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ESSENTIALS OF

LIFE-SPAN

DEVELOPMENT 6e

John W. Santrock

No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 2

Biological Beginnings

Chapter Outline

• The evolutionary perspective

• Genetic foundations of development

• The interaction of heredity and

environment correlation: the nature-

nurture debate

• Prenatal Development

• Birth

• The Postpartum Period

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The Evolutionary Perspective

• Natural selection and adaptive behavior

• Evolutionary psychology

©Alan and Sandy Carey/Getty Images

Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior

• Natural selection: evolutionary process by which individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and reproduce

• Adaptive behavior: promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat, because an organism possesses characteristics needed for survival

Evolutionary Psychology

Emphasizes the importance of adaptation and

reproduction to ensure survival

• Offspring that adapt, develop behaviors, and possess self-

protective traits survive.

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Genetic Foundations of Development

Genes and chromosomes

Genetic principles

Chromosomal and gene-linked abnormalities

Cells, Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes

The Collaborative Gene 1

Human life begins as a single cell.

Nucleus of each cell contains chromosomes

• Chromosomes: threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid

• DNA: complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic code or information

Genes: units of hereditary information

composed of DNA.

• Help cells to reproduce themselves

• Manufacture the proteins that maintain life

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The Collaborative Gene 2

Each gene has its own location or designated

place on a particular chromosome.

Completion of the Human Genome project led to

• Genome-wide association method: identifies genetic variations

linked to a particular disease

• Linkage analysis: helps discover the location of a gene or

genes in relation to a marker gene

• Used in the search for a disease-related genes

The Collaborative Gene 3

Research has found that genes are dependent and there are more proteins than genes.

Human genome consists of approx. 20,000 genes.

• Genes collaborate with each other and non-genetic factors both inside and outside the body.

Activity of genes is affected by their environment

Stress, exercise, nutrition, radiation, temperature,

and lack of sleep can negatively influence gene

expression.

The Genetic Difference Between Males and Females

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Genes and Chromosomes 1

All of the cells in the body, except sperm and egg,

have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.

Mitosis: cellular reproduction in which the cell’s

nucleus duplicates itself into two new cells

• Each cell contains the same DNA as parent cell.

Meiosis: cell division forming eggs and sperm, or

gametes

Fertilization: reproductive stage when egg and

sperm fuse to create a zygote.

• Zygote: Single cell formed through fertilization

Genes and Chromosomes 2

Sources of variability

• Unique zygote: combining parents’ two sets of genes

increases genetic variability in offspring

Genes and Chromosomes 3

• Mutated gene: permanently altered segment of DNA.

• Susceptibility genes: make the individual more vulnerable

to specific diseases or accelerated aging

• Longevity genes: make the individual less vulnerable to

certain diseases and more likely to live to an older age

©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

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Genes and Chromosomes 4

Genotype: person’s genetic material

Phenotype: how an individual’s genotype is

expressed in observable and measurable physical

and psychological characteristics

Expression is influenced by environmental factors

• For example, genetic potential for height may be stunted by lack

of access to proper nutrition

Genetic Principles 1

Genetic principles determine how a genotype is expressed to create a particular phenotype.

• Dominant-recessive genes principle

• One gene of a pair always exerts its effects, overriding the potential influence of the other gene.

• Sex-linked genes

• When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance.

• Most X-linked inherited diseases manifest in males who have only one X chromosome.

Genetic Principles 2

Genetic imprinting

• Occurs when the expression of a gene has different effects

depending on whether the gene is passed on by mother or

father

• Chemical process preventing one member of the gene pair

from expressing itself

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Genetic Principles 3

Polygenic inheritance

• Many different genes interacting plus environmental influence

determine a characteristic, or developing disease

• Gene-gene interaction: studies focusing on the interdependence

of two or more genes in influencing characteristics, behavior,

diseases, and development

Chromosomal Abnormalities 1

Syndrome Description Treatment Incidence

Down syndrome

An extra chromosome causes mild to severe

intellectual disability and physical abnormalities.

