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Religion and Spirituality Lesson 8

Religion and Spirituality

By this point in the course, you are familiar with how to use domains to teach culture. Primarily domains provide a basis for comparison of different cultures. For example, you know the existence of religion is common to most cultures in certain ways. Using that statement as a basis, you can now compare differences in a more focused manner.

Description of this domain: Religion & Spirituality, like all domains, is a cultural belief system that can be found in different forms in all cultures.

Religious and spiritual beliefs create social unity by defining a shared identity and sense of belonging, along with preserving the social order by defining proper behavior. Religion & Spirituality also provide meaning and control to a community by explaining causes of certain events and circumstances in society, and offer peace of mind to their practitioners.

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This particular lesson is built around aspects of religion that are common to all people and all cultures. This commonality leads to some basic definitions and can then set the scene for the main part of the lesson—a discussion of cultural differences. Remember that the focus is culture-general information, but many culture- specific examples are provided to illustrate these principles.

As always, keep in mind the OODA Loop. The most important skills that the OODA framework has taught you are observation of and orientation to information. Cultural domains give you a context for observing and orienting. For example, this lesson states that all religions have symbols. How they are used, how you recognize them, and why they are important for you will be the culture-specific information that you need to find through your own observation and orientation.

Learning Objectives

The overall goal of this lesson is for you to recognize the indicators and impacts of religion on daily life in various cultures. The lesson objectives listed below will help you do that. As you read through the lesson, keep the following objectives in mind and note the information that helps you to:

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1. Define religion and associated terms, and explain its functions in society

2. Identify characteristics of different types of religions

3. Identify universals common to all religions, and describe some practices of religion in different cultures

4. Demonstrate understanding of and give examples of religious influence on environment and people to include how it serves as a form of social control

Disclaimer for the Religion lesson:

Religion and spirituality can be studied from two vantage points:

1 As individuals' personal relationship to a deity or group of deities and their views of the spirit worldor afterlife.

2 As institutions that impact cultural values and norms within a society.

Please note:

This lesson operates from the second perspective listed above. The focus is to establish a relationship between religion and culture. As a result, the lesson largely concerns observable expressions of religious beliefs within culture systems, as well as how religion and spirituality influence and are influenced by the cultures in which they exist.

For the purposes of this lesson, the domain of religion and spirituality will often be synonymous with the terms; religion, religious beliefs, or religious practices.

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A Holy Place for Three Religions

It is hot, probably over 100°F with the noon-day sun reflecting off the yellow limestone that makes up most of the construction material in old Jerusalem.

Standing on the publicly accessible rooftop walkways connecting the ancient Jewish, Muslim, and Christian Quarters of the city, one hears the din of prayers coming from the Jewish faithful gathered at the foot of the Western Wall, the Muezzin's Call to Prayer emanating from the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and the clanging church bells ringing from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Western Wall Al-Aqsa Mosque Church of the Holy Sepulchre

As you look toward the southeast you can see the prominent gold Dome of the Rock and the old gray minaret of Al-Aqsa knowing that thousands of Jews pray in an area just below there.

Dome of the Rock Minaret of Al_Aqsa

As you turn your head to the left you see in the distance famous locations like the Garden of Gethsemane and the Mount of Olives until you stop with the many small and large domes of the Christian Quarter's most well- known churches in clear view.

Garden of Gethsemane Mount of Olives Christian Quarter

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Recall that Lesson 4 (Cultural Geography) explained how people assign meaning to places and the concept of geographic perception. Evidence of this behavior occurs often in religion. Clearly, Jerusalem—where one can see the holiest sites and witness the religious practices of three of the world's most influential religions within a few hundred yards of one another—is an excellent example!

Here is historic information about the religion sites mentioned above:

The Western Wall is all that remains of Solomon's Temple, a place sacred to Jews because of the belief that it was in this temple, at a site called the "Holy of Holies" where the ancient Hebrew people believed God dwelled on earth. This place is also the same location at which Jews, Christians, and Muslims believe God asked Abraham to sacrifice one of his sons in order to show his devotion to God. Muslim teachings indicate that Abraham's son Ishmael was to be sacrificed, while Judaic and Christian teachings indicate it was Isaac. Perhaps not coincidentally, Muslims trace their spiritual lineage back to Abraham through Ishmael, while Jews and Christians trace theirs back through Isaac.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is located on another site where it is believed Christ was crucified, buried and resurrected from the dead.

The third (and youngest) site is the Al-Aqsa Mosque. It is located adjacent to the Dome of the Rock, the place at which it is believed that the prophet Muhammad briefly ascended into heaven during what is known among Muslims as his 'Night Journey'. (This is the same location at which the "Holy of Holies" was located in Solomon's Jewish temple).

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It is hard not to be overwhelmed knowing that you are literally standing at the center of so much history and seeing the source of so much conflict—all located in an area smaller than most Wal-Mart parking lots!

These holy places in Jerusalem serve as a good introduction to this domain. The places mentioned above all exhibit the characteristics of a holy place:

Religious services and rituals are practiced there

Different expressions of time and space are present because these three faiths function on a religious calendar, and at certain points of the religious year, the places assume special significance

Certain behavior is required or expected within them

Certain religious artifacts and symbols appear at these locations

In order to provide examples of these characteristics and other activities involved in this domain, this lesson will focus on the most widespread religions of the world.

There are four religions considered to have a large-scale regional impact in the world. They are (in order of the number of adherents):

1 Christianity

2 Islam

3 Hinduism

4 Buddhism

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While not practiced in great numbers, Judaism is also considered a major religion because of its relationship to Christianity and Islam, and is therefore discussed in this lesson as well. Among these five religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are collectively known as "the Abrahamic Faiths." Each Abrahamic Faith has common Old Testament origins with Abraham, whom they each consider a prophet.

This lesson takes more of a "textbook" approach to learning about religions. The goals are to help you gain more knowledge about characteristics of religion and spirituality that influence, and are influenced by, local culture. Knowing more about these characteristics will help you accomplish the following:

interpret people's behavior in cross-cultural situations

know what to expect in terms of others' religious practices in such situations

Now let's proceed to see how religion is defined and the universal characteristics of religion in all cultures.

