History Essay help

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Rome

When we talked about the Hellenistic World, we talked about the idea of Oikoumene (family/community of men). But, it wasn’t until Rome that this idea had any semblance of reality, that people really would be connected in anything like a single community.

It’s no accident or surprise that it was Rome that took on the daunting task of unifying the known world. From their very beginning, the Romans had the notion that they would rule

the world. If you look at Roman mythology (dutifully recorded by Plutarch and Livy), it begins with the story of Romulus and Remus (c. 771 B.C.-c. 717/753 B.C.). According to the story, Romulus and Remus’s grandfather was overthrown as king by their granduncle and their mother was forced to become a vestal virgin. Nonetheless, she became pregnant with the twins by Mars, the god of war. Their granduncle had them thrown into the Tiber River to drown, but they survived. The river carried

them to safety, a she-wolf suckled them, and eventually they were adopted by a shepherd.

Romulus and Remus suckled by Lupa.

(This piece, the Capitoline Wolf, was once thought to be quite ancient—Lupa dating to Etruscan workers in the 5

th century BC

and the twins dating to the 15 th century AD. Now, many believe

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that the entire piece is a medieval creation. Regardless, you will

find reproductions of this piece in many places in the city of Rome. When I visited Rome with my then 8 year old I had to survive on gelato and pizza from outside restaurants because

Sam was so freaked out by the boys nursing a wolf he wouldn’t eat anywhere that had a replica of this piece!)

After they grew up, the twins decided to found a new city on the Tiber River and so went to the place that would become Rome. But, they didn’t get along all that well. They could not even agree on which hill the city should be built on—Romulus liked

Palatine Hill and Remus liked Aventine Hill. They decided to let the gods decide, but birds flew over both hills (Romulus claimed more; Remus claimed first), so they built two separate cities. That did not work out. As Romulus was building a wall around his city, Remus leapt over it (maybe after making fun of the wall) and Romulus killed him (hit him in the head with a spade) With Remus dead, Romulus was king, and Rome was named for him.

Weirdly, when Sam and I were walking on the Aventine Hill, this

flock of birds flew over us.

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This is a building up on the Palatine Hill. The Aventine Hill is

lovely, but the Palatine Hill, which overlooks the forum and which was the home to Rome’s upper classes and later emperors, is my

favorite. Our word palace actually comes from the emperor’s mansion that came to be built up on the Palatine Hill.

According to the story, Romulus was a decent king. But, he

was a king and the nobles grew weary of being subject to a king and wanted more power for themselves. And, one day, Romulus just disappeared. There was a mysterious windstorm and after making a public sacrifice, Romulus was just gone.

What happened to Romulus? Well, nobody knew, but everyone was suspicious. People blamed the aristocrats and accused them of killing Romulus. It looked like a civil war was going to tear Rome apart. But, lucky for Rome, a man named Julius Proculus stepped forward to explain things. He said: “Romulus, the father of our city, descended from the sky at dawn this morning and appeared to me. In awe and reverence I stood before him, praying that it would be right to look upon his face. ‘Go,’ Romulus said, ‘Go and tell the Romans that by the will of the

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gods my Rome shall be the capital of the world. Let them learn to

be soldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms.’ Having spoken these words, he returned to the sky.” Now, there are two really significant things about this story:

1) Most myths have some truth in them and this one is probably no different. Recent archaeology has uncovered a cave under the Palatine Hill that ancient Romans believed was the place where Lupa nursed the twins. Doesn’t prove

the existence of Romulus, but it does suggest that perhaps there was a real Romulus.

2) More importantly, in this myth we see who the Romans really are or at least who they think they are. The Romans believed this myth and they believed that they were destined to rule the world.

And, that in itself is amazing. In 717 B.C., Rome was nothing. With only a few thousand people—and so few women that Romulus found it necessary to kidnap Sabine women (Rape of

the Sabine Women statue) in order to have wives for his men (And the Romans had to promise the Sabine women rights and respect to get them to stay—what does that say about Roman power?)—Rome was just a speck on the map, a village of thatched roof huts. (It’s not until 150 B.C., more than half a millennium later, that Rome can claim 250,000 residents). Yet, the Romans already believed it was their destiny to rule the world.

And, really, that is the story of Rome—how a tiny dot on the

map rose to control and command not just a city, not just the Italian Peninsula, not just the Mediterranean region, but most of the known world in an empire stretching from Western Europe to North Africa to the Ancient Near East. What began as a tiny settlement of villagers living in thatched roof huts in central Italy

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became the capital of an empire which dominated Europe, North

Africa, and the Ancient Near East (Greece, Mesopotamia, Egypt).

Map showing the growth of the Roman Empire.

And, since then, rulers, soldiers of fortune, men like Napoleon have looked back and asked, “How did they do that?” And that’s what we are going to look at now—how the Romans created their empire and fulfilled their destiny. 1

st , Rome had some geographic advantanges.

 In his “History of Rome,” Livy (59BC-17AD) wrote, “Not

without reason did gods and men choose this spot for the site of our city—the salubrious hills, the river to bring us

produce from the inland regions, and seaborne commerce from abroad, the sea itself, near enough for convenience yet not so near as to bring danger from foreign fleets, our situation in the very heart of Italy—all these advantages make it of all places in the world the best for a city destined to grow great.”

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And, Livy was right.

 Rome sat (and still sits) right on a very important river, the

Tiber River. The Tiber could be used for trade (until the Punic Wars, the Romans’ only trade by water was on the rivers of Italy); it could also be used for irrigation. And irrigation worked because, unlike Greece, Italy and Rome were well-suited for farming. Mediterranean crops, such as olives and grapes could be grown, but wheat also could be grown. (Think about this, when you buy pasta at the grocery store, often it is labeled as a “product of Italy” and

often the main ingredient is semolina, wheat with a Latin name). (If you travel to Italy, ride the trains. Unlike the big tourist buses that cling to the highways, the trains cut into the countryside, giving you a beautiful view of the farms and countryside. You can really see, especially in the North, just how well-suited to farming the peninsula is).

