Culture

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Language & Communication Lesson 5

Introduction

Communication is the activity of transmitting information between people.[1]

It is more comprehensive than spoken language, which is just one communication method for transmitting information. This lesson focuses on verbal and nonverbal aspects of communication, cultural differences in communication, and the role of communication in cross-cultural interaction.

This lesson also looks at contextual factors that influence communication, and we'll introduce strategies to help you be a more effective cross-cultural communicator.

We often have difficulties communicating with people from our own culture, but when encountering people from different cultures, the possibility for miscommunication multiplies.

In fact, one of the easiest and quickest ways to create unnecessary conflict is to miscommunicate.

Relationships, rapport, and cooperation - all essential to mission accomplishment - cannot occur without effective and appropriate communication.

As in every lesson thus far, observing and orienting are paramount to your success in the domain of Language and Communication.

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You should use your OODA Loop techniques to familiarize yourself with the specific communication norms of any country you visit.

Lesson Objectives

It's important to keep Lesson Objectives in mind as you go through the rest of the lesson. All of your exam questions - and life skills - are built around understanding these objectives:

1. Identify various verbal and nonverbal features of communication.

2. Provide contrastive examples of verbal and nonverbal features of communication that differ from those of the American macro-culture.

3. Comprehend the role and application of context in communicating.

4. Describe the relationship of Time & Space to communication styles

5. Explain strategies to help you avoid misunderstandings when communicating with people from other cultures.

Cultural Domains

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This lesson is the first in a series of lessons dedicated specifically to one or more domains of culture. If you recall from lesson one, cultural domains are categories of human interaction, belief, and meaning that every culture shares. These domains, or categories, are used throughout this course as a tool for comparison and making sense of cross cultural experiences. For a brief "refresh" of each domain, see below.

This lesson examines the domain of Language & Communication first because effective communication underlies all of our other cultural activities. It will refer back to information in this lesson throughout the rest of the course.

We are often drawn to talk about differences between cultures, yet all cultures also share certain universal characteristics, or "universals." Therefore each domain lesson begins by asking you to think of some universals of culture related to this domain. Then you can compare your answers to those provided. This comparison provides your basis for learning more about the domain. Recognizing patterns and universal characteristics can help you move toward becoming more cross-culturally competent.

Communication is one domain where it is easy to point out cultural variety. Even within our own cultural groups, we continually change our verbal and nonverbal means of communicating, and these can differ according to situation, environment, audience, and roles.

So, just what are aspects of communication that EVERY human culture shares? Jot

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down a few suggestions, then go to the next page.

Communication Universals

Here are the universals for the domain of Language & Communication that we have identified:

All people use language to communicate. Experts estimate that there are more than 7,000 living languages.[2]

In addition to the words we speak, all people verbally modulate their voice to indicate surprise, a command, a question, etc.

A large part of communication is nonverbal, including body language, interpersonal distance, and touch.

Language continually changes as a result of internal cultural shifts and cross-cultural contact.

Communication shapes culture and culture shapes communication.

How did your list compare to ours?

Some people think universals are just "common sense." However, when we recognize aspects of culture as universal, then we can use that knowledge to spotlight the differences:

how do people modulate their voice in this culture?

what kinds of body language do they use and what do they mean?

how are language and communication changing in this culture?

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We can also use the universals to compare our culture to theirs. You will find that discovering cultural similarities is a quick way to break the ice with someone from another culture.

The Terminal

In the upcoming movie clip, communication between the characters breaks down because of aspects of nonverbal communication, paralanguage, and the different expectations that each person brings to their conversations.

Paralanguage is verbal communication other than the words themselves. It includes features of spoken communication such as volume, rate of speech, word emphasis, tone of voice, and even the sounds we make when yawning or pausing to think ("ummm, uhh").[3]

Before watching the clip, open up the Cultural Log exercise to help you think through and note the different reasons for the communication breakdown. This lesson addresses the topics you see illustrated here throughout the lesson. Click below to download a copy of this exercise, which you can use to record your responses and save for future reference.

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Cultural Log Exercise 5.1: Nonverbal language and Paralanguage

The most important parts of the clip are from 0:38 to 6:45. Pay particular attention to:

hand gestures

physical space

tone of voice

ways of showing "politeness" and "rudeness

Also, think about how one misunderstanding might lead to another, or how these interactions set the scene for future interactions between the people involved.

Here is the clip:

It may be interesting to note that this clip is adapted and rebroadcast by a site that teaches people English through popular films. Why would the site developers choose this film? What does it tell viewers about U.S. culture and some of our communication styles? Because there are some mistakes in their grammar and transcription in the subtitles, we think that the developers of these teaching clips are not native English speakers. Why would non-native English speakers choose this clip to demonstrate U.S. customs? It could be that they are concerned with vocabulary, and The Terminal gives all of that, and more. It could also be that they are revealing their own stereotypes about Americans, or simply poking fun at Americans, just as the filmmakers did here. What do you think?

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Rather than give a follow-up listing of what we found while watching the video clip this time, this lesson discusses these topics throughout. Towards the end, there's another clip that offers a reading that addresses cross-cultural communication in U.S. military operations.

Understanding the Importance of Context

All communication happens in context and all of the factors that surround a communication exchange make up the context. Our glossary definition of Context is "the circumstances, environment, background, history, personalities or facts that occur in conjunction with, and provide meaning to, that incident."

The previous lessons talked about:

identities

roles

and their impact on how you relate to others

These examples above are always a part of the context. Other factors may include:

the environment

the cultural rules

the way you are dressed

the participants' mental states

the hidden agendas or goals

and shared knowledge or cultural schema

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In other words, anything that impacts the communication event may be a factor. Contextual factors may be:

visible or invisible

mental or physical

cultural or environmental

and in many cases are implied

It is important to understand that context influences what people say, or don't say. It's also necessary to know that people and cultures place different degrees of emphasis on the importance of context in relaying (or receiving) their message. In striving for cross cultural competence, it is imperative to watch for contextual cues which are discussed later in this lesson.

Recall a time where you had to try to figure out what another person really meant because they just wouldn't "come out and say it in plain English." Or, you may have been the one who felt certain things did not need to be said because they were just so obvious. When one relies on the situation to do the talking for them, they are relying on context.

This is not how most North Americans communicate - instead, most rely on words to send messages. In contrast, this is frequently not the case with many other cultures, and being unaware of context is a common cause of misunderstanding or offending people who are culturally different. Keep this concept in mind as you read the upcoming paragraphs about verbal and nonverbal features of communication. This lesson delves deeper into the idea of context later on, and you will revisit it several more times throughout the course.

