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CHAPTER  10  -­‐  TM   DESTINATION  DEVELOPMENT    

L E C T U R E 8 W E E K 9 – I E T 9 4 7 0 D R . P A T R I C K L ’ E S P O I R D E C O S T A

LEARNING  OBJECTIVES  

!  Discuss the implications of the destination cycle for tourism managers

!  Outline the destination cycle in the Butler sequence !  Explain how the different elements can be incorporated into the

destination cycle !  Critique the Butler sequence !  Identify and discuss the factors that influence the destination cycle !  Describe the combined process of contagious and hierarchical spatial

diffusion as an explanation for the process of tourism development at a national scale

!  Describe how the destination cycle can be applied to tourism development

DESTINATION  CYCLE  –  THE  PREMISES  

!  Tourism activities induce changes within a destination !  Integrating earlier concepts on impacts, markets, destinations

and tourism products allows us to examine the process of Destination Development

!  The Theory of Destination cycle IMPLIES that Destinations experience predictable evolution and helps ! Identify where a destination is positioned on the destination

cycle ! appreciate implications for the future – to intervene or not

!  The latter point implies that Destination cycle is theoretically NOT UNAVOIDABLE and therefore can be REDIRECTED

!  MANAGEMENT MEASURES can help realise ecologically and socio-culturally sustainable outcomes

THE  BUTLER  SEQUENCE  

!  Butler (1980) developed S-shaped resort cycle model, called the Butler sequence (aka Tourism Areal Life Cycle – TALC)

!  Model proposes that UNDER FREE MAKKET AND SUSTAINED DEMAND CONDITIONS destinations tend to experience five stages of growth:-

! Exploration ! Involvement ! Development ! Consolidation ! Stagnation

! ASSUMPTION OF THE MODEL: push factors create a sufficient level of demand to fuel the progression of the Butler sequence

THE  BUTLER  SEQUENCE  

!  The Butler sequence is one of the most cited and applied models within tourism studies

!  The model is popular because it is structurally simple !  The model is similar to other models

! product lifecycle curve – used by economists and marketers to describe the behaviour of the market in purchasing consumer goods

! demographic transition model- used by demographers to describe the natural growth of a country’s population over time – SEE BURTON’s four phases of tourism participation and their association with demographic transformations (pp 61- 69)

!  The model has intuitive appeal- we can see some form of cyclical dynamic at destinations

!  It is comprehensive – allows for the incorporation of all facets of tourism

!  More than just the visitor numbers – see table 10.1 below for more of these facets or variables that the model can incorporate for analysis

!  It looks to be universally applicable

Table  10.1  

CHANGING  CHARACTERISTICS  AS  PROPOSED   BY  THE  BUTLER  SEQUENCE  

Table  10.1  

CHANGING  CHARACTERISTICS  AS  PROPOSED   BY  THE  BUTLER  SEQUENCE  

EXPLORATION-­‐  PRE  TOURISM  STAGE  

!  In the Butler sequence, the exploration stage has very small numbers of visitors – dispersed; longer stays

!  Negligible visitation- Tourism “industry” as such does not exist !  So no establishment of specialised facilities or services !  Visitors are allocentric types – adventurous

! drawn to authentic experience – unspoiled natural attractions ! Not affected by seasonality

!  Though absolute revenue is small - Multiplier effect is large – no leakage – Why? (tourists’ desire to consume interesting local products)

!  Resident attitude towards visitors is cordial – Pre- euphoric attitudes of residents towards visitors as impacts are not large enough to benefit the economy

!  Exploration-stage destination is only peripherally connected to origin destination within a tourism system perspective

q   DesBnaBon  Cycle  

The  Butler  sequence  

The Exploration Stage

EXPLORATION

•  what type of tourists are evident during this stage of the DC? •  drawn to a region because of its cultural/natural uniqueness

•  revenues obtained from tourism are small •  what is the attitude toward tourists?

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TWO-­‐TRACK  TOURISM  IN  IRAQ  

•  War  destroys  tourism  in   Iraq  but  then  sBmulates   tourism  (dark  tourism)  

•  Tourists  are  common   targets  (carry  a  lot  of  cash   because  credit  cards  not   accepted)  

