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Lecture5.Onthestreets-Organizationresponsibilitiesandchallenges.pdf

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Chapter 5: On the Streets: Organization,

Responsibilities, and Challenges

ü 1 week before exam, read your notes ü Color code ü Re-write notes (goal: write) ü Study guide

ü Ask questions: email or office hours

Studying tactics

Pre-cursor to contemporary policing • 1970s-1990s: Reform effort

• Goal: fix problematic police behavior

• 1972: Knapp Commission

• NYPD Officer, Frank Serpico

• “whistle-blower”: insider

• >1/2 police officers in the New York Police Department (NYPD) engaged in corruption.

Knapp Commission

• Rotten apple theory: the idea that corruption can be traced to just a few bad officers

• Rejected by the Knapp Commission.

Knapp Commission

• Grass-eaters: some officers were passive participants.

ü Saw others accepting bribery and corruption but chose not to act.

ü Complicit

• Meat-eaters: actively involved in corruption.

ü Accepted bribes

ü Engaging in it

Introduction: Contemporary Policing

After beating of Rodney King à 1991 Christopher Commission (LAPD)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdktDOeG2VI

Commission findings: 1. Racisms and bias in the LAPD 2. Demanded measures for accountability

Public response? Riots, outrage…BUT not all scandal.

Contemporary Policing What is it?

Primary mission: to enhance quality of life for public

1. Enforcing laws

2. Preventing crimes

3. Arresting suspects

Organizational core values: ü Respect for the law and community ü Dedication to service professionalism ü Responsibility for public safety and ethical conduct

The Police Organization Well-known departments:

• NYPD** (>37,000 officers)

…BUT 50% of agencies have less than 10 full-time officers

The Police Organization Becoming a police officer: 1. All require high school diploma

• Only SOME require college (~1% of departments)

2. Background check for illegal behavior

3. Test

• Written exam on reasoning, basic math, and language

4. Complete a physical fitness test

The Police Organization Becoming a police officer: 5. Oral exam

6. Polygraph

• https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovati on/why-lie-detector-tests-cant-be-trusted- 180972724/

7. Character investigations

8. Medical/drug screenings

9. Psychological evaluations

The Police Organization Becoming a police officer: 10. Selected applicants attend a police academy and then

enter into field training program

• Academy training in Sacramento Police Academy

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0ckjXQrdcQ

11. Process takes several months

The Police Organization FL PD: http://www.f dle.state.fl.us /CJSTC/Offic er- Requirement s/How-to- Become-an- Officer.aspx

The Police Role

• Police officers = Gatekeepers of the CJS

• Discretion: Allows police and others in the system the latitude to make an arrest or not

• Examples?

The Police Role

Patrol • Preventing crime, apprehending suspects, and assisting

community members

1. Reactive policing: response for a call for service rather than a self-initiated action

• Example: 911 calls, cat in tree

2. Proactive policing: efforts involve crime prevention activities

• Example: night watch

The Police Role Patrol • Duties of patrol:

ü Maintaining police presence

ü Ensuring public order

ü Providing help/assistance

ü Identifying and apprehending suspects

The Police Role Patrol • Duties of patrol:

• Finding lost children

• Directing traffic

• Issuing traffic tickets

• Chasing fleeing felons

• Responding to criminal events

The Police Role Investigation • Detectives and higher ranking officers fulfill this role

• Often rotated and may require testing and interviewing

• Undercover work = special assignment

The Police Role Investigation • Logging dispatch information

• Watching for persons or vehicles leaving the crime scene

• Scanning the entire area, and noting possible secondary crime scenes

• Making initial observations to assess the scene and officer safety

• Remaining alert and attentive

The Police Role Command, paramilitary • Top officer = Chief of police

• Strong leadership by the chief: essential in establishing respect and high-level organizational functioning

• Negotiating and intervening in difficult situations with politicians, citizens, and rank and file

• Usually appointed by mayor or city council

Who Are the Police?: Culture Culture: Key aspects of policing subculture

• Unique subculture. Police scholars contend that this subculture may have developed based on either: 1) a socialization process, or 2) people bringing in their own characteristics.

• 1) Socialization process: people join the police force and are socialized to police values.