This is a picture of the Tiber River in Rome (2011). In this photo,

my son, Sam, is saying, “Mom, we are back at the river! You promised we were going to eat!” Sam and I had very little money

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when we went to Italy and so had to walk everywhere. My bad

sense of direction kept taking us to the Tiber River!

Another view of the Tiber River—this time at night. In the center you can see some ruins that date back to the time of Nero. The

oldest bridge over the Tiber River (and the oldest bridge in Rome) dates back to 62 b.c. (It is not the bridge pictured here)

 The city of Rome also had some natural barriers—the Alps

in the North, the Appenines in the East, the ocean to the West. And, while these barriers afforded some protection, they were not so insurmountable as to preclude trade. (People could get in and out of Rome and in and out of Italy. In 218, Hannibal got through the Alps with elephants!). In fact, Rome, especially once it expanded to include most of the Italian Peninsula was in a very enviable trade position. Italy divides the Mediterranean in half. So, with the Greeks we talked about middlemen for trade in the Mediterranean; now we have middlemen in the middle of the Mediterranean.

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 I also want to mention harbors. If you ever travel to Italy,

one thing you will notice is that there is a lot of coastline, but a lot of that coastline is very formidable. It is hilly and rocky and it’s very difficult for ships to reach much of the shore—(Costa Concordia). So, Roman Italy (like modern Italy) had harbors, but not a ton of them. Was this a strength or weakness? Strength—hard for invaders to invade by sea; Romans/Italians will trade, but they will also look inward to each other (in contrast to the Greeks who looked to the sea and outsiders to meet their needs).

 Last thing….in part because of weakness of barriers, Romans

early on decided that a good offense was the best defense. So, the Romans built up their military. (When extend empire, justify as defending the borders. We think of the Romans as very imperialistic—which, of course, they were—but they often saw themselves as fighting defensive wars.).

So, geographically speaking, the Rome/Italy was in a good position to become an empire. Economically there were no barriers to slow down trade. And, because there were no

barriers, the Romans early began to think about defending themselves by expanding. 2

nd , the Romans were very FLEXIBLE. Unlike the Greek city-

states that we have been looking at, that were all very independent and set in their ways, the Romans were open to adapting their own culture and adopting aspects from other cultures that would be useful to them. You see this from the very beginning of Roman history. One of the earliest and most important influences on the Romans were their neighbors to the North, the people living in Etruria (modern day Tuscany—Florence, Siena, San Gimignano), the Etruscans.

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Historians don’t know all that much about the Etruscans. There is some debate about where the Etruscans originated— whether they were from the Italian Peninsula or from somewhere else, like the ancient Near East. Herodotus said the Etruscans were from Lydia (Turkish Coast) and left there during a famine. Until recently that was a very unpopular theory, but in the last couple of years DNA evidence (taken from bones of livestock) indicates that the Etruscans were Near Eastern immigrants. (If you are interested in the Etruscans, you might take a look at this

article: http://www.pri.org/stories/2016-04-15/where-did- etruscan-people-come-we-still-dont-know-linguistic-and-genetic- clues Also, there is an Etruscan museum, the Villa Giulia in Rome that houses many Etruscan art works and funerary objects).

We would probably know more if we could read their written documents, but so far it has not been deciphered fully. So, we have to rely on Roman records of the Etruscans.

But, we do know this—the Etruscans influenced the Romans

in significant ways:

 Romans borrowed Etruscan practices with regard to the

remains of the dead—the dead were cremated and the ashes held in urns.

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 The Etruscans from all accounts were a very cultured,

sophisticated people and they boasted fine artwork, jewelry, and sculpture. The Romans copied and imitated Etruscan art and dress.

 Romans followed the Etruscan trade routes, which led to Greece and elsewhere (Etruscans sold metal to the East— iron, copper, silver—and brought back eastern goods like pottery—Athenian pottery made especially for the Etruscan market). Significant because what do you get from trade? (ideas as well as goods).

 The Romans borrowed the Etruscan alphabet, which the

Etruscans had borrowed from the Greeks who had borrowed it from the Phoenicians. (This is not the undeciphered language—the Etruscan language that is undeciphered was used for things like religious writing whereas the PA was adopted for trade).

 The Romans borrowed knowledge of trade and engineering from the Etruscans. Known as the best engineers of the ancient world, the Romans had a head start because they borrowed so much from the very advanced Etruscans.

 The Romans adapted the patron-client relationship to their

own society. (In Etruscan society and then in Roman society wealthy, powerful men would help poorer, less powerful men in exchange for something. In Rome, that something might be a man’s vote. A man might receive land or a loan in exchange for his vote. Patrons protected their clients and in return clients showed loyalty in political and other matters to their patrons.)

 The Romans also borrowed Etruscan religious practices. Livy said the Etruscans were more religious than any other people. They used ritual to seek divine help for daily needs. And, many of these rituals were at sacred areas set apart from the cities on higher ground—Romans called these templum from which our word temple derives. Etruscan temples had 3 parts—a highly decorated façade, an entrance at the front, and a podium under the temple. If you look at Roman temples, they often follow this model (Pantheon, Temples to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno on

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Capitoline Hill)—and the Romans also employed a lot of

ritual! Also, the Romans borrowed the Etruscan system for divining the gods’ will (use entrails; look at nature i.e. a flock of birds, flash of lightening, bright star, unusual event—tie to Romulus). (If you think about the literature you have read from the Roman Empire, the New Testament, you see some of this Romanness there—how do the shepherds know about the birth of Jesus?)(Etruscans worshiped Olympian gods—2/3 of Olympian gods had an Etruscan equivalent and Romans borrowed many of these. Some, though, borrowed directly from Greece such as

Asclepius/healing and Apollo. You can tell by whether the name of the god changes from the Greek name—i.e. Zeus to Jupiter—that would be through the Etruscans).

