5 pages Human development paper
DTE
Lecture4.9_ParentingDivorceandChildMaltreatment_D2L.pdf
Unit 4: Family
Parenting Divorce
Child Maltreatment
Parenting
Introduction to Parenting
• Dimensions of parenting • Styles of parenting • Systems view of
parenting
What Do Children Need?
Skinner, Johnson, & Snyder, 2005 • Examined studies on parenting
dimensions, behaviors beginning in 1940’s • Identified core caregiving dimensions
Three dimensions of parenting • Love vs. rejection • Structure vs. chaos • Autonomy support vs. coercion
Rejection
Structure
Chaos Coercion
Love Autonomy
What Children Need: Love
• Love dimension • Responsiveness, warmth, affection • Time spent together, involvement • Encouragement, praise
• Hostility, rejection dimension • Lack of affection, cold • Harshly critical • Derision, ridicule, contempt
What Children Need: Love
• Why is love important? • Worthy of love. Communicates you are a
good person • Trust. World is a good, safe place; you can
trust others • Social competence. Enjoy interacting with
others; do so skillfully • Belongingness. Feeling like we are
accepted and part of a group(s)
What Children Need: Structure
• Structure dimension • Clear, firm rules, follow-through,
consistency • High expectations, demandingness (age-
appropriate) • Guidance, supervision
• Chaos dimension • Lax rules, inconsistency • Indulgence, no follow-through • Lack of supervision
What Children Need: Structure
• Why do children need structure, limits? • Most important: Develop self-control • Rules (especially in lieu of self-control)
keeps child and others safe • Learn to get along with others, not act
impulsively or selfishly (managing impulses is form of self-control)
What Children Need: Autonomy
• Autonomy dimension • Freedom to make decisions • Encourage independence, individuality • Respect, trust
• Coercion dimension • Rigidity, pressure, control • Use of threats, manipulation
What Children Need: Autonomy
• Why is autonomy important? • Learn to communicate actual preferences, desires • Make own mistakes and learn from them • Learn to take initiative, how to make decisions • Develop own goals, agenda, interests, passions • Learn own strengths, limits • Take ownership
Styles of Parenting
Maccoby & Martin, 1983 1. Authoritative 2. Authoritarian 3. Neglectful 4. Overprotective 5. Permissive/indulgent
Styles of Parenting: Authoritative
1. Love. High/attuned • Responsive, loving, affectionate
2. Structure. High/attuned • High expectations, appropriate
rules/limits
3. Autonomy. High/attuned • Appropriate space for choice;
explanations
Styles of Parenting: Neglectful
1. Love. Low/not attuned • Unavailable, cold, distant
2. Structure. Low/not attuned • Expectations, rules inconsistent or
non-existent • Follow-through inconsistent or non-
existent
3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned • Disinterested • Inconsistent/fluctuating
Styles of Parenting: Indulgent
1. Love. High/attuned • Responsive, loving, affectionate
2. Structure. Low/not attuned • Lax rules; follow-through
inconsistent or non-existent; little or no supervision
3. Autonomy. High/not attuned • (Too much) freedom
Styles of Parenting: Overprotective
1. Love. High/not attuned • Conditional love; warm, affectionate
2. Structure. High/not attuned • Inappropriately high limits
3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned • Intrusive guidance; parent makes decisions
Styles of Parenting: Authoritarian
1. Love. Low/not attuned • Cold, insensitive, distant; unavailable
2. Structure. High/not attuned • Overly harsh, punitive
3. Autonomy. Low/not attuned • Coercive; little/no choice or freedom
Is There Only One Right Way to Parent? • Nope - there are many ways • Not this black and white: Parents likely shift
between or draw upon different parenting styles
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Loving and caring; many rules and parental guidance; little room for independence Reserved, distant affection; high expectations and many rules; little room for self-exploration
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Loving and caring; many rules and parental guidance; little room for independence
Overprotective
Reserved, distant affection; high expectations and many rules; little room for self-exploration
