparation in function-based assessments and interventions is limited. In general, the literature indicates that research studies support the conclusion that additional training is needed in FBI.

Keywords: behavior support plan, function-based assessment, function-based intervention, paraprofessionals, teachers

Function-Based Intervention: Do Teachers and Paraprofessionals Need Additional Training?

Special education law requires functional behavior assessments (FBAs) be used in developing behavior support plans (BSPs). Functional behavior assessments are also useful tools in the general education setting when students present challenging behaviors. A FBA is a method of determining factors that contribute to the development and maintenance of problem behaviors. This assessment then serves as a basis for developing BSPs, which are plans to assist in developing positive behaviors to replace or reduce the negative ones. With these in place, the function-based intervention (FBI) is an intervention individualized to a specific student and designed to meet his or her needs by addressing the reason(s) why he or she engages in a specific behavior and to replace the negative behavior with a more desirable one. Traditionally, function-based assessments are carried out by specialists such as school psychologists, behavior specialists, or even a special education teacher. However, there is a growing trend for all teachers to at least be familiar with conducting FBAs since they will likely be the ones involved in implementing the resulting FBIs (Eisner Hirsch, Kennedy, Haines, Newman Thomas, & Alves, 2015).

This literature review examines the need for additional teacher and paraprofessional training in function-based interventions. To discover literature on this subject, an extensive search of literature from 2012-2017 was conducted in the EBESCO and Google Scholar databases. Search terms included function-based assessment, function-based intervention, teacher training, paraprofessionals, and professional development. The guiding research question was:

1. Is there evidence for the need for additional teacher and paraprofessional training in function- based interventions?

Literature Review

An extensive review of the literature revealed three main themes, all of which supported the need for more training related to function-based assessments and function-based interventions. These themes were as follow: (1) Paraprofessionals lack necessary training in function-based interventions, (2) There is a gap in teacher training and implementation of function-based interventions, and (3) Pre-service teacher preparation in function-based assessments and interventions is limited.

Paraprofessionals Lack Necessary Training in Function-Based Interventions

Walker (2017) notes that paraprofessionals who work with students exhibiting challenging behavior are often the school personnel who are the least prepared in managing that behavior. Educational requirements for paraprofessionals are highly varied and in-service training opportunities are often not as prevalent as they are for teachers. To determine training needs specifically related to FBIs, Walker conducted a survey with paraprofessionals working with special education students in Virginia public schools. These paraprofessionals indicated a high need for training across ten domain areas associated with function-based interventions (29%-56%). In their roles assisting classroom teachers and working to provide necessary supports to students with disabilities, paraprofessionals need to be equipped with the tools to effectively deliver function-based interventions.

Walker and Snell (2017) point out that paraprofessionals often accompany students from class to class and are in a better position to consistently implement FBIs if trained properly to do so. Their research shows that in-service training with paraprofessionals can lead to improved implementation fidelity and in-turn improvements in student behavior. They provided training through workshops and individualized coaching to three paraprofessionals working with students diagnosed with autism and intellectual disabilities. Even though one of the study participants showed inconsistent fidelity (38% - 100%) in implementing the FBIs with her study student, the other two had a high level of fidelity. With the use of FBIs, the students with whom the paraprofessionals were working had a decrease in challenging behavior and an increase in desired behaviors compared to baseline data.

Providing paraprofessionals with needed training in FBIs can lead to changes in student behavior. Support from paraprofessionals in the classroom has been rising since the 1950’s due in part to the cost efficiency in delivering direct services to students with disabilities (Walker & Snell, 2017). These studies indicate a need for training these paraprofessionals in function-based interventions.

Gap in Teacher Training and Implementation of Function-Based Interventions

Implementing function-based interventions can be tricky for someone unfamiliar with them. Young and Martinez (2016) conducted a non-experimental research study to determine teacher perceptions on why students exhibit challenging behavior. The study determined the teachers’ familiarity with FBAs and FBIs. They found cause for concern that many of the teachers attributed the cause of challenging behavior to factors outside of the classroom and therefore beyond the control of the teacher. They also expressed concern that 50% of those surveyed did not understand the distinction between punishment and negative reinforcement. With the survey data, they indicated a clear need for training in FBA awareness and FBI at the classroom level.

Just as with Young and Martinez (2016), other research universally indicated a need for additional training but was split as to how far that training should extend. A portion of the body of research indicated a need for coaching as an extension of basic instruction and a portion left the need as met with simple instruction.

Need for Coaching in Addition to Workshops

Much of the research indicates a need for more than just an informational workshop or series. It calls for an application phase with coaching, either in person or through electronic communication. Bethune and Wood (2013) point out that teachers who have had a workshop or class in FBAs/FBIs but no practical experience are often unsure how to proceed and need additional support and/or training. They worked with four special education teachers to provide training in implementing function-based interventions through a workshop format. They collected baseline data on teacher FBI implementation and behavior of students identified for the study in specific settings and general settings prior to the workshop and again after the workshop. After coaching sessions, they again collected data. One teacher, who had previous FBA and FBI experience, did not require coaching as she had a high baseline score following the workshop. The other three showed significant increase in accurate implementation of FBIs as well as generalization to other settings with their target students following coaching sessions. The training alone did not yield as significant of an increase.

