Organizational behaviour
Siti Nazrana 
Lecture2-AttitudesJobSatPersonalityValues.pptxBX3171 Organisational Behaviour Topic 3: Attitudes and job satisfaction Topic 4: Personality and values
Lecturer: Jaime Wong
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Topic 3
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
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Attitudes cannot be seen; they can only be inferred.
Given that the attitudes employees hold are important for morale and the effectiveness of organisations, it is important that there is confidence in the measurement techniques used to assess the strength of attitudes. As attitudes are inferred, heavy reliance is placed therefore on the accuracy of assessment. Although there are a number of different techniques which could be used to measure attitudes, the two most common techniques are direct observation and self-reporting techniques.
All of us observe others and assess attitudes on the basis of communication style (both verbal and non-verbal) and behaviour. This is an example of an informal approach – unsystematic, spontaneous and based on our understanding of social cues. We may be wrong in our judgement. Students who turn up late for classes, slouch on their seat and do not ask questions may still hold very positive attitudes towards the subject. Managers may also be erroneous in their assumptions and beliefs about their colleagues (both subordinates and superiors). Their beliefs may never have been tested out – merely assumed to be correct.
Serious mistakes can be made when dealing with people across different cultures. For instance eye contact in Western countries is normally associated with confidence, politeness and attentiveness but in some African countries may be seen as rude and disrespectful. Bulgarians nod when they mean ‘no’ and shake their heads when they mean ‘yes’ while the Greeks nod upwards or raise their eyebrows for ‘no’ and shake the head side to side or tilt it to say ‘yes’. A lack of ‘cultural literacy’ can lead to incorrect assumptions, poor relationships and a failure to make useful business connections.
Organisations which assess their employees’ attitudes by using attitude questionnaires (self-reporting techniques) are attempting to systematically gauge and measure these assumptions. Attitude questionnaires are time-consuming to design and administer. The questions asked, their relevance, style and length are all important variables in the validity of the questionnaire. So, too, is the honest completion of questionnaires. Making public people’s private attitudes may also have its dangers as expectations of change may be envisaged. If these do not occur, disappointment and low morale may be the result. Attitude questionnaires are used by many companies as a barometer for the attitudinal climate of organisations and as such enable managers to be in touch with employees’ views and feelings.
Learning Objectives
Contrast the three components of an attitude
Analyse the relationship between attitudes and behavior
Evaluate the main causes and outcomes of job satisfaction
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Introduction
Attitudes are evaluative statements—both positive and negative—which reflect how we feel about something.
Attitudes are important in organisations for their behavioural component.
OB focuses on a limited number of work-related attitudes which tap positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environment.
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Attitudes are complex things. If you ask people about their attitude towards coal mines, Lady Gaga or the company for which they work, they will probably give you a simple answer. However, the reasons underlying the response are probably complex. In order to fully understand attitudes, we need to consider their key properties or components.
Typically, researchers have assumed that attitudes have three components: cognition, affect and behaviour.
The statement ‘my pay is poor’ is the cognitive component of an attitude—a description of, or belief in, the way things are. It sets the stage for the more critical part of an attitude: its affective component. Affect is the emotional, or feeling, part of an attitude and is reflected in the statement, ‘I’m angry over how little I’m paid’. Finally, affect can lead to behavioural outcomes. The behavioural component of an attitude describes an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. For example, a person might say, ‘I’m going to find another job that pays better’.
Viewing attitudes as having these three components is helpful in understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between attitudes and behaviour. The components are closely related, and cognition and affect in particular are inseparable in many ways. For example, imagine you had an argument with a colleague and concluded that they had treated you harshly. You are likely to have feelings about that incident occurring virtually instantaneously with your thoughts about the incident. Thus, cognition and affect are intertwined.
Attitudes are important in organisations for their behavioural component. If workers believe, for example, that supervisors, bosses and CEOs are conspiring to make employees work harder for the same or less money, it makes sense to try to understand how these attitudes formed, their relationship to actual job behaviour and how they might be changed.
Attitudes
The main components of attitudes
Cognitive component: eg. “my pay is poor”
Affective component: eg.”I’m angry over how little I’m paid”
Behavioural component; eg. “I’m going to find another job that pays better”
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An attitude can be attributed to someone based on his or her beliefs, feelings, and actions and is usually subject to change based on experience. To say that personality comes from the environment is to assume that personality can change because it is shaped by external factors. But even if personality is subject to change, it does not change quickly. Attitudes on the other hand, can change at a rapid rate. You can think of attitudes as having a cause and effect relationship. Beliefs and feelings create an attitude that results in a behaviour. Rather than terming an attitude ‘bad’ or ‘good’. It is useful to look at specific attitudes and what behaviour results from them.
Attitudes are evaluative statement both positive and negative about objects, people or events. They reflect how we fell about something. When I say ‘I like my job’ – I am expressing my attitude about work. Attitudes are complex things. If you ask people about their attitude towards coal mines or the company for which they work, they will probably give you a simple answer. However, the reasons underlying the response are probably complex. In order to fully understand attitudes, we need to consider their properties and components.
Self-efficacy refers to the confidence that someone experiences relative to a particular task. This differs from self-esteem, which is an attitude of like or dislike of one’s self-image. One could have high self-esteem and yet at the same time have low self-efficacy around. Challenging task. Self-efficacy is subject to change based on the experience with a task. Consider public speaking for instance. A student could have low self-efficacy around their ability to perform well when giving a report in front of class. After the student has had a success their efficacy could increase.
Exhibit 3.1
The components of an attitude
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Exhibit 3.1 illustrates how the three components of an attitude are related. In this example, an employee didn’t get a promotion he thought he deserved; a colleague got it instead. The employee’s attitude towards his supervisor is illustrated as follows: the employee thought he deserved the promotion (cognition), he strongly dislikes his supervisor (affect) and he is looking for another job (behaviour). As this illustration shows, although we often think that cognition causes affect, which then causes behaviour, in reality these components are difficult to separate.
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Attitudes and behaviour
Cognitive dissonance: incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes
How one copes with dissonance: change your attitude/behaviour or rationalised the discrepancy
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on Moderating variables
When the attitudes or behaviour are important
When one believes the dissonance is due to something you can control
Rewards of dissonance
Patterns of personality traits do not change rapidly, but attitudes are subject to change.
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Some personality traits are observable while others are internal states are not observable. Patterns of personality traits do not change rapidly, but attitudes are subject to change.
Individual characteristics of people help us understand what people think, feel and do in organisations. People’s behaviour in the workplace is influenced by competences, emotions, personality traits and attributes. Emotions, shorter and more intense in duration, and moods longer in duration, govern people’s responses in context. Personality is the stable pattern of behaviour and intended states. Researchers debate whether individual characteristics are a factor hereditary or the environment. Different forms of measurement exist for personality traits. Some personality traits are observable while other are internal states are not observable. Patterns of personality traits do not change rapidly, but attitudes are subject to change.
Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warnings of potential problems and influence behaviour. Creating a satisfied workforce is hardly a guarantee of successful organisational performance, but evidence strongly suggests that whatever managers can do to improve employee attitudes will likely result in heightened organisational effectiveness all the way to high customer satisfaction—and profits.
Satisfied and committed employees, for instance, have lower rates of turnover, absenteeism and withdrawal behaviours. They also perform better on the job. Given that managers want to keep resignations and absences down—especially among their most productive employees—they’ll want to do things that generate positive job attitudes.
The most important thing managers can do to raise employee satisfaction is to focus on the intrinsic parts of the job, such as making the work challenging and interesting. Although paying employees poorly is not likely to attract high-quality employees to the organisation, or to retain high performers, managers should realise that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment. Creating a satisfied workforce is hardly a guarantee of successful organisational performance, but evidence strongly suggests that whatever managers can do to improve employee attitudes will likely result in heightened organisational effectiveness.
What are the major job attitudes? In what ways are these attitudes alike? What is unique about each?
Job satisfaction – A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.
Job involvement – Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. Psychological empowerment is another closely related concept that is the belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness and autonomy.
Organisational commitment – Identifying with a particular organisation and its goals, while wishing to maintain membership in the organisation. Organisational commitment has a modest relationship to productivity. Research indicates that employees who feel their employers fail to keep promises to them feel less committed, and these reductions in commitment, in turn, lead to lower levels of creative performance.
Additional job attitudes include perceived organisational support and employee engagement. These are work-related attitudes that also need to be understood by managers. Overall, there is some distinction but a lot of overlap.
Job satisfaction is a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. There are two widely used approaches to measure job satisfaction that are considered to be okay: a single global rating (one question, one answer), which is considered the best measure and a summation score (many questions, one average).
What causes job satisfaction? For most people, is pay more important or the work itself?
Pay and personality are the two main factors that seem to influence job satisfaction. Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point. After about $65 000 a year (in Australia), there is no relationship between amounts of pay and job satisfaction. Money may bring happiness but not necessarily job satisfaction. Personality can influence job satisfaction. Negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs. Overall, those with positive core self-evaluation are more satisfied with their jobs.
What outcomes does job satisfaction influence? What implications does this have for management?
Job performance – Satisfied workers are more productive and make the organisation more effective.
Organisational citizenship behaviours (OCB) – Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness.
Customer satisfaction – Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Absenteeism – Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss work.
Turnover – Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. There are many moderating variables in this relationship, such as job opportunities and alternatives.
Workplace deviance – Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionise, abuse substances, steal, be tardy and withdraw.
Although there is overwhelming evidence about the impact of job satisfaction on the bottom line, most managers are either unconcerned about it or overestimate worker satisfaction. Despite this, it would better serve managers to pay attention to worker and job satisfaction elements.
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Job attitudes
Job satisfaction - a positive feeling about a job
Job involvement – identifies with a job, actively participates in it, considers perceived performance important to self-worth.
Organisational commitment – identifies with the company and its goals, wishes to remain in the organisation.
Perceived organisational support (POS) – employees believe the company values their contribution and cares about their well-being.
Employee engagement – individual’s involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work they do.
