Global Foundation of Public Administration

Writing Literature Reviews Overview This packet introduces the process of planning, researching and drafting a literature review. As part of this focus, it discusses how to read sources critically and write reviews that place these sources in the context of their fields by developing an annotated bibliography. This packet will also suggest a variety of organizational patterns for literature reviews and address some major revision concerns and methods for citing sources appropriately. Goals

1. To help you understand the functional purpose and requirements of an effective literature review. 2. To help you critically assess research materials. 3. To develop strategies for inventing, organizing, and drafting a literature review. 4. To help you cite sources appropriately.

A Note About This Workshop and The Graduate Writing Center Please note that our series of graduate workshops on writing are designed to address general writing principles. As a result, you may not find information in this packet or during the workshop that is directly relevant to your field or your current study. The best way to view these workshops is as opportunities to be exposed to general skills that should transfer across disciplines. That means attending these workshops is not a substitute for reading extensively in your field and asking questions of advisors and peers. The Graduate Writing Center provides free one-on-one peer consultations and interactive workshops for Penn State graduate students of all disciplines and all levels of writing ability at any stage of the writing process across a range of genres: presentations, seminar papers, theses, dissertations, article manuscripts, professional documents, etc. Our consultations focus on principles of composition and strategies for enabling writers to independently improve their writing. While we will not “correct” papers or proofread, we are happy to answer any questions that you have about your work. Scheduling an appointment with a Graduate Writing Center consultant is an excellent way to follow up on the practical information you receive during our workshops. Please note that the appointment schedule is posted one week in advance (Friday at 4PM) and appointments book quickly. To learn more about the Graduate Writing Center or to sign up for an appointment using our online schedule, visit gwc.psu.edu.

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What is a Literature Review? A literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that you are carrying out. Think of the topic in terms of a conversation.

Although literature reviews share distinctive features across disciplines, your approach to them will change depending upon where you are in the writing process, upon who your audience is, and upon whether you are writing one as a standalone essay or as introductory matter for a larger article.

Purposes of a Literature Review ● Provides background information on the topic in the scholarly conversation ● Establishes importance of topic to the scholarly conversation ● Demonstrates your familiarity with the scholarly conversation ● “Carves out a space” for further work and allows you to position yourself in the scholarly

conversation

Characteristics of an Effective Literature Review In addition to fulfilling the purposes outlined above, an effective review offers a functional overview of existing research by:

● Outlining important research trends in the conversation ● Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing research ● Identifying potential gaps in knowledge ● Establishing a need for current and/or future research projects

Steps (or Strategies) of the Literature Review Process 1. Planning: identify the focus, type, scope and discipline of the review you intend to write. 2. Reading and Research: collect and read current research on your topic. Select only those

sources that are most relevant to your project. 3. Analyzing: summarize, synthesize, critique, and compare your sources in order to assess the

field of research as a whole. 4. Finding the Big Picture: consider the overall picture that emerges. 5. Organizing: structure the information. 6. Drafting: develop a thesis or claim to make about the existing research and decide how to

organize your material. 7. Revising: revise and finalize the paper’s structural, stylistic, and grammatical issues.

This process is not always linear. Depending on the size and scope of your literature review, you may find yourself returning to some of these steps repeatedly as you develop your project.

STEP 1: Planning: What Kind of Literature Review Am I Writing? As you plan to write your review, you’ll need to begin by asking: What kind of review am I writing? What are the focus, type, scope, and discipline of my review?

● Focus: What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review is responding to or defining?

● Type: What type of review am I conducting? Will my review emphasize theory, methodology, policy, or qualitative or quantitative studies?

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● Scope: What is the scope of material I will include in terms of date, discipline, forms, etc.? What type of sources will I be using?

● Discipline: What academic discipline(s) will be included (e.g. Nursing, Psychology, Sociology, Medicine)? Remember interdisciplinary work has to account for field differences in acceptable courses of research.

EXERCISE: Planning a Literature Review 1. What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review is defining or

responding to?

2. What type of literature review am I conducting (theory; methodology; policy; quantitative; qualitative)?

3. What is the scope of my literature review (date, discipline, forms, etc)? What types of sources am I using?

4. What field(s) am I working in? (Remember, interdisciplinary work has to account for field differences in acceptable sources of research.)