Features of Communication

Language is only one part of communication, and in spoken language, words carry only part of the actual meaning.

The rest is in how we deliver the message. Our tone,

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facial expressions, body language, even the proximity of the speaker to the listener is important in conveying meaning. The next two sections introduce various features of verbal and nonverbal communication.

Verbal Features of Communication: Paralanguage

First, let's look at paralanguage.

Paralanguage includes features of spoken communication such as:

volume

rate of speech

word emphasis

tone of voice

the sounds we make when yawning or pausing to think ("ummm, uhh").[3]

You've noticed these features all your life: how do you know when someone is asking a question? Is angry or sad? Now consider the fact that these same features, rising intonation for a question or a raised, strident voice when angry, don't mean the same thing in another language.

That's why you must learn to do two things to improve your cross-cultural communication skills:

1 learn about the paralanguage in the culture where you are stationed or deployed

2 monitor your own paralanguage so you can communicate more effectively

Number 2 includes educating your interpreter or people with whom you interact regularly about the way you speak, or it might even consist of your adopting local paralanguage to a certain extent.

What features of paralanguage did you observe in the excerpt from The Terminal?

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We noticed Mr. Navorski seemed enthusiastic about visiting New York, that the Officer was generally calm, but that the Director's authoritative tone and rate of speech indicated both his impatience and his importance.

The Director's paralanguage might also be related to his cultural background as a New Yorker.

Let's look at another example that highlights how miscommunication based partly on paralanguage can have very negative consequences.

Talk the Talk

"In January, 1991, James Baker, then the United States Secretary of State, met with Tariq Aziz, the foreign minister of Iraq. They met in an effort to reach an agreement that would prevent a war. Also present in the room was the half-brother of Saddam Hussein, whose role included frequent calls to Hussein with updates on the talks. Baker stated, in his standard calm manner, that the U.S. would attack if Iraq did not move out of Kuwait. Hussein's half-brother heard these words and reported that "the Americans will not attack.

They are weak. They are calm. They are not angry. They are only talking."

Six days later Iraq saw Operation DESERT STORM and the loss of about 175,000 of their citizens."[4]

Click on the image above to hear the entire press conference!

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The author suggests that the Iraqis may have taken Secretary Baker's words more seriously had he pounded the table, yelled and shown outward signs of anger. Do you think Sec. Baker understood Iraqi paralanguage when delivering his message? One might argue yes or no!

Nonverbal Features of Communication

There are various types of non‐verbal communication, including:

gestures

postures

facial expressions

eye contact

physical contact

spatial distance

clothing

hair styles

body art

One expert suggests that 55% of communication is made up of body language and gestures.[5] The chart below shows some of these that we'll be studying, along with their more technical terms from the field of intercultural communication:

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION TECHNICAL TERM

Body Language Kinesics: how we use gestures, postures, and facialexpressions

Personal Space Proxemics: how we negotiate our personal space

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Use of Touch Haptics: how we send messages through touch

Eye Contact Oculesics: how we look at other people during communication

Through experience and coaching, and through good observation skills, most people can learn to avoid flagrant mistakes with nonverbal communication and better understand others' actions in a particular cultural context. Before we look at each topic, test yourself below with the quiz questions related to body language, or kinesics.

Review the following photos and determine which meaning is not applicable to the particular gestures.[6]

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The point of this exercise is not to learn what these gestures mean in other countries. It is to emphasize a very important fact:

Although body language is a universal component of communication, not all body language can be used universally!

There are no gestures that you can ever assume are always Ok to use, because they may very well mean different things in different cultures.

The Importance of Body Language

Many people wrongly assume that body language can be used universally when the ability to use verbal language is limited. That is so important, we are going to say it again: Many people wrongly assume that body language can be used universally. However previously demonstrated, it is extremely important to understand kinetic messages, since they can often be misconstrued, cause insult, or even have more tragic outcomes.

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Here is an example of the latter that happened in Iraq in 2005:

A Simple Signal

The car rapidly approached the checkpoint. The Soldier signaled the driver to slow down by pumping his hands palms down, arms outstretched toward the ground, but the driver failed to respond. The Soldier then signaled the driver to stop by holding his arms out and his palms up towards the driver; again there was no response. The Soldier then fired warning shots in front of the oncoming car, but the driver merely swerved away from where the bullets impacted and sped up. Interpreting this action as hostile, the Soldier then fired at the driver, killing him.

Surviving occupants of the car said they were only trying to get away from a hazardous area. When questioned on why they did not slow down or stop, they said that they did not know what the hand signals meant and that they thought the first shots fired were intended to hit them but missed.[7]

To an Iraqi, the hand signal for "slow down" is usually to clasp all four fingers together as you see in the photo, and then move your arm up and down with the back of your hand toward the driver.

The Iraqi hand signal for "stop" has been an object of debate among U.S. military personnel. It will be best to ask a local Iraqi (or local person of any culture you visit) for a specific demonstration of how to stop a car.

For a more in-depth look at how people from other cultures interpret vehicle checkpoints, check out this article found HERE.

Although the article concerns the situation in Iraq in 2005, it really shows the need for more perspective-taking in order to save lives.

Go on to the next page to learn more about body language, or kinesics.

Body Language: Kinesics

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Let's look at the messages we express through our gestures, body composure and facial expressions. Known as kinesics, this is one of the most prevalent forms of nonverbal communication.

Consider, for example, the different connotations of a smile.

While we may assume that there is a universal interpretation that a smile means happiness, it can also mean different things. For example, in Japanese culture, a smile may signal joy but it can also be used to mask embarrassment, hide displeasure or sadness, suppress anger, or serve as an apology. In Russia, facial expressions are used as important cues in negotiation. While Americans tend to smile to show friendliness and to welcome or begin a conversation, Russians tend to begin a meeting with a stern face, saving their smile to signify that a good relationship is developing.

Our body composure also speaks a thousand words, particularly in high context cultures. An innocent stance or movement can inadvertently cause offense.

Consider, for example, a comfortable seated position for many American men, in particular, who may cross their legs with their ankles close to their knees.

While most Americans and westerners may not think twice about this, showing the soles of the feet to some Arabs is incredibly insulting since the bottoms of the feet are considered dirty. (In many Middle Eastern cultures, it is common to remove the shoes altogether when entering someone's home.) Of course, Arabs who have interacted and developed some familiarity with westerners will understand there is no intended insult if they find the sole of an American foot facing them. While they may be able to overlook that, it is still a way they could communicate disrespect towards others.