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Job satisfaction
When people speak of employee attitudes, they usually mean job satisfaction, which describes a positive feeling about a job, resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. People with a high level of job satisfaction hold positive feelings about their job, while people with a low level of job satisfaction hold negative feelings.
Job involvement
Related to job satisfaction is job involvement, which measures the degree to which people identify psychologically with their job and consider their perceived performance level important to self-worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do. Another closely related concept is psychological empowerment, the degree to which employees’ beliefs influence their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their perceived autonomy.
In organisational commitment, an employee identifies with a particular organisation and its goals and wishes to remain a member. Most research has focused on emotional attachment to an organisation and belief in its values as the ‘gold standard’ for employee commitment.
Perceived organisational support (POS) is the degree to which employees believe the organisation values their contribution and cares about their well-being. An excellent example is R&D engineer John Greene, whose POS is sky high because CEO Marc Benioff and 350 fellow salesforce.com employees covered all his medical expenses and stayed in touch with him throughout his recovery after he was diagnosed with leukemia. No doubt stories such as this are part of the reason salesforce.com was in the top 25 of Fortune’s 100 Best Companies to Work For in 2017.
Employee engagement is an individual’s involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work they do. We might ask employees about the availability of resources and the opportunities to learn new skills, whether they feel their work is important and meaningful, and whether their interactions with colleagues and supervisors are rewarding.
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Job satisfaction
Measuring job satisfaction
Single global rating
Summation of job facets
How satisfied are people with their jobs?
General research of Australian workers over the past 30 years generally indicates that more workers are satisfied with their jobs than are not.
Workers tend to be least satisfied with pay and promotion opportunities.
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Our definition of job satisfaction—a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics—is very broad. A job is more than just shuffling papers, writing programming code, waiting on customers or driving a truck. Jobs require employees to interact with colleagues and bosses, follow organisational rules and policies, meet performance standards and live with less than ideal working conditions. An employee’s assessment of their satisfaction with the job is therefore a complex collection of many discrete elements. How, then, is it measured?
Two approaches are popular. The single global rating is a response to one question, such as ‘All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?’ Respondents circle a number between 1 and 5 on a scale from ‘highly satisfied’ to ‘highly dissatisfied’. The second method, the summation of job facets, is more sophisticated. It identifies key elements in a job, such as the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities and relationships with colleagues. Respondents rate these on a standardised scale, and researchers add the ratings to create an overall job satisfaction score.
Is one of these approaches better than the other? A summary of responses to a number of job factors seems likely to achieve a more accurate evaluation of job satisfaction. However, research doesn’t support this. The best explanation is that the concept of job satisfaction is so broad that a single question captures its essence. The summation of job facets may also leave out some important data. Both methods are helpful: the single global rating method isn’t very time-consuming, freeing time for other tasks; and the summation of job facets helps managers focus on problems and deal with them more quickly and accurately.
Theories of work motivation and job satisfaction have influenced management systems and styles of leadership, and developments in personnel policies and procedures. The human resource management function is centred on people’s needs while working in an organisation, and ways in which their work promotes or frustrates the fulfilment of these needs.90 The practice of modern human resource management is directed towards providing conditions under which people work willingly and effectively, and contribute to the success of the organisation. This involves concern for employee motivation and job satisfaction.
Increasing business competitiveness demands that organisations have to offer the best quality products or services for the best price. This requires that organisations develop and harness the talents and commitment of all their employees. Getting the best out of people and attempting to improve job satisfaction demand a spirit of teamwork and co-operation, and allowing people a greater say in decisions that affect them at work. In order to improve business performance, managers will need to relinquish close control in favour of greater empowerment of employees.
Although there is a continuing debate about the real benefits of empowerment there appears to be a general assumption that: ‘empowerment programmes will result in motivated staff, quality customer service and improved profits’.65 From a discussion of the benefits and problems of empowerment and a review of its operation in a number of companies, Pickard concludes that empowerment does appear to be having a radical effect on the way people work. As an example, Pickard describes improved job satisfaction and the changing attitude of staff arising from the introduction of empowerment at Harvester restaurants. Within a framework handed down from head office, staff work in teams.
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Exhibit 3.3
Average job satisfaction
levels by facet
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Are most people satisfied with their jobs? The answer seems to be a qualified ‘yes’ in Australia and most other developed countries. Independent studies conducted among Australian workers over the past 30 years generally indicate that more workers are satisfied with their jobs than are not.29 A Roy Morgan research poll in 2013 revealed that, overall, 75.4% of Australian workers were satisfied with their current job.30 In the Curtin Business School study mentioned earlier, however, the authors found that Australians were most likely to be satisfied with their work flexibility and job security, and least satisfied with their salary and working hours.31 Clearly, aspects of job satisfaction are important to consider too! Job satisfaction rates tend to vary in different cultures worldwide, and, of course, there are always competing measurements that offer alternative viewpoints.
That said, this is not the whole story. Research shows that satisfaction levels vary considerably, depending on which facet of job satisfaction you’re talking about. As you will see in the next section, people are, on average, satisfied with their jobs overall, with the work itself and with their supervisors and colleagues. However, they tend to be less satisfied with their pay and with promotion opportunities. See Exhibit 3.3. It’s not clear why people dislike their pay and promotion possibilities more than other aspects of their jobs.32
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Exhibit 3.2
Overall job satisfaction
all industries
Source: Curtin Business School, “Happy workers: how satisfied are Australians at work?’, p. 22, <http://mwah.live/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/mwah.-Curtin-Happy-Workers-report.pdf>.
NOTE: **Those reporting being dissatisfied are often a very small sample of workers when disaggregating the data by 19 industry classifications. Industries are ANZSIC 1-digit classification.
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Long description:
The horizontal axis shows “Percent” from 0 to 100, in increments of 20. The vertical axis shows 19 industries. Each bar that represents the satisfaction levels of the corresponding industry. There are 4 levels of satisfaction – “Dissatisfied”, “Not so satisfied”, “Satisfied”, and “Very satisfied.” The percent details of the 4 levels, by industry, are listed below:
Accommodation and food services:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 21
Satisfied: 52
Very satisfied: 22
Professional, science, and technology:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 18
Satisfied: 57
Very satisfied: 23
Information, media, and telecom:
Dissatisfied: 1
Not so satisfied: 19
Satisfied: 62
Very satisfied: 24
Manufacturing:
Dissatisfied: 3
Not so satisfied: 19
Satisfied: 52
Very satisfied: 26
Retail trade:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 19
Satisfied: 53
Very satisfied: 26
Wholesale trade:
Dissatisfied: 3
Not so satisfied: 18
Satisfied: 52
Very satisfied: 27
Construction:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 17
Satisfied: 54
Very satisfied: 27
Mining:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 16
Satisfied: 54
Very satisfied: 28
Rental, hiring, and real estate:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 16
Satisfied: 54
Very satisfied: 28
Transport, postal, and warehousing:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 17
Satisfied: 52
Very satisfied: 28
Administrative and support services:
Dissatisfied: 1
Not so satisfied: 18
Satisfied: 51
Very satisfied: 30
Public administration and safety:
Dissatisfied: 3
Not so satisfied: 13
Satisfied: 55
Very satisfied: 30
Financial and insurance services:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 17
Satisfied: 51
Very satisfied: 30
Health care and social assistance:
Dissatisfied: 3
Not so satisfied: 11
Satisfied: 55
Very satisfied: 31
Electricity, gas, water, and waste:
Dissatisfied: 4
Not so satisfied: 21
Satisfied: 41
Very satisfied: 35
Education and training:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 11
Satisfied: 52
Very satisfied: 35
Other services:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 12
Satisfied: 52
Very satisfied: 35
Arts and recreation services:
Dissatisfied: 2
Not so satisfied: 8
Satisfied: 53
Very satisfied: 38
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing:
Dissatisfied: 4
Not so satisfied: 11
Satisfied: 48
Very satisfied: 38
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Exhibit 3.4
Average levels of employee
job satisfaction by country
Source: Based on J. H. Westover, ‘The impact of comparative state-directed development on working conditions and employee satisfaction’, Journal of Management & Organization, July 2012 pp. 537-54.
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What causes job satisfaction?
Job conditions – interesting jobs, training, variety, independence, control, interaction with colleagues, feedback, etc.
Personality
People who have a positive core self-evaluation (CSE) are more satisfied with their jobs than people with negative CSEs.
Positive CSE are those who believe in their inner worth and basic competence
Pay – correlate with job satisfaction upto a point
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) – include environmental sustainability issues, non-profit work, charitable giving, etc
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Attempting to understand the nature of job satisfaction and links with work performance is not easy. Although the level of job satisfaction may well affect the strength of motivation this is not always the case. Job satisfaction is more of an internal state and could be associated, for example, with a feeling of personal achievement. The relationship between job satisfaction and effective work performance is an issue of continuing debate and controversy.
■ Job satisfaction is a complex concept and difficult to measure objectively. The level of job satisfaction is affected by a wide range of individual, social, organisational and cultural variables. There is also a wide range of specific factors which influence job satisfaction. Major dimensions of job satisfaction include consideration of: alienation; information communications technology; employee involvement and empowerment. The application of motivational theories and a greater understanding of dimensions of job satisfaction has led to increasing interest in improving job design.
■ Earlier approaches to job design concentrated on the restructuring of individual jobs and application of job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment. Attention has also been given to a comprehensive model of job enrichment. Approaches to improving job design now take a wider perspective, and in the context of technological change, for example, focus attention on broader organisational approaches including the quality of working life (QWL).
■ There appears little doubt that one of the major adverse influences on job satisfaction, performance, work sickness absence and productivity is stress at work. However, a certain amount of pressure or stress may arguably not be a bad thing but help pro- mote a higher level of performance. Arising from the QWL approach, increasing attention is focused on the debate of the work/life balance and changing attitudes to work. A central feature of the work/life debate is flexible working arrangements. Moves towards greater flexibility provide a range of options to help balance work and home life, and may have noticeable effects on job satisfaction and performance of staff.