STEP 2: Reading and Research: What Material Will I Use? Collecting and reading current research on your topic may entail several steps:

1. Collect and Read Material: Collect literature relevant to your topic that fits within the focus, type, and discipline you have chosen for your review. Use databases, bibliographies, and recommendations from advisors to identify source material. Read the sources carefully enough to understand their main arguments and relevance to your study.

2. Summarize: Once you have read your source material, consider writing a brief summary of the text that answers the following questions:

a. Who is the author? b. What is the author's main purpose? c. What is the author’s theoretical perspective? Research methodology? d. Who is the intended audience? e. What is the principal point, conclusion, thesis, contention, or question?

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f. How is the author’s position supported (or not)? g. How does this study relate to other studies of the problem or topic? h. What does this study add to your project? i. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s work? Will your work address any

of the weaknesses identified?

3. Organize an Annotated Bibliography: List the readings in short paragraphs based on the questions in 2 with correct citations, e.g.,

Barthelemy, J., & Geyer, D. (2005). An empirical investigation of IT outsourcing versus outsourcing in France and Germany. Information & Management, 42, 533-542. doi:10.1016/j.im.2004.02.005 The authors present an investigation of IT outsourcing based on the combined results of a survey administered to IT firms as well as statistical measures from domestic and French or German firms. Their data covers a wide range of IT business unit types. However, the lack of longitudinal data weakens their conclusion that the slower pace of French and German IT outsourcing has had a positive effect on business in those countries long-term.

**Please note: These annotated bibliography summaries will not get incorporated into your final literature review. Their purpose is to help you clarify your understanding of what each text is arguing and what approach(es) the author(s) uses.**

4. Select: Your next step is to sort through your summaries and select only those books and articles that are most relevant to your project. Resist the temptation to incorporate everything you have read – this will make the task harder.

STEP 3: Analyzing: How Can I Assess Existing Research? A literature review is never just a list of studies—it always offers an argument about a body of research. In other words, an annotated bibliography is not a lit review. Your lit review needs to balance summary and analysis. This analysis occurs on two levels: individual studies and the field as a whole. These four tasks—common analytical patterns—will help you analyze the existing research in your field:

Summary and Synthesis In your own words, summarize and/or synthesize the key findings relevant to your study. Consider the following questions about the field as a whole:

● What do we know about the immediate area? ● What are the key arguments, key characteristics, key concepts or key figures? ● What are the existing debates/theories? ● What common methodologies are used?

Tasks of Literature Review

Summarize Synthesize Critique Compare

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Sample Language for Summary and Synthesis: ● Normadin has demonstrated… ● Early work by Hausman, Schwarz, and Graves was concerned with… ● Elsayed and Stern compared algorithms for handling… ● Additional work by Karasawa et. al, Azadivar, and Parry et. al deals with…

Example of Summary and Synthesis: Under the restriction of small populations, four possible ways [to avoid premature convergence] were presented. The first one is to revise the gene operators…. Griffiths and Miles applied advanced two-dimensional gene operators to search the optimal cross-section of a beam and significantly improve results. The second way is to adjust gene probability. Leite and Topping adopted a variable mutation probability and obtained an outperformed result…

Comparison and Critique Compare and critique articles to establish the strengths and weakness of your field of research. Note that you may not recognize strengths and weaknesses until you have read widely in your subject and begin to see which studies are stronger. As you compare studies, you’ll begin to be able to offer critique. Consider the following questions:

● How do the different studies relate? What is new, different, or controversial? ● What views need further testing? ● What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradicting, or too limited? ● What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?

Sample Language for Comparison and Critique: ● In this ambitious but flawed study, Jones and Wang … ● These general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those

reported by Rosenblatt and Roll…

Examples of Comparison and Critique: The critical response to the poetry of Phillis Wheatley often registers disappointment or surprise. Some critics have complained that the verse of this African American slave is insecure (Collins 1975, 78), imitative (Richmond 1974, 54-66), and incapacitated (Burke 1991, 33, 38)—at worst, the product of a “White mind” (Jameson 1974, 414-15). Others, in contrast, have applauded Wheatley’s critique of Anglo-American discourse (Kendrick 1993, 222-23), her revision of literary models…

The situationist model has also received its share of criticism. One of the most frequently cited shortcomings of this approach centers on the assumption that individuals enter into the work context tabula rasa.