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Loving and caring; many rules and parental guidance; little room for independence
Overprotective
Reserved, distant affection; high expectations and many rules; little room for self-exploration
Authoritarian
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Easy affection; reasonable and explained expectations; appropriate space for exploration and discovery Carefree expressions of love; few enforced or consistent rules; some support for self- expression
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Easy affection; reasonable and explained expectations; appropriate space for exploration and discovery
Authoritative
Carefree expressions of love; few enforced or consistent rules; some support for self- expression
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Easy affection; reasonable and explained expectations; appropriate space for exploration and discovery
Authoritative
Carefree expressions of love; few enforced or consistent rules; some support for self- expression
Indulgent
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Manipulative displays of affection; strict enforcement of a single rule; uninterested in development of self Loving affection; high expectations and strict rules; limited allowance for independence
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Manipulative displays of affection; strict enforcement of a single rule; uninterested in development of self
Overprotective; neglectful
Loving affection; high expectations and strict rules; limited allowance for independence
Parenting Style Activity
Character Description Parenting Style(s) Manipulative displays of affection; strict enforcement of a single rule; uninterested in development of self
Overprotective; neglectful
Loving affection; high expectations and strict rules; limited allowance for independence
Authoritative; authoritarian
Potential Long-Term Consequences • Most promising outcomes: Authoritative • Independent, resilient, confident • Warm, friendly, ‘happy’ (high positive/low negative
affect) • More skillful in relationships with friends, parents • Less risk of behavioral issues
Potential Long-Term Consequences • Highest risk for maladaptive outcomes: Neglectful • Poorer management of emotions, behaviors; more
aggressive, hostile, impulsive • Inhibited, withdrawn; lower social competence • Adolescence: Higher risk of behavioral issues
Potential Long-Term Consequences • Indulgent parenting • Self-centered, aimless, irresponsible • Low independence, achievement
• Overprotective parenting • Low independence, self-confidence; other-directed • Immature; not ready for real world • Adolescence: Resistance, rebellion
Potential Long-Term Consequences • Authoritarian parenting • Low independence; other-directed • Higher anxiety, fearfulness; higher unhappiness • Lower social competence • Aggression/bullying
A Note on Variation
• Significant variation in effects of parenting styles • Effects vary by culture, ethnicity, other contexts • Example: Authoritarian style predicts higher
academic achievement in Asian- and African- American youth than authoritative parenting
Developmental Systems View of Parenting
Developmental Systems View of Parenting
Transactional Model
Developmental Systems View of Parenting
Transactional Model Over Time
Developmental Systems View of Parenting
Transactional Model Over Time
Transactional Model Over Time & Embedded in Multiple Contexts
Developmental Systems View of Parenting
Parent
Child
Parent
Parent
Child
Parent
Extended Family
Society
Developmental Systems View of Parenting
Summary: Developmental Systems View of Parenting 1. Parenting is transactional 2. Parenting ‘style’ may develop, change over time 3. Co-parent relationship influences child 4. Parenting shaped by many higher-order systems 5. Extended family is also part of system 6. Biggest risk factor for poor parenting: Poverty
Divorce
Marital Conflict
• Healthy, skillful conflict is okay (and going to happen) • Harmful forms of conflict: Arguing, fighting, yelling • Very hard on children - ESPECIALLY young children • Enormous amount of data on this • Results are conclusive enough to view this as a subtle
form of abuse/family violence
What is Divorce?
