police&crime essay 500words
Sharonhy
Lecture5slide.pdf
The role of policing in prevention – Part I & Part II
CRM201/LLB201 Policing and Crime Prevention
Lecture 05
October 2020
Reading for Part I
(Required) Weisburd & Telep (2014). Hot spots policing: what we know and what we need to know. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(2), 200-220.
(Required) Segrave, M., and Ratcliffe, J. (2004). Community policing: a descriptive overview. Australian Institute of Criminology
Announcements - News
Overview for todays lecture – Part (1)
1. Problem-oriented policing recap
2. An alternative to POP – community policing (with a video!)
3. Compare and contrast POP and community policing
4. Hot spot policing (with another video!!!!)
5. How do these different styles of policing relate to crime prevention
Overview for todays lecture – Part (II)
1. Recap Philadelphia Foot Patrol experiment
2. Intelligence Led Policing (ILP)
3. Types of Intelligence used by Police and National Security (Intelligence Agencies)
4. IBM Analyst Notebook ‘i2) (brief video on intelligence software package)
5. The ‘Admiralty Scale’ (an old fashioned example of grading the value of intelligence source and information)
6. Three brief video’s on implementing ILP
The objectives of policing
• To prevent and control conduct threatening to life and property
• To aid crime victims and protect people in danger of physical harm
• To protect our rights
• To facilitate the movement of people and vehicles
• To assist those who cannot care for themselves
• To resolve conflict between individuals, groups, or between citizens and the government
• To identify problems that have the potential to become more serious
• To create and maintain feelings of security in the community
3
Research that provoked change
• In the 1970s the US Congress allocated monies for research into policing
• Kansas City (early 1970s) questioned the value of routine foot patrols
o Assessed effect of foot patrols on public attitudes, reported crime, victimisation, traffic accidents, response time…
o Concluded routine patrols had no effect on crime, fear, attitudes towards the police, or response times…
• Rand investigation (1979) questioned value of detective units
o Solved only a small percentage of cases (exception: task forces)
o Majority of time on tasks unrelated to crime solving
o Most important factors – What did the patrol officer find out? Was there a witness? Was there any physical evidence?
4
Policing alternative #1
5Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Award_ribbon_blue_1st.png
Problem- oriented policing
What is POP?
• A comprehensive framework for improving police capacity to perform their mission
o This framework underlies crime prevention strategy development
o Motivation: change the conditions that lead to crime
• Finding new/better ways to control crime, while still meeting community expectations for traditional police work
• Microscopic examination of discrete pieces of police business
• The intent is to develop new, innovative responses driven by the analysis
o Preventive in nature
o Not dependent on the criminal justice system
o Evaluated with rigour
6
Recapping the essential parts of POP
• Problems become the basic unit of police work
• Problems concern citizens and the police
• Solutions require dealing with the conditions that create the problem
• Systematically analyse problems before trying to solve them
• Analysis must be thorough
• Current approaches must be understood and the limits of effectiveness must be openly acknowledged
• Consider all possible solutions
• Pro-actively solve problems don’t just react to the harmful consequences of problems
• Evaluate effectiveness of new responses and share findings
o Both success and failure
7
Keys to implementing POP
• CHEERS
• SARA
• Connected to opportunity theory
8
Why use POP?
• Scalable
o It applies to problems with varying levels of complexity, from a single problem address to a community-wide problem
• Flexible
o It applies to a variety of substantive problem types, from minor quality of life issues to serious offenses
• Applicable
o Though it has roots in opportunity theory, it is useful to the day-to-day work of police officers on the street
• Doable
o Police officers and others can begin using these principles immediately
9
It works…
• POP is effective, if all the steps are followed
• Campbell systematic review (Weisburd et al., 2010)
o Examined 5,500 reports and articles
o Only 10 methodologically rigorous studies (RCT)!