■ Increasing business competitiveness and recognition of the need for the effective use of human resources have highlighted the importance of employee involvement and empowerment. An important development in work redesign and job satisfaction is self-managed work groups and team working. One particular feature associated with the quality of working life movement is the concept of quality circles. Recognition must also be given to the importance of management style and culture.
■ Despite many theories and studies there are still doubts as to how to manage an organisation so that staff have both high job satisfaction and productivity. Account must also be taken of contextual factors. It may be necessary to lower expectations in the pursuit of the ‘happy/productive worker’ and to make for sustained, slow progress in overcoming forces for stability in both job attitudes and performance. Three possible approaches are: the individually-oriented system, the group-oriented system and the organisationally-oriented system. There is a complex relationship between job satisfaction and work performance.
Job conditions: Generally, interesting jobs that provide training, variety, independence and control satisfy most employees. Interdependence, feedback, social support and interaction with colleagues outside the workplace are also strongly related to job satisfaction, even after you take into account the characteristics of the work itself.
Personality: As important as job conditions are to job satisfaction, personality also plays an important role. People who have a positive core self-evaluation (CSE)—who believe in their inner worth and basic competence—are more satisfied with their jobs than people with negative CSEs. For people in collectivist cultures, those with high CSEs may realise particularly high job satisfaction.
Pay: You’ve probably noticed that pay comes up often when people discuss job satisfaction. Pay does correlate with job satisfaction and overall happiness for many people, but the effect can be smaller once an individual reaches a standard level of comfortable living.
Corporate Social Responsibility: Would you be as happy to work for an organisation with a stated social welfare mission as one without? An organisation’s commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR), or its self-regulated actions to benefit society or the environment beyond what is required by law, increasingly affects employee job satisfaction. Organisations practise CSR in several ways, including environmental sustainability initiatives, non-profit work and charitable giving.
Outcomes of job satisfaction
Job performance – satisfied employees tend to be more effective.
Organisational citizenship behaviours (OCB) – satisfied workers more likely to talk positively about the company, help others and go beyond the normal expectations in their job.
Increase Customer satisfaction and loyalty
Positively correlates with Life satisfaction
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http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/hrm/jobs/top-6-outcomes-of-job-satisfaction/53317
The following subtopics explain the outcomes of job satisfaction:
1. Job Satisfaction and Productivity:
Is there any positive relationship between satisfaction and productivity? This controversy has been there over a number of years. Although, majority of people believe that there is a positive relationship, but research evidence concludes that there is not strong relationship between these two.
According to the research findings of VROOM conducted in 1964, the median correlation between satisfaction and performance is only 0.14. Lawler and Porter found that there is more evidence to suggest that job performance leads to job satisfaction and not the other way round the following figure developed by these two explains this point.
This figure explains that good job performance will lead to rewards, both intrinsic and extrinsic which will lead to satisfaction. An employee who is a poor performer will get less rewards and will be less satisfied with his job experience.
However, the saying that “A happy worker is a productive worker” is not always wrong. If people receive rewards which have both intrinsic and extrinsic value and they feel that these rewards are equitable, they will be satisfied and this will lead to greater job performance.
Moreover, research also indicates that job satisfaction may not necessarily lead to improvement of individual performance but it does lead to departmental and organizational level improvement.
2. Job Satisfaction and Employee Turnover:
Unlike the relationship between satisfaction and performance, research has concluded a moderate relationship between job satisfaction and turnover. High employee turnover is a matter of concern for the management as it disrupts the normal operations and continuous replacement of employees who leave the organization is costly and technically undesirable.
Managerial concern is mostly for the turnover which arises because of job dissatisfaction. The employees, thus, tries to keep the employees satisfied on their jobs to minimize the turnover. Though, high job satisfaction in itself cannot keep the turnover low, but considerable job dissatisfaction will definitely increase the employee turnover.
The employee turnover is affected by certain other factors also, in addition to job satisfaction. Commitment to the organization is one such factor. Some employees, however dissatisfied they are with their jobs, cannot imagine themselves working anywhere else. Another important factor is the better opportunities of employment.
Even if the people are highly satisfied with their jobs, they are willing to leave if there are better opportunities available anywhere else. If no other opportunities are available, the employees will stay where they are, irrespective of dissatisfaction. On the overall basis, we can say that there is an important role played by job satisfaction in employee turnover.
3. Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism:
It has been conclusively proved that there is an inverse relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism. When satisfaction is high, absenteeism is low and when satisfaction is low, absenteeism is high. Less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to avoidable reasons. This is known as voluntary absenteeism as against unavoidable absenteeism which is due to illness or other emergency reasons. Management must be concerned with voluntary absenteeism, because it is related to job satisfaction.
Absenteeism can be modified by certain factors. Research has found that people who believe that their work is important have lower absenteeism as compared to those who do not feel that way. Moreover, it is important to remember that while high job satisfaction will not necessarily result in low absenteeism (because of unavoidable absenteeism), but low job satisfaction will definitely bring about high absenteeism.
Job performance
As several studies have concluded, happy workers are more likely to be productive workers. Some researchers used to believe that the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance was a myth. But a review of 300 studies suggests that the correlation is relatively strong. When we gather satisfaction and productivity data for the organisation as a whole, we find that organisations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organisations with fewer satisfied employees.
Organisational citizenship behaviours
It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employee’s organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Satisfied employees would seem more likely to talk positively about the organisation, help others and go beyond the normal expectations in their job. They might go beyond the call of duty because they want to reciprocate their positive experiences. Consistent with this thinking, evidence suggests that job satisfaction is moderately correlated with OCB: people who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to engage in OCB. Fairness perceptions help explain this relationship. Those who feel that their colleagues support them are more likely to engage in helpful behaviours, whereas those who have antagonistic relationships with colleagues are less likely to do so.
Customer satisfaction
Because customer satisfaction is a key outcome in the service industry, it’s reasonable to ask whether employee satisfaction is related to positive customer outcomes. For employees with regular customer contact, the answer appears to be yes. Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
A number of companies are acting on this evidence. For example, Boost Juice hires ‘boosties’, or young people who are vibrant, outgoing and can ‘hit the ground running’. However, other companies seem to work at the other end of the spectrum. Two independent reports from the United States (one on the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and the other on airline passenger complaints) argue that low employee morale is a major factor undermining passenger satisfaction. Employees of US Airways have posted comments on blogs such as ‘Our plans [sic] smell filthy’ and ‘How can I take pride in this product?
Life satisfaction
So far, we’ve treated job satisfaction as if it were separate from life satisfaction, but they may be more related than you think. Research in Europe indicated that job satisfaction is positively correlated with life satisfaction, and your attitudes and experiences in life spill over into your job approaches and experiences. Life satisfaction decreases when people become unemployed, according to research in Germany, and not just because of the loss of income. For most individuals, work is an important part of life, and therefore it makes sense that our overall happiness depends in no small part on our happiness in our work (our job satisfaction).
The impact of job dissatisfaction
Exit – collective turnover: loss to organisation of employee knowledge, skills, abilities.
Voice – dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions
Loyalty – passively waiting for conditions to improve
Neglect – allowing conditions to worsen
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https://www.allstarsloaded.com/consequences-of-job-dissatisfaction/
Consequences of job dissatisfaction includes the following:
The consequences of job dissatisfaction can be summarized by the following key points:
1. MOTIVATION
A recent metal-analysis of nine studies and 2,237 workers revealed as significant positive relationship between motivation and job satisfaction. Because satisfaction with supervision also was significantly correlated with motivation, managers and advised to consider how their behavior affects employee satisfaction. Managers can potentially enhance employee motivation through various attempts to increase job satisfaction
2. JOB INVOLVEMENT
Job involvement represents the extent to which an individual is personally involved with his or her work role. A meta-analysis involving 27,925 individual from 87 different studies demonstrate that job involvement was moderately related with job satisfaction. Managers are thus encouraged to foster satisfying work environment in order to fuel employee’s job involvement.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR
Organizational citizenship behaviors consist of employee behaviors that are beyond that call of duty. Examples include “such gestures a constructive statements about the department, expression of personal interest in the work of others, suggestions for improvements, training new people respect for the spirit as well as the letter of housekeeping rules, care for organizational property, and punctuality and attendance well beyond standard or enforceable levels. Managers certainly would like employees to exhibit those behaviors. A meta-analysis covering 6,746 people and 28 separate studies revealed significant and moderate positive correlation between organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfactions
Additional research demonstrated that employees, citizenship behaviors were determined more by leadership and characteristic of the work environment than by an employee’s personality. It thus appears. That managerial behavior significantly influences an employee’s willingness to exhibit citizenship behaviors. This relationship is important to recognize because organizational citizenship behaviors were positively correlated with performance ratings.
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Exhibit 3.6
Responses to dissatisfaction
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Identify four employee responses to job dissatisfaction.
What happens when employees like their jobs, and what happens when they dislike their jobs? One theoretical model, the exit–voice–loyalty–neglect framework, is helpful for understanding the consequences of dissatisfaction. Exhibit 3.6 illustrates the framework’s four responses, which differ along two dimensions: constructive/destructive and active/passive. The responses are as follows:
Exit. The exit response directs behaviour towards leaving the organisation, including looking for a new position as well as resigning. To measure the effects of this response to dissatisfaction, researchers study individual terminations and collective turnover, the total loss to the organisation of employee knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics. Dissatisfaction expressed through behaviour directed towards leaving the organisation.
Voice. The voice response includes actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors and undertaking some forms of union activity. Dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.
Loyalty. The loyalty response means passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including speaking up for the organisation in the face of external criticism and trusting the organisation and its management to ‘do the right thing’. Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve
Neglect. The neglect response passively allows conditions to worsen and includes chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort and an increased error rate. Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.
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The impact of job dissatisfaction
Counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) – deviant behaviour in the workplace. An emotional reaction to perceived unfairness.
Absenteeism
Turnover
Managers often ‘don’t get it’
Job satisfaction can affect the bottom line
Regular surveys can reduce gaps between what managers think employees feel and what they really feel.