INVOLVEMENT  

!  Several developments characterise Butler’s involvement stage:- o  Local entrepreneurs begin to provide a limited amount of

specialised services and facilities in response to regular appearance of tourists

o  Largely informal tourism sector begins to form small clusters of development: inns and guesthouses, eating places, guides and semi- commercial attractions- Still little visual and environmental impacts

o  Visitor intake increases slowly in response to these local initiatives !  Tangible economic benefits are increasing and given control is still

local, therefore !  Positive community attitudes towards tourism

!  A formal system of tourism development starts to kick in ! More non-local participation ! Greater number of mid-centric tourists ! Indicating destination is integrating within the tourism system as

demand increases  

  INVOLVEMENT-­‐FACTORS  THAT  TRIGGER  THE   INVOLVEMENT  STAGE  (FROM  EXPLORATION)     ! Trigger factors can be internal or external ! Internal forces arise within the destination – e.g. entrepreneur develops adventurous attraction to encourage visitation ! Signal a proactive approach by locals to tourism development ! Local control would likely be maintained ! External forces originate outside the destination and can occur because of word-of-mouth (about the “untouched” destination), or a high-profile event (e.g. documentary or feature article), or construction of a road or airport ! RESULT: increase in tourism numbers ! Signal large-scale variety of development inducing rapid change

directed by outside interests ! Local community goes on defensive reactive mode

DEVELOPMENT  

!  The development stage is characterised by rapid tourism growth and dramatic changes over a relatively short period of time

!  The change from involvement to development is transitionary – no clear boundary

!  Specific events (e.g. construction of the first major resort, celebrity visit) may act as a catalyst for accelerated change

!  Pull factors will influence growth rate !  Some example destinations – Byron Bay, Hervey Bay !  Local control rapidly eroded with large scale tourism development !  Destination integrated within the tourism system resulting in

! Involvement of larger transnational companies gaining more control ! Attracting mid-centric and psychocentric tourists – as characterised

by organised package tours

15  

q   DesBnaBon  Cycle  

The  Butler  sequence  

The Development Stage

DEVELOPMENT

Time

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•  change from involvement to development stage is transitional •  destination is fully integrated into tourism system •  what does the landscape look like now (i.e. attractions)? •  what type of consumers are now present? How long do they stay? • how do residents view visitors?

DEVELOPMENT  -­‐  CONSEQUENCES

•  Rapidly changing landscapes – large resorts replacing small hotels; agricultural lands replaced by golf courses; mangroves giving way to marinas, etc.

•  Unique “sense of place” revealed by the exploration stage gives way to generic ‘international scape”

•  Environmental stresses are widespread as negative environmental responses become more apparent

•  Residents’ attitude change to one of Apathy •  As pressures grow on carrying capacities of the place, residents’

attitude change to one of Annoyance •  Aspects of local culture becomes increasingly commodified •  Examples if destinations (in development stage) in Australia: Port

Macquarie in New South Wales, the alpine resorts of Thredbo

CONSOLIDATION-­‐  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  END?  

!  The consolidation stage involves a decline in the growth rate of visitor arrivals and tourism-related activity ALTHOUGH the total amount of activity continues to increase

!  Visitor numbers in a 12-month period typically exceed the resident population

!  Destination’s carrying capacities (environmental, social and economic) are exceeded

!  Quality of the tourism products and tourism and resident experience tend to be in decline

!  Crowded, high-density tourism districts dominate with high concentration of psychocentric clientele on short stay tour packages

!  Large tour operators and hotel chains !  Destination wholly integrated within the global tourism system !  Tourism dominates the economy of the area- locals become blatantly

ANTAGONISTIC !  Transnational companies begin to show DISINTEREST in

redevelopment resulting in high turnover/change in ownership and abandonment of facilities

18  

q   DesBnaBon  Cycle  

The  Butler  sequence  

The Consolidation Stage

CONSOLIDATION

Time

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•  overwhelming dependency on tourism •  psychocentric clientele – large package tour operators & hotel chains •  carrying capacities breached •  deterioration of tourism product begins •  high turnover in tourism facilities can lead to abandonment •  seasonality emerges as an impediment •  locals - antagonistic or resigned •  negative WOM advertising = decline in visitor numbers (leads to stagnation)

STAGNATION  

!  The stagnation stage involves peak (and stable) visitor numbers and high levels of associated facilities (such as available accommodation)

!  Surplus capacity is a persistent problem – leading to much discounting, deterioration, bankruptcies (as fixed costs are high in tourism sector in general)

!  Hotel accommodation is frequently turned into self-catering apartments or even permanent residences for retirees

!  Destination is perceived to be ‘out of fashion’ !  Destination increasingly relies on repeat psychocentric tourists !  Examples of destinations in that stage: global pleasure periphery,

Spain’s Costa Brava, The Bahamas’s New Providence Island

DECLINE  OR  REJUVENATION   !  The stagnation stage can persist indefinitely; but most likely to turn into a

downturn or an upturn Decline will occur as a result of a combination of :

! Repeat visitors no longer satisfied- efforts to recruit new visitors fail ! Major destination’s attractions may no longer be available – causing LAST

CHANCE TOURISM – see p. 294 Come and see before it’s gone ! No attempts to revitalise or reinvent the local tourism product ! Residents’ attitude deteriorate – outright hostility towards tourists ! Tourism facilities abandoned or converted and can induce