Defining Religion

The U.S. Air Force defines religion as ". . . a personal set or institutional system of attitudes, moral, or ethical beliefs and practices held with the strength of traditional religious views, characterized by ardor and faith generally evidenced through religious observances."[1]

Social scientists share similar definitions to the one above. One text states, "We shall define religion as any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power be forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, or demons."[2]

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Both of these definitions leave room for interpretation of religion and what people consider religious practices in a number of ways, ranging from what we might call "superstition" to organized observances in a church.

Religious tolerance is a deeply held value among Americans, and it is the official policy toward religion in the USAF. All Airmen are expected to respect and defend the freedom of religious belief, non-belief, and expression accorded under the First Amendment of the United States. At the same time, Airmen must remember that religious tolerance might not be considered a value in areas where they may be assigned.

Universals Related to Religion and Spirituality

During the course of assigned duties, whether CONUS or OCONUS, Airmen can expect to come into contact with people from various religious traditions. Therefore, understanding religious universals is a crucial component of cross-cultural competence. Universals in this case would be shared characteristics that all types of religion and spirituality exhibit.

Understanding religious practices and beliefs is made easier by learning how religious institutions relate to one another. The academic field of Comparative Religion provides a framework for analyzing how different cultures express their spiritual beliefs, which we have drawn upon in this lesson. Most scholars agree the world's religions share the following universals[3]:

1 The sacred vs. the profane. Religions tend to clearly distinguish between what is sacred (holy and spiritual) and what is profane (ordinary and worldly). The sacred can include places and monuments, food items, and many other aspects of life. In addition to items listed below, sacred items can also be symbols of belief, like Christian crosses.

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2 Sacred places. Every culture has places that are believed to be holy, spiritual, or reverential and are separate from the ordinary places of everyday life. These things can include churches, temples, mosques, or natural settings. They are usually significant because of real or mythical past events. Two examples can be found on page 4 of this lesson: the Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock.

3

Sacred stories. Stories passed orally from generation to generation are an integral part of understanding religious influences on culture. As you remember, a key component of culture is that it is shared among generations. Passing sacred stories down through generations helps transmit culture and religious beliefs, while at the same time endowing the stories themselves with a sense of sacredness. Many religions have origin stories as sacred stories, such as the story of Adam and Eve; others have stories about particular individuals or deities, like Shiva in Shaiva Hinduism.

4

Sacred writings and texts. Many religions have a collection of texts that act as the final authority on religious matters. These written records are different than the religious stories mentioned above in that they are usually considered to contain indisputable truths about the religion rather than simply providing moral guidelines. In many cases, the texts are considered to represent, or in some cases are the actual words of the religion's deity.

5 Rituals. Most religions contain repetitive, prescribed, and ceremonial actions that are reserved for religious use. These can include specific postures (kneeling, bowing, etc.), prayers, greetings, and many other activities and actions.

The major religions of the world all have these five characteristics in common. This helps make it easier to understand that while individual religious beliefs may be very different from one another, the cultural characteristics of religious practices can serve as context for comparison. They are also a good basis for learning about what people hold sacred, thereby reducing the potential for cross-cultural mistakes. Such knowledge also opens greater understanding of the values below the surface of the rituals, texts, stories, etc.

Sacred Associations

The following table illustrates the associations that people of each Abrahamic faith make to the places mentioned in the introduction to this lesson. Note especially that two of the places have meaning for more than one faith. Indeed, the Western wall has the same connotation for all three religions! This is a common occurrence in the Middle East and in the Mediterranean.

SACRED PLACE JUDAISM CHRISTIANITY ISLAM

Western Wall

- All that remains of Solomon's Temple

- The Temple is where Abraham was ordered to sacrifice his son

- All that remains of Solomon's Temple

- The Temple is where Abraham was ordered to sacrifice his son

- All that remains of Solomon's Temple

- The Temple is where Abraham was ordered to sacrifice his son

Al Aqsa Mosque

- Part of Solomon's Temple on this site

- Ancient Hebrews believed God dwelled here on earth (when it was Solomon's Temple)

N/A - Located adjacent to the Dome of the Rock where the Prophet Muhammed briefly ascended into heaven during what is known to Muslims as the Night Journey

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Church of the Holy Supulchre

N/A - This is where it is believed Christ was crucified, buried, and resurrected

N/A

Is the fact that different religions revere the same places important?

Why or why not?

Do you see the fact that different religions revere the same places as a source of conflict or of fellowship?

How can you recognize a "sacred place?"

You can better use this cultural domain by comparing sacred places to the way they are thought about in the U.S.

How do Americans behave in order to respect sacred places?

Is the behavior any different between a devout religious person and a non-religious one?

CULTURAL LOG EXERCISE 8.1– Sacred Places

Which of the prompts above (1-4) would BEST help you orient yourself to others' sacred places in a cross- cultural environment? For our answer, hover your mouse HERE. For a short (optional) Hollywood example, click on the following link:

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Cultural Log Follow-Up

Not all sacred places are affiliated with a particular religion. In fact, there are many sacred places that may not be considered religious. Here's an example of one in Washington, D.C.

Arlington National Cemetery exhibits the characteristics of a sacred place:

Religious services and rituals are practiced there. Different expressions of time and space are present because all faiths are represented (with their differing religious calendars), and at certain points of the religious year, the places assume special significance. Certain behavior is required or expected within the cemetery. Certain religious artifacts and symbols appear on the grave site

How would you act if you went to Arlington National Cemetery?

Next, let's look at types of religions and some of the distinctions in the ways people carry out their faiths in belief and practice.

"Ethnic" and "Universalizing" Religions

One substantial difference is whether or not practitioners of a religion seek converts to their belief system. There are some religions who teach that everyone in the world should be a member of that religion in order to reach salvation in the afterlife, while others are limited in size and scope to a particular place or group of people. In general, there are two types of religious systems—ethnic and universalizing.

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While all religions share the five characteristics outlined in the previous section, there are significant and obvious differences among the major religions.