This is the false front where you enter the Pantheon (the temple

to all gods built in Rome in 126 AD. This is not the original Pantheon, but a reconstruction built during the reign of Hadrian).

The Pantheon is still the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome (displaying Roman engineering skill). In form and

structure, this building is very like Etruscan temples which sat raised on a templum (thus temple), had a very ornate front

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façade and a single entryway. See the photo below of the back of

the Pantheon to see just how ornate this front portion was!

Sam at the back of the Pantheon. We did not initially realize that

this was the Pantheon!

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This photo shows the ruins of an Etruscan temple at Orvieto. You can see the steps leading up to the templum and to the entrance at the front. Though much smaller than the Pantheon, this temple

has much the same structure.

 The Romans adapted Etruscan ideas of women—In Etruscan society, women had many liberties and were treated with affection and tenderness. The Etruscans portrayed them in carriages, at spectators at games (chariot racing—imported from Greece and passed to Romans), with their husbands. Unlike Greek women, Etruscan women could be in public, join men at social gatherings, and exercise a certain amount of control over their lives. And, to a certain extent the Romans accepted these ideas. However, they adapted Etruscan gender norms rather than adopting them. The Etruscans went too far for the Romans. Theopompos of Chios (Greek—because of name—Roman names are clan plus personal name) said, “Sharing wives is an established Etruscan custom…Etruscan women take

particular care of their bodies and exercise often. It is not a disgrace for them to be seen naked.” He further says, Etruscan women “dine with whatever men they choose to dine with and make pacts over wine (have sex with) men other than their husbands.” According to these accounts, the husbands raised the children without knowing the

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parentage. But, we’ll see that Roman women have a greater

degree of autonomy and respect than could be found in the Greek world—and that is largely due to this Etruscan influence.

 Probably borrowed and adapted the Triumph and Gladiatorial contests.

 Initially borrowed Etruscan form of government (absolute monarchy). (1

st ruled by Etruscan kings).

In addition to being influenced by the Etruscans, the Romans were greatly influenced by the Greeks. Through Greek slaves

and conquests of Greek lands, the Romans learned a lot about Greek culture and civilization and they borrowed much of it in their own culture. From the Greeks came Roman notions of education, philosophy, warfare (the Romans borrowed the hoplite phalanx and actually used it to defeat the Greeks!), and many other things. The Romans especially idolized the works of Homer and the idea of the Homeric heroes. Homer was as much the educator of Rome as of Greece! But, even though the Romans were flexible enough to

borrow things from other peoples, they were distinctly Roman. They didn’t adopt things totally. They took what was useful to them and left the rest! 3

rd —While the Romans borrowed Greek philosophy, they were

much less philosophical and a lot more PRACTICAL. The Romans took what they liked and made it their own. They didn’t just borrow from the peoples whom they conquered or with whom they came into contact.

For example, with regard to the Greeks, the Romans took the information, the knowledge, and left the high minded stuff behind. Greeks worried about the ideal role of man in the world or about ideal forms. The Romans thought about how to build more permanent roads and aqueducts, or how to effectively enforce the law.

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And, adoring the Homeric ideal, the Romans altered the hoplite

phalanx so that there was more space between soldiers and soldiers fought behind a rectangular shield that protected the individual, not behind a wall of shields. The Romans will march into battle with two pilum (javelins), but they will fight with swords (gladius) that allow them to get up close and personal to the killing. They don’t use 7-9 foot spears. And, as we have seen, they borrow some ideas about women from the Etruscans, but not everything. In fact, Rome will be better for women generally than Greece, but it will still be a very

patriarchal society. In republican Rome, men will have the power of life and death over their families, even over grown children. A woman will bring her newborn to her husband and if he picks it up, he will raise it; if not, the baby will be disposed of. So, the Romans were: FLEXIBLE AND PRACTICAL Now, along these lines, I’ve said that the Romans modeled their

first government after that of the Etruscans, that it was a monarchy. Rome created its first government sometime around 753 BC. But over time, the monarchy failed to meet the needs of the Romans. Kings and aristocrats couldn’t get along, there was constant bickering (which is why in the Myth I told you about the founding of Rome, when Romulus disappears, people blame the aristocratic advisors claiming that they murdered Romulus). So, in 509 BC, the Romans overthrew their king and set up a Republic. But, as I’ve said, the Romans were practical. They knew that in a country where citizens don’t respect the LAW, the only rule is chaos. So, they had to make a legal justification for overthrowing the king. And they did this.

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The king’s son was sort of a brute (Sextus Tarquinius). He had

raped at knifepoint a virtuous married woman named Lucretia. And Lucretia was a Roman citizen, entitled to the protections of Rome. But, because she felt that her honor had been tainted, Lucretia killed herself. The Romans used this to justify overthrowing the monarchy because crimes like these sprang from the rule of one man who thought himself and his family above the law. So, they weren’t rebels, they were “liberators,” liberating Rome and Roman law from tyrants.

The rape of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius.

And we see here a very different, and more familiar definition of tyrant/tyranny. The Romans viewed tyrants as people who ruled

in their own self-interest, and they perceived that when you gave 1 person too much power, they couldn’t help but rule this way. So, from this time on, from the overthrow of the Roman Monarchy until the fall of the empire a millennium later, the Romans would never trust monarchy again.

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Instead, they set up a Republic.