• Example: college drinking at parties if a freshman never partied/drank before

• 2) People bringing in their own characteristics: people come in with set of values and then integrate these values on the job.

• Example: person already values drinking/partying, then goes to all the college parties

• Secrecy, group solidarity, violence, cynicism, masculinity, isolation, and authoritarianism.

• Often criticized for code of silence.

• High levels of stress are common among police officers.

• At high risk for health problems: high blood pressure, heart problems, posttraumatic stress disorder, and suicide.

• Stressful nature of policing is also often associated with increased suicide, divorce, drug use, and alcoholism.

Who Are the Police?: Culture Culture: Police Misconduct • Classification of misconduct:

1. Corruption: abuse of authority.

2. Misconduct: breach of department policy.

3. Criminal activity: using their status as a means to engage in crime.

Culture: Motivations to join • Early research: White male officers linked to authoritarian personalities and

desire for power and control.

• Strongest in male-dominated agencies. • Recent research: Job security, opportunity to help others, importance or

excitement of the work.

• Satisfaction: meaningful contributions, job security

• Dissatisfaction: excessive policy/procedure and lack of advancement.

Who Are the Police?: Gender Gender • Police culture emphasizes hypermasculinity. • Female officers represent approximately 14% of all sworn officers.

• Face unfounded stereotypes and marginalization.

• Different approaches to resolve situations.

• Perceived gender differences

1. Physical: Women may struggle to meet an agency’s physical strength and agility standards.

2. Psychological: Personality traits.

Who Are the Police?: Gender Gender • Research suggests these differences:

• Male officers more likely to use force.

• Female officers may use communication skills to deescalate situations.

• Female officers equally competent to male.

• More female officers in an agency reduces incidents of sexual harassment and discrimination.

• Still ongoing research on female police officers

National Center for Women and Policing

Who Are the Police?: Gender Gender • Women tend to be

underrepresented in policing, especially in command positions.

• Less than 2% of police chiefs are women.

• In 2020, only 5 female police chiefs.

• If you are interested in learning more, here is a link to an article detailing the rise of Portland’s first female police chief, Penny Harrington.

• https://www.themarshallproject. org/2018/09/05/a-police- pioneer-on-her-unfinished- business

Who Are the Police?: Race and Ethnicity Race and Ethnicity • Since 1970s, there has been growing racial and ethnic diversity in police

departments, notably, among African American and Hispanic officers.

• But still, Hispanic officers remain historically underrepresented.

• In 2019, the number of minorities reported as police and sheriff's patrol officers remained low (Bureau of Labor Statistics).

• 17% Hispanic, 13% Black, 2% Asian

• Minorities face unique stressors including social distance from the white, male workforce.

• Particularly, black women hold limited expectations of becoming members of the in-group.

Community Policing • Contemporary policing marks a shift from reactive policing, to

PROACTIVE policing.

• Now, there is a focus on crime prevention.

• Community policing: style/philosophy that adopts proactive measures and community collaboration.

• Key components:

1. Partnerships.

2. Organizational transformation: requires structure of management, personnel, and information systems that supports the community partners and proactive initiatives.

3. Problem-solving: promotes systematic examinations of crime-related issues to provide for effective responses.

What Does Community Policing Look Like?

• Police actively engaging with community members via events, park, bike patrol. The goal is to foster communication and a sense of trust.

Community Policing Working With Victims • Police are trained to support victims.

• Victims assist police in criminal investigations.

• Beneficial because it reinforces community ties and helps to bridge the gap between the police and the public.

• Crime prevention can occur when the public REPORTS victimization.

• RECALL: “Dark figure of crime”

• If the community does not trust the police, they will likely not call the police/report the crime.

• To prevent crime, the police needs to work with community members to learn of where crimes occur, the context, and how best to prevent future offending behavior.

Problem-Oriented Policing (POP)

Problem-oriented policing (POP): Emphasizes use of data analysis and assessment to address crime problems.

• POP is more focused on resource allocation. Think: what is the best way we can use our department’s resources?

• How do you determine this? Via crime data and the SARA model.

Uses the SARA model. • SARA model: Scan, Analysis, Response, and Assessment model.

• Scan: identify and prioritize problems.

• Analyze: research the problem.