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Counterproductive work behaviour (CWB)
Substance abuse, stealing at work, undue socialising, gossiping, absenteeism and tardiness are examples of behaviours that are destructive to organisations. They are indicators of a broader syndrome called counterproductive work behaviour (CWB), also termed ‘deviant behaviour in the workplace’, or simply ‘employee withdrawal’. Like other behaviours we have discussed, CWB doesn’t just happen—the behaviours often follow negative and sometimes long-standing attitudes. Therefore, if we can identify the predictors of CWB, we may lessen the probability of its effects.
Counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) - Actions that actively damage the organisation, including stealing, behaving aggressively towards colleagues or being late or absent.
Generally, job dissatisfaction predicts CWB. People who are not satisfied with their work become frustrated, which lowers their performance and makes them more prone to CWB. However, some research also suggests that this relationship might be stronger for men than for women, given that men tend to exhibit more aggressiveness and less impulse control. Our immediate social environment also matters. One German study suggests that we are nudged towards CWB by the norms of our immediate work environment; for example, individuals in teams with high absenteeism are more likely to be absent themselves. CWB can be a response to abusive supervision from managers, which then increases the abuse, thus starting a vicious cycle.
One important point about CWB is that dissatisfied employees often choose one or more of these specific behaviours due to idiosyncratic factors. One worker might quit. Another might use work time to surf the Internet or take work supplies home for personal use. In short, workers who don’t like their jobs ‘get even’ in various ways. Because those ways can be quite creative, controlling only one behaviour with policies and punishments leaves the root cause untouched. Employers should seek to correct the source of the problem—the dissatisfaction—rather than try to control the different responses.
According to some research, CWB is sometimes an emotional reaction to perceived unfairness, a way to try to restore an employee’s sense of equity exchange. Therefore, CWB has complex ethical implications. For example, is someone who takes a box of markers home from the office for their children acting ethically? Some people consider this stealing. Others may want to look at moderating factors such as the employee’s contribution to the organisation before they decide. Does the person generously give extra time and effort to the organisation, with little thanks or compensation? If so, they might see CWB as part of an attempt to ‘even the score’.
As a manager, you can take steps to mitigate CWB. For instance, you can poll employee attitudes, identify areas for workplace improvement and attempt to measure CWB. Several reviews suggest that self-reports of CWB can be just as effective as reports from colleagues or supervisors, partly because of differences in the observability of CWB. Creating strong teams, integrating supervisors within them, providing formalised team policies and introducing team-based incentives may help lower the CWB ‘contagion’ that lowers the standards of the group.
Absenteeism
We find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the relationship is moderate to weak. Generally, when numerous alternative jobs are available, dissatisfied employees have high absence rates, but when there are few alternatives, dissatisfied employees have the same (low) rate of absence as satisfied employees. Organisations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encouraging all their employees—including those who are highly satisfied—to take days off. You can find work satisfying yet still want
Summary
Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes influence behaviour and indicate potential problems.
Evidence strongly suggests that managers’ efforts to improve employee attitudes will likely result in positive outcomes, including greater organisational effectiveness, higher customer satisfaction and increased profits.
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Implications for managers
Pay attention to your employees’ job satisfaction levels as determinants of their performance, turnover, absenteeism and withdrawal behaviours.
Of the major job attitudes—job satisfaction, job involvement, organisational commitment, perceived organisational support (POS) and employee engagement—remember that an employee’s job satisfaction level is the best single predictor of behaviour.
Measure employee job attitudes objectively and at regular intervals in order to determine how employees are reacting to their work.
To raise employee satisfaction, evaluate the fit between the employee’s work interests and the intrinsic parts of their job to create work that is challenging and interesting to the individual.
Consider the fact that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment.
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Class Activity: Employer-employee loyalty is an outdated concept (?)
The word ‘loyalty’ is horribly outdated. Long gone are the days when an employer would keep an employee for life. Employer-employee loyalty is killed off through shortening contracts, outsourcing, automation and multiple careers. The commitment on each side (employer-employee) is weak.
Management guru Tom Peters, however, said that loyalty matters. It is not that loyalty is dead, rather that employers are loyal to different kind of employee. Employers would fire long-tenured but incompetent employees. But are loyal to employees who do their jobs well. Constantly training new employees wears down morale and profitability.
Given the above two opposing views, what are your views on employer-employee loyalty? Is this still a valid concept in the current workplace.
To answer go to:
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Topic 4
Personality and Values
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Organisations regard personality as being of key significance in their decision-making and it would be rare for organisations not to take the personality of a candidate into consideration at a selection interview. For some organisations, personality is the major criterion for selection or rejection. The hospitality industry, for example, is replete with research studies demonstrating the potency of personality. So, how do organisations assess a candidate’s personality? The interview remains the most usual method of selection, but there is an increasing use of objective psychometric measures. Such growth in psychometric testing is significant and a number of studies have demonstrated its growing popularity. Concern has been expressed about the use and misuse of psychological instruments and there is a continuing debate within psychological circles with regard to the validity of these measures. Psychological measures can be distinguished between tests of: typical performance (of which personality assessment is one example); and maximum performance (including ability and intelligence tests).
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=81597§ion=1.4.2
Values can impact on a person's interest in, and choice of, particular types of work and organisation. Individual values also impact on how they interact with other people who may or may not share their values.
Individual values stem from our social background, religion (if we have one), ethnic origin, culture, upbringing, education and our experiences of life and work. Individual values are not static. They continue to evolve during our lifetime as we experience new situations and people’s behaviours, particularly ones involving conflict or difference, or ones we find surprising or offensive. These encounters provide opportunities to question and rethink our own values. Of course, we may not be fully conscious of the values we hold or of the value judgements we are making when taking particular actions. We are also not necessarily consistent in our behaviour, and there may be a discrepancy between what we say our values are and how we act.
Values could influence your behaviour and actions in the following areas:
where you work or volunteer
who your friends are
how you interact with others
why you might have been in conflict with another person, your team or your manager (if you have one).
Learning Objectives
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) personality framework and the traits of the Big Five Model
Identify whether personality predicts behavior and assess the differences between personality-job fit and person-organisation fit
Compare and contrast Hofstede’s five value dimensions and the GLOBE framework
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A trait is a distinguishing characteristic, feature or quality. In psychological terms, we usually think about personality traits. Traits and characteristics are the same thing. The unique combination of traits makes us individuals, the number of possible combinations of traits is in the millions. Personal characteristics have a tremendous impact on what people think, feel and do within organisational settings.
Many psychologists have studied personality traits and have attempts to identify or define all of the different human characteristics. Of course, there is continuing debate about how many different personality traits exist. You might of people possessing personality traits on a continuum. That is, some people have a lot of a particular trait, and others have only little of that trait. If you studied lots of people, we would be able to identify what is an average amount of each trait. That is exactly what psychologists have done. We call possess some traits more than most people, and possess other traits less than other people, and possess still other traits in about an average amount. Some examples of personality traits studied: warmth, emotional stability, independence, dominance, impulsivity, sensitivity, imagination, introversion-extroversion, suspiciousness, boldness.
Although the term “individual characteristic” seems to be self-explanatory. Individual characteristics are not given as such, but have their basis in assumptions. By definition, individual characteristic are bound to individual they possess a certain constancy over time and under situational changes. Three classes:
Dispositional characteristics: these characteristics which may also be denoted as personality traits – possess a relatively high degree of consistency e.g. intellectual abilities and style characteristics.
Habitual characteristics – these characteristics are acquired in interaction with the situation, in a process of learning, training e.g. several types of behaviour, aptitudes, skills, attitudes, expectations and habits.
Motivational characteristics – these characteristics refer to shorter or longer enduring physical and/or mental conditions giving rise to a certain level of activity and a specific directedness of behaviour e.g. hunger, thirst, degree of cognitive dissonance (any incompatibility between behaviour and attitudes).
Personality refers to a set of individual characteristics that are consistent over time. Personality is a general term that includes emotions, attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. There are two viewpoints regarding the basis of personality: heredity and environment. The heredity perspective states people are born with a set of personality traits. The environment perspective supports the notion that personality develops over time and is influenced by the environment. When we talk of ‘personality’, we do not mean a person has charm or a positive attitude. When psychologists talk of personality they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. We should think of personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. We most often describe it is terms of the measureable traits a person exhibits.
Introduction
It’s relatively simple for organisations to identify potential employees with appropriate skill sets; it’s harder finding talented individuals who share the same core values and strongly support an organisation’s mission.
When psychologists talk about ‘personality’, they’re referring to a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system.
Which personality traits have a positive impact on job performance and OB? Outgoing/introvert, employee work ethics, attention to detail, motivation & recognition.
jcu.edu.au
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/personality-affects-work-behavior-45940.html
Personality affects all aspects of a person's performance, even how he reacts to situations on the job. Not every personality is suited for every job position, so it's important to recognize personality traits and pair employees with the duties that fit their personalities the best. This can lead to increased productivity and job satisfaction, helping your business function more efficiently.
Outgoing or Introverted
People with outgoing personalities often work best in positions where they get to interact with others. These people can provide friendly and helpful customer service, and they can boost the attitudes of other workers by being upbeat and happy. However, outgoing people might not flourish in positions that keep them behind closed doors, separated from others.
This might include an information technology position that keeps them behind a computer all day or an accounts payable job that doesn't require much interaction with vendors or other staff members. Those jobs might be a better fit for people with more introverted personalities.
Employee Work Ethic
A strong work ethic develops in employees who make their jobs a high priority. Some employees might perform adequately, but without fervor or any indication they are at work for more than a paycheck. Their work is likely mediocre and often turned in barely on time or late. Other employees might work late to get projects done early and take the initiative to suggest new projects or more efficient production methods.
Assign these workers to teams developing new projects or roles with additional responsibility and the need to make decisions on the spot, such as public relations or management of a department. People with a weak work ethic often require more management and oversight to keep them focused on their work, while people with a strong work ethic typically work well with minimum oversight.