And you guys know what a Republic is, right? *What is a Republic? A Republic is basically a government where citizens vote on their leaders. The United States is a Democratic Republic, where all citizens vote on their representatives. Well, the Roman Republic is a little different from ours. In the

Roman Republic as it was initially set up, only free adult male citizens could vote/hold office. But, citizenship was not as limited for the Romans as it had been for the Athenians and other Greeks. When the Romans started conquering other places, they gave a lot of those people that they took over citizen status, especially when they took over the Italian Peninsula. Well, back to the Republic, it had 2 branches: The Executive Branch consisted of elected magistrates who

served 1 year terms (except for dictators). The most important magistrates were the 2 consuls (sort of like president/generals) (consuls had imperium which meant they could command an army, interpret the law, and pass sentences of death)(They could also make law by issuing a decree), 2-8 praetors (these were also like vice president/generals and had imperium), and 1 dictator (dictators were named by the two consuls and confirmed by the Senate in times of crisis and served only the lesser of 6 months or the duration of the crisis) (Until Sulla, this system worked—for example in 458 BC Cincinnatus was called from his farm to be dictator—he resolved the crisis and went back to his farm), and 2-10 tribunes (plebians who could make law by holding a plebiscite—sort of like a referendum today where you ask the public a question and the answer becomes law). You see checks and balances right here in the executive branch. The two consuls can make law but can also veto laws, including

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the laws made by the other consul. Tribunes can make law and

can also veto other laws. The Legislative Branch consisted of the Senate (originally advisors to the king, the Curia or Senate controlled public funds, made political appointments—like military commanders and provincial governors, conducted foreign affairs, acted as a supreme court, and gave permission for a dictator. The Curia was made up of magistrates and former magistrates and 300-600 other patricians/high nobles. The Curia members served for life) (The Curia had no law-making ability itself but, made up of the

most important men in Rome, could not be ignored wisely), the Assembly of Centuries (made up of men who could afford arms; these were grouped into centuries of about 96 men. The A. of Centuries elected consuls and praetors, could declare war/peace, and served as a court of appeals in capital cases. The A. of Centuries met on the Campus Martius outside the sanctum of Rome because soldiers were not allowed inside the city—might lead to a coup), and later the Assembly of Tribes (made up of Plebians, this assembly could legislate through plebiscites and elect tribunes).

*SEE DIAGRAM “Roman Republic” (in Bb) Some things to note about the Roman Republic:

 Checks and balances: Magistrates can cancel each other out, election of magistrates/executives split between the three assemblies. (look at the diagram—let’s say Rome wants to go to war. What has to happen? The Assembly of Centuries declares war, but the money to pay for it has to come from the Senate. The Senate also chooses a consul to lead the army and is in charge of foreign relations. So, to end the war, the Senate negotiates—or, because it’s Rome, lets the consul negotiate through battle—but peace has to be declared by the Assembly of Centuries).

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 Something else to mention, none of these government

officials, none of these people in the assemblies, none of the magistrates, got paid a salary. In fact, most of them were expected to spend their own money, not only to get elected, but on Roman projects once they were elected. And it was quite expensive to rise to power in Rome. Candidates who were vying for public office often spent a fortune. There are accounts of candidates putting on gladiatorial shows with tigers and lions to entertain the people and win votes. Some even produced mock naval battles! And once they were elected, they were expected to pay for Roman roads,

buildings, and public works projects. Without paying for these, you certainly wouldn’t be elected again. Getting elected depended on family (Romans emphasize family—at funerals, people dress up as important dead ancestors to remind the public how significant their family was. They also use a family name to identify themselves—not a place like the Greeks), money, and military reputation. Our word “candidate” actually comes from the Roman word “candidus” or “toga candida.” The toga candida was a toga that had been whitened to show that someone was running for office.

How was it whitened? Well, beating chalk into the toga made it white, but so did “bleaching” it. The Romans used urine to clean clothes—the uric acid and ammonia whitened things quite nicely. When I was in Pompeii we saw a tube running from the street to a cleaners—men could pee there and the cleaners would get a fresh supply of whitener).

 All votes were held in the city of Rome itself.

 Some conquered people could vote, but many were

expected to furnish troops and taxes to the Romans without being allowed to vote. They were only “Allies” which meant that on a local level they had some self- government, but in Rome they had no vote. (Actually, when Rome takes over the Italian Peninsula, especially the North, lots of people get Roman citizenship on an equal basis as native born. This is a

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real strength for Rome as it will give the state access to lots

and lots of soldiers). Well, Roman government sounds pretty good, but there were some problems. Early Rome and the early Roman Republic really had only 2 groups of people—and these groups of people are sometimes called “orders.” There were:

1) Patricians—aristocrats who advertised their status by the

way they dressed. Senators wore purple stripes, other patricians wore red shoes or had attendants that followed them around announcing their status. You had to be born a patrician. You couldn’t become a patrician. And early on, it was the patricians who really ran things.

2) Plebeians—everyone else. They couldn’t hold office or marry patricians. They were discriminated against because the LAW was not written down and all of the judges were

patricians. (Like Greece!) Well, eventually, the Plebians simply tired of having no say in government and of being subject to laws that never seemed to favor them or apply equally to everyone regardless of status. And, just like the Greeks who had faced similar circumstances, they were determined that they would not put up with it. So there was a “Struggle of the Orders,” a struggle between patricians and plebeians for control. Eventually the plebeians hit the patricians where it hurt. Rome was at war and called on them to come and fight as soldiers and they refused. They left Rome at one point and wouldn’t come defend the patricians. They went on strike. And they did win some concessions because the patricians needed them.