• Respond: develop long-lasting solutions.

• Assess: evaluate the success of the responses.

POP Policing In POP policing, the emphasis is on crime data and crime science. In community policing, the focus is more on community relations development.

So, how does crime data and crime science come into play? We turn to the different crime prevention theories.

Theories: 1. Routine activity theory (RAT): Risk of criminal

incidents increases when a) motivated offenders, b) suitable targets, and c) the absence of capable guardians converge.

• This is a POPULAR theory in crime prevention. • This theory states that for crime to occur, all

three criteria must be present for a crime opportunity in one place in time.

• Examples? Car theft. The car serves as a suitable target with valuables in it. The car is left unattended in a parking lot, and there is always a motivated offender.

POP Policing Theories: 2. Crime triangle: Focuses on immediate concerns present in the

environment to confront difficult issues.

• This crime prevention theory is made popular by Dr. John Eck. • In this orientation, there are specific people or objects that are meant to

directly oversee or place pressure on each of the earlier 3 criteria. • By placing pressure on each of the 3 criteria (motivated offender, suitable

targets, and an absence of capable guardians), then crime is reduced.

HOW DOES THIS WORK? 1. Motivated offender : a ”Handler” is there to stop

them or watch them 2. Suitable target “ a “Guardian” is there to watch

over the target 3. Absence of capable guardian : a “Place Manager”

is there who is responsible for space.

POP Policing

GENERAL TAKEAWAYS: 1. Handlers: they can be anyone or anything that places a responsibility on the offender and puts them ”in

check.” In the above example, it is a girlfriend who is watching over the offender’s time. 2. Guardian: this can be a person or a thing. For example, a car alarm will signal to other people that the car

is being broken into or tampered with. Guardians can also be lights (e.g., keeping your lights on when you are out of town to increase visibility), dogs, or people like a house-sitter.

3. Place managers: these are people who typically have a financial obligation to fix or maintain a property. For example, this can be an employer, owner, or landlord. Their job is to protect the ”space”.

• Consider the earlier car theft example.

RAT Criteria Example Crime Triangle Solution

1. Motivated offender Car thief Handler: Car thief’s girlfriend, who is asking where the thief goes at night.

2. Suitable target Car Guardian: Car alarm that will go off when the car thief tries to open the door.

3. Absence of capable guardian Empty parking lot Place manager: The owner of the parking lot installs bright street lights to illuminate the parking lot

Other Policing Theories Theories: 3. Broken windows theory: Social disorder of neglected neighborhoods leads to

increased crime rate.

• This theory assumes that if disorder is left unattended and unfixed, then crime will ensue.

• This theory is based on an economic perspective. • Research conducted on this theory was based on a dilapidated car to see if

community members would do anything to the car.

• Results? People did vandalize the car and steal parts from the car!

• The research was conducted in different types of neighborhoods with various SES status, and the results were substantially the same—people vandalized the car, etc.

• SO, if small problems are piled up in the community, then crime will occur.

• Solution? Zero-tolerance. Address/apprehend the smaller crimes.

Other Policing Theories 36

Theories: 4. Hot spots policing: Specific geographical locations identified as high-

crime areas

• Police can focus patrols based on hot spot patterns. • How do the police identify a “hot spot”? Via crime data.

• Example: can you think of any neighborhood where there is a reputation for more crime than other areas? For instance, are their areas where you may not visit at specific hours of the day? This is likely a hot spot for crime.

• Example: ”Over-the-Rhine” (OTR) in Cincinnati, OH. Used to be a hot spot for crime (e.g., gang violence, drug deals, and homelessness). Now, only select street segments and addresses are hot spots in Over-the-Rhine.

• This type of policing may lead to displacement of crime.

• This is a big issue police departments must face. For example, if you remove one ”drug” drop spot, what happens? The drug dealers may move to a different street.

Intelligence-Led/ Evidence-Based Policing • Key elements of intelligence-led policing:

• Interpreting the criminal environment and using strategic decisions based on a contextual analysis.

• Targeting of offenders.

• Management of crime and disorder hotspots.

• Investigation of linked series of incidents.

• Application of preventative measures.

Intelligence-Led/ Evidence-Based Policing

• Fusion centers: Developed to help in information exchanges on intelligence gathered from confidential informants, surveillance, and crime data analyses.

