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BX3171 Organisational Behaviour Topic 12 – Power and politics

Lecturer: Jaime Wong

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Topic 12

Power and politics

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In traditional organisational hierarchies, subordinates tend to have less power than management; however, the greater value that employees add to workplaces and organisations the greater their power. Employees utilize a range of tactics to increase effectiveness. Often inaccurate perceptions of us by our peers and superiors often lead to undesirable consequences. Incorrect perceptions of us by co-workers or teammates may lead to friction in work groups and poor performance in tasks that require collaboration. Misconceptions of our skills and abilities may mean we are evaluated unfairly or assigned an undesirable task.; as such we need to understand what leads to miscaption in the first place.

An effective manager accepts the political nature of organisations. Some people are significantly more politically astute than others, meaning that they are aware of the underlying politics and can manage impressions. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations and, hence, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naive or inept. The politically astute are also likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction and be better able to neutralise job stressors.

Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organisation. People respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual’s personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward and legitimate power are essentially organisationally derived. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members.

If you want to get things done in a group or an organisation, it helps to have power.

Here are several suggestions for how to deal with power in your own work life:

As a manager who wants to maximise your power, you will want to increase others’ dependence on you. You can, for instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing knowledge or a skill she needs and for which she perceives no ready substitute.

You won’t be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to increase your dependence on them, while you are trying to minimise it and increase their dependence on you. The result is a continual battle.

Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

By assessing behaviour in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit.

Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organisational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety and higher turnover. Therefore, if you are adept at organisational politics, help your employees understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/politics-power-and-authority/

Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. The term is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, but politics has been observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. It consists of social relations involving authority or power, the regulation of political units, and the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply social policy.

Contemporary political sociology involves the study of relations between state and society.

In the past, a typical research question in political sociology might have been: “Why do so few American citizens choose to vote? ” or “What difference does it make if women get elected? ”

Modern political sociologists are now focused on questions such as: “How is the body a site of power? “, “How are emotions relevant to global poverty? “, or “What difference does knowledge make to democracy? ”

Traditional Political Sociology

Traditionally there have been four main areas of research in political sociology:

The socio-political formation of the modern state

“Who rules? ” How social inequality between groups (class, race, gender, etc.) influences politics

How public personalities, social movements, and trends outside of the formal institutions of political power affect formal politics

Power relationships within and between social groups (e.g. families, workplaces, bureaucracy, media, etc.).

Political sociology was traditionally concerned with how social trends, dynamics, and structures of domination affect formal political processes. It also explored how various social forces work together to change political policies. From this perspective there are three major theoretical frameworks: pluralism, elite or managerial theory, and class analysis (which overlaps with Marxist analysis).

Pluralism

Pluralism sees politics as a contest between competing interest groups. It holds the view that politics and decision making are located mostly in the framework of government, but many non-governmental groups use their resources to exert influence. Groups of individuals try to maximize their interests. There are multiple lines of power that shift as power is a continuous bargaining process between competing groups. Any change under this view will be slow and incremental—groups have different interests and may act as “veto groups” to destroy legislation that they do not agree with.

Elite/Managerial Theory

Elite or managerial theory is sometimes called a state-centered approach. It also seeks to describe and explain power relationships in contemporary society. The theory posits that a small minority—consisting of members of the economic elite and policy-planning networks—holds the most power. This power is independent of a state’s democratic elections process. Through positions in corporations, corporate boards, and policy-planning networks, members of the “elite” are able to exert significant power over the policy decisions of corporations and governments.

Class Analysis

Social class analysis emphasizes the political power of capitalist elites. It can be split into two parts. One is the ‘power structure’ or ‘instrumentalist’ approach; the other is the ‘structuralist’ approach. The power structure approach focuses on determining who rules, while the structuralist approach emphasizes the way a capitalist economy operates, allowing and encouraging the state to do some things but not others.

Contemporary Political Sociology

Contemporary political sociology is concerned with the play of power and politics across societies, which includes, but is not restricted to relations between the state and society. In part, this is a product of the growing complexity of social relations, the impact of social movement organizing, and the relative weakening of the state via globalization. Political sociology is as much focused on micro questions (the formation of identity through social interaction; the politics of knowledge), as it is on macro questions (how to capture and use state power).

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast leadership and power and the bases of formal and personal power

Evaluate the role of dependence in power relationships

Analyse the causes, consequences and ethics of political behaviour

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What’s the difference between power and influence?

Power and influence both refer to naturally possessed traits that follow as a consequence of authority. The difference lies in how these two approaches to leadership encourage a team to complete their work.

Power can be defined as the following: “The authority to change the behaviour of others and make them do things that they might not do otherwise.”2

The trouble with power is that, for the group, there is no alternative but to comply – which means that power is often achieved through fear or coercion.

On the other hand, influence is defined as: “the ability to alter other people’s perceptions of a situation.”3 Unlike power, influence makes use of positive language and subtle behaviours to encourage the desired outcome.

Power forces people to complete a task, where influence helps them understand why that task is necessary.

Introduction

In this topic, we’ll learn about how a person obtains power and the tactics employees use to exert their will over others.

We’ll also explore the role of political behaviour in maintaining power within an organisation.

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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-orgbehavior/chapter/13-3-the-power-to-influence/

What Is Influence?

Starting at infancy, we all try to get others to do what we want. We learn early what works in getting us to our goals. Instead of crying and throwing a tantrum, we may figure out that smiling and using language causes everyone less stress and brings us the rewards we seek.

By the time you hit the workplace, you have had vast experience with influence techniques. You have probably picked out a few that you use most often. To be effective in a wide number of situations, however, it’s best to expand your repertoire of skills and become competent in several techniques, knowing how and when to use them as well as understanding when they are being used on you. If you watch someone who is good at influencing others, you will most probably observe that person switching tactics depending on the context. The more tactics you have at your disposal, the more likely it is that you will achieve your influence goals.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/fundamentals-of-economics-and-management/organising/the-concept-of-power/

The Concept of Power Tactics

There are 9 organizational power tactics. These tactics are ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions. The 9 influence tactics are legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, ingratiation, pressure and coalitions.