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450 BC 12 Tables put in Forum (agora). Also, banned debt

slavery, and plebeians could become consuls. By 300 no distinction between Patricians and Plebeians. (This probably was in part because patricians had to be farmers; they were barred from trade. So, by the 300s a lot of “good” families were quite poor while a lot of plebians had become quite rich. So, it makes sense for good name to marry and mix with good money). But, it’s important to note that the Struggle of the Orders was a

political revolution (it gave plebians political rights), not a social revolution. As late as the end of the Republic, you have different social classes. You can see this in politics where men like Julius Caesar appeal to the masses for power (populares) while others like Lucius Sulla want a government run by the “best men” (optimates). From Latin State to Empire: So far, we have looked at the history of the Roman Republic and

at the government of the Republic. Now, I want to shift gears and talk about how the Republic became an empire. But, to do that, we have to talk just a little bit more about the nature of the Republic itself and we have to think back to Romulus. In the story, Romulus told the Romans (through Julius Proculus) that they were to make their city the capital of the world and to make their sons soldiers. And, this is exactly what the Romans did in the centuries after Romulus’s death. (1

st coin

had Mars on it)

All male Roman citizens had to serve in the military for a minimum of 10 years (Augustus will raise this to 20-25 years) or give up at least some rights of citizenship (i.e. the right to hold political office). (Just a quick note—in order to serve in the Roman military proper one had to own land, to be a farmer. So, we are not talking about a standing army. Instead, the Roman

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military, sort of like the armies of the Greek city-states, is more

like a citizen militia. Men were called up/drafted for a particular purpose, went to fight, and then came home and disbanded to go back to their farms. Why do you think all soldiers had to own land? It is a tie to Rome—another check on power—if they revolt and lose, they will lose their land, their family’s livelihood. Land, unlike gold, isn’t portable.)

The Roman military—in which EVERY male citizen, every husband, father, son served—was a harsh institution. In theory, soldiers were not supposed to marry until they

completed their mandatory service (became lax at times) and the discipline was strict and unforgiving. For example, a unit guilty (or accused) of cowardice was subject to decimation (1/10 bludgeoned to death by the other soldiers).

The type of fighting was also brutal. The Romans really loved Homer and so what you tend to see in their military is emphasis on hand to hand combat and a virtual absence of the bow. The Roman phalanx (called a legion) was staffed by swordsmen who carried about 80 pounds of equipment and who were

spaced further apart than their Greek counterparts so that they could employ swords rather than spears. Killing was up close and personal. Maybe because of that, the Romans were pretty terrible. Polybius wrote of one Roman victory that “even the dogs were cut up.” (It’s a lot of weight, but the Romans are a little bigger than the Greeks—average size about 5’5” and 130 pounds).

But, there were rewards for this service. You might get a small stipend from the state, you might get booty from the

places you helped conquer, but more importantly, this was how a man forged a reputation for himself. No greater honor in Roman civilization existed above earning a spoila optima or a triumph (commanding general given permission by Senate to enter the city with his army, war captives, war booty, miniatures

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of the places he conquered and to walk through the crowds of

Rome to make an offering to Jupiter on Capitoline Hill).

Arch of Titus (notice the giant menorah from the Great Temple in

Jerusalem)

The triumph was a strange ceremony—on the one hand, it gave a man popularity and esteem and could translate into power (political). But, also a reminder of his mortality—man honored dressed up like Jupiter (painted terra cotta and wearing a laurel wreath, but behind him in the chariot was a slave who whispered into his ear “you are not a god, you are not a god, you are not a god,” and the soldiers said terrible things about him (Caesar—

that he slept with foreign king). Also strange in that some captives were strangled to death at the end, but others actually eventually became free and even became Roman citizens! (only higher honor is spoila optima—killed enemy leader in single combat and stripped his armor).

And who are the generals? Who are the commanders of Rome’s army? Consuls, the highest magistrates.

So, think of this for a moment…Rome’s highest politicians are career soldiers. That means that Rome’s political system is not only not separate from the military, but the government itself is militarized. And, every single male citizen is also militarized. No preindustrial society ever mobilized such a high percentage of its population in war over such a long period of time as Rome. 9-16% in normal times, 25% in times of crisis. Sometimes Americans wonder how the Romans could…kill people

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in the amphitheaters or live with such abject poverty in their

midst or whatever…but one explanation for this is the desensitization of one half of the population of Rome. Every male citizen was a veteran, every son could expect to become a veteran and had to prepare for service.

Given, all of this it should be no surprise that the most distinctive feature of the Roman Republic was its CONSTANT EXPANSION. (Everyone has a vested interest in this—men use the army to gain a reputation; the state uses conquest to fuel its building and social programs.)

In 509 B.C., Rome only controlled 800 square km and had only a population of 20-25,000 people. By the mid-300s B.C. it had nearly 15,000 km under its control and by 265 B.C. Rome could claim to control all of Italy south of the Rubicon River (about 20% directly; the rest through alliances).

As Rome grew, it became a potential threat to other imperial- minded places such as Carthage in North Africa.

Rome and Carthage in 264 BC

At the same time Rome was expanding in Italy, Carthage was boasting that the Mediterranean was a “Carthaginian lake.”

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Needless to say, Carthage and Rome were keeping very watchful

eyes on one another. Also, they did not like each other very much. They were very, very different. Carthage valued money and trade above all else. They had little by way of literature or art. And, they had a religion (worship of Ba’al) where they sacrificed infants. Romans, by way of contrast, loved Rome above all else. (During the Punic Wars, some Romans gave their personal fortunes to the state to allow it to keep fighting).

Eventually, fear and mistrust drove Rome and Carthage to war.

From 264-146 B.C., Rome and Carthage fought a series of wars called the Punic Wars (So named because Punicus was the Roman word for Phoenician).

Each side had advantages:  Rome—Better Army (citizens v. Carthage’s mercenaries),

able commanders, easily defensible empire (compact— basically Italy). But, no Navy.

 Carthage—Excellent navy (citizens served in navy), a ton of money from trade, wealth from empire (ruled over 3-4

million subjects and could use them as well as their resources, such as Spanish silver mines). And, they didn’t really need to win—Carthage’s main concern is to preserve their commercial empire.

At the outset of the Punic Wars, most people would have placed their money on Carthage—trade pays more than farming and money can buy a lot of soldiers. So, did Carthage win?