Ethnic Religions

Ethnic religions are limited to a particular group of people originating from a specific place. Members of ethnic religions tend to be born into the religious group. Remember that ethnicity is a major factor in cultural identification, and when the religion is limited to a particular ethnic group, religion will play a strong role in the culture of that group.

Universalizing Religions

Practitioners of universalizing religions believe that they have found the way to truth and salvation (gaining access to an afterlife, or becoming holier during one's life), and that their religion is the one true religion for all people. Therefore, they desire to bring their truth to all other people, and they actively work at converting non-believers to that religion. Ethnicity is not a defining character of these religions because the practitioners believe their religion is applicable to all humanity and not any particular group. The table below helps illustrate how the major religions can be categorized:

ETHNIC RELIGIONS UNIVERSALIZING RELIGIONS

Judaism

Note that Judaism differs from the other two Abrahamic faiths, Christianity and Islam, which both fit into the universalizing category. While one can convert to Judaism, Jews primarily consider their religion as a characteristic that passes to people through family members. Judaism has about 13-14 million participants.

Christianity and Islam

These religions have the largest amount of followers in the world, with roughly 2 billion participants apiece. In its development stages, each religious group overcame initial hostility and quickly developed a large following of believers from diverse cultural groups. Persecution did not stop the spread of these faiths because they teach that spiritual rewards are more important than earthly ones. One gains spiritual rewards by converting others to the faith, among other activities. This point is a good illustration of one of the characteristics that were listed earlier: identification of what is sacred (holy and spiritual) and what is profane (ordinary and worldly).

Hinduism

Hinduism originated in India, and its adherents still center around that region: approximately 80% of the population of India and Nepal are practicing Hindus. While it is an ethnic religion, and therefore limited to a particular group of people, Hinduism is practiced by almost 1 billion people around the world. Hinduism has also had a significant global cultural impact, as evidenced by the growing popularity of yoga in the United States and Western Europe.

Buddhism

This faith was founded in the 5th century B.C. in India by an Indian prince. It preaches the attainment of Nirvana (elimination of suffering) via moral behavior and a life of moderation. Buddhism is the predominant religion in the Far East.

Shintoism

Shintoism is an ethnic faith in Japan. Although not all Japanese practice it (Buddhism and

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Christianity are also popular there), it fits into the ethnic category. There are about 119 million participants.

______________________________

Other examples of ethnic faiths are indigenous belief systems, such as Native American faiths and other traditional religions (non-Abrahamic) in Africa, Latin America & the Caribbean, and the South Pacific.

Spectrums of Belief

When comparing religions and belief systems it is important to keep in mind the universal characteristics of all religions highlighted in the "Overview of Belief Systems" section of this module. It is also useful to look at three organizing questions for religious beliefs:

What does the religion teach as the way to achieve salvation in the afterlife?

What is the impact of religion on its followers' daily lives?

What is the influence of the religion on the cultural landscape?

These questions play out over three continuums, or spectrums, which the following pages demonstrate.

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Spectrums, Question 1

What does the religion teach as the way to achieve salvation in the afterlife?

All religions deal in some way with the concept of salvation and what happens after death. In general, all religions tend to blend differing degrees of orthodoxy and orthopraxy.

Religions that lean more toward orthodoxy teach that salvation is achieved through proper belief, while those favoring orthopraxy put more emphasis on proper behavior to gain salvation.

In practice, no religion falls entirely to one side or the other. Instead, most mix orthodoxy and orthopraxy in proportionate ways unique to their religion, or even unique to local congregations.

Orthodoxy

Religions that teach that salvation must be attained through proper belief are orthodoxic in nature. The word orthodox comes from two ancient Greek words: orthos, meaning "correct," and doxa which means "belief." In Christianity, the belief that one gains salvation, or is "saved," through accepting Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior is an orthodoxic belief. One is saved by proper belief.

Orthopraxy

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Judaism, on the other hand, tends to be more focused on following proper behavior – it is more orthopraxic in nature. For a Jewish person, proper belief is essential, but so is proper behavior as outlined in that religion's teachings – it is important that one does (or in some cases does not do) certain activities that are believed to be ordered by God.

Within every large religious group there are sects* that differ in their interpretation of orthodoxy and orthopraxy.

*a group of people who make up a subset of a particular religion and often differ in practice or belief from others in that religion

For example, within the Christian faith, evangelical Christians tend to be more orthodoxic, while the Roman Catholic and traditional Protestant churches tend to be more orthopraxic. The same can be said of Buddhism. One sect, the Mahayana Buddhists, tend to be more orthopraxic, while Theravada Buddhists are more orthodoxic in their religious views.

Spectrums, Question 2

What is the impact of religion on its followers' daily lives?

In some places, the dominant religion is a strong influence on the government, economy, society, and culture at large.

In the most significant examples, when there is little or no distinction between religious and civil law, and between religious and political leadership, such societies are theocracies. Few, if any countries can be considered complete theocracies, with perhaps Iran and Saudi Arabia being the closest, certainly at the extreme end of the spectrum.

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Other places, such as India, do not operate as governmental theocracies, but the influence of the dominant religion on everyday life and some legal codes is still evident.

The Hindus who live in India, for example, have strict dietary restrictions regarding the consumption of beef. This, combined with a reverence for cows, creates a landscape in which cattle have free reign in villages and cities. So, although Indians are free to practice whatever religion they wish, some degree of the Hindu reverence for cows is codified into law in many of the states and districts in India.

At the other end of the spectrum, some cultures tend toward a secular approach.

They restrict the influence of religious belief and practice on daily life. For example, France does not allow any display of religious belief (whether in jewelry, clothing, or physical practice) in government buildings or public schools. Overall, their approach reflects the low rate of religious practice among the French population as a whole - according to one survey, 60% of French citizens never attend church.[4]

Other states that tend toward secularism, such as the U.S., Australia, and most Western European countries, maintain separation between religious practices and state laws but do not go to the extent of regulating public displays of belief. Most of these cultures will still see some micro-cultural groups emphasize religion more than others when it comes to decision-making and public life.

The vast majority of countries and cultures in the world function in the middle of this spectrum.

Where does your community and other micro-cultures to which you belong fit within the spectrum between theocracy and secularism?