Rational persuasion. A tactic that is used to try and convince someone with a valid reason, rational logic, or realistic facts.

Inspirational appeals. A tactic that builds enthusiasm by appealing to emotions, ideas and/or values.

Consultation. A tactic that focuses on getting others to participate in the planning process, making decisions, and encourage changes.

Ingratiation. A tactic that emphasizes on getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request. It includes being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery.

Personal appeals. A tactic that refers to friendship and loyalty while making a request.

Exchange. A tactic that suggests that making express or implied promises and trading favours.

Coalition tactics. Refers to a tactic that prescribes getting others to support your effort to persuade someone.

Pressure. A tactic that focuses on demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats.

Legitimating tactics. This tactic suggests that basing a request on one’s authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express or implied support from superiors, is a best.

A definition of power

The capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.

The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater A’s power in the relationship.

The concepts of power and leadership overlap.

Leaders use power to attain their goals.

Power requires dependency, leader seeks goal compatibility.

Leader downward influence, power considers downward, lateral and upward influence patterns.

Research: leadership styles, power tactics.

Why is difference between power and influence?

Type your answer in Chat

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Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity for power or potential power. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency. The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if they control something you desire.

Leadership is different from power in regards to goal compatibility. Leadership requires goal congruence, while power requires dependence, not goal compatibility. A second difference relates to the direction of influence; leadership focuses on the downward influence over followers, whereas power does not. A third consideration is that the research about leadership has focused on style; research about power has focused on tactics for gaining compliance.

In organisational behaviour, power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.2 So, someone can have power but not use it; it’s a capacity or a potential. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. The greater B ’s dependence on A, the greater A’s power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. Someone only has power over you if they control something you desire. Imagine that you must pass a certain course to complete your university degree and only one lecturer teaches that course. That person has potential power over you because your alternatives are limited and you place great importance on passing the course. Similarly, if your time at university relies on financial support from your parents, you probably recognise the power they have over you. But once you’ve finished university, have a job and are making a good income, your parents’ power is reduced significantly.

https://www.forbes.com/sites/rickmiller/2018/10/25/what-is-power-really/#7f79286542a7

Real power is influence, and it increases as we offer more support to others. Being powerful is more about giving support than getting support. Contrary to what you may have thought about power, service is the highest form of leadership. Serving others is a key to sustainable growth. And it creates the kind of influence that truly powerful people wield—the kind that resonates and uplifts.

Real power is clarity, and it gets stronger with discipline. Having power is more about creating an environment that encourages every individual to engage in their own form of self-discipline. That’s not to say discipline never comes from above, but by empowering each member of an organization to be accountable, discipline from above will not be required as frequently. Discipline brings clarity to any situation, increasing an individual’s power.

Real power is energy, and it intensifies from inside as our insight and self-understanding grow. Insight is an integral element of being powerful. A person with real power does not influence the world around him or her without consideration of the bigger picture that begins inside. From my experience with this vantage point, true growth—both personal and professional—is far more likely. Insightful individuals are able to tap into an internal energy that is felt by others as power.

Real power is impact, and it grows as we focus on our creativity. Creating the future is not about waving a magic wand. It is a concrete practice that serves the purpose of being powerful with a purpose. Creative solutions make an impact—on people, organizations, and societies. Real power sometimes comes from the unlikeliest of places.

Real power is confidence, and it rises as we better understand and live our values. What do you stand for? When you speak about your values and act accordingly, you increase your power because you are confident in your assertions. The power is palpable—and effective.

Bases of power

Formal power

Coercive power

a power base dependent on the fear of negative results.

Reward power

compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.

Legitimate power

the formal authority to control and use resources based on a person’s position in the formal hierarchy.

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What are the five bases of power?

Coercive power—a power base dependent on the fear of negative results

Reward power—compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable

Legitimate power—the formal authority to control and use resources based on a person’s position in the formal hierarchy

Expert power—influence based on special skills or knowledge

Referent power—influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits.

Bases of power

Where does power come from? What gives an individual or a group influence over others? One way to answer this is to identify the sources of power into two general types—formal and personal—and then further divide these into more specific categories.

Formal power

Formal, or positional, power is based on someone’s position in an organisation. It can come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority.

Coercive power

Coercive power depends on fear of the negative results if you fail to comply. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of sanctions such as the infliction of pain, frustration through the restriction of movement, or control of basic physiological or psychological needs using force.

Coercive power - A power base that is dependent on fear.

At an organisational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend or demote B, assuming B values B’s job, or if A can assign B work activities B finds unpleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds embarrassing. Coercive power also comes from withholding key information. People in an organisation who have data or knowledge that others need can exercise coercive dependence. When subordinates are being abused by supervisors, coercive power is the main force that keeps them from retaliating. For example, Julia Banks, in the opening vignette, might perceive her experience as an attempt by others to exercise direct coercive power over her.

Reward power

The opposite of coercive power is reward power, whereby people comply because it produces positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over them. These rewards can be either financial (such as controlling pay rates, pay increases and bonuses) or non-financial (including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues and preferred work shifts or sales territories).

Reward power - Achieving compliance based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.

Legitimate power - In formal groups and organisations, probably the most visible type of power is through legitimate power. It represents the formal authority to control and use organisational resources based on structural position in the organisation.

Legitimate power - The power a person receives as a result of their position in a formal hierarchy.

Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes members’ acceptance of the authority associated with a position. Power is so closely associated with the concept of hierarchy that just drawing longer lines in an organisation chart leads people to infer that the leaders are especially powerful and, if an executive is described as powerful, people tend to put the person in a higher position when drawing an organisation chart. When school principals, bank managers or army captains speak, teachers, tellers and first lieutenants listen and usually comply.

Personal power

Many of the most competent and productive chip designers at Intel have power, but their power is not formal. What they have is personal power, which comes from an individual’s unique characteristics. There are two bases of personal power: expertise and the respect and admiration of others. Personal power and formal power are not mutually exclusive, but personal power can be independent.