o Overall modest, statistically significant impact of POP on crime and disorder
o Additional analysis of less methodologically rigorous studies dispalyed an ‘overwhelmingly positive impact from POP’
10
Policing alternative #2
11Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/2nd_MarDiv.png
Community policing
The origins of community policing
• In the early 1970’s, policing research determined that
o Police deal with a range of community problems
o Many of these problems are not criminal in nature
o Arrest and prosecution alone don’t always resolve problems
o Giving officers discretion to design solutions is extremely valuable to solving problems
• As a result of these types of findings
o Researchers, police professionals, and policymakers became interested in improving policing effectiveness
o The beginnings of a shift from focus on professional policing to community policing
12
History of community policing
• Began to appear in the UK and US during the early 1980s
• Reflected a paradigm shift
o From the Professional Era to the Community Era
• Background of increasing criticism for policing practices
o This fostered the willingness to consider alternative approaches
• A combination of social, environmental, and political drivers for change
13
Key factors behind the move towards community policing
1. Recognising public support is critical to police effectiveness
o Provision of essential intelligence
o Generally respecting the law
2. Criticisms of the existing policing paradigm and practices
o Inflexible and unresponsive to contemporary community concerns
o Exclusive focus on law and order demonstrated to be ineffective
o Traditional policing methods (increase policing numbers) did not produce sustainable crime reduction
3. Realisation that police can perform a wide range of functions
o Police can facilitate development of community links
o Police-community partnerships help increase the relevance of policing practices to community problems/needs
14
Key factors behind the move towards community policing
4. Returning responsibility for crime prevention to the community
o Consistent with a broader shift in public policy
o Individuals urged to take personal responsibility for crime prevention and security
5. Change the nature of ‘communities’
o Increasing urban sprawl
o Increased prevalence of dormitory suburbs (Felson’s ideas)
o Declining community cohesiveness and increased urban decay
6. Responding to the public demand for police accountability
o Increasing costs and greater scrutiny of police performance
o Rethink policing given the lack of evidence that traditional methods were effective and efficient
15
What is community policing?
• It’s about police engagement with the community
o Restructuring police organisations
o Altering daily activities of operational police officers
• Focuses on crime and social disorder through the delivery of police services in a range of ways, including
o Traditional law enforcement
o Crime prevention
o Problem-solving
o Community engagement
• An emphasis on effective working partnerships with the community is central to the underlying philosophy
o In practice, a broad range of approaches that have changed over time
16
Reactive
Proactive
Blending it all together…
17
Effective Community Policing
Organisational transformation
Problem solving
Community partnerships
• Multi-disciplinary partnerships with key stakeholders
• Pool resources and emergent properties
• Effective communication, coordination, and collaboration
• Adopt a general problem-solving approach
• Improve problem- solving skills of individuals • Agency management
• Organisational structure
• Personnel
• Technology/information systems
Community policing
Philosophy
Strategy
Tactics
Organisation
Four dimensions of community policing
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The philosophical dimension
• Citizen input
o Police need extensive input from the citizens on problems and priorities
• Broaden the function of the police role
o Much more than just law enforcement
• Provide a personal service to the community
o Policing is most effective when police know the citizens
o Personalised service – the opposite of ‘stranger’ policing
o More like the historical ‘beat cop’ – recapturing the intimacy with the community lost as a consequence of patrol cars
• Must be understood and committed to
19
The strategic dimension
• Re-oriented operations
o Look beyond traditional strategies (routine patrols, rapid response, detective investigations)
o Proactive strategies and tactics
• Prevention emphasis
o Proactive focus on problem solving, crime prevention, and community development
o Reconceptualise measurement beyond crime/clearance rates
• Geographic focus
o Develop community-specific focus for officers to generate a sense of accountability for specific areas
20
The tactical dimension
• The concrete programs and practices that are implemented
• Positive interaction
o Positively interact with all segments of the community
• Partnerships
o Work with the community to address crime/problems
o Public/private agencies, media, Neighbourhood Watch
• Problem solving
o Attempt to address the conditions that cause incidents and crimes
o Train officers to recognise problems and to know possible ways to address them
21
The organisational dimension
• Structure
o Police should re-examine structures to assure they facilitate community policing
o Decentralise police services and empower officers to work independently
• Management
o Re-examine police management to include mentoring and close supervision
• Information
o Ensure IT and IS is supportive of community policing
o Include qualitative information for evaluative processes
22
Variations in community policing
• Varies from one community to the next
o A large, metropolitan city may be different from a small, rural area
• Dynamic, influenced by…
o Community
o Crime rates
o Mobilization of citizens
o Region of the country
o Other social and environmental factors
23
Arguments for the potential benefits of community policing
24
Community Police Shared benefits
Arguments for the potential benefits of community policing
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Community
• Mobilisation and empowerment
• Capacity to respond to concerns
• Reduction in issues and problems as they are prioritised
• Improved social and physical environment
• Increased positivity towards police
• Reduced fear of crime
Arguments for the potential benefits of community policing
26
Police
• Improved police- community relationship
• Improved community perception of police ‘legitimacy’
• Increased officer satisfaction at work
Community Police Shared benefits
Arguments for the potential benefits of community policing
27
• Decreased potential for police-citizen conflict
• Reduction in crime rates
• A better flow of information between police and the community
• Better implementation of crime prevention/control activites
Implementation problems
• Reflect understanding of community policing and the organisational structure upon which it’s built
• Seven main types of implementation problem
28
1. Walk the talk
• Implementation must be understood, supported, practiced, and prioritised by the whole policing organisation
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2. Not ‘real’ police work
• Avoid an ‘us-and-them’ mentality within police organisations
o A perceived distinction between community policing and general duties officers
o Not ‘real’ police work
• Success of community policing is heavily influenced by organisational factors
o Structure of policing environment
o Level of ‘buy-in’ from colleagues and managers
• A shift to community policing must underpin a rethink of the approach to policing