Surgery, early intervention. infant

stimulation, and special learning programs

1 in 1.900 births at age 20 1 in 300 births at

age 35 1 in 30 births at age 45

Klinefelter syndrome (XXV)

An extra X chromosome causes physical

abnormalities.

Hormone therapy can be effective

1 in 1.000 male births

Fragile X syndrome

An abnormality in the X chromosome can cause

intellectual disability.

learning disabilities. or short attention span.

Special education. speech and language

therapy

More common in males than in females

Turner syndrome (X0)

A missing X chromosome in females

can cause intellectual disability and sexual underdevelopment.

Hormone therapy in childhood and puberty

1 in 2.500 female births

XYY Syndrome

An extra Y chromosome can cause above-

average height.

No special treatment required

1 in 1,000 male births

Chromosomal Abnormalities 2

Down Syndrome: form of an intellectual

disability caused by the presence of an

extra copy of chromosome 21

• Can cause intellectual and physical issues

Klinefelter Syndrome: sex-linked chromosomal disorder giving males an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY

• Characteristics are underdeveloped testes, enlarged breasts, and becoming tall

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Chromosomal Abnormalities 3

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS): sex-linked disorder

causing an abnormality in the X chromosome

• Can cause intellectual disability, learning disability, or short

attention span

Turner Syndrome: sex-linked disorder in which

a missing X chromosome in females

• Can cause intellectual disability and sexual underdevelopment

XYY Syndrome: male has an extra Y chromosome

• Can cause above-average height

Gene-Linked Abnormalities 1

Name Description Treatment Incidence

Cystic fibrosis Glandular dysfunction that interferes with

mucus production; breathing and digestion

are hampered, resulting in a shortened life span.

Physical and oxygen therapy, synthetic

enzymes, and antibiotics; most

individuals live to middle age.

1 in 2,000 births

Diabetes Body does not produce enough insulin, which

causes abnormal metabolism of sugar.

Early onset can be fatal unless treated with

insulin.

1 in 2,500 births

Hemophilia Delayed blood clotting causes internal and

external bleeding.

Blood transfusions/injections

can reduce or prevent damage due to internal bleeding.

1 in 10,000 males

Huntington’s disease Central nervous system deteriorates, producing

problems in muscle coordination and mental deterioration.

Does not usually appear until age 35 or older;

death likely 10 to 20 years after symptoms appear.

1 in 20,000 births

Gene-Linked Abnormalities 2

Name Description Treatment Incidence

Phenyl ketonuri a (PKU)

Metabolic disorder that, left untreated, Causes

intellectual disability and hyperactivity.

Special diet can result in average intelligence

and normal life span.

I in 10.000 to 1 in 20.000 births

Sickle-cell anemi a

Blood disorder that limits the body's oxygen

supply; it can cause joint swelling. as well as heart and kidney failure.

Penicillin, medication for pain, antibiotics. blood

transfusions, and hydroxyurea therapy (can start as young as 9mo. of age).

1 in 400 African American children

(lower among other groups)

Spina bifida

Neural tube disorder that causes brain and

spine abnormalities.

Corrective surgery at birth. orthopedic

devices. and physical/medical therapy.

2 in 1,000 births

Tay-Sachs di sease

Deceleration of mental and physical

development caused by an accumulation of lipids in the nervous system.

Medication and special diet are used, but death

is likely by 5 years of age.

1 in 30 American Jews is a carrier.