Bases of power

Personal power

Expert power

Influence based on special skills or knowledge.

Referent power

Influence based on identifying with someone who has desirable personal traits, out of admiration.

Which bases of power are most effective?

Personal sources are particularly effective.

Coercive power can backfire.

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Personal power - Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.

Expert power is influence wielded as a result of special skills or knowledge. As jobs become more specialised, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Most would agree that doctors have expertise and consequently have expert power—we’re likely to follow our doctor’s advice. Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists, industrial psychologists and other specialists wield power as a result of their expertise.

Expert power - Influence based on special skills or knowledge.

Referent power is based on identifying with someone who has desirable personal traits. If I like, respect and admire you, you have power over me because I want to please you and/or be like you.

Referent power - Influence based on identifying with someone who has desirable personal traits.

Referent power develops out of admiration for someone else and a desire to be like that person. It helps explain why celebrities are paid large sums to endorse products. Sport celebrities such as Nick ‘Honey Badger’ Cummins’s product endorsements are valued by advertisers as much for his ‘iconic locks, head tape and true-blue Aussie lingo’ as for his prowess as a rugby player. With practice, you and I could probably deliver as smooth a sales pitch as many celebrities, but consumers don’t identify with you or me. People who aren’t in formal leadership positions can have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability and emotional appeal.

Which bases of power are most effective?

Of the three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimate) and two bases of personal power (expert, referent), which is most important to have? Research suggests that personal sources of power are particularly effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision, as well as their organisational commitment and performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem less related to these outcomes. One source of formal power—coercive power—can actually backfire and is negatively related to employee satisfaction and commitment.

Referent power is a powerful motivator. Consider Steve Stoute’s company, Translation, which matches pop-star spokespeople with companies that want to promote their brands. Stoute paired Justin Timberlake with McDonald’s, Beyoncé with Tommy Hilfiger and Jay-Z with Reebok. Stoute’s business is all about referent power. His firm uses the credibility of these artists and performers to reach youth culture. In other words, people buy products associated with ‘cool’ figures because they wish to identify with and emulate them.

People use purposeful techniques in the workplace for many reasons including attempts to change people’s behaviour, sell ideas, gain resources or shape impressions. These techniques. Termed persuasion tactics, may be used to wield influence in social contexts, such as negotiations, distribution organisational resources like salary and time off, or even in workload distribution in group projects.

There are a number of common persuasion tactics. Examples of each are as follows: Liking – We are more likely to say yes to requests of people we like because we desire their approval to enhance our self-esteem. Reciprocity – We feel obligated to repay favors or acts in-kind because it is a social norm. Social proof – We look to others to determine appropriate behavior in ambiguous situations because we assume that the majority is doing things correctly. Commitment and consistency – We feel pressure to act consistently with previously stated opinions, beliefs, and behaviors, because inconsistency is seen as a character flaw in many societies. Authority – We mindlessly comply with requests from those displaying trappings of authority. Scarcity – We value something more if it is portrayed as scarce.

The process of social influence provides us with a better understanding of organisational politics. The two main components of interpersonal influence are persuasion tactics and sources of power. Effectively applying these components to wield influence involves how they work to maximise impact.

Formal authority is the assigned control over resources and decision making. Relevance refers to the role that is important to achieving goals. Autonomy refers to the assigned ability to act independently over another. Expertise refers to the scarcity of knowledge and skills relevant to goals. Experience refers to past experience relevant to goals. Personal attractiveness refers to physical attractiveness, likability, and charisma. Personal power is personal attractiveness including physical attractiveness, as well as charisma and likability. Because of the halo effect people who are attractive and well liked are perceived to have other traits such as ethicality, intelligence and trust worthiness. These traits provide an attractive person with power because they are associated with our schemas (patterns of thought) of leadership.

Impression Management – is a process of controlling the influence process in order to impact the ideas that are formed about a person, an idea, or an event. The choice that people in organisations make about exerting influence includes three main factors: (1) The individual should begin by identifying the objective they want to achieve (2) Involves the impression they want to make – consideration of the target audience is useful. Impression management is the practice of actively shaping our public image. Individuals differ in whether they focus on mainly positive impression techniques or less selective in how they approach impression management.

While all of the persuasion tactics and sources of power can e used on their own, to influence others, a closer look suggests that there are some complimentary combinations of these two-dimension of influence that may maximize their effectiveness. The process of social influence provides us with a better understanding of organizational politics. Many different tactics exist. The choice around tactic and power combinations rests on the objectives to be achieved; the impressions that people want to manage and the nature of the target of influence.

Social Influence Tactics:

Reason: Providing information and logical arguments to support a request.

Use of Allies: Bringing other people together to pressure the boss.

Friendliness: Creating a good impression by being thoughtful, friendly, and using flattery to create goodwill.

Bargaining: Offering to make an exchange and negotiation.

Assertiveness: Being direct, forceful, and persistent.

Use of Higher Authority: Involving higher levels in the organization to help provide pressure

Dependence the key to power

The general dependence postulate

What creates dependence?

Degree of Importance – for survival or convenience

Scarcity

Non-substitutability

Social network analysis: a tool for assessing resources

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https://hbr.org/1977/07/power-dependence-and-effective-management

Recognizing Dependence in the Manager’s Job

One of the distinguishing characteristics of typical managers is how dependent they are on the activities of a variety of other people to perform their jobs effectively. Unlike doctors and mathematicians, whose performance is more directly dependent on their own talents and efforts, a manager can be dependent in varying degrees on superiors, subordinates, peers in other parts of the organization, the subordinates of peers, outside suppliers, customers, competitors, unions, regulating agencies, and many others.

These dependency relationships are an inherent part of managerial jobs because of two organizational facts of life: division of labour and limited resources. Because the work in organizations is divided into specialized divisions, departments, and jobs, managers are made directly or indirectly dependent on many others for information, staff services, and cooperation in general. Because of their organizations’ limited resources, managers are also dependent on their external environments for support. Without some minimal cooperation from suppliers, competitors, unions, regulatory agencies, and customers, managers cannot help their organizations survive and achieve their objectives.