Spectrums, Question 3

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What is the impact of the religion on the cultural landscape?

As we have seen throughout this course, when applying the OODA Loop to understanding the cultural aspects of religion it is important not only to observe behaviors, but to observe the natural and human influenced environments as well.

We often modify the natural landscape with multiple expressions of our religious and spiritual beliefs.

It is possible to classify the influences of religious belief and practice on the cultural landscape in two ways: those that have a formal-positive expression on the landscape and those that have a negative expression. [5]

NOTE: The difference in terminology below, 'formal-positive' versus 'negative' is simply what is used in this field of study. There is no corresponding 'formal-negative' or 'informal' positive.

Formal-positive expressions of religion on the cultural landscape are defined as things that are found and observable in the human-made environment because of a religious belief or practice. In other words, if something has been built because of a religious belief, then it is a formal-positive expression of religion. Cultural geographer David Sopher identified the following things as the most common examples of expressions of religion on the landscape:

Sacred Structures

Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues, etc.

Land Patterns of religious origin

Ancient Roman and Chinese cities were designed to reflect the inhabitants' image of the universe.

Cemeteries

Some societies are more comfortable living in close proximity to cemeteries while others bury their dead far away from population centers. You can tell a lot about a culture's attitude toward death by learning how they treat the bodies of those who have died. In some societies there are no cemeteries, since the predominant culture believes cremation is religiously proper instead of burial.

Names on the land

St. Louis, St. Paul, San Antonio, Los Angeles, etc.

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Negative expressions of religion on the cultural landscape are defined as things that are missing in a society because of religious beliefs or practices. Sopher lists the most common negative expressions of religion as:

Food taboos

Islam and Judaism forbid the eating of pork, so there are no pig farms in Israel or most of the rest of the Middle East

Hinduism prohibits eating beef, so McDonald's restaurants in India don't serve hamburgers![6]

Work taboos

It used to be illegal in the U.S. for businesses to be open on Sunday, the Christian holy day of the week. Today, you still find many businesses that observe this practice. Many Americans traditionally did not work at home on Sunday, either, but the advent of the contemporary work week has largely changed that practice as well.

It is rare to find businesses in the Islamic world open during many holidays (such as Ramadan), or on Fridays, the Islamic holy day.

In Israel, many businesses close early on Friday to allow for the beginning of the Jewish holy day that begins at sunset on Friday and lasts until sunset on Saturday.

Religion and Culture

So far, this lesson has focused on providing some culture-general frameworks you can use to analyze and understand the relationship between religion and culture. The remaining portion of this lesson provides summaries of four of the world's major religions to better illustrate the points that have been covered thus far: Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, and Christianity.

Additionally, these summaries are designed to expand your cultural awareness and understanding of these religions that so heavily influence cultures around the world.

Please note: the following sections serve as the required reading for this lesson. They relate directly to your lesson objectives and you will see quiz questions related to the material.

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Islam as an Orthopraxic Religion: The Five Pillars of Faith

Islam tends to be more orthopraxic than orthodoxic. However, proper belief is essential as well, particularly the belief in only one God and that Muhammad is his prophet. As an orthopraxic religion, Islam has five tenets, or "Pillars" around which the faith is based. These Five Pillars of Islam are common to all Muslims, regardless of sect. The name of the religion itself hints at the orthopraxic nature of the faith: "Islam" roughly translates into English as "Peace through submission to the will of God" (Allah in Arabic).

One who submits to the will of Allah is called a Muslim. Islam is the name of the religion and Muslim is the name of a person who follows the religion.

The main sects in Islam are Sunni and Shi'a Islam, and there are many sects within each of these main groups. Both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims believe in the importance of the Five Pillars described below, but they differ in some of their interpretations of how the Five Pillars are to be carried out. (Remember, orthopraxy is about practice, so differences in how Muslims practice their faith is very important to them.)

The Five Pillars of Islam

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All Muslims feel they should strive to incorporate the Five Pillars of Islam into their daily lives. Even though the Five Pillars represent the ideal form of practice, not all Muslims incorporate them equally. In some more conservative cultures, such as those in Saudi Arabia or Kuwait, many people will stop what they are doing in order to pray throughout the day. In Egypt or Lebanon, however, some people will stop to pray while others continue with their daily business. Similar to cultures with Christian populations who practice their religion in varying degrees, there are Muslims in many countries who consider themselves part of the religion but do not regularly meet all the obligations laid out in the Five Pillars.

1. Shahada: The Statement of Faith

The core of Islamic belief is expressed in the statement of faith, which says "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet" (in Arabic: la ilaha illallah, Muhammad rasulu-llah). This statement is written on the national flag of Saudi Arabia, and it establishes the Muslim belief not only in one God, but the addition of Muhammad to the line of prophets they share with Judaism and Christianity, beginning with Abraham. This line of prophets includes Jesus of Nazareth, whom Muslims believe was a messenger of God and a miracle worker, but not the son of God as Christians hold to be true. The prophet Muhammad is believed to have made the final revelation of God through the holy book of Islam, the Quran (also written Koran or Qur'an). Another holy book called the Sunnah contains sayings and daily habits of the prophet Muhammad, which Sunni Muslims also follow as a guide in their lives.

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2. Salat: Prayer

Muslims are taught to pray five times per day: before sunrise, before lunch, after lunch, at sunset, and at night. They pray facing the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia because it is so stated in the Qur'an and because it is a holy site dating back to the time of Abraham and his son Ishmael. Consequently, praying in this way fosters a sense of unity among the global Islamic community (the ummah), and the idea that devotion to God is more important than any individual, cultural, or national differences.

One of the most defining characteristics of predominantly Muslim cultures is the sound of the Call to Prayer (adhan) that occurs five times each day.

The adhan, featuring the words Allahu Akbar meaning "God is Great" or "God is the Greatest," is sung by a man called a mu'ezzin through a loudspeaker at local mosques. Traditionally, it was sung from a minaret so that people in the surrounding area could hear the call to prayer. In some cities, all activity comes to a halt as people stop what they are doing, unroll prayer rugs, and perform their prayers. In other places, people go about their business as usual while those who wish to pray do so in a more private manner.

