Reflection report communication in business
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Lecture10ConflictManagement.ppt
Conflict Management
Lecture 10
The lecture material contains content owned by KOI and other materials copyrighted by Eunson, B. (2016) Communicating in the 21st century, 4th edn, John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, Milton, Qld
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Learning objectives
- Describe the pros and cons of conflict
- Explain the causes of conflict
- List different approaches to conflict
- Explain five different styles of conflict-handling
- Describe the phases of a conflict spiral
- Give an account of the causes of organisational conflict
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Learning objectives continued
- Explain various solutions to conflict situations
- Describe the nature of the stalemate, impasse or deadlock, and why such static processes can sometimes be useful
- Explain why conflict sometimes needs to be created
- Explain the difference between dysfunctional and functional conflict
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Conflict management
Conflict is a clash of opinions, values, needs or goals
Conflict can arise when:
- needs are not met
- differences of opinion or expressions of different values occur
- a person or group interferes with another’s attempts to satisfy their needs, wants or goals
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Conflict: the down side
Conflict can lead to:
- Negative emotions
- Blocked communication
- Increased negative stereotyping of those you are in conflict with
- Reduced coordination between people who have to work and live together
- A shift towards autocratic leadership
- Reduced ability to view other perspectives; a breakdown in empathy and vision (Seta, Paulus & Baron 2000)
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Conflict: The up side
Conflict can have positive payoffs:
- Pressures and frustrations are released
- New perspectives and information can be gathered about the other side
- New perspectives can be gained about your side
- Better decision making and problem solving can take place
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Pressures and frustrations are released. When unexpressed conflicts are finally expressed, combatants sometimes experience a sense of relief, and can calm down and consider the situation with less heat and more light — for example, ‘I was just letting off steam’, ‘At least I got it out of my system’.
New perspectives and information can be gathered about the other side. Combatants can become aware of each other’s point of view, and may see some merit in opposing views. Empathy increases, and better decisions can be made.
New perspectives can be gained about your side. We may not even be aware of your own views until a conflict situation forces the expression of those views. Also, you may become aware of weaknesses and inconsistencies in your own views. Conflict energises you to do and think new things.
Better decision making and problem solving can take place. New information and perspectives are created as a result of the conflict, which allow you to see things more clearly and take appropriate action.
Conflict: The up side
- Cohesiveness can increase
- Complacency can be challenged
- Change can take place
- Differences can be appreciated
- Intrapersonal conflicts can be resolved
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Cohesiveness can increase. Groups, teams, couples and organisations may find that members are closer after the stress of conflict (and the release that comes with a successful resolution of that conflict) than they were before — the bonds between them are stronger, not weaker.
Complacency can be challenged. Lack of, or suppression of, conflict in some situations may mean that various unhealthy things are happening — there may be opposition to new ideas, as well as paralysing timidity and myopic denial of unresolved tensions. Conflict may challenge all of these things.
Change can take place. Conflict is often the engine of change. Charles Darwin argued that conflict between organisms produced the survival of the fittest, so that evolution was dependent on conflict.
Differences can be appreciated. If differences between partners in a conflict are not perceived to be insurmountable, then a new synthesis, a combination of the energies of differing people (synergy) can take place.
Intrapersonal conflicts can be resolved. We can have conflicts within ourselves as well as conflicts with others. Sometimes engaging in and resolving conflicts with others can resolve inner conflicts.
Conflict: Definitions
Conflict resolution: an approach to conflict that usually involves the reduction or elimination of conflict
Conflict management: an approach to conflict that may involve reduction or elimination of, or an increase in, conflict
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Conflict resolution might be the wrong approach to take in situations that call for the presence of, or an increase in, conflict, rather than an absence of conflict.
It may be better, therefore, to manage conflict rather than to simply solve or resolve it, allowing you to exercise the option of getting rid of conflict, but also preserving the option of increasing conflict where necessary.
Conflict: Causes
- Scarce resources
- Adversity
- Faulty communication
- Perceived differences
- Biology
- Environment
- Health
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TEACHER NOTE: Refer to page 445 in the text
Conflict-handling styles
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Thomas and Kilman have developed a useful model of people’s reactions to conflict. They argue that people tend to have one dominant style of conflict handling, out of a possible five styles. One style is not necessarily better than another. Dunnette’s model is based on mixes of assertive/unassertive and cooperative/uncooperative behaviour.