Dealing with these dependencies and the manager’s subsequent vulnerability is an important and difficult part of a manager’s job because, while it is theoretically possible that all of these people and organizations would automatically act in just the manner that a manager wants and needs, such is almost never the case in reality. All the people on whom a manager is dependent have limited time, energy, and talent, for which there are competing demands.

Dependence the key to power

Let’s begin with a general postulate: ‘the greater B’s dependence on A, the more power A has over B’. When you alone control something others require, they’re dependent on you, and therefore you have power over them. If something is plentiful, possessing it will not increase your power. But, as the old saying goes, ‘In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king!’ Conversely, the more you expand your own options, the less power others have over you. This is why most organisations seek multiple suppliers rather than relying on only one. It also explains why so many aspire to financial independence, reducing the power that others can wield by limiting our access to opportunities and resources.

What creates dependence?

Dependence increases when the resource you control is important, scarce and non-substitutable.

Importance

If nobody wants what you have, you’ll have no dependents. However, there are many degrees of importance, ranging from needing the resource for survival to desiring a fashionable resource that’s in fashion—or a convenient one.

Scarcity

Ferruccio Lamborghini, who created the exotic supercar brand, understood the importance of scarcity and used it to his advantage during World War II. When serving in Rhodes with the Italian army, his ability to repair tanks and cars that no one else could fix, impressed his superiors. After the war, he admitted that his ability was largely due to being the first person there to receive the repair manuals, which he memorised and then destroyed, which made him indispensable.Scarcity–dependence relationships such as this are also visible in different occupations; if the supply of labour is low, relative to demand, workers can negotiate more attractive compensation and benefits than those in occupations with an abundance of candidates. For example, university administrators have little problem today finding English tutors. In contrast, the market for network systems analysts is extremely tight, with demand high and supply limited. The bargaining power of computer-engineering academics allows them to negotiate higher salaries, lighter teaching loads and other benefits.

Non-substitutability

The fewer substitutes there are for a resource, the greater the power afforded by control over it. For example, in universities where publishing is valued, the more a lecturer publishes research, the more power that person has because other universities also want employees who are well published; lecturers with few or no publications have much less mobility and are subject to the greatest influence from their superiors.

Exhibit 12.1

An organisational sociogram

A formal organisation chart shows how authority is expected to flow, a sociogram shows how resources really flow.

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Social network analysis: a tool for assessing resources

One way to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within an organisation is by using social network analysis.This method examines patterns of communication among organisational members to identify how information flows between them. Within a social network, each individual or group is called a node, and the links between nodes are called ties. When nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently, they’re said to have very strong ties. Nodes that do communicate directly with one another can utilise intermediary nodes. In other words, some nodes act as brokers between otherwise unconnected nodes. A graphical illustration of the associations within a social network is called a sociogram. It functions like an informal organisation chart—the difference is that a formal organisation chart shows how authority is expected to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow. An example of a sociogram is shown in Exhibit 12.1.

Power tactics

Legitimacy

Relying on your authority position or saying that a request accords with organisational policies or rules.

Rational persuasion

Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable.

Inspirational appeals

Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes and aspirations.

Consultation

Increasing the target’s support by involving them in deciding how you’ll accomplish your plan.

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What power tactics do people use to translate power bases into specific action? What options do they have for influencing their bosses, co-workers or employees? Here we explore nine distinct influence tactics:

Legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying that a request accords with organisational policies or rules.

Rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable.

Inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes and aspirations.

Consultation. Increasing the target’s support by involving them in deciding how you’ll accomplish your plan.

Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request.

Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Ingratiation. Using flattery, praise or friendly behaviour prior to making a request.

Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands and threats.

Coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Power tactics

Exchange

Rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request.

Personal appeals

Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Ingratiation

Using flattery, praise or friendly behaviour prior to making a request.

Pressure

Using warnings, repeated demands and threats.

Coalitions

Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

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Legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying that a request accords with organisational policies or rules.

Rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable.

Inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes and aspirations.

Consultation. Increasing the target’s support by involving them in deciding how you’ll accomplish your plan.

Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request.

Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Ingratiation. Using flattery, praise or friendly behaviour prior to making a request.

Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands and threats.

Coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Power tactics

Using power tactics

Apply more than one tactic at the same time or sequentially.

Effectiveness depends on the direction of influence.

Rational persuasion is the most effective tactic across organisational levels.

Exhibit 12.2: Preferred power tactics by influence direction

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Using power tactics

Which tactics could help you achieve a pay increase? You can start with rational persuasion. That means doing your homework and carefully thinking through why you deserve an increase—find how your pay compares with that of similar positions or build an argument based on your performance. Kitty Dunning landed a 16% pay rise after emailing her boss statistics showing she had increased sales. You can also use salary calculators to compare your pay with that of others.

Some tactics are more effective than others when establishing power. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals and consultation are particularly effective when the audience is highly interested in the outcome of a decision process. Pressure often backfires and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics. You can increase your chance of success by applying more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as they’re compatible. Using both ingratiation and legitimacy can reduce negative reaction to otherwise ‘dictatorial’ impositions, but only when the audience has little interest in the outcome of a decision process or the policy is routine.

The effectiveness of some influence tactics depends on the direction of influence. Exhibit 12.2 proposes that rational persuasion is the most effective tactic across organisational levels. Inspirational appeals and pressure work best downwards, helping influence subordinates, while personal appeals and coalitions help with lateral influence. Other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person’s skill in using the tactic and the organisational culture

Power tactics

Cultural preferences for power tactics

Individualistic culture – use power to advance personal ends.

Collective culture – use power as a means of help others (?)

US managers prefer rational appeal – preference for direct confrontation, to influence others, resolve differences.

Chinese managers prefer coalition tactics – deal with controversial requests indirectly.