1

st Punic War (264-241 B.C.):

Rome was fearful of the Carthaginian presence in Sicily, so close to its own empire, and so the Romans began to siege Carthaginian cities on Sicily (with the help of some mercenaries). The Carthaginians determined to break the siege with their large and powerful Navy, inducing the Romans to create something

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they had never had before, a navy (prior to the 1 st PW, Rome

only had ships for rivers, none for the open sea). This was not good for anyone. The Romans were really a land force and so tried to turn the sea war into a land war—developed the corvus or “crow” (an attachment to the front of the ship)—ideally to ram Carthage’s ships so could put down a plank and walk infantrymen over. Good when it worked, but made the ships very unstable. In 245 B.C., Roman ships, all armed with corvuses, hit a storm and choppy water and 270 vessels and 100,000 men went down. (greatest loss of any maritime fleet in history). For their part, Carthage hired Spartan mercenaries to train their infantry,

forcing Rome to a stalemate on land, until 242 when the Romans were able to defeat a Carthaginian fleet laden with supplies bound for Sicily. For Carthage, the war was just too costly (they really just want to trade) so they sued for peace. Carthage gave Sicily to Rome and agreed to pay an indemnity to cover Roman costs from the war. They could easily afford to lose both (as well as Sardinia and Corsica which Rome also took). Rome took the money and Carthagenian Sicily as was their due, but also seized Corsica and Sardinia. All of these acquisitions

gave Rome something it had never had before—a province, something possessed and ruled by Rome but not something Roman. Rome would have to figure out how to rule this new territory. 2

nd Punic War (218-202 B.C.):

Carthage may have given in after their first encounter with Rome, but they also learned from it. They realized that Rome was a force to be reckoned with and they determined not to be on the losing end the next time Rome decided to expand at their expense. And, so, Carthage began shoring up its empire in Spain and also started putting together a very formidable army there under Hannibal Barca.

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Hannibal (Just kidding—it is Hannibal but not Hannibal Barca)

Here is Hannibal Barca

Hannibal Barca was a very unusual Carthaginian. Most Carthaginians disdained military service (except in the navy) and

thought it was best left to mercenaries, but Hannibal was raised in the army. His father, Hamilcar Barca, commanded the troops in Spain and from the age of 9 Hannibal and his brothers were in the thick of things there. So, now commander himself, Hannibal set about creating a huge and terrifying army that could deal effectively with Rome (about 100,000 men).

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None of this was lost on Rome. They were worried. And so to keep an eye on what was happening in Spain, Rome struck up an alliance with a Spanish city called Saguntum. (eyes and ears for Rome).

Hannibal did not approve and so when Saguntum tried to play politics with him in 219 B.C., he attacked and took it for Carthage. What could Rome do? They looked at Hannibal’s army and did not really want to fight it. So, they tried to settle the problem with diplomacy. Roman envoys went to Carthage and demanded Hannibal’s dismissal. Carthage refused. And worse, Hannibal was mad. So, Hannibal just marched a good portion of that terrifying army (and about 37-38 elephants) out of Spain, across Europe, over the Pyrenees and Alps, and into northern Italy. (Probably without permission) The Alps (and the Gauls in them) took a toll on Hannibal’s forces. Only an elephant or two made it through (the one Hannibal rode,

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called Surus or the Syrian) and about half to 2/3 of the men.

Polybius says Hannibal entered northern Italy with only 20,000 foot soldiers and 4000 horsemen (maybe a little low, but makes sense given that a larger number can’t be fed or survive from foraging). (Rome—maybe could call up 770,000 men but the quality was nowhere near that of Hannibal’s veterans)

Hannibal smashed the Roman armies he encountered and managed to conquer most of northern Italy, but things did not go the way he anticipated. He could defeat the northern Italians,

but he couldn’t hold them. They remained loyal to Rome— remember Rome’s policy when it expanded on the peninsula—it made people citizens or allies. So, many of these northern Italians thought of themselves as Roman and would not turn on Rome. Also, it was Roman legions that defended them from those ferocious Gauls in the Alps. If they turned on Rome and helped Hannibal defeat her, those legions would be gone and when Hannibal went home they would be alone fighting those Gauls.

Rome had to figure out how to deal with Hannibal. Hannibal was roaming around freely (all over the peninsula), destroying their armies when he encountered them. So, they chose a dictator to try and salvage the situation, Quintus Fabius Maximus or Fabius. Fabius did not think that Rome could defeat Hannibal in open battle (his troops just too good), so he determined to avoid open warfare at any cost. He had Roman troops shadow Hannibal, harassing his army in little skirmishes and then disappearing into the landscape (guerilla warfare). Also, Fabian

ordered farmers to burn their crops and destroy any supplies Hannibal might be able to use. Fabius planned to starve Hannibal out and weaken his forces.

Undoubtedly Fabius’s tactics would have eventually succeeded, but the Romans hated him. They started calling him names like

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verrucosus (for the wart over his lip—“wart face”), ovicula

(“lambykins”), “Hannibal’s Pedagogus” (after slave who followed Roman school boys and carried their books) and the one that has stuck, “the Delayer.” And Hannibal played on this. He went to the area where Fabius’ own villa was and burnt every villa but Fabius’s. To avoid looking like Hannibal’s ally, Fabius sold the villa and gave the money to Rome. The Romans were so frustrated with Fabian tactics, they actually elected another co-dictator. And, when the 6 months ended, the Romans handed power back to the consuls (Varro and Paullus) who were eager to fight (power comes from military glory).

This was a terrible mistake. Rome suffered 3 horrible defeats, the worst of which was Cannae.

Battle of Cannae (8/2/216 B.C.): The Romans were confident that they could defeat Hannibal at Cannae. The consuls had 80,000 troops and 6000 cavalry (Hannibal’s troops fewer now after 3 years)—1/3 of the Senate actually joined the force. This battle was deemed so significant and crucial that the Senate required an oath of all those in the

army that they would win or die (oath had the force of law— means is illegal to not die or win). But, it did not work out for Rome that day—yes day, a single day of battle. In the biggest defeat ever suffered by Rome to that time, Hannibal decimated the Cannae force. Hannibal lost 5500-8000 men, but Rome lost all but 3-10,000 men. Hannibal captured about 13,000 (Rome refused to redeem and these were sold off into slavery in the East) and about 3000 (highest estimate is 10,000) survived. Every other Roman

perished. (Numbers—of 86,000, only 16-20,000 survived; that is 66,000 dead at least).