Stopping to pray emphasizes for Muslims that coming to God in prayer is more important than any other activities in which a person is currently engaged. While Muslims may go to a mosque, or Islamic house of worship to pray, it is not required by the Qur'an except for the Friday afternoon prayer. That prayer is followed by a weekly sermon delivered by a religious scholar (an imam). But for most of one's daily prayers, any location will do, and may be done alone or in groups. Muslim prayers include recitation of certain phrases and passages of the Qur'an, in a similar way that Catholics recite the "Our Father" prayer in church.

Muslims must ceremonially wash, or perform ablutions before they pray. (Ablutions are not only practiced in Islam, but in many other religions, too.) Mosques are equipped with special areas for Muslims to wash their hands, arms,

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feet, and mouths before performing the prayer. Shoes are also removed before prayer or upon entering a mosque, and many Muslims, especially women, make sure their heads are covered while in prayer.

There are some differences worth noting in how Sunni and Shi'a Muslims pray. While standing and praying, Sunni Muslims typically place their hands on their abdomens before kneeling and praying. Shi'a Muslims, on the other hand, usually keep their hands at their sides. Shi'a Muslims will often place a small piece of clay called a turbah at the head of their prayer rugs and touch their foreheads to it while bowing forward in prayer. The turbah is ideally made of clay from Karbala, a city in Iraq sacred to Shi'a Muslims as the place of martyrdom of Hussein, the grandson of the prophet Muhammad.

3. Sawm: Fasting

During Ramadan, which is the ninth month of the Islamic Calendar, Muslims are supposed to abstain from eating, drinking (even water), smoking, and having sex during daylight hours. Often, the fast is ended after the sunset prayer in a communal setting. It is tradition to eat a date as the first food to break the fast, followed by a meal (iftar) with friends and family. The end of Ramadan is marked by the three-day celebration of Eid ul-fitr, a holiday in which Muslims greet each other with "Eid Mubarrak", wear their best clothes, and offer children small gifts.

Since the Islamic Calendar is lunar based and has thirteen months, Ramadan "migrates" through the Western calendar year and starts 11 days earlier each year. This means that Ramadan will be observed during all the seasons over the years. When Ramadan is in the summer, it can be grueling for Muslims to endure hunger and thirst if they live in hotter climates, which many do.

If you are stationed or deployed in a predominantly Muslim culture, you should be careful not to be seen eating, drinking or smoking in front of fasting Muslims. While no Muslim expects a non-Muslim to follow the fast, showing respect to Muslims who are fasting by not partaking in activities forbidden to them during daylight hours will always be appreciated and will go a long way toward building stronger relationships with your counterparts.

Ramadan is meant to bring Muslims to a higher level of spirituality, and they are encouraged to become better Muslims throughout the month. This includes making special efforts to read the Qu'ran, performing all five prayers every day, and avoiding secular entertainment as much as possible. Many restaurants and businesses are closed throughout the day, and more people increase their religious activities than might be observed during other times of the year.

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4. Zakat: Alms Giving

All Muslims are obligated to donate part of their wealth to the poor. The Sunni traditionally give at least 2.5% of their wealth, while most Shia believe 5% is appropriate. There is no official way one must give zakat, but in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, it is collected by government agencies. In Indonesia, some people give zakat to a government-supported agency that helps redistribute the money to the needy. Muslims living in other countries usually pay their zakat directly to mosques or to charitable groups.

5. Hajj: Pilgrimage to the City of Mecca

There are two main types of pilgrimage in Islam, umrah and hajj. Umrahis a voluntary pilgrimage made to Mecca at any other time of the year than during the month of dhu al-hijja, the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. Haj, on the other hand, is the obligatory pilgrimage that every able-bodied Muslim is required to make at least once in their lifetime and it must take place from the 8th to 12th day of the 12th month of the Islamic calendar.

Roughly three million Muslims come to Mecca in western Saudi Arabia each year for the hajj, making it one of the largest annual gatherings in the world. The hajj requires Muslims to perform a series of rituals commemorating significant events in the history of Islam.

This is where the terms 'Hajj' (males) and 'Hajja' (females) come from. These are honorary titles given to Muslims who have completed this pilgrimage.

Sunni and Shi'a

Since so many Airmen are deployed to predominantly Muslim cultures, you should know a little about the differences between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims. Their philosophical differences stem from the time just after the death of the prophet Muhammad. Some followers wanted one of Muhammad's most faithful companions to lead the faith, while others preferred the position to go to a descendant of Muhammad, and so stay within his

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family. The first group eventually became known as Sunni Muslims while the second group eventually became the Shi'a Muslims.

Such beliefs play out in the ways the religion is practiced. Since they believe that spiritual power passed down through the family of Muhammad, Shi'as hold that the authority of imams is infallible, making them almost revered. On the other hand, Sunnis see imams more as scholars who have built their knowledge through study and are able to give spiritual guidance based on their expertise.

Shi'as also observe certain traditions that Sunnis do not. They commemorate the deaths of influential imams and other important persons in Shi'a Islam and make pilgrimages to shrines consecrated to them. Sunnis see these practices as going against Muhammad's injunction not to revere people, but only God.

A comparable difference would be the beliefs Christians hold about the role of priests versus ministers/preachers. Catholics believe that an expert clergyman, one ordained by the authority of the church, is needed to absolve them of their sins before God. Most Protestants believe that each believer can pray directly to God for absolution.

For more information about Sunni-Shi'a differences, visit these web sites:

http://islam.about.com/cs/divisions/f/shia_sunni.htm

http://www.religioustolerance.org/islam.htm

For more information about Islam or religious practices of Muslims, visit these sites:

http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/index.htm

http://www.religioustolerance.org/islam.htm

Hinduism: Ethnic Religion at the Center of Daily Life

It is virtually impossible to separate the religion of Hinduism from the culture of India. Even though India is an extremely diverse country in terms of religious practice with more than 300 million Muslims, and millions of Christians, Sikhs, and members of other religious groups, Hindus make up more than 80% of the population.[7] Even those who are not devout Hindus are profoundly influenced by the religion,

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since there are very few regions of the country in which ideas of proper behavior are not dictated by religion-inspired laws.