o Not just an add-on to business as usual
30
3. What does community policing mean?
“Community policing has become so much a catch-phrase in modern policing throughout the world, that hardly any policing organisation wants to be seen as not participating. Consequently, almost anything that is not a reactive strategy to deal with a particular issue has been claimed as a community policing initiative, which has blurred the meaning of community policing.”
(Edwards, 1999)
• Without clearly defining what ‘it’ is, it’s difficult to say whether ‘it’ works
• Oversold
o Solution to all crime problems
o Unrealistic, resulting in loss of support when lacking instant impact and success
31
4. Who/where is the community?
• It may be difficult to locate a cohesive community
o Communities exist in many forms – What are the various communities in Singapore..? (or) where you are from..?
o Need to adopt a broad view and understand the challenges in locating a ‘community’
o Seek out and engage with a broad range of community members
32
5. It takes two to tango
• Community policing initiatives are developed based on the assumption that community members are willing and able to respond
o This capacity varies considerably across context
o Some groups that need help are fearful/unappreciative of increased police presence
o Sometimes there are no resources available
• Must be prepared for a lack of enthusiasm
o Participation and partnership won’t be automatic
o Time and effort must be invested to overcome barriers
33
• It isn’t always straightforward to identify ‘community’ concerns
o Strong personalities and/or influential groups may dominate discussion and control direction
o Strategies end up serving the interests of a vocal minority rather than the whole community
34
6. Which message do you listen to?
7. Did we make this better or worse?
• Interventions tend to be implemented without
o Clearly acknowledging past initiatives
o Clearly defining what success will look like
• Typical evaluations will focus on traditional indicators of crime
o Response times, clearance rates
o The focus should be on the less traditional measures, e.g., public perceptions of safety
• Short-term focus has meant relatively few evaluations have been completed
o Limits expansion of the knowledge base about ‘what works’
35
A local example of community policing in action in West Australia
• Community policing in Armadale, West Australia
o Link LINK - (*please OPEN this link to this West Australian example of community policing *you may care to compare this to your local examples in Singapore or other location where you reside*)
• It’s interesting to consider…
o What was driving the placement of these resources?
o What were they doing when they focused on these areas?
o Were they working in collaboration?
o Were they using data to drive the interventions and to gauge the implications of the intervention (process and impact evaluation)
o Were they considering a range of data – police calls, arrests, as well as local residents’ perceptions of fear/safety?
o How long did these interventions continue for?