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Gene-Linked Abnormalities 3

Cystic fibrosis

• Glandular dysfunction that interferes with mucus production

• Breathing and digestion are hampered, shortening life span

Diabetes

• Body does not produce enough insulin, which causes

abnormal metabolism of sugar

Gene-Linked Abnormalities 4

Hemophilia

• Delayed blood clotting causes uncontrolled internal and

external bleeding

Huntington’s disease

• Central nervous system deteriorates, producing problems in

muscle coordination and mental deterioration

Gene-Linked Abnormalities 5

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

• Genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly

metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine

Sickle-cell anemia

• Genetic disorder that impairs the functioning of red blood cells

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Gene-Linked Abnormalities 6

Spina bifida

• Neural tube disorder that causes brain and spine abnormalities

Tay-Sachs disease

• Deceleration of mental and physical development caused by

an accumulation of lipids in the nervous system

Reproductive Challenges and Choices

Prenatal diagnostic tests

Infertility and reproductive technology

Adoption

Heredity-Environment Interaction: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Gene × Environment (G × E) interaction

• Interaction of:

• Specific measured

variation in the DNA

• Specific measured

aspect of the

environment

©Compassionate Eye Foundation/Getty Images

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Behavior Genetics

Discover the influence of heredity and environment

on individual differences in human traits,

development, and behavior

• Twin study: behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal

twins is compared

• Adoption study: seeks to discover whether behavioral and

psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like

their

• Adoptive parents who provided a home environment

• Biological parents who contributed their heredity

Exploring Heredity-Environment Correlations

Heredity-Environment Correlation

Description For Examples

Passive

Children inherit genetic tendencies from their parents,

and parents also provide an environment that matches their own genetic tendencies.

Musically inclined parents usually have musically inclined children,

and they are likely to provide an environment rich in music for their children.

Evocative

The child's genetic tendencies elicit stimulation from the

environment that supports a particular trait. Thus, genes evoke environmental support.

A happy, outgoing child elicits smiles and friendly responses

from others.

Active (niche-picking)

Children actively seek out niches in their environment that reflect

their own interests and talents and are thus in accord with their genotype.

Libraries, sports fields, and a store with musical instruments

are For Examples of environmental niches children might seek out if they have intellectual interests in books, talent in sports, or musical

talents, respectively.

Heredity-Environment Correlations

Passive genotype-environment correlations

• Genetically-linked biological parents provide rearing

environment for the children.

Evocative genotype-environment correlations

• Genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain

types of environments.

Active genotype-environment correlations

• Also called niche-picking, children seek out environments that

they find compatible and stimulating and suited for their

genetically-influenced abilities.

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Epigenetic View and Gene × Environment (G × E) Interaction

Epigenetic view: development is the result of an

ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity

and environment

Gene × Environment (G×E) Interaction

• The interaction between heredity and environment influences

development and interactions of specific DNA sequences.

• Epigenetic mechanisms involve molecular modification of DNA

strand as a result of environmental inputs in ways that alter

gene functioning.

Comparison of the Heredity-Environment Correlation and Epigenetic Views

Heredity – Environment Correlation View

• Developmental influence has one direction.

• Heredity influences environment.

Epigenetic Views

• Developmental influence is bidirectional.

• Heredity and environment influence each other.

Conclusions About Heredity- Environment Interaction

Relative contributions of heredity and environment

are not additive.

Complex behaviors are influenced by genes and

environments in a way that gives people a

propensity for a particular developmental

trajectory.

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Prenatal Development

Describe prenatal development

The course of prenatal development

Teratology and hazards to prenatal development

Prenatal care

Normal prenatal development

The Course of Prenatal Development 1

Germinal period: occurs in the first 2 weeks after

conception

Includes:

• Creation of the zygote.

• Continued cell division.

• Attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.

Blastocyst: inner layer of cells that develops into the embryo.

Trophoblast: outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and support for the embryo.

Significant Developments in the Germinal Period

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The Course of Prenatal Development 2

Embryonic period: occurs 2 to 8 weeks after conception

Rate of cell differentiation intensifies, and mass of cells is now called

embryo.

• Three layers of cells: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (inner, middle, and outer layers).

Life-support systems for the embryo form and organs appear.

Amnion: contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.

The Course of Prenatal Development 3

• Umbilical cord: contains two arteries and one vein and connects the baby to the placenta.