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Cultural preferences for power tactics

Power tactics are also influenced by cultural norms. Those from individualistic cultures tend to see power as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, while those from collectivistic cultures see power in more social terms and as a means of helping others. An international study found that US managers prefer rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers prefer coalition tactics. These differences seem consistent with the two countries’ value orientations. Reason is consistent with the US preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests indirectly. Research has also shown that individuals in more individualistic cultures tend to engage in more self-enhancement behaviours (such as self-promotion) than do individuals in more collectivistic cultures.

Power tactics

Applying power tactics

Political skill: the ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance your objectives.

Exert influence without others detecting it.

Useful for environments with low levels of procedural and distributive justice.

When organisational environment is open, fair rules, free of favoritism, biases, political skills can negatively relate to job performance ratings.

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Applying power tactics

People differ in their political skill, or their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives. The politically skilled are effective users of influence tactics, particularly when the stakes are high, such as when the individual is accountable for important organisational outcomes. A key political skill is to exert influence without others detecting it, a key consideration because it’s often damaging to be labelled ‘political’. Politically skilled individuals are also at home in environments with low levels of procedural and distributive justice. When an organisation is run with open and fairly applied rules, free of favouritism or biases, political skill can be negatively related to job performance ratings.

How power affects people

Power variables

Does not affect everyone the same way.

Toxic effects can be moderated by wielder’s personality; anxious personalities less likely to corrupt if they don’t believe using power would benefit them.

Organisation norms can reduce corrosive effects.

Express gratitude to powerful people makes them less likely to respond aggressively.

People who start low in status and gain power are more likely to abuse their power.

Positive effects of power

Power energises and increases motivation towards goals.

It’s not that power corrupts; it reveals what we value.

Power enhance moral awareness in those with strong moral identities.

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Power variables

As we’ve discussed, power can have some disturbing effects on people. But that’s not the whole story—power is more complicated than that. It doesn’t affect everyone in the same way and their power can have positive effects, too.

First, the toxic effects of power can be moderated by the wielder’s personality. For example, people with anxious personalities are less likely to become corrupt if they don’t believe using power would benefit them. Second, organisational systems may help reduce the corrosive effects of power; although power can encourage people to behave in a self-serving manner, if they’re formally held accountable for their behaviour, such behaviour is discouraged. Third, simply expressing gratitude towards powerful people makes them less likely to respond aggressively. Finally, people who start low in status and gain power are particularly likely to abuse their power because low status is threatening and the fear this creates can influence behaviour if power emerges later.

As you can see, various factors can moderate the negative effects of power. But there can also be general positive effects. Power energises and increases motivation towards goals. It can also enhance our motivation to help others. For example, one study found that a desire to help others translated into actual work behaviour when people felt a sense of power. This study points to an important insight about power. It’s not so much that power corrupts as it reveals what we value. Supporting this line of reasoning, another study found that power led to more self-interested behaviour in those with weaker moral identities (the degree to which morals are central to someone’s identity), while power actually enhanced moral awareness in those with stronger moral identities.

How power affects people

Sexual harassment

A significant abuse of power.

an unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment.

Negatively affects job attitudes, leads one to withdraw from the organisation.

jcu.edu.au

https://www.insidehr.com.au/power-imbalance-consent-sexual-harassment/

The issue of sexual harassment in the workplace is at the forefront of social awareness following the unprecedented number of celebrity scandals in the last twenty-four months and the rise and prevalence of the #MeToo movement.

While most employers are aware of the relevant legislative provisions governing sexual harassment in the workplace, two important issues in respect to sexual harassment which are the subject of less detailed consideration are: the role of consent (and the need for overt conduct indicating non-consent) in determining whether conduct of a sexual nature is “unwelcome” as defined in the legislation; and the related concept of power imbalance and how this affects sexual harassment matters.

Both these matters are important for employers to take into account, whether for the purpose of investigating and assessing a sexual harassment allegation, or to consider the potential risks and exposures faced by the company.

How power affects people

How to protect managers and employees from sexual harassment

Implement a clear policy, what constitutes sexual harassment, explain its implications, penalties, and procedure to address allegations.

Ensure employees don’t encounter retaliation if they issue a complaint.

Investigate every complaint, include legal and HR departments.

Discipline the offenders or terminate their employment.

Run in-house seminars to raise awareness.

Do you think these are effective? What could go wrong?

Type your answer in Chat

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Politics: power in action

Definition of organisational politics

Activities that are not required as part of a person’s formal role in an organisation but that attempt to influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organisation.

Requires use of power bases.

Political behaviors: withhold key information from decision maker, joining a coalition, whistleblowing, spreading rumors, leak confidential, lobby for/against a decision, exchange favors with others in the organisation for mutual benefits.

The reality of politics

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https://bizfluent.com/info-8151721-organizational-politics.html

What Are Organizational Politics in the Workplace?

To understand business or workplace politics, it helps to first consider the politics definition. Most people are familiar with the primary definition of politics – the activities associated with governing a place or region. These can include debate between parties in power, a set of beliefs or principles and other facets that involve belief and governance.

However, it’s the secondary politics definition that concerns the workplace through organizational politics, or what is commonly called “office politics,” and that includes efforts made in an attempt to improve one’s status or to increase one’s power in the organization.

or lead to reprimands. The way these policies affect workplace interactions can influence the organization’s political climate, which in turn can impact office politics. Navigating policies and benefiting from using them to one’s advantage (or suffering the consequences thereof) form the heart of corporate politics and power.

The reality of politics

Most experienced managers probably realise that political behaviour is a major part of organisational life and many managers recognise that some political behaviour is both ethical and necessary, as long as it doesn’t directly harm anyone else. They describe politics as a necessary evil and believe that someone who never uses political behaviour will struggle to get things done. Most also indicate that they had never been trained to use political behaviour effectively. But is it possible for an organisation to be politics-free? It’s possible—but unlikely.

Organisations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals and interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as departmental budgets, space, project responsibilities and salary adjustments. If resources were abundant, then all constituencies within the organisation could satisfy their goals. But because they’re limited, not everyone’s interests can be provided for. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of others within the organisation (whether they are or not). These forces foster competition for the organisation’s limited resources.