Why? Tactical Problems—

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 Phalanx—Romans used one large group. Hannibal used

smaller, more flexible groups and was able to pull his center back, draw the Romans in and surround them. Hannibal used the double envelopment (as the Athenians did at Marathon). The heat in southern Italy that August had produced very dry, dusty conditions and in part the Romans simply couldn’t see Hannibal’s cavalry coming around to encircle them. (Romans after this battle reorganized the legions, breaking the phalanx up into smaller, more maneuverable formations—borrow even from their enemy!)

 Consular Rotation—Roman command alternated between

the two consuls every other day—no consistency of command and Hannibal could use weaknesses of the system to his advantage. Paullus was more reserved—on his day, Hannibal cut off the Romans’ water supply. Then the next day, when Varro was in charge, he made his move (knowing Varro would take the bait). So, the Romans fought while thirsty and perhaps hungry as well as some accounts indicate that the engagement began before breakfast. (After this, Romans went to a unified command).

Actually, much of the death took place after the battle. The middle could not see what was happening on the fronts—they were trapped there and were confused and all of the leaders/commanders were dead so no way to initiate surrender. So, they didn’t actually fight to the end. The Romans just gave up; some of them just laid down waiting to be killed. It would not have mattered, though. Hannibal could not have taken all these Romans prisoner—they outnumbered his troops! The result was basically systematic butchery. Each Roman had to be punctured, slashed, or battered to death individually. Estimate

is 100 men a minute were put to death. (except for the Senators—Hannibal forced the surviving senators to fight to the death as gladiators for the amusement of his troops)

And, so Rome was happy to see the 3000-10,000 survivors, right? No, they were exiled to Sicily where they stayed for 10

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years (when Scipio Africanus asked to use them). No permanent

home, no provisions, nothing but shame.

The effect in Rome was immediate. Sheer panic. All of a sudden nobody’s husband, son, father was coming home. One third of the Senate was gone. And, the Roman’s needed to know why. Their answer? Rome had displeased the gods and had to be placated. The Romans found that 2 vestal virgins were not— 1 killed herself and the other was buried alive. Human sacrifices were made to appease the gods. The oracle at Delphi was consulted. And, to build the army back, the state began to draft

17 year olds and free slaves. NO RANSOMS. Rome also returned to Fabian tactics while Hannibal wandered around the peninsula.

Such was the situation in Italy for a decade. (In part because Hannibal did not immediately go after the capital—he did not follow up his victory. Maharbal, cavalry commander, “No man has been blessed with all god’s gifts. You know, Hannibal, how to gain a victory, you do not know how to use it.”)

Then came Scipio Africanus. Scipio, really too young for a military command, had an idea. If Rome couldn’t defeat Hannibal in Italy, Rome could defeat Carthage without Hannibal. He proposed to the Senate a venture in which he would lead troops to Spain to conquer Carthage’s army there, thus forcing Carthage to recall Hannibal and free Italy from his tyranny. After a lot of politics, that is exactly what happened. In 206, Scipio took his army to Spain and began chipping away at Carthage’s empire there, cutting off any supplies that Hannibal might have received.

Then, Scipio headed for Carthage itself, forcing the city to sue for peace in 204 after Scipio defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 (Hannibal used elephants in this last ditch effort to defeat Rome, but Scipio had trained the troops to side-step when the elephants came with the result that the elephants just ran

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through the Roman lines and then turned around and came back

at Hannibal’s men!).

Carthage lost badly. Not only did they have to pay a huge indemnity (10,000 talents over 50 years), but they lost their Spanish empire to Rome.

Some things to note from the 2

nd Punic War:

1) First, the Romans’ amazing confidence. Despite some hysteria right after Cannae, the Romans always believed that

eventually they would win the war. And where other powers might have settled for peace, the Romans pushed for victory. At one point, Carthage captured Regulus, a Roman commander, then released him to go to Rome and negotiate a peace. Before the Senate, Regulus argued against peace and the Senate backed him. He returned to Carthage as promised to deliver Rome’s refusal and was tortured to death—in a barrel. In another instance, Hannibal’s troops were literally at the walls of Rome, yet at an auction inside the city the piece of land on which Hannibal’s men stood sold for full price. Roman Confidence.

2) Secondly, Rome again demonstrated its flexibility. Roman commanders learned from Hannibal and reorganized the military. Scipio, for example, profited from smaller phalanxes. 3) Third, Rome’s ability to hold a grudge. After Hannibal left Italy, Rome mercilessly punished cities like Capua that had supported him (in some instances removed the entire population and seized the land for the state). As far as Hannibal, he survived the war and ultimately went on to serve the Seleucid court as a mercenary (against Rome), but ultimately they kept hunting him until he drank poison rather than be captured! In

the east, Rome punished states that had supported Carthage, such as Macedonia, which was divided and broken up to prevent it from causing trouble in the future. 4) Fourth, Roman fears of border safety grew in this period. From this point on you will see the Romans expanding and expanding and justifying their expansion by saying they are

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fighting defensively to secure the safety of Rome. In the North

they will target the Celts (unpredictable—many joined Hannibal). In some cases, the Romans added provinces they did not want. For example, they ultimately absorbed or “liberated” Greece because the Seleucids and others kept trying to take pieces of it. And, Rome became sort of the world policeman—before expanding yourself you needed to consult with Rome—or else!! Seleucid king Antiochus IV found this out when he invaded Egypt without permission. When he landed in 168, he was met by Gaius Popillus Laenas who drew a circle around Antiochus and forbade him to leave it until he agreed to make peace and

withdraw.