36Source for video link: https://www.facebook.com/video.php?v=981034408596678
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
37
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/2nd_MarDiv.png https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Award_ribbon_blue_1st.png
https://pixabay.com/static/uploads/photo/2013/11/27/14/38/prison-fence-219264_960_720.jpg
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
38
Principle POP Community policing
Primary emphasis Substantive social problems within police mandate
Engaging the community in the policing process
When to collaborate? Determined on a problem-by-problem basis
Always, or nearly always
Emphasis on problem analysis
Highest priority Encouraged, but secondary to community collaboration
Preferences for response Strong preferences that alternatives to criminal law enforcement be explored
Preference for collaborative response with the community
Role for police in organising and mobilizing the community
Only if warranted within the context of the specific problem being addressed
Strong role for police
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
39
Principle POP Community policing
Primary emphasis Substantive social problems within police mandate
Engaging the community in the policing process
When to collaborate? Determined on a problem-by-problem basis
Always, or nearly always
Emphasis on problem analysis
Highest priority Encouraged, but secondary to community collaboration
Preferences for response Strong preferences that alternatives to criminal law enforcement be explored
Preference for collaborative response with the community
Role for police in organising and mobilizing the community
Only if warranted within the context of the specific problem being addressed
Strong role for police
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
40
Principle POP Community policing
Primary emphasis Substantive social problems within police mandate
Engaging the community in the policing process
When to collaborate? Determined on a problem-by-problem basis
Always, or nearly always
Emphasis on problem analysis
Highest priority Encouraged, but secondary to community collaboration
Preferences for response Strong preferences that alternatives to criminal law enforcement be explored
Preference for collaborative response with the community
Role for police in organising and mobilizing the community
Only if warranted within the context of the specific problem being addressed
Strong role for police
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
41
Principle POP Community policing
Primary emphasis Substantive social problems within police mandate
Engaging the community in the policing process
When to collaborate? Determined on a problem-by-problem basis
Always, or nearly always
Emphasis on problem analysis
Highest priority Encouraged, but secondary to community collaboration
Preferences for response Strong preferences that alternatives to criminal law enforcement be explored
Preference for collaborative response with the community
Role for police in organising and mobilizing the community
Only if warranted within the context of the specific problem being addressed
Strong role for police
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
42
Principle POP Community policing
Primary emphasis Substantive social problems within police mandate
Engaging the community in the policing process
When to collaborate? Determined on a problem-by-problem basis
Always, or nearly always
Emphasis on problem analysis
Highest priority Encouraged, but secondary to community collaboration
Preferences for response Strong preferences that alternatives to criminal law enforcement be explored
Preference for collaborative response with the community
Role for police in organising and mobilizing the community
Only if warranted within the context of the specific problem being addressed
Strong role for police
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
43
Principle POP Community policing
Importance of geographic decentralisation of police and continuity of officer assignment to the community
Preferred, but not essential. Dependent on the problem being addressed
Essential
Degree to which police share decision-making authority with community
Strongly encourages input from the community, but preserves ultimate decision-making authority for police
Emphasises shared decision-making with community
Emphasis on officer skills Intellectual and analytical skills
Interpersonal skills
View of the role or mandate of police
Broad, but not unlimited role. Stresses limited capacity of police. Guards against unrealistic expectations
Encourages an expansive role for police to achieve ambitions social objectives
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
44
Principle POP Community policing
Importance of geographic decentralisation of police and continuity of officer assignment to the community
Preferred, but not essential. Dependent on the problem being addressed
Essential
Degree to which police share decision-making authority with community
Strongly encourages input from the community, but preserves ultimate decision-making authority for police
Emphasises shared decision-making with community
Emphasis on officer skills Intellectual and analytical skills
Interpersonal skills
View of the role or mandate of police
Broad, but not unlimited role. Stresses limited capacity of police. Guards against unrealistic expectations
Encourages an expansive role for police to achieve ambitions social objectives
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
45
Principle POP Community policing
Importance of geographic decentralisation of police and continuity of officer assignment to the community
Preferred, but not essential. Dependent on the problem being addressed
Essential
Degree to which police share decision-making authority with community
Strongly encourages input from the community, but preserves ultimate decision-making authority for police
Emphasises shared decision-making with community
Emphasis on officer skills Intellectual and analytical skills
Interpersonal skills
View of the role or mandate of police
Broad, but not unlimited role. Stresses limited capacity of police. Guards against unrealistic expectations
Encourages an expansive role for police to achieve ambitions social objectives
Comparing elements of POP and community policing
46
Principle POP Community policing
Importance of geographic decentralisation of police and continuity of officer assignment to the community
Preferred, but not essential. Dependent on the problem being addressed
Essential
Degree to which police share decision-making authority with community
Strongly encourages input from the community, but preserves ultimate decision-making authority for police
Emphasises shared decision-making with community
Emphasis on officer skills Intellectual and analytical skills
Interpersonal skills
View of the role or mandate of police
Broad, but not unlimited role. Stresses limited capacity of police. Guards against unrealistic expectations
Encourages an expansive role for police to achieve ambitions social objectives
How do the two fit together?