An actual example of this happened to a visiting United States President! While speaking in front of a group in Iraq several years ago, President G.W. Bush found himself 'ducking' when a journalist threw a shoe at him. Although it seemed a bit comical to many Americans, it was intended to be a great insult. Click on the image to see the video.

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As a reminder, however, there is not a "one size fits all" approach and many micro-cultures do not necessarily apply the same rules in terms of this protocol. It is therefore always advisable never to assume that you know the practice and instead apply some of the tactics you are learning in this course to observe the other's behavior and ask the appropriate questions to know the best path to take.

You're in My Space!

Proxemics is the technical term for how we negotiate our personal space, and is another form of nonverbal communication.

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Definition of Proxemics is the theory of nonverbal communication based on how people perceive and use space when communicating.

We all have an appropriate "space bubble" that is often unconscious and can be easily misinterpreted. For example, an American of European descent tends to stand about 20 inches from someone during a conversation.

For the average Saudi, however, a comfortable

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distance is approximately 9-10 inches. When a European-American and a Saudi interact, the potential for negative perception of the other is heightened. The American would most likely consider the Saudi to be rude and intrusive of his private space while the Saudi would probably view the American as aloof, cold, or even not to be trusted.

Therefore, it's important in any cross-cultural interaction to be aware that your concept of personal space may differ from that of the person with whom you are communicating.

This varies not only according to culture in general, but according to gender roles within a particular culture. For example, a wife may stand in her husband's personal space, but may feel uneasy if another woman does it. Likewise, some cultures may have one set of rules about proxemics between men and women, and another set of rules about man-to-man and woman-to-woman interactions.

Haptics: Messages via Touch

Cultural attitudes towards physical touching also vary enormously from culture to culture.

Haptics is the study of how people use touch to communicate. Results from mismanaged haptics can range from mild amusement to confusion to insult, depending on the circumstances.

Observe, for example, an interaction between two people of the same gender from another culture. You may observe a lot of touching, ranging from hugs to hand holding. In many other cultures this is more acceptable than in ours, and can reinforce bonds or demonstrate alliances between people. On the other hand, in those same cultures it is usually considered unacceptable for people of opposite genders to touch each other in

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public. This reverses our American perception. Of course, behaviors vary across the world, so use your OODA skills to observe and orient to any new situation.

Eye Contact

Eye contact in communication, or oculesics, is another area filled with unspoken meaning.

In many parts of the U.S., it is common to look one's conversational partner in the eye for a period of time to indicate engagement. Holding the gaze too long is likely to cause discomfort because the recipient may feel as though he or she is being stared at. On the other hand, not receiving much or any direct eye contact is distressing in that the conversational partners may feel ignored, are bored or cannot be trusted.

In the U.S. macro-culture, direct eye contact is usually associated with respect and attentiveness. In some Asian cultures, the very same behavior is a sign of disrespect or aggressiveness. One author writing about Japan notes that:

"making direct eye contact makes people rather squeamish and uncomfortable, and in business I suppose that having your clients or partners relax would be best. Though in the US, for example, direct eye contact is seen in a positive light- -denoting honesty, sincerity, self-confidence, and trustworthiness- -in Japan it can be taken as proof of vanity, hubris, overconfidence, and rudeness."[8]

One Laotian man noted that he knows Americans like to look at a person when they are speaking, but when they do it to him, he still feels a bit angry at the person, even after having lived in the U.S. for 20 years. Culture is indeed deeply ingrained in our behavior!

As we noted earlier in our Cultural Log exercise, nonverbal communication factors, such as eye contact, can change the intended meaning of a message in ways we might never expect.

Communication Styles and Context

Now that we have identified some of the more common features of communication that affect cross-cultural interactions, let's look at a deeper element of communication: the influence of worldview and context on communication.

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World View

You should remember from Lesson 1 that worldview is the totality of a person's experiences, cultural background, and beliefs and values. One aspect of worldview is the degree to which people think it's "natural" that there are status differences in society, and the ways they treat people of different statuses. The concept of Power Distance in communication is tightly connected to a person's worldview concerning status.

Power Distance is the "extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally."[9]

In other words, every culture accepts the "pecking order" a little differently.

In cultures with a higher degree of power distance, the language subordinates use with their superiors is more deferential and less contradictory. Here you might reflect upon the military micro-culture in the U.S., which tends to be more hierarchical than mainstream U.S. culture. Consider the ways that this influences your communication, from nonverbals such as saluting superiors, to addressing superiors and officers formally as "Sir" and "Ma'am" and using their rank.

A high reverence for and emphasis on hierarchy (power distance) impacts decision-making and initiative. It is responsible for much of the frustration U.S. military members oftentimes experience when dealing with military members from other cultures who appear unable to make decisions or take initiative at times. In extreme cases, this perceived dithering may even costs lives.

When reviewing a rash of Korean air crashes, investigators found that in nearly every instance, black box recordings revealed that someone in the cockpit had tried to warn the pilot of impending trouble, but

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based on the culture of hierarchy and respectful communication, could not make this clear enough to save the lives of everyone involved. The more you understand the power distance that exists within different cultures, the more you can tailor your communication accordingly.

In addition, as you go through your Air Force career and observe other foreign militaries, you may notice that enlisted members are treated with much less respect than you might expect; even some abusiveness. This often extends to the types of jobs they are allowed to do. Ensuring that some people can only have a low level or low status job will help preserve a high power distance culture.

Air Florida Flight 90

Unfortunately, it is not only Koreans who have a culture of high power distance in airliner cockpits. On January 13, 1982, a 737 airliner crashed into the Potomac River in Washington DC just seconds after take-off during a severe snowstorm.

78 of the 82 people aboard, including the captain and first officer, perished in that crash.

Although the first officer mentioned both the ice and the peculiarity of the instrument panel readings, the pilot ignored his warnings and proceeded to take off.

Investigators determined that had the pilot listened to the warnings of the first officer and followed proper established procedure, they would have had plenty of time to abort the take-off.

Click video below for a 10-minute video animation and captioning of the cockpit conversation.

Here is the text version of the flight-deck conversation for the doomed airliner.

High Context Communication Styles

As we get into our discussion about high and low context communication styles, we do want to emphasize that no culture is always 100% low context or high context (or for that matter, 100% high or low power distance). Think of peoples' behaviors as existing on a spectrum or a continuum with each culture somewhere along the way.