Attention to Detail
Some people are wired to think of the big picture, to see not only where your company is now but where it could or should be in the future. They make creative, broad plans designed to keep the company moving forward, and they think of new initiatives to solve existing problems. However, they may not be as good at executing the broad plans. That's where the detail-oriented people come in; these people sometimes have trouble seeing a direction for the company that's different from the existing direction, but if you give them a project, they execute the project to its smallest detail.
They are often highly organized and keep excellent records, so projects can be recreated later if necessary. Look for them in accounting and finance roles where details matter. It takes both types of people to keep your company running smoothly.
Motivation and Recognition
Keep your employees running at full steam by understanding what motivates them. This is sometimes difficult to figure out on your own, so it's best to ask, even during an interview. Some people are motivated solely by money; if you dangle the promise of a raise or bonus, they are likely to work harder. Other people prefer recognition among their peers, so celebrating their successes at a staff luncheon or sending out a recognition email to the staff could keep those employees working at full steam. Other people are self-motivated, able to work hard for the personal satisfaction they receive when they finish well-done projects on time.
Personality
What is personality?
Defining personality: the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
Measuring personality: self-report surveys
Personality determinants: research tends to support the importance of heredity over environment. Heredity includes biological, physiological factors.
Personality traits refers to characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour.
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The definition of ‘personality’ most frequently used was created by Gordon Allport more than 70 years ago. He said that personality is ‘the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment’.1 For our purposes, you should think of personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. We most often describe it in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits. Personality - The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
Measuring personality - Research has shown that personality tests are useful for helping managers forecast who is best for a job. Some managers use personality test scores to better understand and more effectively manage the people who work for them. The most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys, whereby individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors such as ‘I worry a lot about the future’. Although self-report measures work well when well-constructed, one weakness is that the respondent might lie or practise impression management—that is, ‘fake good’—on the test to create a good impression. Another problem is accuracy: for example, a candidate who is in a bad mood when taking the survey may have inaccurate scores.
Locus of Control - Locus of control is the extent to which someone believes that they are in control of their own environment. An individual may have low or high locus of control and this moves along a continuum based on context and experience. The attitudes toward control translate to supervision. Those with a high internal focus tend to be more achievement-directed in their work pursuits, which high external locus of control attitudes tend to prefer more directive and hands-on supervision at their work.
Self-monitoring - Self-monitoring is the ability of an individual to adjust her behavior based on the environment in which she operates. High self-monitors have the ability to ‘read’ a situation and understand what is appropriate behaviour in that situation and then display those forms of behaviour. High-self monitoring ability has been linked with positive outcomes in the workplace, such as promotions, job performance and leadership. Low self-monitors adjust their behaviour based on internal factors, such as beliefs and attitudes regardless of the environmental context.
Personality frameworks
The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
100-question test that asks people how they feel or act in situations
Taps 4 characteristics; classifies people into one of 16 personality types
Introversion/extraversion
(I: quiet and shy E: outgoing, sociable, assertive)
Sensing/intuiting
(S: practical, prefer routine, order, focus on details
I: relies on intuition, look at big picture)
Thinking/feeling
T: use reason and logic F: rely on personal values & emotions)
Judging/perceiving
J: want control, prefer order & structure P: flexible & spontaneous.
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The most widely used measure of personality is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or MBTI. The dimensions associated with this include: introversion/extraversion, sensing/intuiting, thinking/ feeling, and judging/perceiving. Each dimension is dichotomous, meaning it is built on opposites. The Myers-Briggs types have been linked to career choices, team members interactions, leadership, conflict and the quality of intimate relationships. The MBTI measures of someone’s personality.
Introversion versus Extroversion – dimension of the MBTI indicates to what extent someone is energized by the internal or the external world
Sensing/Intuiting – this dimension explains how someone prefers to process information. Sensing types tend to be concrete and detailed. Intuitive types often use gut instinct or the 6th sense to gather information.
The Myers Briggs indicator is the most widely used personality assessment instrument in the world. It’s a 100 question test that asks people how they feel or act in particular situations, on the basis of the answers individuals are classified.
The use of personality measurement for job related decisions (e.g. promotion, selection, job-fit and training opportunities) should be used with caution, because the quality of the method needs to be validated and not contain bias towards any group. Three different methods:
Personality inventories – self-report personality inventories, where an individual reports on his or her own preferences
Projective tests – may be used to help some-one discover the most suitable workplace fit
Expert interpret of role-playing and interviews. Managers may use role-playing activities and interviews to help select an applicant for a job based on the right personality fit.
Ever since the Extroversion and Introversion polarity was identified as one of the five factors o the BIG FIVE – research on the differences between introverts and extroverts has exploded. Introverts are an extremely diverse group compromising half of the population.
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Personality frameworks
The Big Five model
Conscientiousness – measure reliability
Emotional stability – a person’s ability to withstand stress
Extraversion – comfortable with relationship
Openness to experience – interest with novelty
Agreeableness – one’s propensity to defer to others.
High levels of conscientiousness predict positive job performance
Employees who exhibits traits of responsibility, dependability, perseverance perform high on job tasks.
Openness to experience predict positive learning experiences.
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The Big Five personality types resulted from extensive studies of a variety of personality characteristics and emerged from an interest in identifying core and enduring personality characteristics. There are five dimensions related to this theory: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. The Big Five suggests that some individual characteristics are associated with improved performance in organisations. For example, across all occupational groups high levels of conscientiousness predict positive job performance. Employees who exhibit traits of responsibility, dependability and perseverance perform high on job tasks than employees who do not have the same traits. Openness to experience was also predictive of positive learning experiences.
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Exhibit 4.1
Model of how Big Five
traits influence OB criteria
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Conscientiousness at work
As researchers have stated, ‘Personal attributes related to conscientiousness . . . are important for success across many jobs, spanning across low to high levels of job complexity, training, and experience.’ Employees who score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge, probably because highly conscientious people learn more (conscientiousness may be related to grade point average [GPA]), and these levels correspond with higher levels of job performance. Conscientious people are also more able to maintain their job performance even when faced with abusive supervision, according to a recent study in India. Prior reviews also suggest that conscientious people usually engage more in organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs), less in counter-productive work behaviours (CWBs) and less in leaving the organisation, and can adapt to changing task demands and situations.Conscientious people also engage in less unsafe behaviour and tend to have fewer accidents than those who are less conscientious.
Emotional stability at work
Of the Big Five model traits, emotional stability is most strongly related to life satisfaction, job satisfaction and reduced burnout and intentions to quit. People with high emotional stability can adapt to unexpected or changing demands in the workplace. At the other end of the spectrum, neurotic individuals, who may be unable to cope with these demands, may experience burnout. These people also tend to experience work–family conflict, which can affect work outcomes. Given these negative, straining effects, neurotic employees are more likely to engage in CWBs, less likely to engage in OCBs and less likely to be motivated at work.
Extraversion at work
Extraverts perform better in jobs with significant interpersonal interaction. They’re socially dominant, ‘take-charge’ people who are usually more assertive than introverts. Extraversion is a relatively strong predictor of leadership emergence and behaviours in groups. Extraverts also tend to generally have high job satisfaction and reduced burnout. Some negatives are that extraverts can appear to be self-aggrandising, egoistic or too dominating and that their social behaviour can be disadvantageous for jobs that do not require frequent social interaction.
Openness at work
Open people tend to be the most creative and innovative of the traits. Open people are more likely to be effective leaders and more comfortable with ambiguity: they cope better with organisational change and are more adaptable.30 While openness isn’t related to initial performance on a job, individuals higher in openness are less susceptible to a decline in performance over a longer time period. Open people also experience less work–family conflict.
Agreeableness at work
Agreeable individuals are better liked than disagreeable people; they usually perform well in interpersonally oriented jobs such as customer service. They experience less work–family conflict and are less susceptible to turnover. They also contribute to organisational performance by engaging in OCB. Disagreeable people, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in CWBs, as their conscientiousness is low. Agreeableness is associated with lower levels of career success, perhaps because highly agreeable people consider themselves less marketable and are less willing to assert themselves.
Research indicates that the Big Five model traits have the most verifiable links to important organisational outcomes, but they are not the only traits a person exhibits, nor are they the only ones with OB implications.
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Personality frameworks
The Dark Triad – Undesirable traits
Machiavellianism
Pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, ends justify the means
Narcissism
Grandiose sense of self-importance, requires excessive admiration, sense of entitlement, arrogant
Psychopathy
In OB, this does not refer to clinical mental illness. Lack of concern for others, lack of guilt or remorse, impulsive, willing to use deceit to obtains goals, lack empathy.
Examples:
Hao is a young bank manager in Shanghai. He has received three promotions in the past four years and makes no apologies for the aggressive tactics he’s used to propel his career upwards. ‘My name means clever, and that’s what I am—I do whatever I have to do to get ahead,’ he says. Hao would be termed Machiavellian.
Sabrina likes to be the centre of attention. She often looks at herself in the mirror, has extravagant dreams and considers herself a person of many talents. Sabrina is a narcissist.
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With the exception of neuroticism, the Big Five traits are what we call socially desirable, meaning we would be glad to score high on them. Researchers have found that three other socially undesirable traits, which we all have in varying degrees, are relevant to organisational behaviour: Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy. Owing to their negative nature, researchers have labelled these three traits the Dark Triad—although they don’t always occur together.
Dark Triad - A constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy.
The Dark Triad may sound sinister, but these traits are not clinical pathologies hindering everyday functioning. They might be expressed particularly strongly when an individual is under stress and unable to moderate any inappropriate responses. Sustained high levels of dark personality traits can cause individuals to derail their careers and personal lives.
Machiavellianism
Hao is a young bank manager in Shanghai. He has received three promotions in the past four years and makes no apologies for the aggressive tactics he’s used to propel his career upwards. ‘My name means clever, and that’s what I am—I do whatever I have to do to get ahead,’ he says. Hao would be termed Machiavellian.