• Placenta: disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the fetus intertwine but do not join.

• Organogenesis: organ formation that takes place during the first 2 months of prenatal development.

Fetal period: 7-month period between 2 months after

conception and birth

The Placenta and the Umbilical Cord

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The Course of Prenatal Development 4

Brain

Neurons: nerve cells in the brain that handle information processing at

the cellular level.

Babies are born with 20 to 100 billion neurons.

Important phases of the brain’s development.

• Neural tube: early formation of the nervous system.

• Failure of the neural tube to close may cause anencephaly and spina bifida.

• Neurogenesis: generation of new neurons.

• Neuronal migration: cells moving outward from their point of origin to their

appropriate locations.

• Neural connectivity: neurons connect, continues postnatally.

The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 1

First trimester (first 3 months)

Conception to 4 weeks

• Is less than 1/10 inch long.

• Beginning development of spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, and lungs.

• Amniotic sac envelops the preliminary tissues of entire body.

• Is called a "zygote”.

The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 2

8 weeks • Is just over 1 inch long.

• Face is forming with rudimentary eyes, ears, mouth, and tooth buds.

• Arms and legs are moving.

• Brain is forming.

• Fetal heartbeat is detectable with ultrasound.

• Is called an "embryo.“

12 weeks

• Is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce.

• Can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes.

• Fingerprints are present.

• Can smile, frown, suck, and swallow.

• Sex is distinguishable.

• Can urinate.

• Is called a "fetus.”

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The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 3

Second trimester (middle 3 months)

16 weeks

• Is about 6 inches long and weighs about 4 to 7 ounces.

• Heartbeat is strong.

• Skin is thin, transparent.

• Downy hair (lanugo) covers body.

• Fingernails and toenails are forming.

• Has coordinated movements; is able to roll over in amniotic fluid.

The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 4

20 weeks

• Is about 12 inches long and weighs close to 1 pound.

• Heartbeat is audible with ordinary stethoscope.

• Sucks thumb.

• Hiccups.

• Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present.

24 weeks

• Is about 14 inches long and weighs 1 to 1½ pounds.

• Skin is wrinkled and covered with protective coating (vernix caseosa).

• Eyes are open.

• Waste matter is collected in bowel.

• Has strong grip.

The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 5

Third trimester (last 3 months)

28 weeks

• Is about 16 inches long and weighs about 3 pounds.

• Is adding body fat.

• Is very active.

• Rudimentary breathing movements are present.

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The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 6

32 weeks • Is 16½ to 18 inches long and weighs 4 to 5 pounds.

• Has periods of sleep and wakefulness.

• Responds to sounds.

• May assume the birth position.

• Bones of head are soft and flexible.

• Iron is being stored in liver.

36 to 38 weeks

• Is 19 to 20 inches long and weighs 6 to 7½ pounds.

• Skin is less wrinkled.

• Vernix caseosa is thick.

• Lanugo is mostly gone.

• Is less active.

• Is gaining immunities from mother.

The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development 7

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Prenatal Diagnostic Tests

Ultrasound sonography

Chorionic villus sampling

Amniocentesis

Maternal blood screening

Fetal sex determination

©Du Cane Medical Imaging Ltd./Science Source

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Infertility and Reproductive Technology

Infertility: inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular intercourse without contraception

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): eggs and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish by experts

• Zygote or fertilized egg is transferred into the woman’s uterus

• Multiple zygotes are often transferred but can increase health risks

• IVF success rate depends on the mother’s age and other factors

Adoption 1

Social and legal process that establishes parent- child relationship between persons unrelated at birth

• Increased diversity of adopted children and adoptive parents

• Types of adoption include domestic public welfare system, private domestic, and international private

Adoption 2 Outcomes for adopted children

• Fare much better than children raised in long-term foster care

• Children who are adopted at a very early age more likely to have positive outcomes

©Don Mason/Getty Images

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Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 1

Teratogen: any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral developmental outcomes

Teratology: study of the cause of birth defects

Teratogen damage and severity depends on

• dose.