When listening to someone speak, people in relatively high context

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cultures pay more attention to the message's context, verbal cues, and nonverbal cues than people in relatively low context cultures.[10]

A message's context, or its surrounding and influencing factors, is influenced by:

the roles of the people communicating and those around them

the hierarchy between the people present

the speaker's relationship to the group

the history of the people involved, among other factors

A culture's worldview also influences the ways people interpret the meaning of context in communication. Many cultures like those predominant in East Asia (Japan, Korea and China), as well as most Middle Eastern, Arab, Latino, and Mediterranean cultures tend toward high context communication styles.

In these cultures, one's relationship to the group is a dominant factor in any interaction; it must be preserved and enhanced at all times.

For this reason, people with high context communication styles tend to consider how their words and actions reflect on the reputation of their family and their group (whether that is tribe, ethnicity, religion, etc.) They are more likely to postpone making decisions since that would be disrespectful to those in the hierarchy above them. They are also less likely to disagree publicly with someone or openly criticize another person, since that would reflect poorly on the other person's family/reputation, and might bring that person's whole clan down upon the offender.

These many tendencies lead towards a communication style that favors the listener's ability to read between the

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lines, understand intonation, and slight gestures. Speakers tend to choose words that are ambiguous, knowing that an adept listener will understand based on the context of the interaction. Lessons are taught through analogies, parables, or other stories that illustrate knowledge and wisdom. These are not attempts to be sneaky, disrespectful, or obtuse. Instead, this is the way people in more high context cultures have grown up communicating, and it seems natural to them.

In this type of communication style, it is the receiver's responsibility to properly decode the message.

In Japan, for example, preserving harmony within the group and saving face are critically important. Communication leans towards nonverbal subtleties and messages that allow the listener to read between the lines of what is actually being said. You would be more likely to hear indirect criticisms or allusions to a person's behavior, rather than outright critiques.

People in cultures that tend toward high context communication are not likely to outright refuse a request. Doing so might offend the asker and damage the long-term relationship between the parties. It might not be up to that person to give his or her assent, because of the hierarchical nature of their group relationships. Saying yes might also draw undue criticism to a person for making promises that may not be kept. A high context communicator may therefore be vague, using phrases such as "it might be difficult", "it would not be a problem", or "Inshallah" that will not definitely commit them to a course of action.[11]

Again, it is assumed that an intelligent person will correctly interpret the information.

Note: High power distance cultures tend to be more high context communicators than lower power distance cultures. When you think about it, it makes sense, doesn't it? If one is ever-mindful of hierarchy, power difference, and deference, one is being mindful of the context and how it supports the message one sends or receives.

Low Context Communication Styles

When listening to someone speak, people in relatively low context cultures pay more attention to the explicit wording of the verbal message.[12]

Low context communicators often explain with lots of detail, facts, and statistics

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with little regard given to how the message is delivered.

They favor communication that gets directly to the point rather than communicating through analogies and high context hints.

In this communication style, it is the sender's responsibility to provide a clear message that can easily be decoded by the receiver.

Many individual-oriented cultures like those predominant in the U.S., Canada, Germany, and much of northern Europe, tend toward low context communication styles.

This is not to say that group membership and hierarchy are not valued, but people pay deference to their role in the hierarchy by taking responsibility on themselves.

They need to prove their point with verifiable information, since they don't rely on the power of their social group to back them up. Since saving face for the group (group reputation) is less of a concern, "saying what you mean and meaning what you say" are more highly valued characteristics in low context communication.

This will be explained further in the next two lessons which cover different kinds of groups.

Once again, high and low context exists on a spectrum. You might get an unwelcome surprise sometime if you are operating under the belief that a culture is 100% low context and then you find you have been missing some important information by not paying attention to surrounding circumstances, environment, or verbal and nonverbal nuances.

Click on the video to see how Erin Meyer, author of The Culture Map, describes the interactions between high and low context communicators.

Context and Time Orientation

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Lesson 4 introduced the Time and Space domain and the ideas of linear versus cyclical time orientation. Recall, that lesson described that these views of time impact how different cultures view places and the meaning assigned to places. This next section revisits those terms and concepts as they relate to communication.

How to regard the best use of time varies dramatically from one culture to the next and demonstrates yet another form of nonverbal communication called chronemics. Chronemics is the use of time as a nonverbal form of communicating.

The different approaches we have to time and time management can create problematic misunderstandings when two people interact. Many of these are directly relatable to high and low context communication styles.

High context societies and communicators tend to have a polychronic orientation towards time.

Polychronic time orientation fully accepts and expects unpredictability and unforeseen events. Therefore, attention is given to long-term relationships between parties, as well as the belief that time management (in the American sense) is not as important as relationships between individuals and groups.

Respect is gained through attention to interpersonal relationships more than through meeting deadlines or "to the point" communication.

Polychronic time orientation is frequently the norm in high context societies. In high-context cultures, it is usually essential to establish trust with your counterpart before you can proceed with business. Therefore,

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they tend to mix business and personal priorities, providing the impression to a typical Americans that they do not focus on one thing at a time.

Polychronic tendencies are also often found in the same cultures or people that hold a cyclical orientation to time that views past, present, and future as interconnected and bound to repeat. It is interesting to note that some languages have no forms of past or present tenses to differentiate between past, present, or future. The interpretation is based entirely on the context of the conversation!

Low context societies and communicators tend to have a monochronic sense of time.

This is a view that time is limited and meant to be used efficiently. Efficiency can be shown (for example) by only having to say something only once; and respect is communicated to others by being on time and finishing one's work according to agreed upon deadlines.

A monochronic culture such as the American macro-culture, sees time-- especially on the job or operational mission-- as a limited commodity to be used towards problem-solving. Wasting time (such as sitting down for tea for relationship-building) while managing a task is viewed as frivolous or less than dedicated. This striving for efficiency and results often correlates with a linear sense of time. Linear orientation to time, as a reminder, focuses on progress and moving forward.

Based on these descriptions of high and low context communication styles, along with time orientation tendencies, you can probably see the potential for misunderstanding and discord between people who are accustomed to different ways of sending messages and building relationships. The next page examines these causes even more.

Differences Based on Interpretation of Context

Here is a helpful chart comparing major points of high context vs. low context communication tendencies.