TEACHER NOTE: Refer to Table 14.4 for details of each style.
Conflict-handling styles
Avoiding style – low concern for both their own and the other’s interests
Accommodating style – low concern for their own needs and a high concern for others
Competing style – high concern for own needs and low concern for others
Collaborating style – high concern for both
Compromising style – some concern for both their own and the other’s needs
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Thomas and Kilman have developed a useful model of people’s reactions to conflict. They argue that people tend to have one dominant style of conflict handling, out of a possible five styles. One style is not necessarily better than another. Dunnette’s model is based on mixes of assertive/unassertive and cooperative/uncooperative behaviour.
TEACHER NOTE: Refer to Table 14.4 for details of each style.
The conflict spiral
- Toleration
- Covert resistance
- Overt resistance
- Critical incidents
- Selective perception
- Enlisting the support of others
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Toleration. At the very bottom of the spiral is toleration. The outcome of the conflict is accepted, but the acceptance is guarded, and not total.
Covert resistance. Moving up the spiral, you begin to see more resistance, albeit still of the covert variety. Patterns of employee resistance to conflict in organisations include gossip, non-cooperation, theft and sabotage.
Overt resistance. you move now not only from the covert to the overt zone, but also from passivity to action. Once reaction to conflict is out in the open, the spiral moves through nagging and whining, through to complaining, to anger and then to arguments.
Critical incidents. Somewhere along the line, something happens that causes further polarisation. Such a critical incident can be an accident or part of an ongoing series of events. It may even be a provocation (see below). Whatever the motivation, the incident or incidents become crystallising events that seem to reveal a pattern of ill feeling or hostility. Perception and labelling are vital here: a misunderstanding, a communication breakdown, a physical bump or nudge can be ignored or interpreted in the worst possible way.
Selective Perception. Selective perception means that you tend to concentrate on the faults of your opponents, ignoring any virtues they or their arguments might have.
Enlisting the support of others. You then may begin to build a coalition of support: people in your department, your relatives, your friends. you may have recruited these people to your cause by playing back your selective perceptions or propaganda to them.
The conflict spiral
- Issue linkage
- Ritual words
- Hot-button words
- Threats
- Actions
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These approaches can be symbols of failure in the conflict resolution process, or they can lead to successful and permanent resolutions.
Issue linkage. Issue linkage means bringing in other, related topics. Oh, yeah? Well, how about the time you … Well, so what if I did? It’s not as bad as when you … This is as bad as the 1987 border dispute.
Ritual or hot-button words. Ritual words are words or phrases indicating that the conflict has a ritualistic aspect to it: Don’t start this again That’s so typical of you/men/accountants Here you go again.
Hot-button words charged with a particular emotion, value or prejudice that may trigger off rapid, unthinking responses on one or both sides: Dismissal; Industrial action; Walking out; Idiocy; White devil; Bloody feminist; Close down.
Threats. violent or non-violent action, but at this stage deeds do not match words. Can be letting off steam, empty posturing, face-saving or a real warning.
Action. Formal action involves deliberate and structured routines, such as: Sitting down at a negotiating table; Bringing in a third party or mediator.
The conflict spiral
Provocation
- Pushing, jostling, invading personal space
- Jeering, abuse
- Vandalism
Retaliation
- Conflict about conflict
Violence
- Towards self
- Towards others
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Provocation — also known as coat-trailing, winding up or incitement — is deliberately teasing or needling someone, sometimes with a view to evoking a physically violent response.
Retaliation initiates a cycle of tit-for-tat exchange, which is also the dynamic of revenge, like for like, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.
Violence is sometimes justified; but more often than not, it’s not. Violence in some circumstances can be further differentiated into violence towards others and violence towards self or self-interest.
Conflict in organisations
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From the general dynamics of conflict spirals turn to the specific dynamics of conflict in organisations. Conflict in organisations occurs in four major patterns, as shown here.