! Snowballing effect that further accelerates decline of destination ! Examples of destinations in decline- The Coolangatta district of the Gold

Coast, the older established areas of Miami Beach, the French and Spanish rivieras

DECLINE  OR  REJUVENATION   !  The stagnation stage can persist indefinitely; but most likely to turn into a

downturn or an upturn Rejuvenation (may occur after stagnation or decline

stages): ! Decline or decreasing numbers may serve as a catalyst for action and

provides an “arena of innovation” (Weaver, 2012) ! Stakeholders respond creatively and effectively to major internal and external

challenges – proactive strategies adopted by destination ! Innovation may turn destination around ! Requires close collaboration between private and public sectors – see

contemporary issue on page 295 ! E.g. Atlantic City legalizing casino-based gambling – bringing new tourism

products and therefore attracting new market segments ! Vegas re-branding itself to appeal to the “naughty” side of its visitors with

its campaign “what happens in Vegas stays in Vegas” ! New York changing its image as a dangerous city to become a major

cosmopolitan and safe World city.

APPLICATION  AND  CRITIQUE  OF  THE   BUTLER  SEQUENCE   !  A major implication of the model is that tourism carries within itself

the seeds of its own destruction !  Negative sociocultural, economic and environmental impacts

accelerates move along the TALC (Butler’s sequence (BS) or S curve)

!  Proactive management strategies essential if destinations want to avoid self-destruction – requires vision and long term strategies

!  Cycle Applications – ! The model has been examined over 50 times ! General support for the model ! Important theoretical and practical tool for describing and predicting

the evolution of destinations ! Some anomalies where results are ambiguous or BS does not apply –

e.g. Grand Cayman Island, Niagara Falls, Coolangatta (refer Table 10.2)

Table  10.2  selected  anomalies  to  the  Butler  sequence  in  empirical  case  studies  

The  Australian  ski  resort  of  Thredbo  evolved  from  an  essenBally  winter-­‐only  resort  to  a   Year-­‐round  desBnaBon,  thus  reversing  the  expected  seasonaility  pa`ern  

APPLICATION  AND  CRITIQUE  OF  THE   BUTLER  SEQUENCE   !  General Criticisms– ! Sequence criticised for determinism – that stages are inevitable ! Tourism planners must identify likely experiences in those early stage

destinations rather than worrying that such destinations will eventually decline

! Destination cycle dynamics is Western centric assuming the cycle sets off as soon as Western explorer-tourists appear in the exploration stage ! A non-western cycle dynamics may exist when indigenous

communities participate as tourists in the “pre-exploration” stage that precedes the Western exploration phase

! Determinism related to carrying capacity thresholds – ! Tourism development continues until thresholds exceeded BUT

destination managers can be proactive and INTERFERE to override free market forces to avoid negative impacts of tourism such as in

1. Supply-driven scenario (refer Figure 10.3 a) 2. Demand-driven scenario (refer Figure 10.3 b)

ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES TO THE BS

S U P P L Y D R I V E N S C E N A R I O F I G 1 0 . 3 A

•  Carrying capacities are deliberately left as they are

•  Development levels curtailed to remain below relevant thresholds

•  Long involvement period triggered followed by consolidation at desired level such that development is avoided

•  How? •  Restricting number of visiotrs •  Imposing development standards •  Restricting air access •  Limiting size and number of accommodation

facilities

•  Zoning only certain limited areas for front stage tourism development

•  Prohibiting expansion of infrastructures that would facilitate tourism

•  increasing visa entry fees

D E M A N D - D R I V E N S C E N A R I O F I G 1 0 . 3 B

•  Conventional sequence takes place BUT

•  Measures taken to increase carrying capacity thresholds to cope with increasing visitor intakes, i.e. increase supply to meet demand

•  How? •  Clear demarcation between front

stage and backstage socio-cultural elements

•  Relying on education programs to create awareness in both residents and tourists

•  Adopt site hardening initiatives to pre-empt environmental stresses due to increasing tourism activities – e.g. installation of sewage and water treatment facilities

•  Expansion of local manufacturing and agricultural facilities to provide adequate backward linkages to the tourism sector – to avoid LEAKAGES

ALTERNATIVE  RESPONSES  TO  THE   BUTLER  SEQUENCE  

Figure  10.3  

APPLICATION  AND  CRITIQUE  OF  THE   BUTLER  SEQUENCE   !  The question of geographic scale – ! Destination can be applied at different scales – from single small

attraction to continent or macro-region such as the pleasure periphery ! Sequence may be better suited to certain scales rather than applicable

across geographical spectrum !  The Butler sequence as an ‘ideal type’against which real life

situations can be measured – ! The model is best suited to destinations that are:- !  Relatively small !  Spatially well-defined !  Highly tourism focused !  Dominated by ‘laissez-faire’ forces !  In high demand  