• POP and community policing overlap in philosophy and practice
• It’s not one or the other
• It’s one and the other
47
Policing alternative #3
48Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/2nd_MarDiv.png
Hot spot policing
Remember the types of hot spots…
• Mapping helps distinguish acute hot spots from chronic ones
o Chronic hot spots are unlikely to decline naturally
• Reminder of the three basic forms of chronic hot spot
1. Hot dots
o Specific locations with high crime levels
2. Hot lines
o Street segments where crime is concentrated
3. Hot areas
o Suburban areas where crime is concentrated
49
Hot spots translating to hot spot policing
• A police response which focuses resources on the locations where crime is highly concentrated
• Tactics vary across contexts as a function of the variation in types of problem the police are trying to solve
• Overall, we know hot spot policing is effective
o Campbell systematic review by Braga et al (2012)
o Vast majority of studies show beneficial effect on crime/disorder when police focus on crime hot spots
50
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NUQsK0vnnM (OPEN this link and please view and consider – do you think this North American example may differ from where you live..?) Singapore is of course not as ‘crime ridden’ as the United States
51
Start
Remember that hot spot policing doesn’t lead to spatial displacement
• Spatial displacement naysayers argue…
o Preventing crime at Point A just pushes crime to Point B
o Negating any net crime control gains
• However, displacement is not inevitable
o There are features of the original hot spot that made them suitable for criminal activity
o These don’t exist everywhere
• Instead, what we know is that diffusion of crime control benefits is more likely as a result of hot spot policing
52
What is it about hot spot policing that helps?
• Koper (1995) found that time was important
o Each additional minute on-site increase survival time by 23%
o The ideal time was 14-15 min, with diminishing returns after this
o Suggests maximise crime/disorder reduction by making proactive, medium-length stops at hot spots on a random, intermittent basis
• Braga and Bond (2008) suggest SCP strategies combined with hot spot policing have the greatest impact on crime/disorder
o Disrupt the situational dynamics allowing crime to occur
• POP-focused solutions work best
o Braga’s Campbell review found POP strategies at hot spots produce effect sizes of over double those interventions that only focus on increasing police presence
53
Remember about responding to hot spots
54
Source: Clarke R.V. and Eck, J.E. (2005). Crime Analysis for Problem-Solvers in 60 Small Steps
There is still lots we don’t know about hot spot policing
• How does this approach effect perceptions of police legitimacy?
o Aggressive tactics could drive a wedge
o Limited knowledge about how police fairness and effectiveness intersect in hot spot policing
• How well does hot spot policing work in smaller cities and rural areas?
o Reaves (2011) estimated that in the US there are approximately 18,000 State and local police agencies
o 94% of these employ less than 100 officers
o Is hot spot policing relevant in these areas?
o Sample size and statistical power issues associated with evaluation
o In theory, this should still work though… 55
There is still lots we don’t know about hot spot policing
• We need to know more about the long-term effects of hot spot policing
o Evaluations have looked at short-term benefits
o Sorg et al. (2013) found crime prevention effects of a Philadelphia foot patrol disappeared after the treatment ended
o A year post-intervention crime had become indistinguishable between control and intervention areas
o LET US NOW EXAMINE THE ACTUAL ROLE OF POLICING IN CRIME PREVENTION…!
56
The role of policing in crime prevention
• With respect to community policing, Ratcliffe concludes
o Efforts with no clear focus do not work
o Promising signs regarding effect on community participation and improving police legitimacy
o Increasing perceived legitimacy may be an effective long-term crime prevention strategy
• Policing and crime prevention more generally, Weisburd and Eck conclude
o Research evidence supports continued investment in police innovation
o Expansion of policing ‘tool box’ beyond simple law enforcement (standard policing approach)
o Inconsistent evidence that community policing affects crime/disorder
o Good evidence POP reduces crime, disorder, and fear, particularly when partnered with hot spot policing
o Policing practices suffer from a lack of good evaluative research
57
How these alternatives contrast with the Standard Model of policing
• The standard model generally relies on one-size-fits-all reactive strategies
o Generic strategies can be applied throughout a jurisdiction, regardless of variations
o Ignores clustering in nature, type, and level of crime
• Standard model of policing involves
o Random patrol across the whole community
o Focusing on police-per-population ratios
o Response times to calls for service
o General approach to follow-up investigations
o General approach to intensive enforcement/arrest
• Success measures
o Patrol car numbers on the street at any time
o Resource-focused, rather than crime-disorder-fear focused
o How resources are allocated rather than the impact on public safety 58
59Source: Weisburd & Eck (2004) What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear?