• Divorce. Legal ending of marriage • United States has highest divorce rate in world • Rates increased sharply from 1960 to 1985 • 45% of marriages end in divorce; half involve children • 67% of divorcees remarry
Divorce is a Process of Change
• Divorce is not a single event; it is a series of complex (and stressful) events • Begins with conflict • Both partners have practical and emotional difficulties • Psychological stress = Less psychological resources • Short-term costs: High • Long-term costs: It depends
How Does Divorce Affect Children? IT DEPENDS • Many factors influence how a child adapts to
divorce • Child’s characteristics, parent’s characteristics, social
supports, etc. • Nature of relationship between separated parents
Short-Term Consequences
Short-term is rough on children • Loss of a parent/parenting unit • Conflict between parents • Change in income, resources, supports • Significant changes, disruptions • Patterns, routines change
Berk, 2014, p. 274-276
Short-Term Consequences
• Parenting styles may change • May become harsh, inconsistent • May become lax, inconsistent
• Children react to these changes, disruptions with anger, frustration, distress
Short-Term Consequences
Variations by child characteristics • Gender differences: • Harder for males (remarriage harder for females) • Males à externalizing behaviors • Females à internalizing behaviors
Short-Term Consequences
Variation by child characteristics • Age differences: • Younger children often blame
themselves • Older children may rally; at risk for
being overwhelmed • Temperament differences: • ‘Easy’ children: Less likely to be
targets of parent’s anger • ‘Difficult’ children: More often target
of parent’s anger
Long-Term Consequences
Children are typically resilient to divorce • Children generally recover well • There can be lingering (small) effects • Lower school achievement • Psychological issues (internalizing/externalizing)
• Effects often persist well into adulthood • Unclear if effects are due to divorce or events leading to
divorce
Long-Term Consequences
Parental conflict
à Divorce à Long-term
effects
No parental conflict
à No divorce à Long-term
effects
Long-Term Consequences
Parental conflict
à Divorce à Long-term
effects
Parental conflict
à No divorce à Long-term
effects
No parental conflict
à No divorce à Long-term
effects
Factors That Influence Effects
1. Adequate financial support 2. Adequate parenting by the custodial parent 3. Adequate parenting by the non-custodial parent
Factors That Influence Effects
4. Additional social supports • Children: friends, support-groups • Parents: friends, family
5. Minimize additional stressors • Other stressors include moving, changing schools, losing
contact with grandparents, etc.
Factors That Influence Effects
6. Quality of the child’s relationship with the non- custodial parent • NOT the causal factor: Instead, it’s a marker for
• Less parental conflict • More co-parenting • Healthy child-parent relationship (before divorce) • Financial support • Maturity
Child Maltreatment
Introduction
• Child maltreatment. “Behavior toward a child which is • (a) outside the norms of conduct, and • (b) entails a substantial risk of causing
physical or emotional harm.
• Behaviors...consist of • Actions and omissions, • Ones that are are intentional and ones that
are unintentional.”
(Child Trends, 2016, p. 8)
Definitions
• Child abuse. “Words or overt actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm.” (CDC, 2016) • Physical abuse • Sexual abuse • Emotional/psychological abuse
• Child neglect. “Failure to provide needs or to protect from harm or potential harm.” (CDC, 2016) • Physical, emotional, medical, educational neglect • Inadequate supervision • Exposure to violent environments
Definitions
• Physical abuse. Assaults (such as kicking, biting, shaking, punching, or stabbing) that inflict physical injury
• Emotional abuse. Acts that could cause serious mental or behavioral disorders, including social isolation, repeated unreasonable demands, ridicule, humiliation, intimidation, or terrorizing
• Sexual abuse. “Any completed or attempted (noncompleted) sexual act, sexual contact with, or exploitation (i.e., noncontact sexual interaction) of a child by a caregiver.” (CDC, 2008)
Berk, 2014, p. 220
Rates of Maltreatment
• 3.8 million maltreatment allegations were investigated • 686,000 were substantiated • 78% neglect • 18% physical abuse • 9% sexual abuse
• 81.5% of maltreated children were abused by parent(s)
Child Trends, 2016
Rates of Maltreatment
Maltreatment Differences by Age
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
• 1950’s: Psychopathology (nature) • 1970’s: Circumstances (e.g., poverty; nurture) • Current model: Complex interplay of child,
caregiver, and social factors • Child characteristics • Parent characteristics • Community • Culture
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
Child characteristics • Child is premature, sick, or temperamentally
difficult • Child has other physical, cognitive, or emotional
issues
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
