Discussion 2
Simplyme28
Lecture5.Onthestreets-Organizationresponsibilitiesandchallenges.pptx1
Chapter 5: On the Streets: Organization, Responsibilities, and Challenges
As always, be sure that you also read the corresponding Rennison and Dodge chapter.
Chapter Summary
This chapter discusses a number of issues related to contemporary policing in America. It starts by providing an overview of the turbulent history of contemporary policing, then discusses how law enforcement agencies are organized, including officer selection and responsibilities. It then analyzes police efforts to engage with the community and introduces us to the most controversial issues facing law enforcement today.
1
1 week before exam, read your notes
Color code
Re-write notes (goal: write)
Study guide
Ask questions: email or office hours
Studying tactics
Here are some studying tactics that may help you prepare for future exams in general. These are some habits that worked for me while I was a student. It may sound silly to read/review your notes about a week prior to an exam, but it really does help. This process does not take too much of your time, but can have a lot of benefits.
Also, I want to point out that I am always available to clarify questions through email or office hours. Just
2
Pre-cursor to contemporary policing
1970s-1990s: Reform effort
Goal: fix problematic police behavior
1972: Knapp Commission
NYPD Officer, Frank Serpico
“whistle-blower”: insider
3
>1/2 police officers in the New York Police Department (NYPD) engaged in corruption.
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
So, we just finished learning about the history of policing. We learned how August Vollmer introduced a sense of professionalism into law enforcement. Moreover, we learned that during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a lot of pushback from the community about police corruption.
Now, we are going to pick up right after this time period to see what are some pre-cursors to contemporary policing. Notably, let’s first focus on the 1970s.
From the 1970s to the 1990s, attempts were made to repair the reputation of law enforcement in America. These took many forms, including investigative panels.
1972 Knapp Commission (NYPD)
In the early 1970s, a former New York Police Department officer, Frank Serpico, became a whistle-blower. For those of you who are unfamiliar with this term, a whistle-blower is someone with insider knowledge, typically an employee, that speaks out against the employer about fraud, corruption, or crimes committed by the company.
In this specific example, Officer Serpico, publicly shared how more than half of the officers in the NYPD were engaged in corruption.
3
Knapp Commission
Rotten apple theory: the idea that corruption can be traced to just a few bad officers
Rejected by the Knapp Commission.
4
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
As a result, the Knapp Commission was formed to investigate Serpico’s claims. In their report, they rejected the longstanding theory that only a specific few officers were corrupt. This idea is known as the “Rotten Apple Theory”.
Rejected rotten apple theory
Rotten apple theory: The idea that corruption in most police departments can be traced to just a few officers. For example, think of a batch of apples. Most apples are fine. They taste like what they are supposed to taste like. However, on occasion, there will be a few “bad apples” that are rotten or damaged. When applied to law enforcement, this theory suggests that only a few specific officers are “bad” whereas most officers are “good.”
It is important here to note that the Knapp Commission REJECTED this idea that only a few “bad apples” were to blame for the widespread corruption in the NYPD. Remember, the Commission found that more than half of the officers were engaged in some type of illegal behavior.
4
Knapp Commission
5
Grass-eaters: some officers were passive participants.
Saw others accepting bribery and corruption but chose not to act.
Complicit
Meat-eaters: actively involved in corruption.
Accepted bribes
Engaging in it
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
Instead, the Knapp Commission report identified grass-eaters and meat-eaters. So who are grass-eaters and who are meat-eaters?
Grass-eaters: Identified by the Knapp Commission as officers who acted as passive participants when others were engaging in bribery and corruption. These are the officers who were witness to corruption but did not say anything. Instead, they were complicit with their peers, even though they were aware that the behavior was unprofessional, unethical, and unacceptable.
Meat-eaters: Identified by the Knapp Commission as officers who actively engaged in corrupt activities. These were the officers who knowingly and willingly engaged in corrupt behavior such as accepting bribes.
5
Introduction: Contemporary Policing
After beating of Rodney King 1991 Christopher Commission (LAPD)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdktDOeG2VI
Commission findings:
Racisms and bias in the LAPD
Demanded measures for accountability
Public response? Riots, outrage…BUT not all scandal.
6
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
Following the Knapp Commission, several other commissions from different departments began to pop up. One notable commission was developed in the Los Angeles Police Department in 1991.
1991 Christopher Commission (LAPD): This commission was formed after the beating of motorist Rodney King. For those of you unfamiliar with Rodney King, he was a motorist fleeing from police officers. Rodney King surrendered and was unarmed. As he surrendered, several LAPD officers used excessive force and brutally attacked King. This was unique at the time because it occurred in the early 1990s, where video footage of police excessive force was heard of, but not necessarily seen on camera. If you are interested in learning more about the scene/case, I have provided the YouTube link. However, it is quite graphic.
So what did the Christopher Commission find? There were two key findings from their report. First, there was rampant racism and bias in the LAPD. Second, there was demanded measures to ensure accountability among LAPD officers.
Overall, there was a lot of public outrage during the early 1990s. Remember from Week 1, the early 1990s were known as the “Crime Wave”. So, there was a lot of civil unrest to clean up the police departments. However, I want to point out that during this time, it was not all scandal. Indeed, you also see public support for police officers and respect.
6
Contemporary Policing
What is it?
Primary mission: to enhance quality of life for public
Enforcing laws
Preventing crimes
Arresting suspects
Organizational core values:
Respect for the law and community
Dedication to service professionalism
Responsibility for public safety and ethical conduct
7
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
This leads us now into contemporary policing. The primary mission of police is to enhance quality of life by means of enforcing laws, preventing crimes and arresting suspects while upholding core values. All the while, law enforcement is also committed to organizational core values.
Organizational core values:
Respect for the law and community
Dedication to service professionalism
Responsibility for public safety and ethical conduct
7
The Police Organization
Well-known departments:
NYPD** (>37,000 officers)
…BUT 50% of agencies have less than 10 full-time officers
8
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
There are a handful of well-known and large departments like New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Baltimore. In fact, NYPD is the largest department in the United States with over 37,000 officers. However, the majority of agencies are much smaller. For example, 50% of agencies employ 10 or fewer full-time officers. This number varies by type of state and local law enforcement agencies, and it also varies by jurisdiction. What is important here is that despite these size differences, almost all are structured under a paramilitary framework with a distinct chain of command.