HIGH CONTEXT LOW CONTEXT

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How the message is conveyed is essential, details are secondary

Meaning is considered to lie in the verbal message, not as much in its delivery; lots of details (explanation) expected

Group relationships influence sending and receiving messages; emphasis is on saving face for group, deferring to higher authority

Group relationships not as important to sender and receiver as personal respect and responsibility

Nonverbal cues predominate Preference for verbal over nonverbalcommunication

Polychronic concept of time, handle each situation as it comes, accept that change is imminent

Monochronic concept of time, adherence to schedules, agendas and step-by-step approach. Changes, delays, or interruptions are dealt with as anomalies

When people with these two types of tendencies interact, they often experience conflict based on their communication styles rather than on their dedication to a particular mission.

For example, high context communicators are apt to become impatient and irritated when low context communicators insist on pinning down task or time specifics, rather than trusting that these things will happen. Conversely, low context communicators are at a loss when high context communicators do not provide enough explicit information about how to proceed or whom to talk to. They may also tire easily of hearing analogies instead of facts.

As you can imagine, the American military epitomizes the low context culture and communication style. What we consider direct, concise, and clear language is valued and expected, and we also expect other people to deliver their message quickly. Anything else is typically reacted to with impatience, confusion, frustration and possibly even contempt.

However, people who have worked closely overseas with allies, local populations and non‐governmental organizations attest that mission success is often directly linked to their ability to adapt to a different, typically high context, communication style. Your counterparts may judge you more respectful or trustworthy if you understand, respect, and adjust to their way of communicating. Consider teaching them about your way of communicating, so that you are both better understand each other's styles.

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Using the example given on the Paralanguage page, Secretary Baker might have been able to better communicate his message to the Iraqis if he had been more aware of the need to stress his message using paralanguage or nonverbal cues that appealed to the Iraqi tendency for high context communication. Likewise, if the Iraqis had known more about the low context American communication style, they could have interpreted his message as a serious threat.

As mentioned earlier, while cultures have a tendency towards one type of communication or another, there still exists a continuum. Given that most Americans tend to be low context communicators, there are certain situations when we adopt high context communication techniques--for example, when we roll our eyes or cross our arms.

Also, many micro-cultures found within the U.S. or in other countries may deviate from the communication context adopted by the macro-culture. Therefore, a golden rule is to use your OODA skills to observe and orient when communicating with others. They will give you verbal cues to help you understand the ways they send and interpret messages.

Cultural Log Exercise 5.2: High and Low Context Communication Styles

Use the following dialogue to complete this Cultural Log Exercise below. Meet MSgt Esra and Rashid!

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MSgt Esra: Rachid, we have been discussing this issue for several weeks now and our unit really needs to press forward. Can we count on your village to support us by letting us use some of your buildings for transit stops?

Rashid: God willing, it will happen.

MSgt Esra: Great! I will make sure that our legal team doesn't drop the ball and prepares a contract in the next week. It should be a no-brainer.

Rashid: But shouldn't we wait to make sure the road doesn't get washed out in the fall?

MSgt Esra: Well, we don't want to beat around the bush any longer. We really need to push forward to set up camp in the mountains before winter comes. Once this agreement has been finalized we can also start helping you re-build your infrastructure. We want to make sure there aren't any loose ends.

Rashid: Loose ends? You know, our buildings are really not in such good condition now and it would be most unfortunate for you to experience them this way.

MSgt Esra: Oh, there's no need to worry about that. (laughs) We don't need to stay at the Ritz! Besides, my men are used to roughing it.

Cultural Log Discussion Wrap Up

The clues that indicate Rashid is a high context communicator are: he defers his answer to the agreement by using the phrase "God willing"; he attempts to slow down the negotiation by pointing to outside factors that may interfere with completing the mission; and he offers the reputation of the group as a reason why their buildings may not be suitable for the troops.

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Rashid's message is non-committal. Using the term, "God willing" can be seen as a cue that Rashid is deferring his decision to another time or another person, or in fact, to God. He tries to redirect MSgt Esra's suggestion that they sign a contract by pointing to outside factors that may influence the troops' movements through the area.

Rashid's response that the village's buildings are not suitable for Esra's troops seems to again be focused on a lack of agreement and not on moving forward. Rashid may be trying to save face without having to say "no" to MSgt Esra.

MSgt Esra's message is to attempt an agreement and move forward. He wants to know he can rely on Rashid and his village, and that they are loyal to the mission. Esra also tries to allay Rashid's uneasiness about the buildings with the statement that his men are used to roughing it.

Both men are receiving different messages than what the speaker intended. MSgt Esra understands that Rashid has agreed, because he focuses on the message that "it will happen." Rashid seems baffled by the MSgt's approach to making an agreement (even though it's been months since they began talking about it). At one point, Esra repeats "loose ends", indicating that Rashid probably didn't understand this idiomatic expression at all. MSgt Esra may get angry when the legal team comes back empty handed, as it doesn't seem that both sides agree on the outcome of this negotiation.

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As for tips for MSgt Esra, the next pages offer strategies for improving your cross-cultural communication skills. Take the opportunity to check to see how well yours match with these.

In terms of the OODA Loop, MSgt Esra should review his observation skills, such as information gathering and then review his previous actions and interactions with Rashid. Second, Esra should review his orienting skills, such as coordinating information (asking others for their views on the situation and comparing past and current interactions with Rashid and others of this culture), and developing alternative explanations for what's going on if he detects any kind of misunderstanding.

Strategies for More Successful Communication

This section introduces several strategies to improve your cross-cultural communication skills. It's divided into three parts:

1 Becoming more aware of the effects of your communication style: we'll discuss how most Americans communicate and how you can evaluate and modify your communication patterns to be more successful

2 Building your knowledge about local communication customs: we'll offer tools for how to observe and interpret others' behaviors, especially related to high context and low context communications

3 Working with non-native English speakers: we'll give you ideas for how to work moreeffectively with interpreters and other non-native English language speakers

Investigate Your Own Communication Style

First, take an inventory of your own ways of speaking:

What sort of regional accent do you have?

How do other cultural factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, socio-economic class, education level, etc. influence your speech?

Has your way of speaking changed since you entered the Air Force? In what ways?

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What qualities of your speech might either help or hinder communicating across cultures?

Do you speak more than one language? If so, how has that knowledge and experience helped you communicate in cross-cultural situations?

In answering these questions above, can you begin to recognize that HOW you speak is influenced by your cultural background and your current experiences?