• genetic susceptibility.

• time of exposure.

Negative effects of exposure during fetal period

• stunted growth.

• fetal brain development problems.

• organ functioning problems.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 2

Prescription drugs that can function as teratogens include

Antibiotics: streptomycin and tetracycline.

Some antidepressants.

• Miscarriage, preterm birth, autism spectrum disorders.

Hormones: progestin and synthetic estrogen.

Accutane: acne medication.

Oral contraceptives: isotretinoin.

Harmful nonprescription drugs

• Diet pills.

• Aspirin in high doses.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 3

Psychoactive drugs: act on the nervous system, altering states of

consciousness, modifying perceptions, and changing moods

Caffeine

Methamphetamine

Cocaine

• Neurological, medical, and cognitive deficits.

Marijuana

• Low birth weight and greater likelihood of being in neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

Heroin

• Withdrawal, behavioral problems.

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Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 4

Alcohol:

• Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD): mothers heavily drink alcohol during pregnancy.

• Characterized by learning and behavioral problems.

• FASD are associated with early death from suicide, accidents, alcohol poisoning, or drugs.

Nicotine:

• Low birth weight, ADHD, impaired newborn brain development, offspring smoking.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 5

Incompatible blood types

• Incompatibility between the mother’s and father’s blood types poses risk to prenatal development.

Environmental hazards

• Radiation, toxic wastes, and other chemical pollutants.

Maternal diseases

• Rubella and syphilis.

• Genital herpes and HIV/AIDS.

• Diabetes.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 6

Other parental factors.

Maternal diet and nutrition.

• Lack of folic acid, consuming mercury-laden fish.

Maternal obesity.

Maternal age.

Emotional states.

• Stress, depression, fear, and anxiety leading to unhealthy behaviors.

Paternal factors.

• Sperm abnormalities from lead or radiation exposure may lead to miscarriage or diseases.

• Smoking during the mother’s pregnancy.

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Teratogens and the Timing of Their Effects on Prenatal Development

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Prenatal Care 1

Screening for manageable conditions and treatable diseases

Programs include educational, social, and nutritional services

Exercise during pregnancy

• Regulates blood pressure, reduces risk of hypertension.

• Conditions the body, controls weight gain, regulates bowels.

• Yoga reduces stress, enhances immune system functioning.

• Is associated with a more positive mental state, higher vaginal birth rate, reduced Cesarean deliveries.

• Advances development of neonatal brain.

Prenatal Care 2

Centering Pregnancy: relationship-centered program providing complete

prenatal care in a group setting or group prenatal care

Woman and partner at beginning of second trimester attend long

10-member peer meetings instead of brief physician checkups.

• Are supported, have active role in positive pregnancy.

Self-examination led by a physician or certified nurse-midwife.

• Associated with reduced preterm births, fewer low birth weight babies, fewer NICU babies.

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Birth

The birth process.

Assessing the newborn.

Preterm and low birth weight infants.

Courtesy of Dr. Holly Beckwith 64

Birth Process 1

The three stages of birth

First stage: uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart and last up to

1 minute.

• Longest stage – 6 to 12 hours.

Second stage: begins when the baby’s head starts to move through the

cervix and birth canal – 45 minutes to 1 hour.

• Ends when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body.

Third stage.

• Afterbirth: when the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled, lasting minutes.

Birth Process 2

In the United States, 98.5 percent of births take place in hospitals.

1.5 percent outside of hospitals.

• 63 percent are at home.

• 31 percent at birthing centers.

Midwives at 8 percent of hospital births.

Doula: caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.

Methods of childbirth

Medication.

• Analgesia, anesthesia, and oxytocin.

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Birth Process 3

Natural childbirth: reduces mother’s pain by decreasing her fear through

• Education about childbirth.

• Relaxation techniques during delivery.

Prepared childbirth: Lamaze method

• Breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor.