A key factor that encourages politics within organisations is the realisation that most of the ‘facts’ used to allocate resources are open to interpretation. What, for instance, is good performance? What is an adequate improvement? What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? One person’s ‘selfless effort to benefit the organisation’ is seen by another as a ‘blatant attempt to further one’s interest’.

The coach of an A-grade rugby league or rugby union team knows that a high-performing goal-kicker with an 82% kicking success rate is preferable to one with 50% success. It’s not a difficult decision to keep the goal-kicker with the 82% success rate and relegate the other to the reserve grade. However, what if you must choose between one player with a 79% and another with an 82% success rate? Then other, perhaps less obvious, factors need consideration: tackling rates, game expertise, attitude, potential, ability to perform in the scrum, team loyalty and so on. Managerial decisions more closely resemble choosing between the 79% kicker and the 82% kicker than the first, more obvious performance differential. It’s in this large and ambiguous middle ground of organisational life—where the facts don’t speak for themselves—that politics flourish. Even if the facts seem obvious, like the goal-kicking average, objectivity is doubtful. Who decides that this should be the key factor—why not leadership? Many sports teams appoint captains who contribute enormously to team performance, often at the cost of losing a little personal performance, due to the demands of captaincy.

Because most decisions are made in a climate of ambiguity—where facts are rarely objective and are open to interpretation—people often use whatever influence they can to support their goals and interests. That, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. Therefore, answering the earlier question of whether an organisation can be politics-free, we can say yes—if all members share the same goals and interests, if organisational resources are not scarce and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective.

Politics: power in action

The reality of politics

Politics as necessary evil.

Organisations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals and interests.

potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, (eg. departmental budgets, space, project responsibilities and salary adjustments) and foster competition for the organisation’s limited resources.

‘Facts’ used to allocate resources are subject to interpretation - good performance, adequate improvement, unsatisfactory job.

Where facts are rarely objective, people use influence (politicking) to support their goals and interests.

jcu.edu.au

https://bizfluent.com/info-8151721-organizational-politics.html

What Are Organizational Politics in the Workplace?

The reality of politics

Exhibit 12.3

Politics is in the eye of the beholder

Source: Based on T. C. Krell, M. E. Mendenhall and J. Sendry, ‘Doing research in the conceptual morass of organizational politics’, paper presented at the Western Academy of Management Conference, Hollywood, California, April 1987.

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The causes and consequences of political behaviour

Factors contributing to political behaviour (exhibit 12.4)

Individual factors

Organisational factors

How do people respond to organisational politics? (exhibit 12.5)

Defensive behaviours

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https://iedunote.com/factors-influencing-political-behaviour

Individual Factors

Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behaviour.

Employees who are high self-monitor, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behaviour.

The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behaviour than the low self-monitor.

Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favour.

The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest.

An individual’s investment in the organization’s perceived alternatives and expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action.

The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely he/she is to use illegitimate means.

The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.

A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means diminishes the probability of its use.

Organizational Factors

Political activity is probably more a function of the organization’s characteristics than of individual difference variables.

When an organization’s resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is an opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface.

Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking.

When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have.

Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.

The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political behavior and the more likely it will be illegitimate.

Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear.

There are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee’s political actions.

The greater the role ambiguity, the more one can engage in political activity with little chance of it being visible.

Subjective criteria in the appraisal process; Subjective performance criteria create ambiguity.

Single outcome measures encourage doing whatever is necessary to “look good.”

The more time that elapses between an action and its appraisal, the more unlikely that the employee will be held accountable for his/her political behaviours.

https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/behavior/what-is-defensive-behavior-and-what-does-it-look-like/

Defining Defensive Behaviour

To understand defensive behaviour, you need to think about what it means to defend. Defending something or someone is protecting them. A country can take military action to defend itself. Or parents might defend their child against danger. When you're being defensive in a psychological sense, you're often attempting to defend yourself from someone or something important to you.

But what are you protecting? Usually, you're protecting your ego when you're being defensive. You want to think that you're a good, intelligent, or likeable person, and you want others to think the same. You want to justify the decisions you've made, the things you've done, or even who you are as a person.

Why Does Defensive Behaviour Happen?

Your brain is wired to protect yourself against threats. That's a good thing, because otherwise you would be helpless. However, psychological defensiveness can be destructive. It's a very complex type of behaviour. It's based on a combination of your beliefs, your attitudes, your feelings, and your personality.

People usually start engaging in defensive behaviours early in their lives. When you were young, you may have learned defensive behaviours from others. When you felt threatened, as everyone does occasionally, you found a way to deflect the threat so that you could feel safer.

As you got older, you may have employed those same defensive behaviours both when you recognized a threat in your environment and even when you only anticipated a threat. And often, the defences you rely on aren't ones you need now, but only the ones you learned in the past.

One thing to remember is that usually people who engage in defensive behaviours aren't doing it for malicious reasons. Their only concern may be to feel better about what's happening. However, defensive behaviours are usually harmful for both the person doing them and those on the receiving end.

What Are the Consequences of Defensive Behavior?

So, if you only behave defensively to protect yourself, how is that a bad thing? What harm can come from it? The truth is that it can affect all your relationships with the individuals in your life and in the groups you interact with. If you often react to others in a defensive way, you might end up in divorce or in a relationship that becomes unhealthier day by day. If you're defensive with your loved ones, you may create a very hostile, tense environment in your home.

Defensiveness at work can make it harder to get along with co-workers and supervisors. It can keep you from doing your best collaborative work, as well. Being emotionally defensive in your social group could make you an outcast, or you might remain at the centre of the group but be secretly despised and unwanted.

Recognizing Defensive Behavior

Recognizing defensive behaviour in someone else is usually fairly easy. You may be trying to solve a problem with them or just trying to have a pleasant conversation. But for some reason, maybe because of something you've said or done or maybe for their own personal reasons, they feel threatened. When that happens, they may respond in several ways.

What Makes Defensive Behavior More Likely?