The personality characteristic of Machiavellianism (often abbreviated to Mach) is named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the 16th century on how to gain and use power. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means. ‘If it works, use it’ is consistent with a high-Mach perspective. A considerable amount of research has found that high Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less and persuade others more than do low Machs. They’re more likely to act aggressively and to engage in other counterproductive work behaviours as well. Surprisingly, Machiavellianism does not positively predict overall job performance. High-Mach employees, by manipulating others to their advantage, win in the workplace in the short term, but they lose those gains in the long term because they’re not well liked.
Machiavellianism - The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means.
The effects of Machiavellianism depend somewhat on the context. The reason, in part, is that individuals’ personalities affect the situations they choose. One study showed that high-Mach job-seekers were less positively affected by knowing an organisation engaged in a high level of corporate social responsibility (CSR). Another study found that Machs’ ethical leadership behaviours were less likely to translate into followers’ work engagement, because followers ‘see through’ these behaviours and realise it’s a case of surface acting.
Narcissism - Sabrina likes to be the centre of attention. She often looks at herself in the mirror, has extravagant dreams and considers herself a person of many talents. Sabrina is a narcissist. The trait is named for the Greek myth of Narcissus, a youth so vain and proud he fell in love with his own image. In psychology, narcissism describes a person who has a grandiose sense of self-importance, requires excessive admiration, has a sense of entitlement and is arrogant. Narcissists often have fantasies of grand success, a tendency to exploit situations and people, a sense of entitlement and a lack of empathy. However, narcissists can be hypersensitive and fragile people.
Narcissism - The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration and have a sense of entitlement.
Psychopathy
Psychopathy is part of the Dark Triad, but in organisational behaviour, it does not connote clinical mental illness. In the OB context, psychopathy is defined as a lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when your actions cause harm. Measures of psychopathy are an attempt to assess the motivation to comply with social norms; impulsivity; willingness to use deceit to obtain desired ends; and lack of empathic concern for others.
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Other personality traits relevant to OB
Core self-evaluations (CSEs): people who have positive CSEs perform better than others. High CSEs are effective, capable and in control. “I can handle this problem”
Self-monitoring: an individual’s ability to adjust their behaviour to external, situational factors. High: can present striking contradictions between public and private persona.
Proactive personality: people who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action and persevere until meaningful change occurs.
jcu.edu.au
https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/industrial-organizational-psychology/individual-differences/core-self-evaluations/
Core Self-Evaluations
The term core self-evaluations refers to fundamental, global evaluations that individuals make about their worth as individuals, including whether they have the capability to handle the tasks and challenges they face in life and the extent to which they feel in control of their lives. When faced with a problem or challenge, individuals with high core self-evaluations believe, “I can handle this problem.” Individuals’ tendencies to evaluate themselves negatively or positively may affect their evaluations of others and the world in general.
Structure and Measurement of Core Self-Evaluations
Core self-evaluation is a broad personality trait that includes shared elements of some of the most frequently studied personality traits, including self-esteem, locus of control, and neuroticism. Although researchers have spent decades studying these individual traits (e.g., self-esteem, neuroticism), only recently have researchers begun to recognize the commonalities among them. Recent research indicates that four core traits—neuroticism (reverse scored), locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and self-esteem—are highly related to one another. Individuals who score high in one of these traits tend to score high on all of them, leading researchers to believe that individual traits may all be linked to a common source or core, labeled core self-evaluations.
Although it is clear that strong associations between these traits exist, research to date is not clear about the nature of this association. It may be that core self-evaluations are the underlying cause of traits such as self-esteem and neuroticism. If this is the case, individuals vary in the extent to which their broad, fundamental evaluations of themselves are positive or negative, and these evaluations, in turn, influence their feelings of worth and value (self-esteem), control (locus of control), confidence (self-efficacy), and general emotional stability (neuroticism). According to this approach, each of the individual traits serves as an indicator of individuals’ core evaluations of themselves, which are not directly observable.
It is also possible, however, that the four core traits are linked to each other in a hierarchical manner. For example, it maybe that self-esteem is the cause of the other traits: Individuals who have a low sense of self-worth (self-esteem) may tend to experience more sadness and anxiety (neuroticism) and have less confidence that they are capable of handling the challenges they face (self-efficacy) because they doubt their value.
The nature of the associations among the four core traits and the broader core self-evaluations concept, especially their causal associations, remains unresolved. Researchers have attempted to sort out the causal associations between evaluative self-reported traits such as self-esteem and neuroticism using factor analyses; however, such approaches are open to multiple interpretations and preclude definitive conclusions. In the future, our understanding of these traits may be aided by the biological, brain, and genetic research that is currently under way in the field of neuroscience.
There are two approaches to the measurement of core self-evaluations. One is to use existing measures of the four traits. In this approach, core self-evaluations can be assessed by either (a) averaging the scores of the four traits, which assumes that the specific elements of each trait represent the underlying core self-evaluation, or (b) using factor analysis to extract the commonalities between the traits, which assumes that only the commonalities between the four core traits represent core self-evaluations. A second approach is to measure individuals’ fundamental assessments of themselves and their capabilities directly. To this end, a short, comprehensive measure of core self-evaluations has been developed.
Emerging research suggests that core self-evaluations explain differences between individuals that are not captured by existing broad personality taxonomies, such as the Big Five. Although associations between core self-evaluations and the Big Five traits are to be expected (neuroticism is one of the four core traits), the Big Five traits cannot explain all of the differences between individuals in core self-evaluations. Furthermore, core self-evaluations have been shown to add incremental predictive validity to the Big Five traits in explaining important work and life outcomes, such as job and life satisfaction.
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Personality, job search and unemployment
Looks at personality characteristics that predict job search behaviours
Conscientiousness
Time structure
Extraversion
Self-esteem/self-efficacy
Affectivity
Extraversion, conscientiousness and positive affectivity have a substantial effect on becoming employed and coping with unemployment.
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It appears that extraversion, conscientiousness and positive affectivity have a substantial effect on becoming employed and coping with unemployment (with negative affectivity and hostility having equivalent negative effects). If you find yourself in a situation where you’re unemployed, can you expect your personality to change? Or can you change your behaviour to act in a way that goes against your traits? First, it appears as if ‘approach’ and ‘avoidance’ traits (e.g. traits that lead to approaching challenges head-on or avoiding them) have an effect on job search—for example, extraversion, conscientiousness, proactive personality and positive effect have a positive effect, whereas negative affect, hostility, low self-esteem and self-efficacy have a negative effect. As such, it might be worth trying to adopt an ‘approach’ orientation— take the challenge head on, try to stay positive and organised and build your network! Second, some research in Germany suggests that your personality can change after unemployment—in a sample of nearly 7000 unemployed adults who were tracked over 4 years, significant patterns of change in agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness were uncovered. As we’ll discuss further in the next section, the situation and context matter as well. The experience of unemployment is not the same for everyone across the board—it can be different for new entrants to the labour market (university graduates), those who have just lost their jobs, and those who are employed and seeking a new position.
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Personality and situations
Situation-strength theory proposes that the way personality translates into behaviour depends on the strength of the situation.
Strong situations show us what the right behaviour is, pressure us to exhibit it and discourage the wrong behaviour.
In weak situations, ‘anything goes’, so we’re freer to express our personality in behaviour.
4 elements to analyse situation strengths in organisations:
Clarity, Consistency, Constraints, Consequences
Trait activation theory (TAT) - predicts that some situations, events or interventions ‘activate’ a trait more than others.
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Situation-strength theory proposes that the way personality translates into behaviour depends on the strength of the situation. By situation strength, we mean the degree to which norms, cues or standards dictate appropriate behaviour. Strong situations show us what the right behaviour is, pressure us to exhibit it and discourage the wrong behaviour. In weak situations, conversely, ‘anything goes’, so we’re freer to express our personality in behaviour. As such, personality traits better predict behaviour in weak situations than in strong ones. A theory that proposes that the way personality translates into behaviour depends on the strength of the situation.
Researchers have analysed situation strength in organisations in terms of four elements:
Clarity, or the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are available and clear. Jobs high in clarity produce strong situations because individuals can readily determine what to do, increasing the chances that everyone behaves similarly. For example, the job of a cleaner probably provides higher clarity about what needs to be done than the job of a nanny.
Consistency, or the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities are compatible with one another. Jobs with high consistency represent strong situations because all the cues point towards the same desired behaviour. The job of an acute care nurse, for example, probably has higher consistency than the job of a manager.
Constraints, or the extent to which individuals’ freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their control. Jobs with many constraints represent strong situations because individuals have limited individual discretion. Bank examiner, for example, is probably a job with stronger constraints than forest ranger.
Consequences, or the degree to which decisions or actions have important implications for the organisation or its members, clients, supplies and so on. Jobs with important consequences represent strong situations because the environment is probably heavily structured to guard against mistakes. A surgeon’s job, for example, has higher consequences than a foreign-language teacher’s.
Some researchers have speculated that organisations are, by definition, strong situations because they impose rules, norms and standards that govern behaviour. These constraints are usually appropriate. For example, we wouldn’t want an employee to feel free to engage in sexual harassment, to follow questionable accounting procedures or to come to work only when the mood strikes.
But that doesn’t mean it’s always desirable for organisations to create strong situations for their employees. First, jobs with myriad rules and tightly controlled processes can be dull or demotivating. Imagine that all work was executed with an assembly-line approach. Most of us prefer having some freedom to decide how to do our work. Second, people do differ, so what works well for one person might work poorly for another. Third, strong situations might suppress the creativity, initiative and discretion prized by some cultures. One recent study, for example, found that in weak organisational situations, employees were more likely to behave proactively in accordance with their values. Finally, work is increasingly complex and interrelated globally. Creating strong rules to govern complex, interrelated and culturally diverse systems might be not only difficult but unwise. Managers need to recognise the role of situation strength in the workplace and find the appropriate balance.
Trait activation theory
Another important theoretical framework towards understanding situational activators for personality is the trait activation theory (TAT). TAT predicts that some situations, events or interventions ‘activate’ a trait more than others. For example, a commission-based compensation plan would likely activate individual differences in extraversion because extraversion is more reward sensitive than, say, openness. Conversely, in jobs that allow expression of individual creativity, individual differences in openness may better predict creative behaviour than individual differences in extraversion would.