• Provides detailed anatomy and physiology course.

Cesarean delivery: surgically removing the baby from the mother’s uterus

through an abdominal incision.

• Breech position baby, fetal distress, maternal vaginal bleeding, natural birth

hindered by epidural.

• Debate over benefits versus risk, respiratory complications, rate in United

States is higher.

Assessing the Newborn 1

Apgar scale: assesses the health of newborns at 1 and 5

minutes after birth

Evaluates

• Infant’s heart rate.

• Respiratory effort.

• Muscle tone.

• Body color.

• Reflex irritability.

Low Apgar scores associated with long-term educational support, ADHD, developmental risks.

Assessing the Newborn 2

The Apgar Scale

Score 0 1 2

Heart rate Absent Slow—less than 100

beats per minute

Fast—100 to 140

beats per minute

Respiratory

effort

No breathing for more

than 1 minute

Irregular and slow Good breathing

with normal crying

Muscle

tone

Limp and flaccid Weak, inactive, but

some flexion of

extremities

Strong, active

motion

Body color Blue and pale Body pink, but

extremities blue

Entire body pink

Reflex

irritability

No response Grimace Coughing,

sneezing, and

crying

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Assessing the Newborn 3

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

• Used in the first month of life to assess the newborn’s neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects.

Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)

• Assessment of the newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities.

Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 1

Preterm and small for date infants

Low birth weight infants: weighs less than 5½ pounds at birth; very low,

3½; extremely low, 2 lbs.

Preterm infants: born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation.

Small for date or gestational infants: infants’ birth weights are below

normal considering the length of pregnancy.

• May be full term or preterm.

Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 2

Preterm rate in the United States is down

across cultures.

Consequences of preterm birth

and low birth weight.

• More health and cognitive developmental problems than normal birth weight infants.

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Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 3

Nurturing low birth weight and preterm infants

Kangaroo care: involves skin-to-skin contact.

• Has long-term benefits, for example, better respiratory and cardiovascular

functioning, sleep patterns, and cognitive functioning from ages 6 months to 10

years.

• Positive emotional and cognitive effects present after 20 years, for example,

emerging adults had social skills, and reduced school absenteeism,

hyperactivity, and aggressiveness.

Massage therapy: increased infant weight, reduced stress, and reduced

hospital stay.

Bonding

Formation of a connection,

especially a physical bond

between parents and their

newborn shortly after birth

Rooming-in arrangement: baby

remains in the mother’s room

most of the time during its

hospital stay

The Postpartum Period 1

Physical adjustments

Emotional and psychological adjustments

• Postpartum depression: involves a major depressive episode that typically occurs 4 weeks after delivery.

Bonding

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The Postpartum Period 2

Period after childbirth that lasts until the mother’s body has completed its

adjustment and has returned to a nearly prepregnant state.

Adjustments needed are.

• physical,

• emotional, and

• psychological.

Physical Adjustments

Fatigue

Undermines a new mother’s sense of well-being and

confidence in her ability to cope with a new baby and family

life

Loss of sleep: contributes to stress, marital conflict, and

impaired decision making

Hormonal changes

Estrogen and progesterone levels drop steeply when

placenta is delivered and remain low until the ovaries start

producing hormones again.

Emotional and Psychological Adjustments

Postpartum depression: strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair

Difficulty coping with daily tasks in the postpartum period.

• Feelings peak 3 to 5 days after giving birth and may come and go for several months.

• Feelings usually subside within 1 to 2 weeks, even without treatment.

• Risk factors: depression and anxiety during pregnancy, low self-esteem, postpartum blues, poor marital relationship, lack of social support, history of depression.

• Has long-term impact on child’s emotions and behaviors.

• Spouse or partner experiencing depression also affects infant.

• Both parents experiencing depression negatively impacts infant bonding.

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Sleep Deprivation in Pregnant and Postpartum Women

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Postpartum Blues and Postpartum Depression Among U.S. Women

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