The threat of arrest and punishment forms the core of standard model police practices in preventing and controlling crime
The role of policing in prevention – Part II
Intelligence Led Policing (ILP)
Reading for Part II
(Required) Chapter 14 from the 2008 version of the text book, “Intelligence-led policing”, available via MyUnitReadings
RECAP:- Philadelphia foot patrol experiment
• Best reference: Ratcliffe, J. H., Taniguchi, T., Groff, E. R., & Wood, J. D. (2011). The Philadelphia foot patrol experiment: a randomized controlled trial of police patrol effectiveness in violent crime hotspots. Criminology, 49(3), 795-831. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00240.x
• Look at last week’s video from (at least) 2 minutes to 2:09 to see the maps of the experimental and comparison areas – i.e. those that got the foot patrols and those that got ‘standard’ policing. Or see map in paper.
• The experimental and comparison areas were often close together so …
• Could there simply have been displacement from the experimental areas to the control areas, while aggregate crime rates stayed the same?
• A good question not covered in the video – was it really successful?
• Areas chosen around 22,00 intersections
• Selected high crime areas in small blocks
• Randomly assign areas to intervention and comparison areas in grouped pairs of high crime
• Discussion of displacement occurs on page 815
• Examine buffer areas around the intervention areas – no displacement evident –evidence of diffusion of benefits
• However, the design did allow area effects to be checked – the best results occurred in the VERY high crime areas, not so much in the moderately high crime areas (remember all were high by original selection process)
• So – effects were complicated
63 Source: http://info.theomegagroup.com/Portals/141938/images/ProactivePolicingWordle3.png
Origins of Intelligence-Led Policing (ILP)
• Prior to the 1990s criminal intelligence was rarely used in any coordinated, proactive sense
o Used on a case-by-case basis to gather evidence to support prosecutions
o ‘Policing-led’ or ‘investigation-led’ intelligence
• A demotion that pushed criminal intelligence and analytics into the wilderness of law enforcement
o Subverted it the role of case support
o A minor adjunct to investigations
• Intelligence in this form plays little role in the standard model of policing
o Favored reactive and investigative approaches to crime, rather than a prevention-focus
64
The drivers for intelligence becoming pivotal in policing
• The demand gap and the failure of traditional policing
o Huge spike in crime hit the US starting the mid-1960s
o Demands for service far outstripped increases in resourcing
o The impetus for POP, CP, and ILP
• Improvements in IS and IT
o Original motivation for recording information was for government reporting
o Became clear police data could be used to influence investigations
o Crime analysts became more common to provide tactical support for mid-level commanders
o Strategic analysis of crime to assist senior management
65
Intelligence & Criminal Intelligence
Some types of Intelligence used by Law Enforcement and National Security (Intelligence Agencies)
• HUMINT (Human intelligence sources – sometimes called ‘informants’) – WHO….?
• GEO-SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (Imagery, e.g. Australian Geospatial Directorate) - use of Satellite imagery
• MEASUREMENT AND SIGNATURE INTELLIGENCE (Radar tracking drug smuggling vessels, chemical materials (components – drugs, terrorism, environmental crime), biological materials
• OPEN SOURCE INTELLIGENCE – i.e. openly available, others…?
• SIGNALS INTELLIGENCE – ASD (intercepted communications & electronic signals)
• CYBER-INTELLIGENCE
• FINANCIAL INTELLIGENCE – Austrac (Financial Intelligence Agencies)
Analytic Tools of Criminal Intelligence
The following link highlights the features of an IBM software package commonly used by Police and Security services to undertaking complex charting (link association diagrams of organized crime, terrorism
and similar)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EIFu_oUiaBY
The Admiralty Scale….! (Information & intelligence reporting)
The drivers for intelligence becoming pivotal in policing
• Pressure for greater managerial professionalism
o Related to the demand gap – increased call for policing effectiveness and efficiency
o Increased perception of ‘risk’ and the need to mitigate risk through use of evaluated intelligence rather than intuition
• The growth of serious and organised crime
o Break down of international boundaries and end of Cold War led to rapid changes at an international level
o Transnational crime increase as a consequence of globalisation and the creation of e-finance and the internet
o Policing seeking new organisational models based on collaboration across borders
70
What is intelligence-led policing?
• A conceptual framework for conducting the business of policing
• Not a tactic like saturation patrolling, surveillance, or managing confidential informants
• Important distinction between information gathering and using intelligence to influence decision-making
• Not a crime reduction strategy like the 25 SCP techniques
• Similar to POP in the sense that it is a way of thinking and organising resources
71
What is intelligence-led policing?