8
The Police Organization
Becoming a police officer:
All require high school diploma
Only SOME require college (~1% of departments)
Background check for illegal behavior
Test
Written exam on reasoning, basic math, and language
Complete a physical fitness test
9
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
For those of you interested in becoming a police, there are several steps that need to be taken to get to that point. These steps are outlined above in the slide.
9
The Police Organization
Becoming a police officer:
Oral exam
Polygraph
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/why-lie-detector-tests-cant-be-trusted-180972724/
Character investigations
Medical/drug screenings
Psychological evaluations
10
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
For those of you interested in becoming a police, there are several steps that need to be taken to get to that point. These steps are outlined above in the slide.
In this slide, I have also provided a link that talks a bit more about the use of polygraphs and its effectiveness.
10
The Police Organization
Becoming a police officer:
Selected applicants attend a police academy and then enter into field training program
Academy training in Sacramento Police Academy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0ckjXQrdcQ
Process takes several months
11
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
For those of you interested in becoming a police, there are several steps that need to be taken to get to that point. These steps are outlined above in the slide.
On this slide, I have included a YouTube link that provides some insight into the type of training that is involved in the police academy. This link is not necessarily generalizable to ALL police academies. However, it does provide some insight for those who intend on going to the academy.
11
The Police Organization
FL PD: http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/CJSTC/Officer-Requirements/How-to-Become-an-Officer.aspx
12
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
So, what does an actual application look like to become a police officer? I have provided the link below and, on the slide, to check out Florida’s process!
http://www.fdle.state.fl.us/CJSTC/Officer-Requirements/How-to-Become-an-Officer.aspx
12
The Police Role
Police officers = Gatekeepers of the CJS
Discretion: Allows police and others in the system the latitude to make an arrest or not
Examples?
13
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
Now that we know a bit more about the training involved in being a police officer, let’s turn our attention to an officer’s roles and duties.
As we talked about during Weeks 1 and 2, police officers are generally seen as the gatekeepers of the criminal justice system. After a call or crime is reported, police officers respond and have the authority to arrest the individual. In addition, police officers also can arrest an individual who may be speeding or engaging in other types of illegal acts as they patrol.
This brings up the point of discretion. What is discretion?
Discretion: Allows police and others throughout the criminal justice system the latitude to make an arrest (or other action) or not.
An example of discretion would be writing a speeding ticket. If an officer pulls you over, they have the authority and ability to write you a ticket, or not. If they do not write you a ticket, even though you have been speeding, then they are using discretion. Why? Because although you engaged in an illegal behavior, they have decided to use their proper judgement to let you off with a warning.
This brings up the question, well is discretion bad then? Not necessarily. As your textbook discusses, discretion can be a good and a bad thing. On one side, discretion allows for efficiency in the criminal justice system. There are finite resources available in the criminal justice system as well as in police departments. If an officer wrote a ticket or arrested EVERY individual that was engaging in crime, then the police departments would be bogged down or overwhelmed, more so than it already is. By using discretion, it frees up the police officer’s time and resources to focus on larger issues.
On the other side, if officers are using discretion to benefit other individuals over other people, this would infringe upon due process (the idea that everyone should be treated equally and fairly in the criminal justice system).
13
The Police Role
Patrol
Preventing crime, apprehending suspects, and assisting community members
Reactive policing: response for a call for service rather than a self-initiated action
Example: 911 calls, cat in tree
Proactive policing: efforts involve crime prevention activities
Example: night watch
14
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
That said, many of the police officer’s role will be based on patrol or foot patrol. During patrol, officers are tasked with crime prevention, apprehending suspects, and assisting community members.
In contemporary policing, this is where we find reactive AND proactive policing. Note, this is HUGE! Prior to this, law enforcement was largely reactive, and only responding to calls for services. However, now we begin to see a change in structure and policing. Now, officers are using crime data to prevent future offending behavior patterns.
14
The Police Role
Patrol
Duties of patrol:
Maintaining police presence
Ensuring public order
Providing help/assistance
Identifying and apprehending suspects
15
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
Other duties include maintaining a positive police presence, ensuring public order, providing help and assistance to those who need it (e.g., elderly population), as well as identifying and apprehending suspects.
15
The Police Role
Patrol
Duties of patrol:
Finding lost children
Directing traffic
Issuing traffic tickets
Chasing fleeing felons
Responding to criminal events
16
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
What are some other things officers engage in? Well, this is where a lot of social work comes into play. For example, officers also engage in locating lost children, directing traffic, maintaining overall traffic flow on highways and responding to criminal events.
16
The Police Role
Investigation
Detectives and higher ranking officers fulfill this role
Often rotated and may require testing and interviewing
Undercover work = special assignment
17
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
For officers who are promoted to detective work, they may also engage in investigations.
Investigative positions and special assignments in policing are highly sought after and generally require several years of experience on patrol. These positions are often rotated and may require testing and interviewing. In addition, undercover work is a type of special assignment. A lot of times, these type of work are related to vice crimes such as drugs, prostitution, gambling, etc.
17
The Police Role
Investigation
Logging dispatch information
Watching for persons or vehicles leaving the crime scene
Scanning the entire area, and noting possible secondary crime scenes
Making initial observations to assess the scene and officer safety
Remaining alert and attentive
18
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
What do you actually do in investigations? There are a number of tasks which are outlined above in this slide.
18
The Police Role
Command, paramilitary
Top officer = Chief of police
Strong leadership by the chief: essential in establishing respect and high-level organizational functioning
Negotiating and intervening in difficult situations with politicians, citizens, and rank and file
Usually appointed by mayor or city council
19
5-1 Describe the organization and structure of a typical police department and summarize the
responsibilities of patrol.