• COMPSTAT: implemented in the early 1990s by the NYPD.

• Employs computer technology to gather up-to- date and accurate information on crime within neighborhoods.

21st-Century Policing: Procedural Justice • Major principles of PROCEDURAL JUSTICE:

ü Citizens need to be given a voice in the process to tell their side of events to officers.

• Example: citizen input via city/town hall meetings.

ü Officers must be neutral when dealing with people and events.

• Example: can’t show favoritism over one party.

ü People want to be treated with dignity and politeness.

• Also known as “bedside manners”.

ü People react favorably to officers they view as trustworthy and caring.

21st-Century Policing: Attribution Theory • Attribution theory is important during publicized shootings

involving minority suspects.

• A social psychology perspective: we interpret people and events based on past experiences and stereotypes.

• Largely rooted in idea of “vicarious experiences.”

• For example, if your friend or neighbor had a negative encounter with the police. This *may* impact how you view the police.

21st-Century Policing: Obama’s Task Force Pillars • President Obama’s task force pillars:

ü Building trust and legitimacy.

ü Policy and oversight.

ü Technology and social media.

ü Community policing and crime reduction.

ü Training and education.

ü Officer wellness and safety.

Controversial Issues in Policing Use of Force • Officers are trained to use the appropriate level of force given the

totality of the circumstances.

• Recall, the Peelian Principles that establishes when use of force is necessary.

• Continuum of Force: amount of force used in an arrest depends on suspect’s demeanor, weapons, and level of compliance.

• Media focus on instances where lethal force is used and may neglect the facts of the situation.

• Tennessee v. Garner (1985): addressed use of deadly force against a fleeing suspect.

• Decision: appropriate IF probable cause exists that the suspect poses a SIGNIFICANT threat.

Controversial Issues in Policing Fatal Police Shootings • On-duty law enforcement officers fatally shoot about 1,000 civilians

annually.

• Demographics typically kept by private sources.

• Washington Post finds 3,198 fatal shootings since 2015.

• 2021: 1,050 fatal shootings.

• Actively updated: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/polic e-shootings-database/

• Native Americans (10 per 100,000 individuals) most likely to be killed by a law enforcement officer.

• Blacks (7 per 100,000 individuals) also much more likely to be killed.

Controversial Issues in Policing Fatal Police Shootings • Shooting of Stephon Clark: Spotted by helicopter and shot primarily in the back in his

own backyard.

• Police alleged he was advancing and armed.

• He was holding a cell phone, not a weapon.

• Shooting of Ray Thomas: Sheriff’s Deputy saw him being pushed by another man and ordered him to get on the ground.

• When Thomas failed to comply, he was fatally shot.

• Most fatal police shootings involve armed individuals. • Body cameras overwhelmingly supported by the public.

• Privacy issues.

Controversial Issues in Policing Racial Profiling • Occurs when an officer questions or investigates an individual based on race,

ethnicity, religion, or national origin. • There are some officer trainings in place to recognize implicit bias. • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLzyi5n1DW0

Discretion and Mandatory Arrest Policies • Mandatory arrest policies limit police discretion in certain circumstances

(frequently in domestic violence cases). • But, are mandatory arrests effective at crime prevention? • https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jclc83&i=147

Private Policing • Protection of airports, hospitals, retail companies, banks, factories, and so on by

private entities. • Lack of training and regulations.

Controversial Issues in Policing Social Media • Social media may assist law enforcement:

• Increasing communication with citizens.

• Increasing positive community interactions.

• Increasing organizational legitimacy.

Technology • CopLink: tactical lead generation, crime analysis, and information

sharing among various levels of law enforcement. • High-activity location observation (HALO) cameras: Remote-

controlled cameras allowing observation of areas of interest.

Controversial Issues in Policing Technology • Nonlethal force: type of force (including weapons) that provides viable

options for dealing with resisting subjects.

• Includes pepper spray and rubber bullets (less-than-lethal weapons).

• Alternative to once-common chokeholds.

• Tasers: Conductive energy device or electronic control device.

• Controls suspects and protects officers from injury.

• Military drones: Increasingly used as possible crime-fighting tools.