Cultural Tool 1: Improving Your Verbal Communication:

1

If you have the capability, audio record yourself speaking a few sentences, both in everyday conversation with colleagues, and as you read from a book or magazine. If you don't have the chance to record yourself, practice listening to other Americans speak and follow the same steps below. For example, you might try longer stretches of interviews with American service members, such as this of an interview with Capt. Dan Kearney (U.S. Army) from the film "Restrepo"[13]

2 Play back both versions and identify differences between your more informal and formal spoken English. Listen for the aspects of your speech that you noted in the inventory above, as well as for aspects that you didn't identify the first time. If you watch someone else speak, do a basic inventory on them to begin with, just as you did for yourself above.

3

Next, ask yourself and a colleague what aspects of your speech might be difficult for a non-native speaker of English to understand. Pay attention to:

your speed whether or not you chop off the ends of words leave out words like subjects or verbs run all your words together use a lot of slang have a strong regional accent.

If you are watching someone else, identify these same characteristics that may cause problems with another's understanding.

4 Make a list for yourself of ways you can cancel out those possible hindrances to another person'sunderstanding. Post it where you see it every day while deployed or stationed abroad.

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Here are our recommended strategies for Capt. Kearney. Because we recognize Kearney is speaking to an English-speaking audience in the video, these are general recommendations:

separate your words so each one can be heard: "IalwayswonderedwhyIwasintheKorengal" becomes "I" "always" "wondered" "why" "I" "was" "in" "the" "Korengal."

make sure to pronounce every syllable in the word: in Capt. Kearney's "I always", you can't hear the "al" part of "always."

Why are these good strategies? When people learn foreign languages in the classroom, they learn grammar rules and vocabulary words. They don't often learn how native speakers string words together until they get to higher levels of study. Remember your audience. Making yourself understood is important.

Learn More About Others' Communication Styles

The first thing you can do to learn more about local communication styles in a new culture is observe local people.

You know that you speak differently to your children and your friends than you do to your commanding officers. When you attain a higher rank, you likely speak to lower-ranking military service members differently compared to those of higher ranks. Now think about the nonverbal features of communication and the paralanguage that you use with each of these populations: children, friends, commanders, lower- ranking service members.

People in other cultures have as much variation in verbal and nonverbal communication as we do. However, this fact does not make cross-cultural communication an insurmountable task. Careful observation of both verbal and nonverbal communication can lead you to better information that can positively influence your cross-cultural interactions.

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Here's a tool similar to the exercises you completed in earlier lessons. This one specifically refers to nonverbal communication features.

Cultural Tool 2: Improving Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

1 Observe an interaction between two or more people from a culture different from yours. If you are not overseas, consider going to a restaurant or other establishment in your area that is frequented by people from other cultures. Use the "What Do You See?" tool from Lesson 3 to help you observe and orient to the interactions.

2

List your observations and how you interpret people's nonverbal communication. If possible, check with one or more persons from that culture to verify your interpretations and assumptions.

How closely did your explanations match theirs? How would you find out more?

We've offered many cultural resources throughout this course to get you started. You can also write to the Air Force Culture and Language Center or the Air University library for more information about a particular culture.

3 Respond to the following questions specific to communication:

Are the people in this culture as physically expressive as the people from your region of the U.S. (or if you are in the U.S., is it the same as your own micro-culture)? i.e. can you tell what emotions others feel through their facial expressions and body language?

Are there any physical gestures that you cannot decode?

What sort of physical contact do the people have with each other? Do you notice any differences between the genders?

What do their clothes communicate? Do the clothes communicate something different to you than you think they do to local people?

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Can you determine high or low context indicators (e.g. deference, power distance, directness, indirectness)?

Learning More: High and Low Context Cues

Another way of learning about others' communication styles is by noting the cues mentioned in the high context/low context communication styles section of this lesson.

You may want to review your Cultural Log exercise about MSgt Esra and Rashid, and the table that compares high context and low context styles found earlier in the lesson.

In that section, you learned that people in many cultures adjust their communication based on people's relative roles and positions in society.

Most Americans pay attention to roles and positions, but do not always focus on the influence of the group or the outcomes for a whole group, which a person from a more relationship-oriented culture would do.

Nor would most Americans think more about group-to-group, long- term relationships than about their immediate goals. All of these factors are part of the context of communication. Whether with your own eyes and ears, or through interpreters, these cues are out there for you to observe and decode.

Enhancing your understanding of different communication contexts is therefore fundamental to successful communication in cross-cultural settings. Here are tips to add to your cultural toolbox to facilitate communication between high and low context communicators.

1 Avoid questions that require a "yes" or "no" answer.

2 Ask your interpreter or foreign counterpart to rephrase what they heard to determine how the messagewas interpreted.

3 Develop alternative ways to ask a question if the answer you receive is too vague for yourunderstanding.

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4 Observe facial expressions and non-verbal signs and, when in doubt, ask for their meaning.

5 Never assume that the message was interpreted in the way it was intended.

6 Always ensure that there is an understanding.

7 Be sure to give feedback in private to avoid loss of face.

If the above suggestions seem overly cautious, think back again to the example of Secretary Baker and his Iraqi counterpart, Tariq Aziz. Even if you are lucky enough to have your own interpreter, you should be cautious and think strategically when sending and receiving messages while in a foreign culture.

Working with Non-Native English Speakers

Working with translators, interpreters, and other non-native English speakers can be both rewarding and frustrating. On the one hand, you gain first-hand expert knowledge of another culture. On the other hand, you may be faced with many misunderstandings and the constant worry about making yourself understood, or being sure you've understood what others have said.

There are many resources publicly available, both military and non- military, for working with interpreters and non-native English speakers. The next page addresses ways you can improve communication with non-native English speakers, in general, by not using jargon and idioms. After that, there are suggested ways for you to learn more about local terms that can improve your understanding of others' worldview.

Such understanding and effort can also enhance your cross-cultural relationships. Finally, since most people do not actually work closely with interpreters, let's offer some optional information regarding the Airman- interpreter working relationship.

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Reduce Your Use of Jargon, Idioms, and Profanity

A good rule to help you communicate with people whose native language is not English, or who come from a different language environment than yourself, is to avoid two particular aspects of language that cause a lot of problems in cross-cultural communication. These are jargon and idioms.

Jargon includes special terms or vocabulary used by people within a particular cultural group.[14] One example of jargon is scientific or technical vocabulary and acronyms that are not understood by anyone without that special training. MilitaryWords.com contains over 5,700 U.S. Department of Defense terms and over 150,000 military and government acronyms and abbreviations. Try it out HERE!

Another example is the slang used by people in a tight- knit community, such as deployed troops. For example, 'soldier slang' in Iraq includes invented or redefined terms such as Fobbit (someone who never leaves base), Haji (a local person), Ali Baba (an enemy fighter), and Dad (short for Baghdad).[15] Some of these are actually offensive to the local population, but are "normal" for U.S. troops.