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when officers decide to use lethal force.
Now, let’s focus on the command chain.
Pictured here is the new chief of police in West Palm Beach, Chief Frank Adderley. The police chief is the top of the command. The chief is primarily responsible for establishing order, organization, and negotiations with the community, citizens, and politicians in the area. This position is usually appointed by the mayor or city council.
19
Who Are the Police?: Culture
Culture: Key aspects of policing subculture
Unique subculture. Police scholars contend that this subculture may have developed based on either: 1) a socialization process, or 2) people bringing in their own characteristics.
1) Socialization process: people join the police force and are socialized to police values.
Example: college drinking at parties if a freshman never partied/drank before
2) People bringing in their own characteristics: people come in with set of values and then integrate these values on the job.
Example: person already values drinking/partying, then goes to all the college parties
Secrecy, group solidarity, violence, cynicism, masculinity, isolation, and authoritarianism.
Often criticized for code of silence.
High levels of stress are common among police officers.
At high risk for health problems: high blood pressure, heart problems, posttraumatic stress disorder, and suicide.
Stressful nature of policing is also often associated with increased suicide, divorce, drug use, and alcoholism.
20
5-3 Identify the unique characteristics of the subculture of policing.
Policing in itself has its own shared values and community. Police scholars have identified a unique subculture that is specific to those who identify as police officers. This subculture is argued to be a result of either 1) a socialization process, or 2) people bringing in their own characteristics or values to the profession.
So what is a socialization process? This is a term that typically you find in cultural-based theories of crime. A socialization process occurs when an individual joins a group or population, in this case, the police force, and are socialized to adopt that specific group or population’s goals and values. What is an example of this? Consider, for instance, college parties and drinking culture. Let’s say a freshman who has never partied before or consumed alcohol before arrives to a big university. At this university, the person is introduced to college parties where alcohol consumption is normalized and encouraged. The person then learns positive reinforcement of alcohol consumption whether it be through meeting friends etc. This person later adopts this subculture and enjoys partying/consuming alcohol. This would be indicative of a socialization process.
The other possible explanation for a policing subculture is rooted in individual characteristics. According to some police scholars, individuals who are attracted to police work and police careers all share a similar set of values and characteristics. Because of these shared values and characteristics, they become attracted to the job and join the police force. In this situation, there is not much convincing that needs to be done to accept the subculture. Why? Because the person who is attracted to this type of profession has already accepted this line of work/values.
Now we must consider, what is this unique policing subculture? Research points to the overall secrecy of this line of work. Policing subculture is defined by group solidarity, in some cases, violence, as well as cynicism, masculinity, isolation, and authoritarianism.
Moreover, police are often criticized for their code of silence. This code of silence fosters a secretive world that excludes outsiders and interferes with reform efforts. The code of silence is argued to protect other members of the police force that may engage in illegal or corrupt behavior, such as accepting bribes, involvement in illegal kickbacks, political agreements etc.
However, this subculture is not all rooted in these ideas of corruption or secrecy. There is also a shared list of problems that are unique to police officers that many other professions do not experience. What are some examples? These include the highly stressful nature of the job. Police officers are expected to serve and to protect. This may very well mean putting their own lives at risk to save another person’s life. The highly stressful nature of this work places a huge burden on officers which may exacerbate health problems for them. Some example health problems are high blood pressure, heart problems, PTSD, and suicide. Police officers are also at greater risk for other issues like divorce, drug use and alcoholism.
20
Who Are the Police?: Culture
Culture: Police Misconduct
Classification of misconduct:
Corruption: abuse of authority.
Misconduct: breach of department policy.
Criminal activity: using their status as a means to engage in crime.
Culture: Motivations to join
Early research: White male officers linked to authoritarian personalities and desire for power and control.
Strongest in male-dominated agencies.
Recent research: Job security, opportunity to help others, importance or excitement of the work.
Satisfaction: meaningful contributions, job security
Dissatisfaction: excessive policy/procedure and lack of advancement.
21
5-3 Identify the unique characteristics of the subculture of policing.
What about other aspects of police culture?
Police misconduct
Police officers engaging in criminal activities or misbehavior break their oath and thereby undermine community trust. Corruption is any illegal abuse of authority (Ex: kickbacks, shakedowns, protection of illegal activities). In addition, misconduct is any breach of department policy. Last, officers may engage in criminal activity (Ex: extortion, robbery, brutality).
Gratuities
Many departments prohibit officers from accepting gratuities, declaring it unethical and cautioning that the acceptance of gratuities may be a slippery slope into greater deviance
Motivations
Now, let’s focus on motivations. Why do some people want to become police officers? In past research, there is evidence to suggest that people attracted to the profession were largely White male officers who were typically linked to authoritarian personalities. These studies found that people attracted to the position had a desire for power and control, a link which is particularly strong in male-dominated agencies.
However, more recent research shows other motivations, including job security, the opportunity to help people, and the importance or excitement of the work. Police officers are highly satisfied when they believe they are making meaningful contributions. In contrast, police officers grow dissatisfied with excessive policy/procedure and lack of advancement.
21
Who Are the Police?: Gender
Gender
Police culture emphasizes hypermasculinity.
Female officers represent approximately 14% of all sworn officers.
Face unfounded stereotypes and marginalization.
Different approaches to resolve situations.
Perceived gender differences
Physical: Women may struggle to meet an agency’s physical strength and agility standards.
Psychological: Personality traits.
22
5-3 Identify the unique characteristics of the subculture of policing.
Next, let’s see if there has been changes in gender and diversity of law enforcement since the pre-1970s.
Gender
For the most part, the subculture of policing embraces hypermasculinity.
Female officers represent approximately 14%–18% of officers. Moreover, female officers face stereotyping and marginalization. Scholars also suggest that discrimination and inequality continue to persist in the field for female police officers.
So why the backlash? It may be due to perceived differences between male and female officers. These may include:
Physical: physical strength and agility standards exist in most agencies, with different performance standards for different people. In one large department employing physical agility testing in recruitment, only 28% of females passed the test, compared with 93% of male recruits
Psychological: personality traits. Research shows that women tend to show more empathetic traits than men. For some individuals, this empathy may be seen as a weakness for law enforcement, but that is not necessarily the case.