The Caste System

Perhaps no aspect of Hinduism's impact on culture in India is more pronounced than in the strict social hierarchy prescribed in what is called the caste system. In India, the state most people associate with Hinduism, the caste system has actually been outlawed since 1949. However, its tenets are still practiced by many Hindus and the system still has a deep effect on Indian society.

The religious origins of the caste system are intimately tied to Hinduism's teachings on reincarnation. Unlike Western religions, Hinduism teaches that one's soul moves through a series of births, lives, deaths, and rebirths, with the quality of the next life depending on the deeds performed during the previous life. This accumulation of good and bad deeds is known as karma.

Similar to Buddhism, the Hindu notion of "salvation" results when one may end this cycle and reach a state in which the soul desires nothing. This state is called moksha. The caste system, therefore, is the earthly manifestation of karma in which one's social standing is determined by the quality of one's previous life. Brahmin castes (see below), therefore, are made up of old souls who have accumulated good karma and are closer to reaching moksha than members of the lower varnas. On a practical level, those who hold traditional Hindu beliefs often find it difficult to justify many social programs, because they believe people who are poor must go through a certain amount of suffering as part of their spiritual journeys.

There are literally thousands of castes (jati) in Hindu society, but they can be summarized into four main levels called varnas (each varna is made up of many

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different castes). The main four are: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra.

Here are details about the castes, ranked from those considered the highest in society to those considered the lowest.

1. Brahmins

Brahmins are members of the priestly class and are the most privileged members of society. Because Brahmins are considered to be the most ritually pure in a religious sense, they must be careful to maintain certain habits that are believed to maintain cleanliness. For example, they typically refrain from eating any meat product, they will often not eat food with or prepared by members of lower varnas (at least publicly), and many do not drink alcohol. In India, varna status does not always coincide with wealth, and not all Brahmins belong to wealthy families. Some own land while others do not. Since one's caste is believed to be determined through spiritual means, this does not pose a problem in Indian society. In a real sense, however, Brahmins typically enjoy certain advantages in terms of career choices and are more likely to have highly respected occupations than members of the other castes. It is rare for a member of this group to marry outside their varna.

2. Kshatriyas

Kshatriyas are traditionally the warrior and political castes. One tradition of this varna that is being reintroduced into Indian society is a collection of martial arts that are practiced and taught almost exclusively within the Kshatriya castes. The resurgent Hindu nationalist movement is one of the biggest proponents of this tradition. The other area in which Kshatriyas dominate is in the Indian military. Most U.S. Airmen will have contact with members of this varna—those who are considered fairly privileged members of Indian society. It is also within the Kshatriya varnas where one is likely to see the strictest notions of gender roles. Traditionally, male children are shown preference, and there are restrictions placed on women in terms of education and careers. This is changing some, especially in cities, but many of the strict gender roles of this varna persist today.

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3. Vaisyas

The Vaisyas are typically land-owning farmers. This varna constitutes an essential element of Indian society. As in many less-industrialized countries, the majority of Indians live in small villages and towns, not in cities. Like the other two varnas mentioned above, Vaisyas prefer their children to marry spouses of the same social standing.

4. Sudras

The Sudra Castes are the "blue collar" workers and servants within Hindu society. It is important to note that the Sudras make up the majority of Hindu societies not only in India, but in Nepal and the Indonesian island of Bali as well. As members of the lowest varna, Sudras are traditionally considered to be ritually unclean. Therefore, they have been prevented from performing religious rituals or reading the sacred Hindu texts. In contemporary society, this prohibition has loosened and many people from Sudra castes have become highly educated, not only in religious matters, but in the humanities and sciences as well. However, as is the case with the other varnas, traditions do persist, especially in rural areas.

5. Dalits

Another important social class exists in Hindu society, but it is not within the four accepted castes listed above. Collectively referred to as the dalits (the broken people) or the Ashprush (the untouchables), they perform duties that are forbidden to members of the other castes, such as slaughtering animals, making goods from cow-hide, cleaning and disposing of trash, and other "dirty" jobs. Even with the official elimination of the caste system, extreme discrimination can be seen against the dalits. In recent history, however, some members of the dalit castes have enjoyed political success in India's democratic elections. In a country of more than a billion people, they have been able to push the political agenda to some extent through sheer numbers alone.

For more information on Hinduism, visit these sites:

http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/index.htm

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http://www.religioustolerance.org/hinduism.htm

Judaism: The first of the Abrahamic faiths

Since Judaism is a 4,000 year old religion, it is difficult to find a culture that has not been influenced in some way by Jewish teaching and philosophy.

From providing the basis of moral-ethical standards that permeate Western societies to influencing philosophies regarding government and legal issues, Jewish thinkers have in many ways shaped some of the core values of Americans, Europeans, and people from the Middle East and North Africa.

Though early Judaism was primarily centered in what is now the contested lands of Israel and Palestine, practicants could be found throughout the Fertile Crescent region and eventually the Roman Empire. Today, it is practiced by a relatively small number of people--14.5 million. Most contemporary practicants (about 6 million) live in Israel, while the U.S. is close behind (about 5.5 million).

History of Judaism

The "Father" of Judaism, Abraham, is believed to be a prophet who, after receiving directions from God, led his followers from Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean.

There, they were to establish an ideal society governed exclusively by God's laws. The history of the Jewish people has been intimately tied to a number of societies such as the Egyptian, Persian, Roman, and Ottoman Empires, and many western European states. One of the most significant events in early Jewish history was the rebellion against the Romans in 73 (C.E.) that resulted in the large-scale expulsion of the Jews from the eastern Mediterranean region. The group of Jews that left, known as the Jewish diaspora, spread into many parts of Europe, North Africa, and Asia.

Tenets and Texts

Judaism is a monotheistic and ethnic religion whose practitioners see themselves as God's chosen people with whom special agreements (covenants) have been made. The relationship between God and the Jewish people is one that has historically been seen as prescribing benefits and burdens to followers of the faith. The

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benefits include success in battle and the establishment of a homeland in which the Jewish people govern themselves, while the burdens include strict rules concerning proper behavior and practices in daily living.