3

rd Punic War (149-146 B.C.):

Unfortunately for Carthage, the end of its empire did not spell the end of its prosperity. It still had trade routes stretching to the Red and Black Seas and enough wealth that the population actually grew in the years after the 2

nd Punic War to about 200-

300,000 people. In fact, Carthage was so prosperous that it paid its indemnity to Rome well before the 50 year deadline and when Rome had a famine, Carthage sent grain and offered it

to Rome for free.

Militarily Carthage was no threat to Rome. Fifty years of Roman enforced peace meant that Carthage had no experienced soldiers. But, Rome still was not satisfied. Remember, the Romans had a long memory and could hold a grudge. And, they were not at all pleased that Carthage had offered them a handout—pride!! And, there were always Romans like Cato stirring the pot. At the end

of every speech, Cato would say, “I also think Carthage should be destroyed.”

So, finally, the Roman Senate made demands on Carthage. First they demanded that Carthage hand over about 2000 sons of Carthagenian nobles. Carthage handed them over and they were

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put to death. Still not satisfied, the Romans demanded that

Carthaginians abandon their city and move inland into North Africa about 50 miles. Carthage, dependent on sea trade, refused. The Romans declared war and (Scipio Africanus’s grandson, Scipio Aemelianus) sieged the city for 3 years. When they got in, they razed Carthage to the ground and destroyed its magnificent harbor. But it was not easy. Carthage had turned nearly every building into a fortress and every citizen was armed. The Romans had to go house to house, slaughtering as they went. Only about 50,000 Carthaginians survived and those were sold into slavery. Some 19

th century

accounts say the Romans sowed salt in the fields—ancient sources do not back that up nor do archaeological digs. Scipio did curse the land, but it didn’t work. Augustus later built a port city for Rome there.

And thus Rome acquired its African province.

Gradually, these three wars turned Rome from a small state into a huge empire, stretching all around the Mediterranean. And that big change was going to come with

some very big problems. In fact, while some scholars have argued that the Punic Wars sowed the seeds of Rome’s greatness, others have claimed that the Punic Wars sowed the seeds of Rome’s demise.

What is clear, though, is that life within Rome was changed forever. Before we talk about the empire, though, I want to talk a little more about what life was like in Republican Rome.

I’ve mentioned the focus on expansion, we’ve seen that warfare is a part of life. But what about daily life for these Republican Romans?

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Well, men, of course, do what men in so many of these early

civilizations do. Men served in the military during their youth and then pursued an occupation, or, if they were wealthy enough, engaged in politics. Just like in ancient Athens where men would gather at the agora to discuss politics or current events, men in Rome would gather at the Forum to talk about things. Or, they would go to work. Many Romans were farmers, though, and so were busy in the fields during the day. Roman women had it very different than their Greek counterparts. I mentioned that Romans got their ideas about

women from the Etruscans, and as a result, women had quite a bit of personal freedom in Republican Rome. They could own property (it was even common for a couple to have a prenuptial agreement!) and by the late Republic, many women even owned and ran their own businesses (like brick-making companies—the largest business in Rome was owned by a woman). Women attended public functions, like dinner parties, and they usually could read and write. Prostitution was legal but frowned upon (a man could hire a prostitute for about the price of a glass of wine—and while there were brothels, one could as easily find

prostitutes at the amphitheaters or the baths. People had sex under the arches—the fornicum—that is where the English word “fornication” comes from). Women COULD NOT VOTE. Only free, citizen men could vote. In part, women of the Republic had so many freedoms because they had so many responsibilities. The most important of these was the role of Republican Motherhood. Until a boy was about age 7, they were educated at home by their mother. They had to be educated enough themselves to instill in their children good citizenship and basic skills as well as a moral outlook. Fathers also somewhat involved with sons, but main care through mother. Women of the Republic were also expected to nurse their children.

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Still, though women had many rights, they lived in a

PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY. (Male-dominated) A father had control over his kids no matter how old they got—even had power of life and death over children/wife. (Usually only use over infants— would consult friends otherwise). When a father died, male/female children pretty independent. And death of a father was fairly common. By the time Roman women married (late teens), half had lost their dads. By the time a man married (late 20s), only 1 in 5 had a living father.

As for children, even poor children would learn to read, write, do simple math. Education might end there and they might be totally schooled at home. For wealthier children, the education was more extensive. At age 7 little boys (and girls) went to classes for which their parents paid. Boys learned rhetoric, virtue, weaponry, maybe a skill. Girls learned to play music, literature, to prepare for republican motherhood.

Slaves in republican Rome had a very hard life. Whippings were not uncommon; some were branded on their foreheads or had irons on their ankles. Many worked in mines or mills. Some were household slaves. Slaves had no recourse. Revolt meant death. Some slaves fought as Gladiators (Until 211 BC both men and women!). GLADIATOR SHOWS—fight to the death but crowd could ask for mercy. Thumbs down is mercy (the position has to do with the position of the weapon—thumbs down was the position for putting the sword into its sheath). Could be slaves, criminals or sell selves for money.

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Gladiators did fight steps away from the Forum in Rome at the Colosseum (the Flavian Amphitheater, built during the reigns of

Titus and Vespasian and completed in 80 a.d.) The largest amphitheater in the world, the Colosseum had a false floor so

that blood could drain down without making a lake of blood out of the arena. Many people claim Christians were put to death here,

but the historical data indicates otherwise. Other amusements: sexual farces (use women as women=difft), chariot races, mock naval battles on lakes or in Circus Maximus.

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The Circus Maximus was used both for chariot races and for mock naval battles. It could hold tens of thousands of people. I really

looked forward to seeing the ruins, until I discovered that it really was nothing but a ruin. Here is where the Circus Maximus in

Rome once stood. Now it is nothing but sandy soil and weeds with very little by way of excavation going on. It’s hard to imagine

that at one time 120,000 spectators could have been here.

But, Rome didn’t stay just a Republic. With geographic empire, everything was going to change.