22
Who Are the Police?: Gender
Gender
Research suggests these differences:
Male officers more likely to use force.
Female officers may use communication skills to deescalate situations.
Female officers equally competent to male.
More female officers in an agency reduces incidents of sexual harassment and discrimination.
Still ongoing research on female police officers
23
5-3 Identify the unique characteristics of the subculture of policing.
What does the general research on female police officers say? What are some key findings?
Research on female police officers are still relatively new. However, there are some data to suggest that there are some notable differences between male and female police officers.
For example,
Male officers may use force more frequently than female officers.
Policewomen may use communication skills to deescalate situations.
Female officers are as competent as their peers.
A greater number of female officers in an agency reduces incidents of sexual harassment and discrimination.
23
National Center for Women and Policing
For example, consider this research that was conducted by Drs. Seklecki and Paynich. This is NOT in your textbook, but I wanted to point out some of the research advancements our field has made in partnership with female police organizations. In particular, the researchers used data from the National Center for Women and Policing. In their research, a total of 531 female officers responded to a survey asking about their motivations for a career in law enforcement and treatment at their department.
24
In their research, they found the following key findings. Note, that the female officers share very similar motivations as male counterparts for law enforcement employment. They have the key motivations earlier mentioned like desire to help people and excitement of the job. In terms of treatment, the female respondents noted the different and more “worse” treatment toward them compared to their male counterparts.
25
Who Are the Police?: Gender
Gender
Women tend to be underrepresented in policing, especially in command positions.
Less than 2% of police chiefs are women.
In 2020, only 5 female police chiefs.
If you are interested in learning more, here is a link to an article detailing the rise of Portland’s first female police chief, Penny Harrington.
https://www.themarshallproject.org/2018/09/05/a-police-pioneer-on-her-unfinished-business
26
5-3 Identify the unique characteristics of the subculture of policing.
Despite these advancements, women tend to be underrepresented in policing in general. This is especially true at supervisory and command positions. For example, less than 2% of police chiefs are women. In 2020, out of the 50 largest police departments in the United States, only five had a female police chief.
But, there are organizations for female law enforcement officers to provide mentoring, training, and support. These include:
National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives
National Center for Women and Policing (which was in partnership with the earlier study I pulled in).
Women in Federal Law Enforcement
26
Who Are the Police?: Race and Ethnicity
Race and Ethnicity
Since 1970s, there has been growing racial and ethnic diversity in police departments, notably, among African American and Hispanic officers.
But still, Hispanic officers remain historically underrepresented.
In 2019, the number of minorities reported as police and sheriff's patrol officers remained low (Bureau of Labor Statistics).
17% Hispanic, 13% Black, 2% Asian
Minorities face unique stressors including social distance from the white, male workforce.
Particularly, black women hold limited expectations of becoming members of the in-group.
27
5-3 Identify the unique characteristics of the subculture of policing.
Next, let’s turn to race and ethnicity in contemporary policing. Since 1970s, there has been growing racial and ethnic diversity in police departments, notably, among African American and Hispanic officers. But still, Hispanic officers remain historically underrepresented.
In recent statistics based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics, we find that the number of minorities continue to remain low. Moreover, minorities police officers may have unique challenges that other police officers may not have. For example, Black female police officers tend to be isolated by their peers and have a more difficult time being members of the “in-group” in their police departments. Why do you think that may be the case?
27
Community Policing
Contemporary policing marks a shift from reactive policing, to PROACTIVE policing.
Now, there is a focus on crime prevention.
Community policing: style/philosophy that adopts proactive measures and community collaboration.
Key components:
Partnerships.
Organizational transformation: requires structure of management, personnel, and information systems that supports the community partners and proactive initiatives.
Problem-solving: promotes systematic examinations of crime-related issues to provide for effective responses.
28
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
Now, let’s focus on the different types of policing strategies. First, let’s focus on community policing.
Police agencies have recognized that the emphasis on appropriate treatment of victims is not only the right thing to do but it also serves to reduce future crime and victimization. Victims who are treated with respect and dignity are more likely to willingly participate in current criminal investigations.
This marks a noticeable shift in how police departments orient themselves. In community policing, there is more emphasis on a PROACTIVE approach, meaning that instead of waiting for people to call in/report a crime, police officers are trying to nurture a relationship with their community and members of their community. By doing so, they may get assistance that they otherwise may not get, such as help with organizational transformation and problem-solving.
1994 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act passed: creation of the Community Oriented Policing Services.
28
What Does Community Policing Look Like?
29
Police actively engaging with community members via events, park, bike patrol. The goal is to foster communication and a sense of trust.
What does community policing look like? Here are some photos I found. Essentially, this style of policing permits police to actively engage with their community members at events, parks, bicycle patrols, etc. The general goal is to foster and uphold communication. By doing so, the community can trust the police officers and reduce hostility toward the police.
29
Community Policing
Working With Victims
Police are trained to support victims.
Victims assist police in criminal investigations.
Beneficial because it reinforces community ties and helps to bridge the gap between the police and the public.
Crime prevention can occur when the public REPORTS victimization.
RECALL: “Dark figure of crime”
If the community does not trust the police, they will likely not call the police/report the crime.
To prevent crime, the police needs to work with community members to learn of where crimes occur, the context, and how best to prevent future offending behavior.
30
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
Why is working with the victims important in community policing? Because victims offer a lot of information to criminal investigations as well as crime prevention. For example, if a victim shares their data with officers, the police department can “log” this information and use it to develop crime prevention tactics to reduce future victimization for that individual specifically, but for the general public.