Exhibit 4.2
Trait activation theory: jobs in which certain Big Five traits are more relevant
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See Exhibit 4.2 for specific examples.
Exhibit 4.2 Trait activation theory: jobs in which certain Big Five traits are more relevant
A recent study found that people learning online responded differently when their behaviour was being electronically monitored. Those who had a high fear of failure had higher evaluation apprehension than others and learned significantly less. In this case, a feature of the environment (electronic monitoring) activated a trait (fear of failing), and the combination of the two meant lowered job performance.87 TAT can also work in a positive way. A study applying TAT found that individual differences in the tendency to behave prosocially mattered more when co-workers weren’t supportive. In other words, in a supportive environment, everyone behaves prosocially, but in an environment that isn’t so nice, whether an individual has the personality to behave prosocially makes a major difference.88
Together, situation strength and trait activation theories show that the debate over nature versus nurture might best be framed as nature and nurture. Not only does each affect behaviour, but they interact with one another. Put another way, personality and the situation both affect work behaviour, but when the situation is right, the power of personality to predict behaviour is even higher.89
Having discussed personality traits, we’ll now turn to values. Values are often very specific and describe belief systems rather than behavioural tendencies. Some beliefs or values reflect a person’s personality, but we don’t always act consistently with our values.
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Values
The importance of values
Values lay the foundation for our understanding of people’s attitudes and motivation and influence our perceptions.
Values explain attitudes, behaviours and perceptions
Terminal versus instrumental values
Terminal: desirable end-states – goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime. Eg prosperity, economic success, meaning in life.
Instrumental: preferable modes of behaviour or means of achieving terminal values Eg. Autonomy, self-reliance, kindness.
Generational values
Differences across generations often don’t support popular conceptions of how generations differ.
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Personality—What value, if any, does the Big Five Model provide to managers? From the early 1900s to the mid-1980s, researchers sought a link between personality and job performance. ‘The outcome of those 80-plus years of research was that personality and job performance were not meaningfully related across traits or situations.’ However, the past 20 years have been more promising, largely due to the findings about the Big Five.
Screening job candidates for high conscientiousness—as well as the other Big Five traits, depending on the criteria an organisation finds most important—should pay dividends. Of course, managers still need to take situational factors into consideration. Factors such as job demands, the degree of required interaction with others and the organisation’s culture are examples of situational variables that moderate the personality–job performance relationship. You need to evaluate the job, the work group and the organisation to determine the optimal personality fit. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant in certain situations, too.
Although the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has been widely criticised, it may have a place in organisations. In training and development, it can help employees to better understand themselves, and it can help team members to better understand each other. It can also open up communication in work groups and possibly reduce conflicts.
Values—Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Values often underlie and explain attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. Therefore, knowledge of an individual’s value system can provide insight into what makes the person ‘tick’.
Employees’ performance and satisfaction levels are likely to be higher if their values fit well with the organisation. The person who places great importance on imagination, independence and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organisation that seeks conformity from its employees. Managers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively and allocate rewards to employees who fit in, and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive they actually do fit in. This argues for management to seek job candidates who have not only the ability, experience and motivation to perform, but also a value system compatible with the organisation’s.
What are values, why are they important, and what is the difference between terminal and instrumental values?
Values are basic convictions on how to conduct yourself, or how to live your life in a way that is personally or socially preferable—how to live life properly. They are important because they provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation and behaviour; they influence our perceptions of the world around us, they represent interpretations of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’; and they imply that some behaviours or outcomes are preferred over others.
The difference between terminal and instrumental values is as follows:
Terminal values are desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.
Instrumental values are preferable modes of behaviour or means of achieving one’s terminal values.
Do values differ across generations? How do they differ?
Yes, values differ considerably across generations.
Boomers (Baby Boomers) are a large cohort born after World War II when veterans returned to their families and times were good. Boomers entered the workforce from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s. They brought with them a large measure of the ‘hippie ethic’ and distrust of authority. But they place a great deal of emphasis on achievement and material success. They work hard and want to enjoy the fruits of their labours. They are pragmatists who believe that ends can justify means. Boomers see the organisations that employ them merely as vehicles for their careers. Terminal values, such as a sense of accomplishment and social recognition, rank high with them.
The lives of Xers (Generation Xers) have been shaped by globalisation, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS and computers. Xers value flexibility, life options and the achievement of job satisfaction. Family and relationships are very important to this cohort. Xers are sceptical, particularly of authority. They also enjoy team-oriented work. In search of balance in their lives, Xers are less willing to make personal sacrifices for the sake of their employer than previous generations were. They rate high on true friendship, happiness and pleasure.
The most recent entrants to the workforce, the Millennials (also called Netters, Nexters, Generation Yers and Generation Nexters) grew up during prosperous times. They have high expectations and seek meaning in their work. Millennials have life goals more oriented towards becoming rich (81%) and famous (51%) than do Generation Xers (62% and 29%, respectively), but they also see themselves as socially responsible. Millennials are at ease with diversity and are the first generation to take technology for granted. More than other generations, they tend to be questioning, electronically networked and entrepreneurial. At the same time, some have described Millennials as ‘entitled’ and ‘needy’. They may clash with other generations over work attire and communication. They also like feedback. An Ernst & Young survey found that 85% of Millennials want ‘frequent and candid performance feedback’, compared with only half of Boomers.
What are the differences between person–job fit and person–organisation fit?
The personality–job fit theory identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The key points of this model are that: (1) there do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality between individuals; (2) there are different types of jobs; and (3) people in jobs congruent with their personality should be more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than people in incongruent jobs.
The person–organisation fit essentially argues that people are attracted to
and selected by organisations that match their values, and they leave organisations that are not compatible with their personalities. Using the Big Five terminology, for instance, we could expect that people high on extraversion fit well with aggressive and team-oriented cultures, that people high on agreeableness match up better with a supportive organisational climate than one focused on aggressiveness and that people high on openness to experience fit better in organisations that emphasise innovation rather than standardisation. Following these guidelines at the time of hiring should identify new employees who fit better with the organisation’s culture, which should, in turn, result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Research on person–organisation fit has also looked at whether people’s values match the organisation’s culture. This match predicts job satisfaction, commitment to the organisation and low turnover.
Do values differ across cultures? How do they differ?
Yes. According to Hofstede and the GLOBE Project, there are a number of values that differ across cultures:
Hofstede’s framework for assessing culture includes five value dimensions:-
Power distance
Individualism versus collectivism
Masculinity versus femininity
Uncertainty avoidance
Long-term versus short-term orientation.
When these variables are measured, countries vary considerably, for example, the United States ranks no. 1 in individualism, while Colombia ranks 49th.
Exhibit 4.3
Dominant work values in today’s workforce
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https://hrdailyadvisor.blr.com/2018/02/26/handle-5-generations-workplace/
The economic downturn that hit the nation in 2008 as well as the tendency for people to live longer and healthier lives than ever before have both contributed to a tendency for employees to choose to stay in the workplace longer, delaying their retirement.
By 2024, about 25% of the workforce is projected to be over the age of 55. That compares to only about 12 percent of the workforce in 1994. In fact, in some workplaces, 55 doesn’t even begin to signify time to retire. Those in their 60s, 70s, and even 80s also are deciding to stay in place either full time or part time. This trend has resulted in a new phenomenon: more generations in the workplace.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/soulaimagourani/2019/04/25/leading-multiple-generations-in-todays-workforce/#6be65fa84636
While growth projections remain relatively constant, the number of people of “working age” is expected to fall. The average U.S. employee is getting older, and the labor force will continue to age, with the average annual growth rate of the 55-years-and-older group projected to be 1.8% (more than three times the rate of growth of the overall labor force). These days, 55-year-olds aren’t necessarily starting to think about retirement. We’re seeing a significant increase in the percentage of people in their 60s, 70s and even 80s who are continuing to work, both on a full-time and part-time basis.
As far as unemployment, the rate of people over the age of 50 are lower than ever before. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the unemployment rate for those ages 55 and over is just 3.2%. This tendency has led to the rise of a new phenomenon: multiple generations coexisting in the same workforce. A lot of workforces already consist of five generations, but five won’t cut it for much longer. New generations are continually being added—and each generation comes with at least one sub-generation.
With each new generation comes new demands for society, not to mention new expectations for companies and the workforce. In the past, the generational gap used to be so large that one generation would retire, or be on the brink of retirement before the next even entered the workforce. But developments in technology have reduced the gap to around ten years. If there’s one thing people disagree on, it’s when the different generations begin and end. There’s been a lot of conversation about the conflicts that arise in connection with the rise of new generations, and how companies are missing the point entirely, losing out on the advantages of integrating new generations in the workforce.
Due to each generation having different viewpoints and expectations for their work, learning and knowledge sharing, not to mention the culture in their workplace, it can pose a challenge for managers and HR departments who are tasked with attracting, leading, motivating and retaining new generations. Young people refuse to accept the traditional, organizational framework that defines most of the companies out there. They might still be minorities, both as employees and customers, but that doesn’t stop them from bringing up new, unexpected demands and questions. Their bold, vocal approach presents interesting opportunities for innovation in terms of cross-generation partnerships, so it’s imperative to understand all the generations that are working together in the modern-day workforce.
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Linking an individual’s personality and values to the workplace
Personality–job fit theory
Identifies 6 personality types and proposes the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
Personality-job fit theory revolves around the idea that every organization and individual has specific personality traits.
The closer the traits between the person and the company match, the higher the chance of workplace productivity and satisfaction.
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https://study.com/academy/lesson/personality-job-fit-theory-using-traits-to-predict-workplace-behavior.html
Personality-job fit theory revolves around the idea that every organization and individual has specific personality traits. The closer match between the traits of the person and the company equals a higher chance of workplace productivity and satisfaction.