Analyzing through Language: Evaluative Adjectives and Verbs In order to effectively articulate your critique or synopsis, you will want to use evaluative adjectives and reporting verbs. Remember that a critique can be positive, neutral (functional) or negative; what the reader wants from you is your assessment of the available literature or scholarly conversation on the topic.

Evaluative Adjectives unusual small simple exploratory limited restricted flawed complex competent important innovative impressive useful careful

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Common Verbs in the Social Sciences (note the past tense) acknowledged confirmed granted reasoned added contended hypothesized refuted admitted continued illustrated rejected argued declared implied replied asserted denied insisted reported believed described noted responded claimed disputed noticed showed commented emphasized observed studied compared explained pointed out suggested concluded found proposed wrote

Common Verbs in the Humanities (note the present tense and the more value-laden words) argue analyze believe claim compare comment concede conclude criticize define demonstrate describe discuss dispute estimate evaluate illustrate indicate investigate observe point out predict recognize report show state stipulate suggest validate verify

STEP 4: Finding the Big Picture: Putting it all Together Once you have summarized, synthesized, critiqued, and compared the relevant literature, you will have to consider the overall picture that emerges. What kinds of common threads do you see? What kinds of conversations are scholars having about your topic? Ask yourself whether the studies you’ve identified:

● Demonstrate the topic’s chronological development. ● Show different approaches to the problem. ● Show an ongoing debate. ● Center on an influential study or studies. ● Demonstrate a “paradigm shift.”

Your literature review as a whole should demonstrate both what scholars in your field know about your topic – and what they do not know. After assessing the literature in your field, you should be able to answer the following questions:

● Why should we (further) study this topic? ● What will my study contribute?

EXERCISE: Evaluating a Sample Review Read the following short review and answer the questions that follow.

My study of the debate over the effects of sugar on health finds new research claims it is difficult to draw a strong connection between sugar and deteriorating health conditions.

Bresler (1977) finds that there was no substantial evidence directly linking sugar to the three diseases mentioned in the article (dental diseases, diabetes and coronary heart disease). However, the

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author qualifies his point stating that researchers are very concerned with this topic and it will be a continuous topic for further experiments.

Lustig, Schmidt, and Brandis (2012) on the other hand, are much more conclusive about this issue. Their study illustrated that sugar is an addictive additive that is most similar to alcohol, and therefore should be addressed with interventions that resemble the ones used to persuade the public away from alcohol and drugs.

1. How well does the following review balance summary and analysis? (Refer to the questions under “summary and synthesis” and “comparison and critique” to help you assess this review).

2. How is the review organized?

3. Is it a good literature review? Why or why not?

STEP 5: Organization: How Will I Structure What I Write? One of the most difficult parts of drafting a literature review is deciding how to organize the information you have accumulated. Organizing your literature review according to themes, methodologies, and/or underlying concepts is generally more effective than presenting each source one by one, as it demonstrates your mastery of the topic and provides readers with a better sense of the state of research in that field. Some common organizational patterns follow.

Topical ▪ Characteristics: This approach breaks the field into a number of subfields, subject areas, or

approaches, and discusses them one by one, sometimes with critiques of each. (Most common pattern).

▪ Typical language: Three important areas of this field have received attention: A, B, and C. A has been approached from two perspectives . . . . The most important developments in terms of B have been . . . . C has also been an important area of study in this field.

▪ Example: Three important aspects of this field have received extended critical attention: 1) length of time students spend on writing literature reviews, 2) the amount of revision typically required by thesis advisors, and 3) the extent to which highlighters help or hinder the review process.

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Distant to Close ▪ Characteristics: This is a variation of organization by approach; studies are organized in terms of

their relevance to the current study. This approach starts by describing studies with general similarities and ends with studies most relevant to the specific topic.

▪ Typical language: Method/model M (slightly similar to current research) addresses . . . . Drawing upon method/model N (more similar to current research) can help . . . . This study applies the procedure used in method/model O (most similar to current research) to . . . .