What is an example? Think about a serial car thief. Let’s say this car thief is terrorizing everyone’s car in the dorm parking structure. All these students are upset because their car is being broken into, and their laptops and other items are being stolen. Students are frustrated! At the same time, the students in the dorms have a positive relationship with the campus police department. The students feel comfortable reporting the crime, which becomes particularly useful for the campus police. Now, the campus police can put together all the data on the car thief, such as when the car thief goes out at night, what types of cars the car thief is targeting, and the type of valuables the car thief is stealing. By gaining the trust of students, the campus police can station an officer at the scene of the crime (the parking lot) to prevent future victimization because now the car thief may be afraid to engage in that behavior again with a police officer present.
30
Problem-Oriented Policing (POP)
Problem-oriented policing (POP):
Emphasizes use of data analysis and assessment to address crime problems.
POP is more focused on resource allocation. Think: what is the best way we can use our department’s resources?
How do you determine this? Via crime data and the SARA model.
Uses the SARA model.
SARA model: Scan, Analysis, Response, and Assessment model.
Scan: identify and prioritize problems.
Analyze: research the problem.
Respond: develop long-lasting solutions.
Assess: evaluate the success of the responses.
31
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
Now, let’s focus on problem-oriented policing (POP).
Problem-oriented policing (POP): A policing style that emphasizes the use of data analysis and assessment to address crime problems.
In POP, there is less focus on developing community relations, but more focus on resource allocation. What does this mean? Well, it means what is the best approach or use of police resources (employees, technology, finances) to reduce crime. In this approach, police departments use CRIME DATA to their advantage. The departments learn about the most critical problem their neighborhood faces, and figure out what is the best solution to these problems.
How do they find out what problems are facing their neighborhood? They use the SARA model.
SARA model: The scan, analysis, response, and assessment model, used in problem-oriented policing
31
POP Policing
In POP policing, the emphasis is on crime data and crime science. In community policing, the focus is more on community relations development.
So, how does crime data and crime science come into play? We turn to the different crime prevention theories.
32
Theories:
Routine activity theory (RAT): Risk of criminal incidents increases when a) motivated offenders, b) suitable targets, and c) the absence of capable guardians converge.
This is a POPULAR theory in crime prevention.
This theory states that for crime to occur, all three criteria must be present for a crime opportunity in one place in time.
Examples? Car theft. The car serves as a suitable target with valuables in it. The car is left unattended in a parking lot, and there is always a motivated offender.
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
In POP policing, the emphasis is on crime data and crime science. In community policing, the focus is more on community relations development.
So, how does crime data and crime science come into play? We turn to the different crime prevention theories.
The first is Routine Activity Theory (RAT).
Routine activity theory (RAT): Cohen and Felson’s theory that posits that the convergence in space and time of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians increases the risk of criminal incidents.
RAT is a very popular theory in crime prevention, and a lot of problem-oriented policing is dependent upon this theory. This theory states that for crime to occur, all three criteria must be present for a crime opportunity in one place in time.
What is an example? Let’s consider our earlier example of car theft. The car serves as a suitable target with valuables in it. The car is left unattended in a parking lot, and there is always a motivated offender.
32
POP Policing
Theories:
Crime triangle: Focuses on immediate concerns present in the environment to confront difficult issues.
This crime prevention theory is made popular by Dr. John Eck.
In this orientation, there are specific people or objects that are meant to directly oversee or place pressure on each of the earlier 3 criteria.
By placing pressure on each of the 3 criteria (motivated offender, suitable targets, and an absence of capable guardians), then crime is reduced.
33
HOW DOES THIS WORK?
Motivated offender : a ”Handler” is there to stop them or watch them
Suitable target “ a “Guardian” is there to watch over the target
Absence of capable guardian : a “Place Manager” is there who is responsible for space.
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
Now, let’s focus on a second theory: the crime triangle.
Crime triangle: Also referred to as the problem analysis triangle, a strategy that focuses on immediate concerns present in the environment in order to confront difficult issues (based on routine activity theory).
This is a theory that I’m well versed in because one of my former mentors at University of Cincinnati helped to develop this theory, Dr. John Eck.
In the crime triangle, there are specific people or objects that are meant to directly oversee or place pressure on each of the earlier 3 criteria. By placing pressure on each of the 3 criteria (motivated offender, suitable targets, and an absence of capable guardians), then crime is reduced.
So how does this work? There is a “handler” who is there to stop the motivated offender by watching this person. This can be the offender’s mom, girlfriend, maybe their work boss. It is essentially someone who can place social control on the offender. The second aspect to the triangle is a “guardian”. A guardian can be a person but also a thing or object. The guardian’s role is to watch over the victim, to make sure the victim is not alone. What are some examples? Consider bright street lights or a second observer. The third leg of the triangle is a ”place manager.” A place manager would be the person responsible for overseeing the environment in which the crime opportunity will occur in. This may be a building owner.
33
POP Policing
34
GENERAL TAKEAWAYS:
Handlers: they can be anyone or anything that places a responsibility on the offender and puts them ”in check.” In the above example, it is a girlfriend who is watching over the offender’s time.
Guardian: this can be a person or a thing. For example, a car alarm will signal to other people that the car is being broken into or tampered with. Guardians can also be lights (e.g., keeping your lights on when you are out of town to increase visibility), dogs, or people like a house-sitter.
Place managers: these are people who typically have a financial obligation to fix or maintain a property. For example, this can be an employer, owner, or landlord. Their job is to protect the ”space”.
Consider the earlier car theft example.
| RAT Criteria | Example | Crime Triangle Solution |
| 1. Motivated offender | Car thief | Handler: Car thief’s girlfriend, who is asking where the thief goes at night. |
| 2. Suitable target | Car | Guardian: Car alarm that will go off when the car thief tries to open the door. |
| 3. Absence of capable guardian | Empty parking lot | Place manager: The owner of the parking lot installs bright street lights to illuminate the parking lot |
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
To help you better understand the crime triangle, I have provided a table with an example. This is outside of your textbook, and I hope you can see how it ties to the problem-oriented policing strategy. This is how police departments identify problems in their area, and develop crime prevention tactics to resolve these problems.
GENERAL TAKEAWAYS:
Handlers: they can be anyone or anything that places a responsibility on the offender and puts them ”in check.” In the above example, it is a girlfriend who is watching over the offender’s time.