Personality-Job Fit Theory Definition
Personality-job fit theory revolves around the idea that every organization and individual has specific personality traits. The closer the traits between the person and the company match, the higher the chance of workplace productivity and satisfaction. The best personality fit will also decrease job turnover and stress, absenteeism, and poor job satisfaction. Personality-job fit theory or person-environment (P-E) fit is a match between a worker's abilities, needs, and values and organizational demands, rewards, and values.
Director Adams of Ninja Corporation has an employee problem that she's not sure how to handle. Adams recently hired an experienced accountant who has been extremely productive in his past career. Since the hire, he has had enormous difficulty with being motivated and productive. Adams has asked for a meeting with the human resource manager to discuss how to fix the employee issue.
How Job Fit Issues Develop
The human resource manager, Jill, is well trained in motivational and stress theories of workers. She spent some time interviewing both Adams and the new manager, Nick. Nick explained in his interview that he demands daily feedback on job performance and a structured work environment. Ninja Corp is known for a loose workplace structure, and supervisors only give feedback at performance reviews due to busy product development schedules. This is causing stress on Nick and resulting in his poor work performance.
How Personality-Job Fit is Calculated
Jill understands how to run a personality-job fit calculation. She measures specific worker characteristics, such as worker skills and traits, and then compares them to the work and job environmental specifics. If there is a difference, it's called a discrepancy. This discrepancy can then be calculated as an index to see how vast of a difference exists. The larger the distance, the more stress on the worker.
Exhibit 4.4
Holland’s typology of personality and congruent occupations
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Personality–job fit
The effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics is best articulated in John Holland’s personality–job fit theory. Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a position depend on how well individuals match their personalities to a job. Exhibit 4.4 describes the six types and their personality characteristics, and gives examples of the congruent occupations for each.
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Exhibit 4.5
Relationships among occupational personality types
Source: Reprinted by special permission of the publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., from Making Vocational Choices (3rd edn), Copyright 1973, 1985, 1992, 1997 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Holland developed the Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire, which contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which they like or dislike, and their answers form personality profiles. Research strongly supports the resulting hexagonal diagram shown in Exhibit 4.5.The closer two fields or orientations are in the hexagon, the more compatible they are. Adjacent categories are quite similar, whereas diagonally opposite ones are highly dissimilar.
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Linking an individual’s personality and values to the workplace
Person–organisation fit
People are attracted to and selected by organisations that match their values, and they leave organisations that are not compatible with their personalities.
Other dimensions of fit
Person–group fit; where the dynamics of team interactions affect work outcomes
Person–supervisor fit
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Person–organisation fit essentially means people are attracted to and selected by organisations that match their values, and they leave organisations that are not compatible with their personalities. Using the Big Five terminology, for instance, we could expect that extraverts fit well with aggressive and team-oriented cultures; people high on agreeableness match better with a supportive organisational climate; and highly open people fit better in organisations that emphasise innovation rather than standardisation. Following these guidelines when hiring should yield employees who fit better with the organisation’s culture, which should, in turn, result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Research on person–organisation fit also looked at whether people’s values match the organisation’s culture. A match predicts high job satisfaction, commitment to the organisation and task performance, as well as low turnover. Person–organisation fit - A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organisations that match their values, and that they leave when there is no compatibility.
Other dimensions of fit
Although personality–job fit and person–organisation fit are considered the most salient dimensions for workplace outcomes, other avenues of fit are worth examining. These include person–group fit and person–supervisor fit. Person–group fit is important in team settings, where the dynamics of team interactions significantly affect work outcomes. Person–supervisor fit has become an important area of research because poor fit in this dimension can lead to lower job satisfaction and reduced performance.
All dimensions of fit are sometimes broadly referred to as person–environment fit. Each dimension can predict work attitudes, which are partially based on culture. A recent meta-analysis of person–environment fit in East Asia, Europe and North America suggested the dimensions of person–organisation and personality–job fit are the strongest predictors of positive work attitudes and performance in North America. These dimensions are important to a lesser degree in Europe, and they are least important in East Asia.
Cultural values
Hofstede’s framework for assessing cultures
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https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/hofstedes-cultural-dimensions-theory/
The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries and to discern the ways that business is done across different cultures. In other words, the framework is used to distinguish between different national cultures, the dimensions of culture, and their impact on a business setting.
The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory was created in 1980 by Dutch management researcher Geert Hofstede. The aim of the study was to determine the dimensions in which cultures vary.
Power Distance Index
The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are tolerated. In this dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint of the followers – the lower level.
High power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and power differences, encourages bureaucracy and shows high respect for rank and authority.
Low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages organizational structures that are flat, decentralized decision-making responsibility, participative style of management, and places emphasis on power distribution.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies are integrated into groups and their perceived obligation and dependence on groups.
Individualism indicates that there is greater importance on attaining personal goals. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
Collectivism indicates that there is greater importance on the goals and well-being of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We”.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index
The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity are tolerated. This dimension considers how unknown situations and unexpected events are dealt with.
High uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules, regulations, etc.
Low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are lax rules, regulations, etc.
Masculinity vs. Femininity
The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender,” and considers the preference of society for achievement, attitude towards sexuality equality, behavior, etc.
Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, assertive, and concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.
Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest, nurturing, and concerned with the quality of life.
Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation
The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent to which society views its time horizon.
Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying short-term success or gratification in order to achieve long-term success. Long-term orientation emphasizes persistence, perseverance, and long-term growth.
Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term success or gratification and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future. Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for tradition.
Indulgence vs. Restraint
The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a society to fulfill its desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how societies can control their impulses and desires.
Indulgence indicates that a society allows relatively free gratification related to enjoying life and having fun.
Restraint indicates that a society suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it through social norms.
Cultural values
The GLOBE framework for assessing cultures
An ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national culture
Identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ
Include a humane orientation – the degree to which a society rewards individuals for being altruistic, generals, kind to others
Also include a performance orientation – the degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvements and excellence.
Comparing Hofstede’s framework with the GLOBE framework
Both frameworks show organisational commitment tends to be lower in individualistic countries.
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Begun in 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national culture. Using data from 825 organisations in 62 countries, the GLOBE team identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ.108 Some—such as power distance, individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, gender differentiation (similar to masculinity versus femininity) and future orientation (similar to long-term versus short-term orientation)—resemble the Hofstede dimensions. The main difference is that the GLOBE framework added dimensions such as humane orientation (the degree to which a society rewards individuals for being altruistic, generous and kind to others) and performance orientation (the degree to which a society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence).
https://opentextbc.ca/principlesofmanagementopenstax/chapter/the-globe-framework/
The GLOBE project involves 170 researchers from over 60 countries who collected data on 17,000 managers from 62 countries around the world.
Similar to Hofstede, the GLOBE researchers uncovered nine cultural dimensions. However, basing their work on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, it is not surprising to note that five of these dimensions are similar to those uncovered by Hofstede, namely 1) uncertainty avoidance, 2) power distance, 3) future orientation (degree to which society values the long term) 4) assertiveness orientation (masculinity), 5) gender egalitarianism (femininity), 6) institutional, and 7) societal collectivism (similar to individualism/collectivism). The only two cultural dimensions unique to the GLOBE project are performance orientation (degree to which societies emphasize performance and achievement) and humane orientation (extent to which societies places importance on fairness, altruism, and caring).
Similar to Hofstede, the GLOBE researchers categorized countries into clusters of countries with similar cultural characteristics. This categorization provides a convenient way to summarize cultural information for a larger number of countries and simplifies the task of the international manager attempting to manage effectively in countries within clusters. Because the clusters include societies with similar cultural profiles, similar cultural adaptations can be made. Although the GLOBE study identified ten clusters, we will discuss only the seven clusters most relevant for international managers: the Anglo cluster, the Confucian Asia cluster, the Germanic Europe cluster, the Nordic Europe cluster, the Latin America cluster, the Middle East cluster, and the sub-Saharan cluster.
Summary
Personality sets the stage for organisational behaviour.
There’s no perfect match of traits that’s ideal in every situation.
An understanding of personality can also help one understand strengths in searching for a job.
Values often underlie and explain attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. Values tend to vary internationally along dimensions that can predict organisational outcomes.
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Personality matters to organisational behaviour. It doesn’t explain all behaviour, but it sets the stage. Emerging theory and research reveal how personality matters more in some situations than others. The Big Five has been a particularly important advancement, although the Dark Triad and other traits matter as well. Moreover, every trait has advantages and disadvantages for work behaviour. There’s no perfect constellation of traits that’s ideal in every situation. Personality can help you understand why people (including yourself!) act, think and feel the way you do, and the astute manager can put that understanding to use by taking care to place employees in situations that best fit their personality. An understanding of personality can also help you understand what strengths you may have (and should strive for) when searching for a job.
Values often underlie and explain attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. Values tend to vary internationally along dimensions that can predict organisational outcomes; however, an individual may or may not hold values that are consistent with the values of the national culture.
Implications for managers
Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness—as well as the other Big Five traits, depending on the criteria your organisation finds most important. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant in certain situations.
You need to evaluate your employees’ jobs, their work groups and your organisation to determine the optimal personality fit.
Take into account employees’ situational factors when evaluating their observable personality traits, and lower the situation strength to better ascertain personality characteristics.
Although the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has been widely criticised, it may have a place in organisations. You may consider the results helpful for training and development; the results can also help employees better understand themselves, help team members better understand each other, open up communication in work groups and possibly reduce conflicts.
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Workshop activity: Attitudes and Personality
'Changing the behaviour of people is comparatively easy but changes to underlying personality or attitudes are far more difficult. A change in behaviour does not necessarily mean a change in a person's personality or attitudes.'
Do you believe we should simply concentrate on how to change behaviour and ignore the study of personality and attitudes? Provide an illustration to support your argument.
Your task:
Answer the above questions.
Provide a meaningful response to at least one of your classmate’s posting.
Note that you can only respond after you have first submitted your answer.
To join the discussion, go to LearnJCU, Subject homepage, Workshop Discussions, Workshop 2: Attitudes and Personality
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Discussion board open for one week uptill 24/11 23:59 hrs
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Discussion board open for one week uptill 24/11 23:59 hrs
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