▪ Example: Sociological studies of human bonds have studied marriage, friendship, and the family, but few have theorized that which links these different types of relations: intimacy…Those who have developed theories of intimacy which take multiple different types of relations into account generally focus on how intimacy works for a particular gender or age group… There are two significant projects (Peacock 2006 and Lawrence 2015) which consider how intimacy works for those of different ages and genders across a variety of relation types… My study will build upon Peacock and Lawrence’s work by…

Debate ▪ Characteristics: Also an organization by approach, with a chronological element. This

organization emphasizes various strands of research in which proponents of various models openly criticize one another.

▪ Typical language: There have been two (three, four, etc.) distinct approaches to this problem. The first model posits . . . The second model argues that the first model is wrong for three reasons. Instead, the second model claims . . .

▪ Example: There have been two (or three, etc.) distinct approaches to this field. The first model (commonly referred to as the Smith proposition) posits that students are reasonably good at predicting the length of time it will take them to write a literature review. This point of view was first taken by Smith (1910), who found that students underestimated the time required for the task by only 3%. Confirmation of Smith (1910) was found in Jones (1935), Horowitz (1997), Timothy and Hyperion (1980), with little variation. Notably, Horowitz correlated the accuracy of students’ perceptions with their advisors’ predictions and found that when advisors overestimate by more than 10% students also overestimate by more than 10%. Left on their own, however, Horowitz (1997) found that students could estimate the time required with great accuracy, usually within 2.5% in either direction.

The second model, called the poor predictions model (PPM), has criticized the Smith proposition on the basis that all students involved in Smith’s early study, and in the studies that replicate them, were students in the humanities or liberal arts. Proponents of PPM have showed that when the mix is between students in engineering and the humanities, the accuracy of students’ predictions falls drastically, with students underestimating the time required by an average of 27% in Yakov (1975) and as much as 63% in Hughes (1994).

Chronological ▪ Characteristics: This approach lists studies in terms of chronological development; it is most

useful when a field shows clear development over time. ▪ Typical language: This subject was first studied by X, who found . . . . In (date), Y

modified/extended/contradicted X’s work by . . . . Today, research by Z represents the current state of the field.

▪ Example: The first set of criteria, proposed by Hoehn and Yahr in 1967, was modified by Marttila and Rinne in 1976. They suggested that term idiopathic PD in the presence of two or more of the cardinal symptoms: resting tremor, rigidity, hypokinesia, and impaired postural reflexes. As a prerequisite, essential tremor has to be ruled out.… In 1985, Schoenberg et al. proposed the terms probable and possible PD based on additional exclusion criteria, such as drug-induced syndromes and parkinsonian symptoms due to other diseases. Calne et al. added the category clinically definite idiopathic parkinsonism, which required three of the four cardinal symptoms originally listed or alternatively, two of these, with one displaying asymmetry.

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Influential Study ▪ Characteristics: Begins with a detailed description of one extremely important study. Later work

is organized following another pattern (chronological, topical, etc.). ▪ Typical language: The most important research on this topic was the study by X in (date).

Following X’s study, research fell into two camps (extended X’s work, etc.). ▪ Example: The most important research on this topic was Smith (1910). It established the basic facts on

the topic and serves as the source of much of the future research and hypotheses. Smith (1910) studied 374 graduate students in English at 14 universities in the Northeast. He used the Smith Writing Time Estimate Inventory (SWTE) to obtain prior estimates of the time required to write a literature review for a dissertation. He then observed students writing literature reviews under controlled laboratory conditions. Students wore electronic monitors that determined when they were daydreaming, so that those time periods could be eliminated from the actual performance time (APT). When comparing the estimated time (EPT) to the APT, Smith (1910) found that students overestimate the time required by 3%.

Following Smith (1910), studies on the subject either merely replicated Smith (1910) (Jones 1917, Yakov 1940, Dubrov 1967) or extended Smith’s (1910) inquiry by comparing students’ EPT to advisors’ EPT (Hardwik 1978), by adding engineering students to the study (Hughes 1994), or by eliminating the daydream monitors (Crawford 1972). All these studies offered findings that reinforced those of Smith (1910).

EXERCISE: Organizing a Literature Review The following facts are taken from the literature review section of a published article about the length of time it takes students to write and revise literature reviews. Pretend that these are your own notes on relevant sources. Using one or more of the organizational strategies we have discussed, arrange, summarize, synthesize, compare, and/or critique the evidence below to form a meaningful narrative. Make sure you provide framing sentences and transitions to remind your reader what your main points are and to walk them through your narrative.