Guardian: this can be a person or a thing. For example, a car alarm will signal to other people that the car is being broken into or tampered with. Guardians can also be lights (e.g., keeping your lights on when you are out of town to increase visibility), dogs, or people like a house-sitter.
Place managers: these are people who typically have a financial obligation to fix or maintain a property. For example, this can be an employer, owner, or landlord. Their job is to protect the ”space”.
34
Other Policing Theories
Theories:
Broken windows theory: Social disorder of neglected neighborhoods leads to increased crime rate.
This theory assumes that if disorder is left unattended and unfixed, then crime will ensue.
This theory is based on an economic perspective.
Research conducted on this theory was based on a dilapidated car to see if community members would do anything to the car.
Results? People did vandalize the car and steal parts from the car!
The research was conducted in different types of neighborhoods with various SES status, and the results were substantially the same—people vandalized the car, etc.
SO, if small problems are piled up in the community, then crime will occur.
Solution? Zero-tolerance. Address/apprehend the smaller crimes.
35
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
Now, let’s turn to another policing theory. This next theory and approach falls outside of the POP approach. This is an entirely new concept, which is called Broken Window Theory.
Broken windows theory: Introduced by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling to describe the social disorder that occurs in run-down and neglected neighborhoods, which leads to higher crime rates.
This theory assumes that if disorder is left unattended and unfixed, then crime will ensue. This theory is based on an economic perspective.
Research conducted on this theory was based on a broken down car to see if community members (from various types of neighborhoods, e.g., the “ghetto” and middle-class) would do anything to the car.
Results? People did vandalize the car and steal parts from the car!
The research was conducted in different types of neighborhoods with various SES status, and the results were substantially the same—people vandalized the car, etc.
SO, if small problems are piled up in the community, then crime will occur.
Solution? Zero-tolerance. Police departments that rely on a broken window theory approach are likely to not tolerate even minor crimes and issues. Instead, they will apprehend and arrest even small infractions.
Indeed, community policing is largely rooted in broken windows theory. How so? Because the goal of community policing is to know all members of the community/neighborhood.
35
Other Policing Theories
36
Theories:
Hot spots policing: Specific geographical locations identified as high-crime areas
Police can focus patrols based on hot spot patterns.
How do the police identify a “hot spot”? Via crime data.
Example: can you think of any neighborhood where there is a reputation for more crime than other areas? For instance, are their areas where you may not visit at specific hours of the day? This is likely a hot spot for crime.
Example: ”Over-the-Rhine” (OTR) in Cincinnati, OH. Used to be a hot spot for crime (e.g., gang violence, drug deals, and homelessness). Now, only select street segments and addresses are hot spots in Over-the-Rhine.
This type of policing may lead to displacement of crime.
This is a big issue police departments must face. For example, if you remove one ”drug” drop spot, what happens? The drug dealers may move to a different street.
5-4 Differentiate community policing from traditional approaches.
Let’s now turn to a different type of policing approach: Hot Spots Policing.
Hot spots policing: Specific geographical locations identified as high-crime areas
In this approach, police can focus patrols based on hot spot patterns. How do the police identify a “hot spot”? Via crime data.
Example: Can you think of any neighborhood where there is a reputation for more crime than other areas? For instance, are their areas where you may not visit at specific hours of the day? This is likely a hot spot for crime.
Example: “Over-the-Rhine” (OTR) in Cincinnati, OH. OTR used to be a hot spot for crime (e.g., gang violence, drug deals, and homelessness). Now, only select street segments and addresses are hot spots in Over-the-Rhine.
Although successful, this type of policing may lead to displacement of crime. This is a big issue police departments must face. For example, if you remove one ”drug” drop spot, what happens? The drug dealers may move to a different street. So while this approach may be useful, it may be a temporary fix to a much larger problem.
36
Intelligence-Led/ Evidence-Based Policing
Key elements of intelligence-led policing:
Interpreting the criminal environment and using strategic decisions based on a contextual analysis.
Targeting of offenders.
Management of crime and disorder hotspots.
Investigation of linked series of incidents.
Application of preventative measures.
37
5-5 Discuss the main tenets of intelligence-led/evidence-based policing.
We now turn to intelligence-led and evidence-based policing.
This type of approach first developed in 1990s in the United Kingdom as a response to transnational crime and rapid globalization. This approach was envisioned as a means of creating efficiency and effectiveness in police agencies.
37
Intelligence-Led/ Evidence-Based Policing
Fusion centers: Developed to help in information exchanges on intelligence gathered from confidential informants, surveillance, and crime data analyses.
COMPSTAT: implemented in the early 1990s by the NYPD.
Employs computer technology to gather up-to- date and accurate information on crime within neighborhoods.
38
5-5 Discuss the main tenets of intelligence-led/evidence-based policing.
In this approach, there is emphasis on shared ideas and data. For example, here are two different types of ways technology is used to expand knowledge on crime.
Fusion centers: Developed under the National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan to help in information exchanges on intelligence gathered from confidential informants, surveillance, and crime data analyses.
CompSTAT: A law enforcement strategy first adopted by the New York City Police Department that relies on crime mapping to identify hot spots and crime trends in order to effectively address problems.
38
21st-Century Policing: Procedural Justice
Major principles of PROCEDURAL JUSTICE:
Citizens need to be given a voice in the process to tell their side of events to officers.
Example: citizen input via city/town hall meetings.
Officers must be neutral when dealing with people and events.
Example: can’t show favoritism over one party.
People want to be treated with dignity and politeness.
Also known as “bedside manners”.
People react favorably to officers they view as trustworthy and caring.
39
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
That said, let’s now focus on the 21st century. One KEY concept in policing, that is likely to develop even further, is the idea of procedural justice. Procedural justice is all dependent on police communication. By establishing communication between the police and the public, there is room for for police legitimacy.
21st-Century Policing
New technology, better policies, and evidence-based practices are transforming law enforcement.
What is procedural justice? Below you will find some of the major principles of procedural justice:
Citizens must be given a voice to tell their side of the story.