Parent characteristics • Self-regulation issues (e.g., struggle with impulse
control) • Lack of knowledge of child, child development • Biased thinking about child, their behaviors • Baby’s crying attributed to bad disposition • Toddler’s disobedience attributed to stubbornness, lack
of discipline
• Substance abuse
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
Community characteristics • Social isolation (lack ‘lifeline’ to others; no one to
turn to) • Unstable/unsafe, poorly resourced neighborhoods
Risk Factors for Maltreatment
“Low-income, low education (less than a high school diploma), unemployment, alcohol and drug use, overcrowded living conditions, frequent moves, and extreme household disorganization are common in abusive homes.” (Wekerle et al., 2007; Wulczyn, 2009; as cited in Berk, 2012, p. 220)
Poverty
• Poverty. A state of being poor • Lack of money à less access to resources • Strongest predictor of child maltreatment (~ 80% of
reported cases occur within poverty context)
• Represents a unique combination of multiple risk factors • High stress, lack of sleep (e.g., working multiple jobs) • Less access to medical, educational, social resources • Communities are less safe • … And many more
“The Environment of Childhood Poverty” Evans (2004) “Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities. Compared with their economically advantaged counterparts, they are exposed to more family turmoil, violence, separation from their families, instability, and chaotic households. Poor children experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian. Low-income children are read to relatively infrequently, watch more TV, and have less access to books and computers. Low-income parents are less involved in their children’s school activities. The air and water poor children consume are more polluted. Their homes are more crowded, noisier, and of lower quality. Low-income neighborhoods are more dangerous, offer poorer municipal services, and suffer greater physical deterioration. Predominantly low-income schools and day care are inferior. The accumulation of multiple environmental risks rather than singular risk exposure may be an especially pathogenic aspect of childhood poverty.”
Child Neglect
• Child neglect. “Failure to provide needs or to protect from harm or potential harm.” (CDC, 2016) • Physical, emotional, medical, educational neglect • Inadequate supervision • Exposure to violent environments
Video: The Science of Neglect
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bF3j5UVCSCA
Overview of Consequences
• Children are harmed by 1. Actions. The things they experience in an
abusive/neglectful environment 2. Omissions. The things an abusive/neglectful
environment prevents them from experiencing
Consequences
Impairs physical, cognitive development • Physical development • Affects nervous system, immune systems • Calibrates stress response system to be over/under-
active
• Cognitive development • Affects self-concept, academic motivation • Affects memory, self-regulation skills involved in learning
Consequences
Impairs emotional, social development • Emotional development • Affects emotional self-regulation skills • Depression, anxiety, aggression, other behavioral issues
• Social development • Social skills: Not learning healthy ways to interact • Affects the way we perceive and interpret others’
behaviors, which affects own behaviors
Consequences
Long-term risk for • Anxiety, depression, other psychological disorders • Poorer social skills, difficulty relating to others
Consequences
Long-term risk for • Impaired cognitive development • Executive functioning (working memory, attention, etc.) • Poor school motivation and performance
• Aggression, violence • Substance abuse (self-medicating?), eating disorders • Suicidality and self-harm • Delinquency, violent crime
Consequences
• Many effects of abuse/neglect are stored physiologically in the body/brain • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95ovIJ3dsNk • “How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime”:
Nadine Burke Harris, M.D.
Interventions
• Provision of personal and community resources in the form of social support, instrumental support, education • Ex: Provide parents with knowledge and actionable
skills • Social skills, specific parenting skills • Child development education • Counseling and social services
• Reduce stigma of seeking help
Interventions
• Parents Anonymous • For parents who have abused children: Daily group
meetings, daily phone calls, regular home visits • Teach parenting skills; reduces social isolation
• Healthy Families America • Identifies at-risk families at birth • 3 years of home visitation • Improves neglect rates; with cognitive component,
improves abuse rates
Berk, 2014, p. 221-222
Unit 4: Family Review
• Parenting • Love, structure,
autonomy support • Five parenting styles • Long-term
consequences • Systems critique
• Divorce • Definition • Short- and long-term
consequences • Variations and
influences • Child Maltreatment • Risk factors • Poverty • Consequences • Interventions