Example Sentences (1) Downs (1980) found that advisors required a maximum of 10 drafts of a literature review (2) Thomas (1981) noted that most students have to draft their literature review at least twice. (3) In terms of total time, Horowitz found that the average number of hours spent on a literature

review is 22.6 hours. (4) Down (1980) has asserted that advisors require students to write at least two drafts of the

literature review. (5) Thomas (1981) found that advisors required a maximum of 14 drafts of a literature review. (6) In a study of Harvard Divinity School, Smith (1910 found that students spent an average of 21.8

hours writing literature reviews (7) In Hyperion (1997) the highest number of revisions required of a student was 74. (8) Hyperion (1997) has concluded that advisors always require at least two drafts of a literature

review. (9) Xie (1994) determined that advisors in social science fields require on average 2 or more

revisions than advisors in engineering or biological sciences, with some engineering advisors requiring only one revision.

Now, compare your narratives to the original narratives (below) and answer the following questions with your group. What is different about your narratives? What is the same? What is more effective? Less effective? Is there anything you would change about your narrative after having read these? Is there anything you would change about these narratives after having written your own?

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Example #1 – Topical with Debate Ending The first of these subjects, the length of time students spend on writing literature reviews, has been

studied both in terms of total time and in terms of time spent reading as considered separately from the time spent writing. In terms of total time, Horowitz found that the average number of hours spent on literature review is 22.6 hours. This is very close to the finding of Smith (1910), who in a study of Harvard Divinity School found an average of 21.8 hours.

The second major issue in this field, the amount of revision typically required by thesis advisors, has received more complete study. Down (1980), Thomas (1981), and Hyperion (1997) have concluded that advisors always require two drafts of a literature review. In terms of the high end of the spectrum, these studies vary in their findings. Downs (1980) found a maximum of 10 drafts, and Thomas (1981) found a maximum of 14, while the highest number of revisions required by a student in Hyperion (1997) was 74. These studies have all been challenged by Xie (1994), which determined that advisors in social science fields require on average 2 or more revisions than advisors in engineering or biological sciences, with some engineering advisors requiring only one revision.

Example #2 - Chronological This subject was first studied by Smith (1910), which found that graduate students writing literature

reviews took much longer to complete than their initial estimates. In 1955, this finding was contradicted] by Jones (1955), who found that graduate students were able to write literature reviews in just about exactly the amount of time they predicted. After the influx of large numbers of students in 1960s, Harbour and Timon (1967) took a different approach to the problem, triangulating the students’ estimates of how long the task should take with their advisors’ estimates. They argued that the congruence of the advisor’s estimate with the student’s estimate had a direct correlation to the accuracy of the student’s estimate. Today, Young (1990) and Horowitz (1997) represent the current state of thinking on this question. Young has confirmed Harbour and Timon (1970), while adding that earlier studies likely yielded different results because of the differences among graduate students early in the century and post-World War II. Horowitz’s synthetic study offers further confirmation of Young (1990).

STEP 6: Drafting: What Am I Going to Write? As you begin to write your paper, you will want to consider the following elements:

● Thesis Statement: offer an argument about the existing literature. ● Introduction and conclusion: consider how you will introduce readers to your topic and provide

closure to your paper. o Exigency: explain why your topic is currently important to scholarship. You may also

want to indicate how this study/literature review contributes to the existing scholarly conversation.

o Organization: arrange your material in a logical fashion to support your major claim. ● Citations: integrate citations smoothly and appropriately into your draft.

Thesis Statement Your thesis statement offers an argument about the literature. It may:

● Offer an argument and critical assessment of the literature (i.e., topic + claim). ● Provide an overview of current scholarly conversations. ● Point out gaps or weaknesses in the literature. ● Relate the literature to the larger aim of the study.

Examples of Thesis Statements: 1) In spite of these difficulties we believe that preservice elementary art teachers and classroom teachers need

some knowledge of stage theories of children’s development…[then reviews theories of development]

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2) Research on the meaning and experience of home has proliferated over the past two decades, particularly within the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, psychology, human geography, history, architecture and philosophy. Many researchers now understand home as a multidimensional concept and acknowledge the presence of and need for multidisciplinary research in the field. However, with the exception of two exemplary articles by Després (1991) and Somerville (1997), few have translated this awareness into genuinely, interdisciplinary studies of the meaning of home.