Young and Bauer-Yur (2013) describe another study involving coaching. This single-case study was part of a university level course with the study participant being a general education teacher taking a series of on-line courses and receiving feedback from the instructor regarding her application of the techniques learned. Through the additional training (coursework) she was successful in being able to conduct a function-based assessment and implement a successful function-based intervention that enabled her to redirect a student’s challenging behavior before it had the chance to escalate into something more disruptive.

A multi-phase study by Christensen, Renshaw, Caldarella, and Young, (2012) followed one general education teacher through training in function based support. There were four stages of training – increasing participant knowledge base through four one-hour training sessions, conducting an FBA, developing a behavior support plan (BSP), and implementing identified FBIs. Researchers provided consultation and feedback during each phase. Five educators began the study, but only one carried it through all four stages. Her results showed promise in that her knowledge increased, she was able to conduct a FBA, implement FBIs with fidelity, and the target student showed a decrease in challenging behavior. However, to generalize these findings, the study needs to be replicated across a broader range of participants.

One school district hired FBI coaches to work with educators as they implemented their interventions as part of an ongoing training process. The schools involved in the study by Lane, Oakes, Powers, Diebold, Germer, Common, and Brunsting (2015) were part of 22 school districts that contracted with one centralized district to administer all of their special and technical educational programming, thus providing centralized services but allowing students to remain in their neighborhood schools. Lane et al. (2015) conducted a four-day practice-based professional development on FBI with results that indicated that participants not only had a perceived increase in knowledge of the topic but had gained actual knowledge. Participants also worked in teams to design and implement FBI’s with a student at their respective schools and received coaching through each step of the process. Participants’ confidence in using FBI techniques increased measurably, and many of the participants were able to implement their interventions successfully with students identified in the study.

In an effort to improve teacher confidence in implementing behavior management interventions, Rock, Schoenfeld, Zigmond, Gable, Gregg, Ploessl, and Salter (2013) conducted research using Skype to provide real-time virtual coaching to 28 full time teachers who were enrolled in a graduate course to receive special education certification. Teachers were able to virtually connect with coaches when faced with challenging behavior situations and receive feedback on how they handled the situation. This research has implications for providing support to teachers located in areas challenged by lack of resource personnel or areas that are more remote.

Instructional FBI Training Without Coaching

Borgmeier, Loman, Hara, and Rodriguez, (2015) conducted multiple one-hour long training sessions in several different settings for a variety of educators plus graduate students seeking licensure in special education. Their study involved testing perceived and actual knowledge of FBI implementation through pre-and post-tests. They found a significant level of improvement in the participants’ ability to correctly identify FBIs in the vignettes provided. This study is limited in that it involved working with vignettes and was theoretical rather than involving actual application in working with students in actual situations. Nevertheless, it demonstrated that even simple training opportunities can be effective in elevating participants’ understanding of FBIs and how to apply them.

Another study that showed participants receiving training and then implementing successful FBIs without the aid of coaching is that conducted by Strickland-Cohen and Horner (2015). They provided four one-hour training sessions to educators who were already part of schools implementing school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS). Six of the thirteen educators in the first phase of the study continued to the second phase where they developed BSPs for students in their elementary schools. Five students returned paperwork to participate in the study and each showed a decrease in problem behaviors and an increase in academic engagement from baseline data after the implementation of the suggested FBIs. Even though the participants in this study came into it with what they considered a fair knowledge of behavioral supports, the research study showed clear deficiencies in their knowledge base which was remedied through the training sessions. This study supports the need for further training in this area.

Building on the previously cited study, Strickland-Cohen, Kennedy, Berg, Bateman, and Horner (2016), conducted a professional development session for 36 elementary and middle school professionals who also had previous training SWPBIS. The participants used a FBA to BSP training package with a manual, participated in six 1-hour training modules (incorporated into three 2-hour training sessions), and completed related activity assignments. Twenty-one of the participants completed at least one BSP in the 15 weeks following the training. While this study did not focus on the implementation of these plans, the researchers pointed out that by increasing the capacity within the district of personnel capable of conducting FBAs and developing BSPs, there would be more BSPs in place with a potential implication to increase the interventions (Strickland-Cohen et al., 2016).

Regardless of whether coaching is employed or not, each of these studies show that there is much that can be done to increase teacher knowledge and skill level related to function-based interventions. As Young and Martinez (2016) point out, if teachers are unclear as to why challenging behavior is occurring, they may inadvertently be taking action to reinforce the behavior. A basic knowledge of function-based assessments and of how to implement function-based interventions can reduce challenging behaviors before they become ingrained patterns of behavior or escalate to critical levels.