Officers must be neutral when dealing with people and events (neutral in legal application and interpretation alike.)
People want to be treated with dignity and politeness, which is incumbent on all officers.
Officers must listen to accounts and explain their actions in a sensitive manner to establish a reputation as trustworthy and caring.
39
21st-Century Policing: Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is important during publicized shootings involving minority suspects.
A social psychology perspective: we interpret people and events based on past experiences and stereotypes.
Largely rooted in idea of “vicarious experiences.”
For example, if your friend or neighbor had a negative encounter with the police. This *may* impact how you view the police.
40
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
What about attribution theory? How does that come into play in the 21st century?
Attribution theory is important during publicized shootings involving minority suspects. This is rooted in a social psychology perspective. That is, we interpret people and events based on past experiences and stereotypes.
Consider the concept of “vicarious experiences” that I mentioned week’s prior. For example, let’s say your friend or neighbor had a negative encounter with the police. Their experience *may* now impact how you view the police.
40
21st-Century Policing: Obama’s Task Force Pillars
President Obama’s task force pillars:
Building trust and legitimacy.
Policy and oversight.
Technology and social media.
Community policing and crime reduction.
Training and education.
Officer wellness and safety.
41
5-6 Describe how police agencies have transformed and advanced in the 21st century.
In addition, there has been recent legislation to help assist in establishing legitimacy for police departments. One notable legislative work is President Obama’s Task Force Pillars.
41
Controversial Issues in Policing
Use of Force
Officers are trained to use the appropriate level of force given the totality of the circumstances.
Recall, the Peelian Principles that establishes when use of force is necessary.
Continuum of Force: amount of force used in an arrest depends on suspect’s demeanor, weapons, and level of compliance.
Media focus on instances where lethal force is used and may neglect the facts of the situation.
Tennessee v. Garner (1985): addressed use of deadly force against a fleeing suspect.
Decision: appropriate IF probable cause exists that the suspect poses a SIGNIFICANT threat.
42
5-7 Summarize the relationship between the use of force by an officer and a suspect’s behavior.
Now, we turn to controversial issues in policing. This is important to consider as we are still dealing with a lot of these issues today.
Let’s first focus on the use of force.
Use of force represents a highly debated and often misunderstood aspect of law enforcement. Use of force is distinctly difference from excessive force (i.e., officer exceeds the necessary force to control a suspect or contain a situation).
Use of Force Statistics:
A 2017 report issued found that the Chicago Police Department engaged in excessive use of force, held racial biases, and overlooked misconduct.
Media focus on instances where excessive or lethal force is used and often fail to reflect what really occurred during the incident. What is an example?
Consider the Michael Brown incident in Ferguson, Missouri. Despite the initial story, the Department of Justice found “no credible evidence that Michael Brown was kneeling, shot execution-style”
Use of lethal force against minorities is an issue for law enforcement agencies. This may result in community outrage and riots, furthering tension between law enforcement and the public. Remember, it is important and critical for the police departments to have a positive relationship with their community. Without perceived legitimacy, police departments may have a more difficult time working with community members and gaining trust.
In your textbook, we also learned about the controversial concept of the “Ferguson effect”, which suggests a connection between higher crime rates and police protests over officer involved killings of blacks.
Research also suggests that some level of force is used in 8% to 10% of police–citizen encounters. Moreover, in 80% of these incidents, it involved weaponless tactics.
Not only have these research shed light on the use of force in police departments, we also have some landmark cases that address the use of deadly force against civilians. For example, in Tennessee v. Garner (1985), it addressed use of deadly force against a fleeing suspect. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled the use of deadly force is appropriate in pursuit of a fleeing suspect only to prevent escape if probable cause exists to believe the suspect poses a significant threat that endangers officers or others
Suspect resistance measures:
Psychological intimidation
Verbal noncompliance
Passive resistance
Defensive resistance
Active aggression
Aggravated active aggression
42
Controversial Issues in Policing
Fatal Police Shootings
On-duty law enforcement officers fatally shoot about 1,000 civilians annually.
Demographics typically kept by private sources.
Washington Post finds 3,198 fatal shootings since 2015.
2021: 1,050 fatal shootings.
Actively updated: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/police-shootings-database/
Native Americans (10 per 100,000 individuals) most likely to be killed by a law enforcement officer.
Blacks (7 per 100,000 individuals) also much more likely to be killed.
43
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when police officers decide to use lethal force.
5-7 Summarize the relationship between the use of force by an officer and a suspect’s behavior.
What about fatal police shootings?
On average, on-duty law enforcement officers fatally shoot about 1,000 civilians annually.
Demographics are typically gathered by private sources like the Washington Post, which has found 3,198 fatal shootings by on-duty law enforcement officers since January 2015:
4% female victims
24% Black victims
17% Hispanic victims
47% White victims
2% Native American victims
2% Asian victims
1% “other”
8% race not specified
When accounting for differential populations, Native Americans (10 per 100,000 individuals) and then Blacks (7 per 100,000 individuals) are the most likely to be killed by an on-duty law enforcement officer. In contrast just 3 (per 100,000 individuals) Whites and Latinos met the same fate.
I was curious so I also pulled up the latest figures available on the Washington Post. IN 2021, there was 1,050 fatal shootings. These data are constantly being updated and I have provided a link to the most recent data on this slide.
Controversial Issues in Policing
Fatal Police Shootings
Shooting of Stephon Clark: Spotted by helicopter and shot primarily in the back in his own backyard.
Police alleged he was advancing and armed.
He was holding a cell phone, not a weapon.
Shooting of Ray Thomas: Sheriff’s Deputy saw him being pushed by another man and ordered him to get on the ground.
When Thomas failed to comply, he was fatally shot.
Most fatal police shootings involve armed individuals.
Body cameras overwhelmingly supported by the public.
Privacy issues.
44
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when police officers decide to use lethal force.
5-7 Summarize the relationship between the use of force by an officer and a suspect’s behavior.
What are some highly publicized instances of fatal police shootings? There have been some recent ones in the media, but I want to detail some of the examples provided in your textbook.