Judaism is by and large an orthopraxic religion with the faith's major texts outlining more than 613 commandments. The Jewish Bible (Tanakh) includes descriptions of open communications between God and a select group of prophets. These communications establish behaviors and practices that are seen as essential to living in a fair and just society. They are given in the form of commandments, and adherence to them is required for the devout follower.

Christians are familiar with some of the commandments highlighted in the Tanakh in the form of The Ten Commandments as the Tanakh comprises the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. The most familiar part of the Tanakh to most Christians and Muslims is its first five sections collectively referred to as the Torah, also known as the five books of Moses. The majority of Jewish laws and customs are given in the Torah, while the rest of the Tanakh is devoted to writings of prophets and Jewish history, and is very similar to the Christian Old Testament.

In addition to the Tanakh, the Jewish people also rely on religious leaders' (Rabbis') opinions that have been collected over thousands of years.

This collection is called the Talmud, and it is used as a guideline for applying the teachings of the Torah to daily life. It is a constant challenge to interpret the laws of the Torah into a 21st century context, and Jewish scholars engage in constant study and debate on how best to keep the Jewish traditions alive in the contemporary world.

Divisions within Judaism

As we have seen, most major religions have internal divisions, or groups that disagree with one another about interpretations or practices of the religion. These groups are called sects, and when these groups openly contend with one another, it is called sectarianism. Sectarian conflicts in Judaism are rarely violent, and some practitioners even attend services in more than one synagogue so as to observe different religious practices throughout the year. Here are some of the major sects within Judaism.

HAREDI Haredic Jews, often referred to as the Haredim, are the most conservative. They adhere strictly to the more than 600 laws and commandments of the Torah. Because of their adherence to a literal interpretation of the laws of the Torah and their devotion to specific religious leaders, the Haredim tend to isolate themselves from society and live in highly concentrated and closed

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communities. The Haredim also practice strict segregation of the sexes both in religious and daily activities.

ORTHODOX

Orthodox Judaism teaches strict adherence to the laws and customs of the Torah, but allows for greater integration of its followers into contemporary society. Orthodox Jews maintain old traditions of segregation among the sexes during prayer times, but are free to participate in secular society so long as they are not forced to compromise their laws, such as eating non- kosher food or working on the holy day (Sabbath) beginning at sunset on Friday and ending 24 hours later on Saturday evening. It is interesting to note that the state of Israel recognizes only Haredi and Orthodox Judaism as legitimate forms of worship, and considers Conservative and Reform Judaism as illegitimate (see below).

CONSERVATIVE

Conservative Jews further integrate into contemporary society than the two sects described above. They attempt to follow religious law, but greater room for interpretation of the law is allowed. Unlike the Haredim and Orthodox practitioners, Conservative Judaism allows for women to take leadership positions and even become rabbis.

REFORM

Reform Judaism is a good example of syncretism, that is the process in which local culture and larger-scale religious beliefs merge to form practices that are unique to a specific place. Reform Judaism is a mixture of Jewish belief and the American cultural ideals of equal access to religious ideas. Most reform services are held in English, women can be ordained as rabbis, and kosher food laws are not strictly enforced (though individuals are free to follow them). Reform Judaism is least respected among the Orthodox Jewish communities in Israel, and its followers are not even considered Jewish by most Orthodox leaders. However, Reform Judaism has given Jews in the U.S. the freedom to worship as they wish and still maintain their cultural identity as Jews.

Judaism's Cultural Impact

As stated earlier in this lesson, Judaism's influence on Western culture is far greater than the number of Jewish practitioners would suggest. This is because it forms the basic elements of the two most widely practiced religions in the world: Christianity and Islam. Christians and Muslims do not necessarily hold the same interpretation of the Torah as do the Jews. However, there is no debate among serious Christian and Muslim scholars that the Jewish texts represent the general facts of the beginning of the world and moral- ethical behavior as defined by both of these larger world religions.

The most important commonality among all the Abrahamic faiths is their belief that a line of prophets beginning with Abraham has been given the authority to spread the message of a single God worshiped by members of all three faiths.

For more information about Judaism, visit these webpages:

http://www.jewfaq.org/index.htm

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http://www.religioustolerance.org/judaism.htm

http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/index.htm

Christianity: The West's dominant religion

Christianity is the most wide-spread and practiced religion in the world, with more than 2.1 billion followers spread across every continent.

As the second of the three Abrahamic faiths to emerge from the region we call the Middle East, it shares a common heritage with the Jewish people but differs significantly from Judaism in its scope, world view, and beliefs toward salvation and the afterlife.

While Judaism is seen by its followers as an exclusive religion of followers descended from a common group of ancestors, Christianity is a universalizing religion that proclaims it is the one true religion for all humanity.

For this reason, Christians have traveled around the world seeking converts since its earliest days. This practice has had a profound impact on global culture, especially as a result of the Christian European colonial era.

Christianity is a Messianic faith in which a special person acts as a conduit between people on Earth and God. Christians believe Jesus of Nazareth is this Messiah. They believe he was sent by God to Earth, where he was executed because of his beliefs and religious activities, an act that cleansed humanity of its sins. Then, he is believed to have arisen from the dead and opened the gates of Heaven for believers who follow him (the place where people who are saved go in the afterlife). People who choose to follow his teachings and pledge belief in Jesus' Messianic transformation may thus achieve salvation in the afterlife. If they are drawn toward evil thoughts and actions, they may forfeit their salvation unless they continually seek atonement from God through prayer and action.

History of Christianity

Christians believe the coming of Jesus of Nazareth (also referred to as Jesus Christ) was foretold in the Jewish scriptures and break their calendar into two sections: Before the birth of Christ (BC: year 0 on the Christian timeline) and after his birth (AD: Anno Domini which means "The Year of Our Lord"). The dominance of the Christian calendar around the world exemplifies how one major religion can have large-scale cultural impact, even among non-believers.

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Very little is known of the early childhood and daily life of Jesus of Nazareth. Scholars estimate he was roughly 30 years old when he performed his first miracle (turning water into wine at the Wedding of Cana) and he was probably 33 when he was put to death. Christians and Muslims attribute many miracles to Jesus, ranging from healing sicknesses to raising people from the dead, but unlike Christians, Muslims do not believe Jesus was the son of God in a literal sense.