Pre-Service Teacher Preparation in FBAs and FBIs is Limited

With the 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) reaffirming that FBAs be conducted in certain situations, it is naturally part of teacher preparation courses. However, there appears to be a gap in knowledge and confidence level when it comes to application in the classroom. In fact, function based assessments were a practice identified by both general and special education teachers as one they felt least prepared to use (Gable, Tonelson, Sheth, Wilson, & Park, 2012). After conducting surveys with teachers working with students with emotional disorders about their level of preparedness, frequency of use, and rating of importance for evidence-based practices, Gable et al., (2012) determined that there was a definite need to make changes in teacher candidate training programs as well as in the in-service support provided to teachers.

Eisner Hirsch et al. (2015) suggest that just as teachers are employing new methods in the classroom to reach K-12 students, perhaps professors need to employ new strategies in preparing teacher candidates as well. They developed and tested podcast-type learning modules called CAPs to deliver instruction in function based assessments and interventions to teacher candidates at three universities. Control groups took the same course through the traditional classroom lecture approach with PowerPoint visuals and video clips. The researchers found that the CAP groups scored significantly higher on the delayed post-test than did the traditional control groups. They also cite the noteworthy limitation to this study in that it only tests knowledge gained and in no way shows how the teacher candidates can apply what they learned in a classroom setting.

With many teachers feeling unprepared in classroom management (Gable et al., 2012; Rock et al., 2013), Youngblom and Filter (2013) conducted a study to determine their ability to correctly identify functions of behavior through video vignettes. Forty-four percent of the 37 participants misidentified the function of the behaviors in one or more of the three vignettes. The researchers noted that participants had more difficulty determining when the function of behavior was escape. From the study, they concluded that if teachers are unable to accurately determine the function of the behavior, that they may be unable to intervene effectively when placed in a classroom setting.

Carrying forward the idea that more teacher preparation is needed in FBA and FBI, Gann and Kunnavatana (2016) conducted a research study with a first-time teacher with four weeks of teaching experience in a self-contained special education classroom. The teacher was referred for the study after requesting help from his principal and special education department chair because he was unprepared for how to manage behavior in his classroom. The first researcher conducted FBAs for each of the three students receiving services for emotional disturbance, created a classroom intervention plan and provided the teacher with training on how to implement it. They found that even with training, the teacher had significant difficulty implementing the classroom FBI and needed additional support from the researchers. Implications from this study are that behavioral intervention strategies may not be covered thoroughly in teacher candidate courses and new teachers may need additional professional development on the subject.

Discussion

Managing a classroom full of students is a daunting task. Add in a few students with challenging behaviors and the task becomes more daunting. Increasing the effectiveness of teachers and others within the school who can implement function-based interventions with fidelity as patterns of challenging behavior first emerge may reduce the number of more intensive supports needed in the long-term (Strickland-Cohen & Horner, 2015). This can happen through making changes in pre-service education, and in-service teacher and paraprofessional training. Teacher candidates, both in special education and general education, need a good understanding of FBAs and FBIs and need to be able to apply that knowledge in classroom situations. Paraprofessionals are a group with a large impact upon students. Many are assigned to work with a specific student who has a behavior support plan and would benefit greatly from training in function-based interventions (Walker & Snell, 2017). Research identifies this area as a training need. Lastly, with the ability to use FBIs successfully in the classroom, teachers can making the daunting task of classroom management a little more manageable. However, to do this, they need professional development support to hone their knowledge and skills in this area.

Pre-service education and in-service professional development are designed to bring about change, both in terms of an increase in knowledge or understanding and in terms of some sort of practice change. When focusing on providing training related to FBIs, the intended outcomes are that teachers and/or paraprofessionals will implement interventions that will reduce the occurrence of challenging behaviors and even promote desired outcomes.

Limitations of These Studies

Many of these studies are all relatively small in scale, ranging from a single case study (Christensen et al, 2012; Gann & Kunnavatana, 2016; Young & Bauer-Yur, 2013) to a group of less than 50 participants (Bethune & Wood, 2013; Lane et al., 2013; Rock et al., 2013; Strickland-Cohen et al., 2016; Strickland-Cohen & Horner, 2015; Walker & Snell, 2017; Youngblom & Filter, 2013). Whereas they indicate noteworthy results, they lack the scale to make broad generalization.

These studies all focused on interventions with students displaying mild to moderate challenging behavior. As that was the intended focus, they served their purpose in that regard, but the findings cannot be transferred to situations where the behavior is more severe. Another limitation is that none of the studies involved a follow-up with those trained to capture data on retention of skills.

Conclusions and Further Study

The question guiding this research was, “Is there evidence for the need for additional teacher and paraprofessional training in function- based interventions?” A review of the literature indicates that there is a need for additional training for paraprofessionals, for in-service teachers, and in teacher candidate programs. This training may help teachers feel more confident in carrying out FBIs with students in their classrooms. With the added feeling of efficacy, they may even be able to address problem situations earlier and create a more positive outcome for all involved (Young & Bauer-Yur, 2013).

Further study may involve broadening the scale of the research where economics and practicality allow. Additionally, an added component involving teacher maintenance of skills and FBI treatment fidelity an extended period of time following training may be valuable. This follow-up data may be difficult to collect since the teacher may not be working with the same student six months or a year following the initial training, but data could be collected on the teacher’s ability to implement new FBIs with fidelity using the skills and knowledge previously learned.

References

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