Creating and using jargon and slang is one way people differentiate themselves between self and other. Can you recall your own entry into the military (i.e., your "BMT") and how you had to learn to 'talk the talk?' By comparison, how often do you now use terms specific to the military in your on-the-job conversations? How about while off duty?

Idioms, or idiomatic expressions, are common phrases or sayings that mean something different than a literal translation of the words would imply. Like proverbs ("actions speak louder than words"), idiomatic expressions are based on cultural experience and knowledge, and therefore, can be very confusing to a non-native English speaker.

Here are some common examples of idioms confusing to non-native English speakers:

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How would you explain to a non-native English speaker the meaning of each idiom above and how it is used?

Referring back to your audio-recording (or the film clip) in Cultural Tool 1, did you notice any use of jargon or idioms? Use the same tool to monitor yourself periodically—you'll be surprised how many idioms creep into our daily conversations without notice. Consider for a moment, American slang related to sports. The next time you say someone isn't willing to "play ball," or "roll with the punches," or you tell them "the ball is in your court" and we're "down to the wire," remember these are idioms that have made it into our everyday language from sports terms, and are likely not understood by people in other cultures!

Profanity

Use of profanity deserves its own page. Here's why:

Since American films and television shows extend globally, and web sites like YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter are ubiquitous, many foreigners are familiar with common-use English profanity (swear words, curse words, expletives).

Not all cultures use profanity as much as Americans. In fact, swearing may even be considered so rude that those who swear are branded as bad people, poorly raised, or not respected. One AFCLC professor found this to be the case in Moldova, a former Soviet state in Eastern Europe. People speaking Moldovan, the national language, which is a close variant of Romanian, rarely curse. On the other hand, those same Moldovans often

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curse while speaking Russian; a lingua franca in Moldova among different ethnic groups. This may be because of the influence of Russian movies and other media in the region, but many Moldovans attribute this "bad" behavior to Russian culture in general.

In military situations, profanity can undermine a working relationship between Airmen and people from other cultures. In 2011, an Army Political and Military Behavioral Scientist conducted a study with both International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and Afghan National Security Force (ANSF) personnel.[16] His goal was to determine some of the underlying causes of animosity between the personnel that may have led to the increased number of attacks by ANSF on ISAF forces.[17]

The researcher categorized ANSF responses into tiers, with the first tier being the most important causes for discord. "They curse constantly" was in the top tier of grievances about Americans, along with "they cause many civilian and ANSF casualties." The offense caused by cursing in front of or at ANSF personnel was deemed severe enough by Afghans that it negatively affected their relationships with their U.S. counterparts AND was as highly rated an offense as causing casualties!

The cultural lesson here is that U.S. macro-culture looks on profanity as "not that bad," while many other cultures find it extremely insulting. It would be ethnocentric of us to think that other cultures have the same attitude toward profanity that we do.

How Words can Miscommunicate

This lesson began with the example from the film, "The Terminal." It was a relatively light- hearted look at a person's troubles communicating in a new culture, and how he overcame them.

Now, please watch the following much more serious excerpt from a documentary film about U.S. Soldiers in Afghanistan. Click HERE to view it.

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If you are short on time, skip to timestamp 0:40 and watch until timestamp 7:30.

In the film, Sgt. Adams visits an Afghan village to speak to the elder about the presence of Taliban fighters in the area. He experiences several difficulties with his interpreter. Although most Airmen never work with an interpreter, understanding how easily the message can go awry is valuable when dealing with any non-native English speaker.

*** OPTIONAL INFORMATION ***

Working with Interpreters

Not all Airmen have the luxury of working with interpreters and must make themselves understood by other means. However, many Airmen do work with "terps," so we're offering some strategies below to improve cross- cultural communication between you and your interpreter, and to ensure you're getting the information you need.[18]

As a thought question regarding the film clip you just saw, which of the strategies from Tool #3 below would you suggest to Sgt. Adams to improve his work with this interpreter?

1. If you have time to build a relationship with your interpreter, go through some of the Cultural Log exercises and Cultural Tools from this course with him or her. These will give both of you a perspective on the other's culture and lay the groundwork for common understanding. If you can't do the above, then ask interpreters about their family, where they're from, where they went to

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school, etc. We'll come back to this point about building relationships with counterparts later on this page.

2. Clarify terms you commonly use with interpreters before they begin to translate for you. One 2010 article states that an Afghan interpreter did not know the meaning of the word "nation" as an Army Lieutenant was using it. Therefore, the interpreter couldn't translate it correctly when the Lt. told Afghan citizens, "This nation is your responsibility."[20]

3. If a term you identify in number 2 is difficult to translate, come to an agreement with your interpreter about how he or she will explain it. This may make the difference between telling locals that "democracy is a form of government" and "democracy is a form of foreign aid."

4. Find out from the interpreter what local paralanguage and nonverbal communication signals you are sending, and what you can do to be more successful when interacting with the local population. This will also help you decipher the nonverbal signals others are sending you.

5. Explain your needs very clearly to interpreters before they begin to translate for you. Don'tassume they know what you want.

6. Ask interpreters to convey everything you say to other person (or people), not to shorten it. They should do the same for you when interpreting what the local person has said. The interpreter's job is to help you communicate with the local population, not to decide what should or should not be said.

7. Don't insult the interpreter, especially during a session when he or she is working with you in front of the local population. This person may be your lifeline, so you need him or her on your side. Causing interpreters to lose face may lead them to undermine your relationships with local people.

8.

Finally, bring your cultural knowledge to bear on the interpreter within the context of his or her culture. If religion is a touchy subject, find out the interpreter's religion. Having a Sunni Muslim translate for a Shi'a Muslim leader may be problematic. If there are wide wealth gaps between urban and rural citizens, be aware that an urban-educated interpreter might look down on villagers, and not take what they say very seriously, or dismiss their opinions and knowledge. Ask if there are any tribal feuds between the interpreter's family/tribe/region/ethnicity and the people with whom you're speaking. Taking steps to address such issues will result in a better interaction. Basically, knowing your interpreter means understanding who he or she is in the local culture, as well as how they communicate with you and for you.

The items above are geared toward building a cultural relationship with your interpreters.

There are many other good suggestions for working with interpreters found atGlobalsecurity.org.

Check it out!

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Lesson Summary

This lesson highlighted awareness of some basic mechanics of communication to include language, verbal and non-verbal features of communication, contextual factors, and strategies for improving communication with people from different cultures.