• It is a business model and an information-organising process
• Allows police agencies to better understand their crime problems
• Takes into consideration available resources
• Decides on an enforcement tactic or prevention strategy best designed to control crime
72
The continuum from data to intelligence
• Intelligence is the end result of a process that starts with data
• Data becomes information
• Information can become knowledge
• Knowledge can become intelligence, if it is employed to have an impact on decisions affecting the criminal environment
73
The continuum from data to intelligence - example
• A computer database with locations of drug-related incidents and arrests
o Computer records are data
• Crime analyst identifies a new pattern in the data, developing information (data with meaning and structure)
• The analyst shares the information with a narcotics officer who knows that corner used to belong to a violent gang whose leader has just come out of prison
o This collective understanding becomes knowledge
• This becomes intelligence when the analyst and the officer take the knowledge to their senior commander who agrees to mount surveillance (to arrest offenders) and POP (to understand and alter the opportunity structure)
o Intelligence is knowledge geared towards action
74
What makes ILP distinctive?
• The revolutionary aspect to ILP was in the use of intelligence as a strategic planning resource (business-level) rather than as a means to develop case-specific evidence
• The central tenets of successful ILP
o Enthusiastic and energetic leadership that endorses ILP
o A published strategy that sets the intelligence agenda for a police force
o An integrated intelligence structure so that analysts can work at the hub of operational policing activities
o Criteria to measure performance to determine the effectiveness of the new approach
o Forging effective partnerships with local agencies that may be able to help police combat local crime/disorder problems
75
Rethinking the notion that intelligence is peripheral
• The ILP organisational approach aims to eradicate the notion that intelligence is peripheral
o Lurking in the ‘murky backwaters of policing’ (Christopher, 2004)
• ILP seeks to promote the notion that the organisation is intelligence-led
o Engaged in targeting decisions for planned activity
o No more haphazard reaction to problems
o Direct connection between intelligence flowing into the system and the targeting of policing objectives
76
A conceptual model for ILP
77Source: https://www.chds.us/images/journal/s2/simeone/figure-1.jpg
The three-i model
A conceptual model for ILP
78Source: https://www.chds.us/images/journal/s2/simeone/figure-1.jpg
The three-i model
Interpret
• The analytical arm of the police actively interprets the criminal environment
• Identify main players, significant and emerging threats
• Active process from analyst
• Interviewing investigating officers and debriefing handlers of confidential informants
• A pull model for information collection
A conceptual model for ILP
79Source: https://www.chds.us/images/journal/s2/simeone/figure-1.jpg
Influence
• This is a tricky area – moving away from providing case support (output, telephone intercepts, grading intelligence from informants/human sources) to making recommendations to commanders
• Emphasises the distinction between making recommendations based on analysis and research and making decisions about adopting recommendations and direction action
A conceptual model for ILP
80Source: https://www.chds.us/images/journal/s2/simeone/figure-1.jpg
The three-i model
Impact
• Crime reduction will only occur if decision- makers bring about an impact on the criminal environment
• Remember implementation issues with POP
• Old solutions won’t work, as they have failed over and again
• This is where POP can be implemented in conjunction with ILP
• Focused on the offender/handler relationship
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined?
Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
81 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted?
Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
82 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
83 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
84 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
85 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
86 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
87 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Dimension Standard Community Policing
POP ILP
Easily defined? Yes No Fairly easily Fairly easily, but still evolving
Easily adopted? Yes Superficially Difficult Managerially challenging
Orientation? Police administrative units
Neighbourhoods Problems Criminal groups, prolific and serious offenders
Hierarchical focus?
Top down Bottom up As appropriate for the problem
Top down
Who determines priorities?
Police management
Community concerns / demands
Varies from problem to problem
Police management from crime intelligence analysis
Target? Offence detection
Unclear Crime and disorder problems
Prolific offenders and crime problems
Criteria for success?
Increased detection and arrests
Satisfied community
Reduction of problem
Detection, reduction, or disruption of criminal activity or problem
Expected benefit?