One way of thinking about defensive behaviour is that it's as if you come prepared for war in a situation that's basically neutral. You're ready to fight for yourself, even when no one is interested in attacking you. However, there's more to defensive behaviour. Sometimes, the way you behave may precipitate defensive behaviour in others. Here are some of the behaviours to avoid if you don't want to elicit defensive behaviour from those around you.

What is the role of dependency in power relationships? A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. When you possess anything others require that you alone control, you make them dependent on you, and therefore you gain power over them. If something is plentiful, possessing it will not increase your power. But as the old saying goes, ‘In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king!’ Conversely, the more you can expand your own options, the less power you place in the hands of others. This explains why most organisations develop multiple suppliers rather than giving their business to only one supplier. It also explains why so many aspire to financial independence: it reduces the power that others can wield if they can limit our access to opportunities and resources.

What are the nine power or influence tactics? The nine power tactics are:

Legitimacy

Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Consultation

Exchange

Personal appeals

Ingratiation

Pressure

Coalitions.

In what way is sexual harassment about the abuse of power? Sexual harassment is any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment. Sexual harassment isn’t about sex: it’s about abusing an unequal power relationship. Harassment can damage the well-being of the individual, work group and organisation.

How do politics work in organisations? Political behaviour is outside specified job requirements. It requires some attempt to use power bases. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria or processes used for decision making. The definition is broad enough to include varied political behaviours such as withholding key information from decision makers, joining a coalition, whistle-blowing, spreading rumours, leaking confidential information to the media, exchanging favours with others in the organisation for mutual benefit and lobbying on behalf of or against a particular individual or decision alternative.

What are the causes and consequences of political behaviour? There are both individual and organisational factors involved.

Individual factors: researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs and other factors that are likely to be related to political behaviour.

Traits—employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behaviour.

The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behaviour than the low self-monitor.

Individuals with an internal focus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favour.

The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his or her self-interest.

An individual’s investment in the organisation, perceived alternatives and expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action.

2. Organisational factors include:

• Reallocation of resources

• Promotion opportunities

• Low trust

• Role ambiguity

• Unclear performance evaluation system

• Zero-sum reward practices

• Democratic decision making

• High performance pressures

• Self-serving senior managers.

How can one determine whether a political action is ethical? There is no obvious or clear-cut way, but there are three questions that may help:

What is the utility of engaging in the behaviour?

Does the utility balance out any harm done by the action?

Does the action conform to standards of equity and justice?

Exhibit 12.4

Factors that influence political behaviour

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Not all groups or organisations are equally political. In some organisations, for instance, politicking is overt and rampant, while in others, politics plays a small role in influencing outcomes. Recent research has identified a number of factors that appear to encourage political behaviour that may explain this behaviour. Some are individual characteristics, derived from the unique qualities of the people the organisation employs; others are encouraged or enabled by the organisation’s culture or internal environment. Exhibit 12.4 illustrates how both individual and organisational factors can increase political behaviour and provide favourable outcomes (increased rewards and averted punishments) for both individuals and groups in the organisation.

Exhibit 12.5

Employee responses to organisational politics

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For people with modest political skills, or who don’t want to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative, as demonstrated in Exhibit 12.5. There’s considerable evidence that perceptions of organisational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction and can increase job anxiety and stress. This seems to be due to the belief that if you don’t engage in politics, you’ll lose ground to the more active politickers, or because of the pressures that you experience after entering and competing in the political arena. Not surprisingly, when politicking becomes too much to handle, it can lead employees to resign. Finally, preliminary evidence suggests that politics leads to self-reported declines in individual performance, perhaps because employees perceive political environments as unfair, which demoralises them.

Exhibit 12.6

Defensive behaviours

Defensiveness protects oneself interest, but eventually wears down employee. Over time, persistent user only knows how to use these. Eventually lose trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

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When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviours—reactive and protective behaviours to avoid action, blame or change69 (Exhibit 12.6 provides some examples). In the short term, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but eventually it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it’s the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees and clients.

Exhibit 12.7

Impression management (IM) techniques, Part 1

Source: Based on B. R. Schlenker, Impression Management Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1980; M. C. Bolino, K. M. Kacmar, W. H. Turnley and J. B. Gilstrap, ‘A multi-level review of impression management motives and behaviors’, Journal of Management 34, no. 6, 2008, pp. 1080–109; and R. B. Cialdini, ‘Indirect tactics of image management beyond basking’, in R. A. Giacalone and P. Rosenfield (eds), Impression Management in the Organization, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawernce Erlbaum, 1989, pp. 45–71.

IM – the process by which one attempt to control the impression others form of them

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Most likely, not everyone is equally concerned with IM. We could expect high self-monitors to be particularly concerned with IM,while lower self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. In contrast, high self-monitors are good at reading situations and melding their appearance and behaviour to fit each situation. Exhibit 12.7 summarises some of the most popular techniques you can use if you want to control the impression others form of you, and provides an example of each

Exhibit 12.7

Impression management (IM) techniques, Part 2

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The causes and consequences of political behaviour

Impression management (IM)

Interviews and IM – mostly worked as interviewers rarely able to detect.

Performance evaluations and IM

Ingratiation get higher performance evaluations. Self promotion can backfire. Politically skilled individuals more likely to translate IM to higher performance appraisal.

The ethics of behaving politically

What is the purpose of politicking? Is it worth the risk? Is it fair, equitable and just? Will others be harmed in the process?

Mapping your political career.

jcu.edu.au

https://study.com/academy/lesson/impression-management-in-sociology-theory-definition-examples.html

What Is Impression Management?

Impression management is the effort to control or influence other people's perceptions. This could be their perception of a certain person (including you), a material possession or an event. The theory goes on to explain that we try to make the perception consistent with our goals. For example, a girl who only shares good things about her boyfriend to her parents may be trying to present him as a good catch so they can stay together. If a woman spends hours thinking about the right outfit to wear to a party, she may be trying to present herself as beautiful and stylish while looking for a date. Of course, many of us can identify with the desire (and resulting actions) to be seen a certain way or cause someone or something we care about to be seen a certain way. Sometimes it's conscious and sometimes it isn't, but when we pay attention, we may find several perceptions we are striving to get from others.