FACTORS  THAT  CHANGE  THE  DESTINATION  CYCLE  

!  It is important for managers to understand the factors that affect the cycle, namely the degree they can be manipulated and controlled

!  The factors that influence the evolution of tourism in destinations can be positioned within a simple eight-cell matrix model of cycle trigger factors (see Figure 10.4)

!  Internal-intentional actions– this is the ideal- involves stimulants and depressants ! stimulants that trigger further growth – e.g. upgrading of infrastructures, effective

marketing campaigns by local authorities, pursuit of growth pole-type strategy based on tourism

! Depressants (entry fees, restrictions on infrastructure) are deliberately used to restrict or reverse growth of tourism

! External-unintentional actions– opposite situation- least desirable - tend to be unpredictable because they originate outside of the control of the destination and they are not deliberate actions e.g. cyclones in Vanuatu

!  Internal-unintentional actions– intermediate – originate within the destination thus allows some sort of control or ability to managers to deal with them e.g. of depressants – civil war or coral reef destruction caused by local pollution source

!  External-intentional actions– decisions taken by external sources or other countries affecting the local destination; e.g. Decision by Atlantic city to allow gambling posed challenges to Las Vegas

FACTORS  THAT  CHANGE  THE  DESTINATION  CYCLE  

Figure  10.4  

NATIONAL  TOURISM  DEVELOPMENT  

!   Butler sequence is not applicable at the scale of entire

countries, unless the country is extremely small !   Spatial diffusion – a process whereby ! an innovation or idea spreads from a point of origin to

other locations (Gertis et al., 2011) ! In larger countries tourism development is best described

as the result of a combined spatial diffusion process that is distorted by assorted barriers and opportunities

! the spatial diffusion can be contagious or hierarchical (refer Figure 10.5)

SPATIAL DIFFUSION H I E R A R C H I C A L D I F F U S I O N

•  Innovative idea originates from large urban centre

•  Spreads through communication and transportation systems to smaller centres

•  E.g. historical spreading of televisions from urban centres to small regions

C O N T A G I O U S D I F F U S I O N

•  Innovative idea spreads as a function of spatial proximity

•  Likened to the ripple effect

HIERARCHICAL  AND  CONTAGIOUS  SPATIAL   DIFFUSION  

Figure  10.5  

EFFECTS OF SPATIAL DIFFUSION E F F E C T S O F H I E R A R C H I C A L D I F F U S I O N

! City functions as gateway ! Contains prominent/primary

attractions to tourists ! City acts as a magnet for

domestic tourists ! These will trickle down the

urban hierarchy as the country evolves, i.e

! Smaller cities begin to provide better services and attractions in their own right

! Causing tourism to spread over time into lower levels of the urban system

! Aided by expansion of external systems such as transportation

E F F E C T S O F C O N T A G I O U S D I F F U S I O N

•  Follow on from effects of hierarchical diffusion

•  Growing cities become significant domestic markets and important destination for inbound tourists

•  Communities nearby adopt tourism (because of proximity)

•  Destination cycle thus first affects communities on the periphery of existing tourism regions to then spread further as the recreational hinterland expands to surrounding areas in the country side.

BARRIERS AND FACILITATORS TO DIFFUSION

B A R R I E R S

•  Demand is not unlimited

•  Lack of attractions capable of carrying destination beyond exploration stage

•  Community resistance •  Political boundaries •  Climate

F A C I L I T A T O R S

•  Extensive area of tourism potential such as a beach- lined coast or alpine valley

•  Upgraded transportation networks

MODEL  OF  NATIONAL  TOURISM  DEVELOPMENT  

Figure  10.6  

Time  0-­‐  an  involvement  stage   Capital  city  is  main  gateway   Time  1-­‐  recreaBonal  hinterlands   Or  village  markets  form    around  city-­‐  excursion  desBnaBons   ResulBng  from  growth  pole     strategy   Time  2-­‐  contagious  diffusion   Allows  tourism  to  expand  outwards   Of  main  city  (hinterlands)  and  tourism   Adopted  in  second  Ber  city  –   Hierarchical  diffusion   Time  3-­‐  expansion  conBnues  as  new   Places  experience  involvement;  se`lement   In  the  interior  become  alpine  tourist  resorts   Time  4  –  transportaBon  corridors  allow  expansion   Into  other  interior  fourth-­‐Ber  se`lements  such  that     The  enBre  country  becomes  a  tourism  landscape  

CHAPTER  REVIEW  

!  Butler sequence introduced in 1980 !  Model proposes that destinations tend to pass through a series of

stages !  The stages are exploration, involvement, development,

consolidation, and stagnation !  The destination may then continue through stagnation, or

subsequently go through decline and/or rejuvenation