3) Polyvalency refers to the simultaneous binding of multiple ligands on one entity to multiple receptors on another. Polyvalent interactions are ubiquitous in nature, with examples including the attachment of viruses to target cells, bacteria to cells, cells to other cells, and the binding of antibodies to pathogens. . . . In this article, I review recent developments in polyvalency and discuss the numerous opportunities for chemical engineers to make contributions to this exciting field, whose applications include drug discovery, tissue engineering, and nanofabrication.

4) In this article, we review and critique scholarship on place-based education in order to consider the ingredients of a critical place-based pedagogy for the arts and humanities. . . We begin by reviewing ecohumanism's call for a more locally responsive education in light of the marginalization of place and community…

Introducing Your Literature Review The main tasks of an introduction are to:

● Indicate scope of the literature review. ● Provide some background to the topic. ● Demonstrate the importance or need for research. ● Make a claim. ● Offer an overview/map of the ensuing discussion.

Example of an Introductory Paragraph: There is currently much controversy over how nonhuman primates understand the behavior of other animate beings. On the one hand, they might simply attend to and recall the specific actions of others in particular contexts, and therefore, when that context recurs, be able to predict their behavior (Tomasello & Call, 1994, 1997). On the other hand, they might be able to understand something of the goals or intentions of others and thus be able to predict others’ behaviors in a host of novel circumstances. Several lines of evidence (e.g., involving processes of social learning; Tomasello, 1997) and a number of anecdotal observations (e.g., Savage-Rumbaugh, 1984) have been adduced on both sides of the question, but few studies directly address the question: Do nonhuman primates understand the intentions of others?

[As you can see, this paragraph does not satisfy all of the requirements for an introduction, but it begins to by providing background, quickly mapping out the scholarly discussion surrounding the topic, indicating what the scope of the review will be, and creating a space for the author to make his/her central claim and outline the discussion to follow in the next paragraph.]

Conclusion The main tasks of a conclusion are to:

● Summarize the main findings of your review. ● Provide closure. ● Explain “so what?” ● State implications for future research or connections to the current study.

Example of a Conclusion: In summary, although there is some suggestive evidence that chimpanzees may understand others’ intentions, there are also negative findings (e.g., Povinelli et al., 1998) and a host of alternative explanations. As a

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consequence, currently it is not clear whether chimpanzees (or other nonhuman primates) distinguish between intentional and accidental actions performed by others. In contrast, there are several studies indicating that children as young as 14 months of age have some understanding of others’ intentions, but the lack of comparative studies makes it difficult to know how children compare to apes. This study is the first to directly compare children, chimpanzees, and orangutans with the use of a nonverbal task in which the subjects were to discriminate between the experimenter’s intentional and accidental actions.

Citations Finally, a successful literature review will not consist simply of a string of linked quotes or paraphrases. Over-reliance on the author’s words or ideas suggests “book report” instead of “analytical review.” Your goal is to synthesize your summary of a source’s ideas with your own opinions and comments on the source material.

Basic rule for citation: If it’s not your own idea (and it’s not common knowledge), document it!

Some Tips on Appropriate Citations: ● In general, you should paraphrase (restate in your own words) the author’s main ideas. In order

to appropriately paraphrase, your sentence cannot replicate the word choice or sentence structure of the original.

● Use direct quotations sparingly. You may use them to call attention to terms or phrases that have specific resonance in your field, or when the language of the quotation is particularly powerful.

● If you do use a quotation, make sure you introduce the quote and/or explain its significance so that readers understand how the quotation adds to your argument.

● Because a literature review is a review of other people’s ideas, it is crucial that you use appropriate in-text citation and complete references. Be sure to follow whichever style guide is standard for your field (APA, Chicago, MLA, etc.).

● Keep accurate citation records of your sources as you read and compile your notes; this will make your final task of integrating quotations and providing appropriate citations much easier.

EXERCISE: Identifying and Correcting Problematic Citations Read the two models of appropriate citations, and then identify the problems with the three samples. Try to correct the samples. Using a Quotation Despite pleasant depictions of home life in art, the fact remains that for most seventeenth-century Dutch women, the home represented a curtailment of some degree of independence. Art historian Laurinda Dixon writes that “for the majority of women, however, home was a prison, though a prison made bearable by love and approval” (1995, p. 136).