1. March 2018, shooting of Stephon Clark: Sacramento police spotted Clark by helicopter and confronted him in his backyard after receiving reports of an individual breaking into cars and backyards.
Police claimed Clark was advancing on them while pointing a weapon, so they fired 20 rounds (8 of which struck Clark). In reality, he was holding a cell phone and the autopsy indicated that the rounds struck him primarily in the back. Shooting captured by a helicopter camera crew and law enforcement body cameras
2. Ray Thomas, Harris County Texas: Thomas was walking in the middle of a street with his pants around his ankles when Sheriff’s Deputy Brewer witnessed Thomas being pushed by another man.
When Brewer stopped his patrol car and Thomas approached, Brewer ordered Thomas to get on the ground. When Thomas failed to get on the ground, Brewer fatally shot him; this was recorded on body camera. Family members reported Thomas had suffered from depression since his wife allegedly drowned his two children in 2016.
That said, most fatal police shootings involved armed individuals.
In 2% of fatal shootings, the deceased had a toy weapon.
In 7% of cases, the deceased was unarmed.
5% of incidents involved an unknown or undetermined weapon.
With the introduction of body cameras, there has been overwhelmingly support by the public. This works in two ways. On one side, there is more police accountability for excessive police force. On the other side, it brings up the issue of privacy.
- 11% of police shootings since 2015 have been captured by a body camera
- Privacy issues: to what extent should the media and public have access to body camera footage of other civilians that may not want that footage exposed?
Controversial Issues in Policing
Racial Profiling
Occurs when an officer questions or investigates an individual based on race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin.
There are some officer trainings in place to recognize implicit bias.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLzyi5n1DW0
Discretion and Mandatory Arrest Policies
Mandatory arrest policies limit police discretion in certain circumstances (frequently in domestic violence cases).
But, are mandatory arrests effective at crime prevention?
https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jclc83&i=147
Private Policing
Protection of airports, hospitals, retail companies, banks, factories, and so on by private entities.
Lack of training and regulations.
45
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when police officers decide to use lethal force.
5-7 Summarize the relationship between the use of force by an officer and a suspect’s behavior.
What about racial profiling? That is also a controversial issue in policing.
Racial profiling: Occurs when officers question or investigate a person based on race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin. Some examples include driving while Black or in New York City, the stop-and-frisk policy.
Racial profiling may be indicative of overall mistreatment of Black citizens (Example: in Ferguson, MO, 70% of the population is Black—but only 3 of 53 total Ferguson police officers are black.).
Some police departments are aware of these issues, and to address it, they have implemented implicit bias trainings into their department. If you are curious what these implicit bias trainings entail, you can learn more here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLzyi5n1DW0
Discretion and Mandatory Arrest Policies
Discretion depends on a variety of factors according to Jeffrey Ross. Some of these factors include: personal disposition style, situation, and department values
There have been attempts to limit discretion, which include:
Mandatory arrest policies: policies that limit police discretion in certain situations; they are frequently applied to incidents involving domestic violence
Thurman v. Torrington : extended liability to police for acts of omission, i.e., failure to arrest aggressor
If you would like to learn more on whether mandatory arrests actually work to reduce crime, I have provided a link to a scholarly article on mandatory arrests in domestic violence disputes. This is a famous study by Dr. Sherman.
Private Policing
Private policing: policing provided by private entities. Protection is extended to corporate executives and other high-profile individuals. As federal, state, and city governments cut funding, citizens are turning to private police for security. What are some examples? Patrol gated communities, respond to alarms, security for executives, protect airports, banks, etc. These private policing units employ more than 250,000 people nationally. However, they come with their own sets of issues, which include lack of training and regulations.
45
Controversial Issues in Policing
Social Media
Social media may assist law enforcement:
Increasing communication with citizens.
Increasing positive community interactions.
Increasing organizational legitimacy.
Technology
CopLink: tactical lead generation, crime analysis, and information sharing among various levels of law enforcement.
High-activity location observation (HALO) cameras: Remote-controlled cameras allowing observation of areas of interest.
46
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when police officers decide to use lethal force.
Some other issues in policing are its use of social media and technology.
Social Media:
Facebook, Twitter, and Google provide opportunities to reduce crime, communicate with citizens, and enhance media relations.
Departments can use social media to send crime reports, crime prevention tips, traffic updates, and safety advisories. At the same time, it may disturb some citizens with the content that the departments choose to report/post.
Technology:
Cameras have changed policing in many ways:
Videos and pictures of police-citizen interactions are easily recorded by anyone with a phone. In addition, police body-worn cameras can protect officers from false accusations.
CopLink is an information technology system first funded by the National Institute of Justice in 1997. CopLink offers tactical lead generation, crime analysis, and information sharing among local, state, and national law enforcement agencies.
46
Controversial Issues in Policing
Technology
Nonlethal force: type of force (including weapons) that provides viable options for dealing with resisting subjects.
Includes pepper spray and rubber bullets (less-than-lethal weapons).
Alternative to once-common chokeholds.
Tasers: Conductive energy device or electronic control device.
Controls suspects and protects officers from injury.
Military drones: Increasingly used as possible crime-fighting tools.
47
5-2 Discuss public perceptions on the role of police of how and when police officers decide to use lethal force.
5-7 Summarize the relationship between the use of force by an officer and a suspect’s behavior.
Technology also may be controversial in other means:
Nonlethal force: type of force (including weapons) that provides viable options for dealing with resisting suspects, such as pepper spray, rubber bullets, beanbag guns, and sedative darts. Provides an alternative to choke holds, which were once commonly used. Also called less-than-lethal weapons.
Less-than-lethal weapons: weapons that provide viable options for dealing with resisting suspects; they include pepper spray, rubber bullets, beanbag guns, and sedative darts
Tasers: a type of conductive energy device or electronic control device. These devices offer a means of controlling suspects while saving lives and offering officers protection from injuries.
Military drones: technology increasingly used as possible crime-fighting tools in some parts of the country
47