Early followers of Jesus were persecuted throughout the early history of the Christian church, and many martyrs were brutally killed by a variety of groups, especially the Romans who saw Christians as disloyal to the empire. Under the rule of Constantine (306-337), however, persecution of Christians formally ended and Christianity became a legal religion in Roman lands. By the end of the 4th century Christianity became the official religion of the Romans and after this time emperors ceased to be worshiped as divine beings.

As a universalizing religion, Christianity quickly spread throughout the western world and became the dominant religion throughout Europe by the early Middle Ages.

Conflict and Divisions within Christianity

From the earliest days of the Christian faith there have been disagreements over the nature of the religion. Early Christians disagreed as whether Jesus was the son of God (the dissenters were led by a man named Arius, a leader whose followers became known as the Arians). In 325 Constantine convened the First Council of Nicaea in which church leaders determined the sacred nature of Jesus as the son of God. Also at Nicaea, however, a certain degree of tolerance toward different interpretations of the practice of faith (though not its central beliefs) became somewhat accepted. As a result, the stage was set for Christian groups to diverge slightly in matters of interpretation of scripture and ritualistic practice and the first schism within Christianity emerged in 431 among the churches in what we now call the Middle East.

The most major schisms within the church resulted in the split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches in the 11th century, and between the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the 16th century.

The First Schism

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The first schism, often referred to as the "Great Schism" resulted from the early split of the Christian church into two major branches, that of the Latin church centered in Rome and the Greek church in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). The leaders in each city disagreed with one another in matters of doctrine and the role of the church in society. Today, the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches are mutually accepted, but the Orthodox churches do not accept the authority of the Catholic Pope in Rome.

The second major schism of the Christian church is often referred to as the Protestant Reformation.

Protestant Reformation

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The figurehead of this Reformation was Martin Luther, a German priest whose dispute with the church centered on practices within the church that had become customary by the 16th century. In particular, Martin Luther's dispute had to do with the practice of priests selling indulgences. The church at that time believed that an indulgence was the cancellation of punishment after a sin had been ritually forgiven by a priest. While this was a common practice and belief, some church leaders had begun to sell indulgences for personal profit.

Martin Luther's criticism of the church also centered on his belief that the people of the church needed to have greater access to read the scriptures on their own.

His argument was that only the clergy understood the language of the church, Latin, and that the average person was being led astray by corrupt clergymen.

Luther's criticisms were outlined in his famous 95 Theses which laid out 95 issues he felt needed to be discussed, clarified, and addressed by the church. Martin Luther was excommunicated from the church,

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but a large number of people agreed with him and by the mid-1500s many churches in northern Europe had broken away from the Catholic church and a number of Protestant churches were established on the basis of Luther's 95 Theses.

It is important to note that the Catholic church itself has undergone a number of reforms, and many of Luther's major criticisms would not apply today. For example, a Catholic priest trying to sell indulgences or using his position for personal gain would be punished and removed from his position.

It would be impossible to go into detail about each of the branches of the Christian faith that exist today. It is important to list some of the main denominations of Christianity in order to understand the diversity of practice (though not necessarily beliefs) within Christianity. Christianity is by and large an orthodoxic religion, and while there are a variety of practices and rituals that are recognized by some Christian groups and rejected by others, the core values and beliefs among all Christians are relatively uniform. These beliefs are summarized by theologian Warren Matthews as:

Belief in one God who created all that exists

Jesus is the son of God and the savior of human-kind

Christians respond to God's love through good works

For more information about Christianity, visit these web sites:

http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/index.htm

http://www.religioustolerance.org/christ.htm

Summary

This lesson focused on providing a framework from which to understand the influence of religion on a society's culture. Though only four of the world's major religions have been reviewed in this lesson, we illustrated the universals that all religions hold in common.

For a quick view of the four major religions covered plus Judaism, solve the jigsaw puzzle.

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We can see that each of these religions mixes orthodoxy and orthopraxy differently. While Islam appears to have the only examples of pure theocracies, it is also clear that all of these religions have varying degrees of influence on governments and laws around the world. Some of the religions covered are eagerly engaged in proselyting new converts (universalizing), while others are less concerned with gathering converts, and may even forbid active conversion of others. All religions have sects or denominations that vary to some degree in their beliefs or practice.

As stated at the beginning of this lesson, the overall goal of this lesson was for you to recognize the indicators and impacts of religion on daily life in various cultures. To that end, you should now be able to:

1 Define religion and associated key terms, and explain its functions in society.

2 Identify characteristics of different types of religions.

3 Identify universals common to all religions, and describe some practices of religion in differentcultures.

4 Demonstrate understanding of and give examples of religious influence on environment and people,to include how it serves as a form of social control.

The cultural tools provided in this lesson are generally not new. Again, you are being asked to look below the surface of the water around the iceberg, because the behaviors observable in the domain of Religion are driven by some of the most significant values in a given society. This knowledge and understanding will prove valuable as you serve in various countries around the world, whether you are sent on a warfighting, peacekeeping, humanitarian, or relationship-building mission.

References

Lesson 8 Endnotes

[1] U.S. Air Force. 9 Feb 2017. Air Force Instruction 36-2706: Equal Opportunity Program, Military and Civilian. Online. Available at: http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a1/publication/afi36-2706/afi36- 2706.pdf

[2] Ember, Carol R., Melvin Ember, and Peter N. Peregrine. 2005. Anthropology, 11th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. P. 447

[3] Matthews, Warren. 2003. World Religions. Belmont, CA: Thompson-Wadsworth, pp. 2-4.

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[4] Knox, Noelle. 10 Aug 2005. "Religion Takes a Back Seat in Europe." USA Today. Online. Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-08-10-europe-religion-cover_x.htm

[5] Sopher, David. 1967. Geography of Religions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

[6] Menu. 2011. McDonald's India. Online. Available at: http://www.mcdonaldsindia.net/home.aspx

[7] India. 17 May 2011. The Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook. Online. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html