You should now be able to:

1. Identify various verbal and nonverbal features of communication

2. Provide contrastive examples of verbal and nonverbal features of communication that differ from those of the American macro-culture

3. Comprehend the role and application of context in communicating

4. Describe the relationship of Time and Space to communication styles

5. Explain strategies to help avoid misunderstandings when communicating with people from other cultures

All of this is important because the mechanics used frequently account for more of the message transmitted or understood than the actual words themselves.

You were introduced to communication-related terms such as paralanguage, kinesics, and proxemics, to name a few, along with the impact that mismanaged paralanguage, gestures, etc. can have on a communication exchange.

Click on the image below for an optional puzzle.

Along with that, you read about the various considerations of underlying influences such as the individual roles involved, the local communication patterns, and the setting or environment a communication transaction takes place in - in other words, the context.

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Cultures can be classified as high-context or low-context based on how much these influences impact their communication delivery and interpretation.

The lesson also looked at the relationships between power distance and communication styles, and time orientation and communication styles. All of this was wrapped up within three primary strategies to explore ours and others' communication styles, and ways to improve our own cross-cultural communication skills. Even if you have the use of an interpreter, you will need to use certain strategies to ensure the most successful possible communication outcome.

The beginning of this lesson listed universals concerning Language and Communication:

All people use language to communicate. Experts estimate that there are more than 7,000 living languages

In addition to the words we speak, all people verbally modulate their voice to indicate surprise, a command, a question, etc.

A large part of communication is nonverbal, including voice modulation, body language, interpersonal distance, and touch

Language continually changes as a result of internal cultural shifts and cross-cultural contact

Communication shapes culture and culture shapes communication

Although these features are common (or universal) to all cultures, the ways they manifest can be dramatically different. Unfortunately this lesson was not able to 'deep dive' into a discussion of ALL the universals.

The first one, language differences, of course, are easy to observe. The second and third universals regarding nonverbal communication were well covered and you should now be smart on that particular concept. The fourth universal is one that will become more apparent in later lessons, as well as the last. But before you leave this lesson, let's quickly consider the fifth universal:

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Communication shapes culture and culture shapes communication.

How many ways did this lesson touch on that idea? Keep this universal in mind throughout the remainder of the course because it truly is foundational to understanding cultural others.

Communicating effectively is hard enough in your own culture sometimes. Even within cultures, you will find numerous communication barriers. With the many diverse cultures you may come into contact with during your Air Force career, you must set aside any assumptions you have as far as "universally understood" signals or behaviors, and rely on your OODA skills and culture- general knowledge to avoid unintended cause for mistrust, offense, or misunderstanding.

References

Lesson 5 Endnotes

[1] Merriam-Webster. 2011. "Communication." Merriam-Webster Online. Available at: http://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/communication

[2] Ethnologue. 2011. "Ethnologue Language Name Index." Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Online, available at: http://www.ethnologue.com/language_index.asp

[3] MacKenzie, Lauren. 2010. Introduction to Cross-Cultural Communication course materials, Lesson 6, Paralanguage.

[4] Carnevale, P.J., & Choi, DW. 2000. Culture in the mediation of international disputes. International Journal of Psychology, 35, 105-110.

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[5] Mehrabian, Albert. 1981. Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

[6] The exercises in this quiz are adapted from the following sources:

Hall, B. 2005. Among Cultures: The Challenge of Communication. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

[7] Nelson, E. B. 2007. Cultural Awareness: resources can help prepare soldiers before deployments. Infantry Magazine. Jan 1. 2007. Online, available at: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Cultural+awareness%3A+resources+can+help+prepare+soldiers+before...- a0163703268

[8] Sak, Taras A. 8 Oct. 2008. "Seeing Eye-to-Eye with Japan." In Reflections on Life in Japan (blog). Online, available at: http://www.daijob.com/en/columns/taras/article/1803

[9] Hofstede, Geert. 2012. "The 6-D Model of National Culture." Online,

available at: https://geerthofstede.com/culture-geert-hofstede-gert-jan-hofstede/6d-model-of-national-culture/

[10] Ting-Toomey, S. 1985. Toward a theory of conflict and culture. In W. Gudykunst, L. Stewart & S. Ting- Toomey (Eds.), Communication, Culture and Organizational Processes. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

[11] Wunderle, W. 2007. Through the Lens of Cultural Awareness: A Primer for U.S. Armed Forced Deploying to Arab and Middle Eastern Countries. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press.

[12] Ting-Toomey, S. 1985. Toward a theory of conflict and culture. In W. Gudykunst, L. Stewart & S. Ting- Toomey (Eds.), Communication, Culture and Organizational Processes. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

[13] Hetherington, T., and S. Junger, directors. 2010. Restrepo [Film]. United States: National Geographic Entertainment, Dogwoof Pictures.

[14] MacNeil, Robert. 2005. "Do You Speak American?: Viewer's Guide." Online, available at: http://www.pbs.org/speak/about/guide/#glossary

[15] Utne Reader. 2006. "Word Watch: Soldier Slang." March-April 2006, p. 15.

[16] Bordin, Jeffrey. 2011. Mutual Perceptions Between ANSF Personnel and U.S. Soldiers: A Red Team Study on Fratricide-Murder Risk, 4. Apr. 2011. U.S. Army.

[17] Roggio, Bill. 27 April 2011. "Afghan Pilot Kills 8 U.S. Troops, Contractor in Kabul Attack." The Long War Journal. Online, available at: http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2011/04/afghan_pilot_kills_8.php

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[18] There are 46 guides currently available. They can be found at http://culture.af.mil/ecfg/index.html. The citation for the first one is:

Air Force Culture & Language Center. 2010. Expeditionary Airman Field Guide: Afghanistan. U.S. Air Force.

[19] Much information for this section is based on tips available from the following sources:

Salmoni, Barak A. 30 July 2004. "Effective Use of a Translator for U.S. Marine Forces in OIF 2-2." Naval Postgraduate School.

Asymmetric Warfare Group. 2010. Tactical Questioning. Pocket Reference: A Guide for U.S. Forces. U.S. Unclassified//Rel NATO, GCTF, ISAF, MCFI, ABCA//For Official Use Only. GTA 90-01-023.

Translatorsbase.com 2011. "The Interpreter." Online, available at: http://www.translatorsbase.com/articles/31.aspx

[20] Shea, Neil. 24 August 2010. "Foreign Policy: Losing Afghanistan in Translation." Online, available at: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129396818