Using a Paraphrase or Summary Despite pleasant depictions of home life in art, the fact remains that for most seventeenth-century Dutch women, the home represented a curtailment of some degree of independence. Art historian Laurinda Dixon argues that the home actually imprisoned most women. She adds that this prison was made attractive by three things: the prescriptions of doctors of the day against idleness, the praise given diligent housewives, and the romantic ideal based on love and respect (1995, p. 136).

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Samples: 1. Despite pleasant depictions of home life in art, the fact remains that for most seventeenth-century

Dutch women, home was a prison, though a prison made bearable by love and approval.

2. In painting, images of caged birds were often associated with the bonds of marriage or the voluntary imprisonment of love. Somewhat ironically, Dixon notes that the “image of the fragile, passive, housebound woman has always been a reflection more of male wish fulfillment than of female reality” (3).

3. In some quarters, seventeenth-century Dutch women were accorded considerable respect. “Beverwijck solves the dichotomy between the public and private woman’s role by lauding the superior qualities of women that make them not only capable rulers, artists and savants, but also good daughters, wives, and mothers” (Moore, 1994, p. 642).

Step 7: Revising: How Can I Fine-Tune my Draft? These questions are not a substitute for sharing your work with peers, professors, or advisors. Because they are fairly general and broad, these questions are also not a substitute for thoughtful and thorough revision, focused editing, and careful proofreading of your draft. However, they can act as an initial set of considerations to guide your first revision.

● Title: Is my title consistent with the content of my paper? ● Introduction: Do I appropriately introduce my review? ● Thesis: Does my review have a clear claim? ● Body: Is the organization clear? Have I provided headings? ● Topic sentences: Have I clearly indicated the major idea(s) of each paragraph? ● Transitions: Does my writing flow? ● Conclusion: Do I provide sufficient closure? ● Spelling and Grammar: Are there any major spelling or grammatical mistakes?

More tips on revising and citing can be found at: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/ 561/1/

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EXERCISE: Analyzing a Sample Literature Review Read the review, and then answer the questions that follow.

The first time the public had access to newspapers was in 59 B.C. when the Acta Diurna became the first published newspaper (Bellis, n.d.). Today there are a variety of types of technology that give readers alternate access to the news. Social networks such as Facebook and Twitter are becoming more a part of the media today. According to Pew Research (2010) “the Internet has surpassed newspapers in terms of popularity as a news platform and ranks just behind television.” Itai Himelboim and Steve McCreery (2012) researched the relationship news media had with their audience through consuming content, influencing content or how the content is passed beyond the news site, which is where social networks come in. Himelboim and McCreery (2012) found that social networking features are a relatively new aspect to news media but are being utilized by news sites. Social networks as a news source is a realistic way to receive news in today’s world and according to Sounman Hong (2012) regardless of the growing use of social networks by the news industry, not a lot of studies have looked at the impact of news as an online industry. Seeing as social networks in the media is a relatively new thing and little research has been conducted on the relationship, my research is prevalent. I will ask the important question about the relationship between social networks as a news source and how much information reader’s gain and retain from it.

Many news companies use social networks to spread their news. Cha, Benevenuto, Haddadi and Gummadi (2012) pointed out how high-profile news companies such as BBC and CNN have turned to Twitter as another source for their readers because of how popular Twitter is as a social network. In a survey conducted by Pew Research (2010) 33% of cell phone users read news postings on their phones, and 37% of Internet users spread news content via postings on Facebook and Twitter. According to Pew research (2010) a motivation for media organizations to use websites and online access as a source for news is due to a decline in readership and revenue due to Internet growth, and to retain readers and users many media organizations have turned to alternate mediums. Coyle (2010) did state however that some companies such as The Huffington Post have evolved and partnered with Facebook and Twitter by connecting their internet news sites with these social networks. There is however a gap in the research, Pew says above that not many (33%-37%) use social networks as frequently as the news industries assume. News companies continue to invest time and money into a system they do not get any income from. My research will help the news industry adjust their news marketing with a better understanding of how much readers retain from getting news from social networks. Readers might only be seeing headlines and personal comments when using social networks because it is fast and easy and perhaps that is what is so appealing to social network users, which would explain the change towards a technology approach in the news.