Increased efficiency
Increased police legitimacy
Reduced crime and other problems
Reduced crime and other problems
88 Source: Ratcliffe, Intelligence-led policing, in Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
• Aim of the New Zealand model
o Use ILP to provide a consistent, integrated, and cohesive approach to reduce crime and victimisation
• Based on opportunity theory platform
o Crime is non-random
o The use of intelligence and crime pattern analysis can enable police to shift from reactive to proactive policing
• The three-i components produces intelligence that can be acted on
o Proactively target factors contributing to crime that have the biggest effect on offending rates
o Hot offenders, hot victims, and hot locations/things
An example from the United States (Kent Police Department ILP)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i7vO4GK_eoI
https://www.kentwa.gov/residents/public-safety/police-department (Further information on Kent Police Department (including links to crime prevention)
Intelligence Led Policing (ILP) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
https://www.osce.org/secretariat/450967 6.32 minute clip & article.
89
Implementing ILP
• Intelligence influences decision-making through
o Strategic and tactical planning
o Staff and resource deployment prioritisation
o Tactical deployment (such as targeting hot offenders and locations)
• Decision-makers in the police and community impact on the criminal environment by taking action to reduce crime opportunities
o POP, SARA, 25 SCP techniques
• Process and impact evaluations are undertaken to critique the effectiveness of different tactics or initiatives that are undertaken
90
Implementing ILP
“There is a lot of subliminal resistance. A lot of people see this as the latest fad and if we wait it out it will go away. There is a lot of passive resistance – pockets of resistance. Nobody will tell the Colonel to his face, but there is passive resistance.” (Analyst)
“The culture still hasn’t shifted yet. You need a leader who is going to demand ILP and kick people's ass when they don’t do it, or someone who is going to prevent promotions when they don’t do ILP.” (Analyst)
“A critical element of what is missing here is leadership training and professional development.” (Management)
• Have to tackle a number of implementation roadblocks, such as resistance from analysts and operational officers, and a ‘wait-and-see’ attitude from middle managers
91
Challenges with organisational change
Source: Ratcliffe, State police investigative structure and the adoption of intelligence-led policing, Policing: an international journal of police strategies and management, 31 (1)
1. Command commitment
o Viability and sustainability are dependent on the commitment of the police management
o Transitioning of senior staff poses a problem without a succession plan
2. Problem clarity
o Just like with POP – it’s essential to be specific about the nature of the problem that ILP is looking to solve
o Timely access to accurate, relevant information is crucial to this
92
10 Lessons learned from implementing ILP strategies
3. Active collaboration
o The level of success for ILP is dependent on the level of cooperation among partnering agencies
o This parallels the requirements for POP and community policing
o No agency can be effective alone
4. Effective intelligence
o Intelligence – the timely collection of critical information providing insight into strategy to combat crime threats/targets
o A constant process
o Successful ILP requires successful, dedicated intelligence
93
10 Lessons learned from implementing ILP strategies
5. Information sharing
o To collaborate effectively, you have to share
o Successful ILP involves processes for ongoing sharing of information between partner agencies
6. Clearly defined goals
o Clearly stated, measurable goals help clarify what ILP is aiming to do
o This relates back to being specific and also fits within the evaluation objectives
94
10 Lessons learned from implementing ILP strategies
7. Results-oriented tactics and strategies
o Creation of long-term strategies and short-term tactics to meet the clearly defined goals
o Success is clearly defined in terms of the goals – only achieved if the program accomplished what it aimed to accomplish
o Don’t cherry pick the outcomes that seem most favourable, but aren’t related to the problem you were attempting to address
8. Holistic investigations
o Aggressively pursue tacit linkages that are broader than the typical focus of traditional criminal investigations
o Move away from the focus on a single crime type
o E.g., merging investigations to combine gang and drug units
o Requires attitudinal shifting from key policing staff
95
10 Lessons learned from implementing ILP strategies
9. Officer accountability
o Greatest success from ILP established clear objectives and held officers accountable for reaching them
o Actually increased job satisfaction – officers were able to see the results of their crime control efforts
10. Continuous assessment
o Without such evaluation, programs can become stagnant
o Confront the ‘law of diminishing returns’ – the initial success of a new program will diminish with time
o Remember this with respect to POP
o Expect adaptation and innovation from offenders
o Continuous assessment keeps programs dynamic and viable
96
10 Lessons learned from implementing ILP strategies
Finally (just about) The Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (ACIC)
https://www.acic.gov.au/
Please have a perusal of the ACIC site and consider the role they undertake in Australian Policing and Security – they undertake a variety of interesting roles and also provide some very interesting career opportunities…..! Please peruse your jurisdiction in Singapore or otherwise and see if
you can identify an agency with a similar role to the ACIC..! (and whether they similarly have some interesting potential career
opportunities…!)