The most common types of impression management have to do with self-presentation, and in the business world, the presentation of merchandise. How often have you wondered what someone will think of you if you do this or that, or if you don't do it? We strive to have others view us positively, because we tend to put emphasis on other views in ways that impact our self-esteem. As far as marketing goes, businessmen are going to present a product in the best light possible. Their job relies on managing the impressions of the audience in specific ways that boosts revenues. Also, in their understanding of human behaviour, they might even imply that if you own this product you may be more liked by others.

Interviews and IM

The evidence indicates that most job applicants use IM techniques in interviews and that it works. Interviewers are rarely able to detect when an individual is engaging in IM, especially when applicants are using deceptive IM. To examine how effective different IM techniques are in interviews, one study grouped data from thousands of recruiting and selection interviews into appearance-oriented efforts (like looking professional), explicit tactics (like flattering the interviewer or talking up your own accomplishments) and verbal cues (like using positive terms and showing general enthusiasm). Across all the dimensions, IM was a powerful predictor of candidates’ performance. However, there was a twist. When interviews were highly structured (when interview questions were written in advance and focused on applicant qualifications) the effects of IM were much weaker. Manipulative behaviours like IM tend to have more effect in ambiguous and unstructured interviews. In addition, the effectiveness of impression management depends on the applicants’ ability to correctly identify the traits or skills an interviewer is looking for.

Performance evaluations and IM

In terms of performance ratings, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance rating, so those who ingratiate themselves with their supervisors get higher performance evaluations. However, self-promotion often backfires. Self-promoters actually seem to receive lower performance evaluations. There is an important qualifier to this result. Politically skilled individuals are more likely to translate IM into higher performance appraisals, while those with less political skill are often damaged by their IM. Another study of 760 boards of directors found that individuals who ingratiate themselves to current board members (agree with the director, emphasise shared attitudes and opinions, compliment the director) increase their chances of being appointed to a board. In another study, interns who ingratiated themselves with their supervisors were usually disliked and had their performance rated poorly—unless they were highly skilled politically, in which case ingratiation had the opposite effect.

These results seem to make a lot of sense; ingratiating often works because most people (including interviewers and supervisors) like to be treated well. However, self-promotion might work more in interviews and backfire at work because your supervisor is more likely than an interviewer to know if you overstate your accomplishments (since the supervisor has observed your work over time). So, if you do self-promote, remember that what works in an interview might not work in the workplace.

Whether these conclusions about responses to politics are valid globally is another matter. As with other organisational behaviour topics, much of the research was conducted in North America. Studies that have included other countries suggest some minor modifications. For example, one study found that British employees seem to respond similarly to North American employees—that is, their perception of organisational politics relates to decreased job satisfaction and increased turnover—but that in countries that are more politically unstable, such as Israel, employees often seem more tolerant of workplace politics, perhaps because they’re used to power struggles and have more experience in coping with them. This suggests that people from politically turbulent countries in the Middle East or Latin America might be more accepting of organisational politics, and more willing to use aggressive political tactics in the workplace, than people from countries such as Great Britain or Switzerland.

Exhibit 12.8

Drawing your political map

Source: Based on D. Clark, ‘A campaign strategy for your career’, Harvard Business Review, November 2012, pp. 131–4.

sketch out your relationships with the people who are important to your career

jcu.edu.au

As we’ve seen, politics isn’t just for politicians. You can use the concepts presented in this chapter in some very tangible ways in your organisation. However, they also have another application: you.

It’s useful to think about power and politics in terms of your own career. What are your ambitions? Who has the power to help you achieve them? What’s your relationship to these people? One way to address these questions is with a political map, which can help you sketch out your relationships with the people who are important to your career. Exhibit 12.8 presents an example of a political map. Let’s walk through it.

Summary

Effective managers recognise the political nature of organisations.

Those who can play politics often achieve higher performance evaluations, larger salary increases and more promotions and are more likely to minimise the effect of job stressors.

jcu.edu.au

Effective managers recognise the political nature of organisations—it’s rarely a good idea to overrely on their formal (legitimate) power and ignore their informal bases of power as there’s a thin line between power and leadership. Some people are more politically astute than others, being more aware of the underlying politics and better able to manage impressions. Those who can play politics often achieve higher performance evaluations, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naïve or inept. The politically astute are also more likely to minimise the effect of job stressors.

Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organisation. People respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual’s personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward and legitimate power are more organisationally derived. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members.

If you want to get things done in a group or an organisation, it helps to have power—and even the most junior member can exercise some power and influence. Of course, whatever the nature of your position in an organisation, political skill and powerbase, it is essential to consider the consequences of your behaviour on other people and the organisation as a whole. The ethical exercise of power and political behaviour requires all of us to reflect on our personal responsibility.

Implications for managers

As a manager who wants to maximise your power in a group or an organisation, you may try to increase others’ dependence on you. You might increase your power by developing knowledge or a skill that your boss needs and for which they perceive no ready substitute.

You won’t be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others will try to increase your dependence on them, while you seek to minimise it and increase their dependence on you. The result can seem like a continual battle.

Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

Assessing behaviour in a political framework can help you predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit.

Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organisational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety and higher turnover. Therefore, if you’re adept at organisational politics, help your employees understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

Workshop – individual activity

“Most experienced managers realise that political behaviour is a major part of organisation life. Many even recognise that political behaviour is both necessary and ethical, as long as it doesn’t directly harm anyone else. They describe politics as a necessary evil and believe that someone who never uses political behaviour will struggle to get things done and indeed to progress in an organisation. What are the negative and positive effects of politics in an organisation? Is it possible to politic ethically? Can an organisation be politics free? Why or why not?

1. Post your answers to these questions in LearnJCU - subject home page - Workshop Discussions – Workshop 7: Power and Politics.

(apply the learning in today’s lecture. Provide deep answers to demonstrate your knowledge and insights in this topic.

2. Then, respond to at least one other posts from your class mates. You need to post first before you can reply to others.

This discussion board will close on 4th Jan 2022, 5pm Singapore

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