With this shift towards social networks as a media source, there have been some negatives, for example Himelboim and McCreery (2012) noted how news companies receive no advertisement revenue from posting news stories on social networks. So while their income is hurt due to a heavy following on social networks instead of newspapers and such, it does not improve based off of posting on the popular social networks resource. Himelboim and McCreery (2012) also specified how the economic level of a country determined the amount of interaction they had with social networks. They stated how rich countries are expected to use social networks and resources similar to them as a news

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source because more readers have access to it. This reliance on the economic standing of a country results in changes is the motivations of companies in the news industry to either be or not to be concerned with news in social networks. It is just a matter of logistics to have a beneficial outcome for news companies to use social networks to their best ability.

In regards to reader usage of social networks as a news source, that only seems to be increasing with or without it being beneficial to the news industry. According to Emmett (2009) companies like The New York Times have recognized this and its social media marketing is essential for circulating news online. Himelboim and McCreery (2012) said that the primary reason for readers to use social networks as part of news access is because of the ability social networks have to share stories with friends by tagging or re-tweeting news posts. According to Cha, Benevenuto, Haddadi and Gummadi (2012) this is a key element to the survival and reason behind social networks role and use in the news. Cha et al. (2012) studied three different types that use social networks like Twitter, one of the groups being mass media. Their claim was that mass media have a lot of followers due to the topical advantage to collect opinions of others as well as tweets reaching a large audience without the involvement of other influential users like politicians. Himelboim and McCreery (2012) recognized how technological applications of media can serve as a social role and provide information on a wide range of issues with people’s perspectives attached.

There have been studies done about how the added element of people’s opinions on Twitter and Facebook influence public reaction to big news stories. More specifically Utz, Schultz and Glocka (2012) studied the relationship between crisis communications from the media on social networking sites. Utz, Schultz and Glocka (2012) stated that crisis communication through Twitter and Facebook lead to fewer secondary crisis reactions compared to newspapers. This means that there was essentially less of a domino effect of reaction and panic when the media used Twitter and Facebook as a resource for crisis announcements. Their study provided and answer to questions about how people’s opinions effect what readers receive as fact or fiction. Ulz, Schultz and Glocka (2012) made discoveries that said news postings on social networks like Facebook and Twitter were taken seriously and for the majority peoples added personal opinions did not make readers confuse fact with invention.

In the end Himelboim and McCreery acknowledged that social newtworks bring something extra to the media. Himelboim and McCreery (2012) said social network involvement would “break the historical one-way communication flow, as they allow audiences to influence content presented on the site.” Cha et al. (2012) stated how if mass media is involved in Twitter people can not only share ideas but with mass media having their own facts streaming on Twitter, no politicians or other people are able to be the only ones putting information on social networks. Pew Research (2010) gave facts on how many people actually use Facebook and Twitter as a news source and it was surprisingly low compared to what I predicted for my study. The low user numbers in the Pew survey do however contradict the facts from the other articles about how news companies are integrating more and more with social networks and what kind of extra benefits come from that for the reader. My critical question does not just recalculate how many people use Facebook and Twitter as a news source like the Pew survey does, but my research will also analyze if readers are really retaining information from these social networks. These Findings will either prove or disprove the findings that social networks are playing an important role in the news world as mentioned in the articles referred to above. This is why my research is important because it expands on the numbers of users and theories about why people use social

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networks, it will provide results on if readers are retaining anything from social networks or if in fact the old fashioned newspaper is the best resource.

Analysis Questions

Is there are clear organizational structure (topical, debate, chronological study)? Does it have a clear thesis? Does it explain the pattern, how it fits the thesis, and why it fits?

How might you think of this review as a story? In other words, how is the way the topic is being presented a plot for the story? Who are the actors? What are the things that happened?

How effective is the conclusion? How does the writer’s statement of her/his research question fit the study into the story? Does it promise to add to the story in an interesting way, in a way a reader would want to read?

Does it cite appropriately? What would be the problem here if it didn’t cite? (Workplace writing, such as memos, or letters of notice, generally doesn’t need citing, but academic articles do. Why?)

Workshop Evaluation: https://tinyurl.com/ya82x6oy

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