Conflict in organisations
Vertical conflict
- Occurs between hierarchical levels
- About resources, goals, deadlines or performance results
Horizontal conflict
- Occurs at the same hierarchical level
- About incompatible goals, real or perceived scarcity of resources and territory, and interpersonal chemistry
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Conflict in organisations
Staff–line conflict
- Occurs between those with different task types
- About promotion and appraisal, access to specialised computer hardware/software issues
Role conflict
- Occurs when misunderstandings arise over tasks
- About job descriptions, multiple managers
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Staff–line conflict Occurs between people performing different types of tasks - Line personnel are front-line staff, directly involved in the production of goods and services, e.g. Assembly-line workers and supervisors, and clerks and analysts. - Staff personnel are specialist staff who are there to back up line personnel, e.g. Human resources, data processing and legal advisers.
Role conflict occurs when misunderstandings arise over just what it is that a person is meant to be doing. These intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts can be caused by Employees having incomplete, out-of-date or non-existent job descriptions - Reporting to more than one manager or supervisor - Receiving multiple and conflicting requests and orders
Conflict in organisations
Resource scarcity
- Occurs when resources are scarce
- About number of staff, access to materials
Workflow interdependence
- Occurs when workflow interdependent
- About efficiencies and inefficiencies
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Resource scarcity When organisational resources are scarce (or perceived to be scarce), conflict will occur, as surely as animals will fight over scarce food. This may be exacerbated in hard times, when the resource pool is seen to be shrinking.
Workflow interdependence When the workflow is tightly coupled or closely interdependent, then all sections depend on each other. This means that all sections benefit from the efficiencies of other sections, but are vulnerable to and suffer from the inefficiencies of others.
Buffering mechanisms, such as stockpiles, are less prevalent today with total quality practices such as just-in-time manufacturing and processing.
Conflict in organisations
Power and/or value asymmetry
- Occurs when different status people work together
- Also occurs when a person with high power refuses to help a person with low power
Goal incompatibility
- Occurs when organisational goal differs at department and division goals
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Power and/or value asymmetry When a high-status person works with a low-status person, and is uncomfortable about it, or when people holding radically different values are required to work together, conflict may occur This conflict also occurs when a person with high power refuses to help a person with low power
Goal incompatibility When specific goals of differing departments, sections and divisions of the one organisation clash, even though they share the overall goal of the organisation, conflict may occur.
Levels of conflict
Conflict moves through five different levels before it reaches a crisis level, as follows:
1 discomfort is felt
2 an incident occurs
3 escalation into a misunderstanding
4 tension arises
5 crisis can lead to damaged relationships
A crisis is the climax of a conflict where behaviour and normal functioning are seriously affected
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Power and/or value asymmetry When a high-status person works with a low-status person, and is uncomfortable about it, or when people holding radically different values are required to work together, conflict may occur This conflict also occurs when a person with high power refuses to help a person with low power
Goal incompatibility When specific goals of differing departments, sections and divisions of the one organisation clash, even though they share the overall goal of the organisation, conflict may occur.
Approaches to managing conflict
- Negotiation
- Interpersonal Skills
- De-escalation thresholds
- Apology
- Forgiveness
- Compromise
- Mediation
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TEACHER NOTE: Refer to text page 456 which looks at a number of approaches. These are some of you may wish to highlight or change.
Stalemate (impasse or deadlock)
Escalation of conflict stops – five possible reasons:
- One party overwhelms the other
- One party takes unilateral advantage
- One side yields
- One side avoids conflict
- Both sides are at deadlock (stalemate)
TEACHER NOTE: Refer to text page 460.
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Stalemate (impasse or deadlock)
All parties seem unable to move to a solution:
- Both sides block the others’ tactics
- Negotiable assets are exhausted
- Social support reduced
- Unacceptable costs
Resolution:
- Work slowly through the impasse
- Accept as a natural negotiation event
- Use mediators to move on
Conflict creation
If, in conflict, do you stop?
Some situations where more conflict is needed:
- A workplace situation where a confrontation is unavoidable
- A personal relationship where a showdown may be required to clear the air
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- If you find yourself on a conflict spiral, do you necessarily want to get off?
- In some situations more rather than less conflict may be needed: A workplace situation where a confrontation is unavoidable; A personal relationship where a showdown may be required to clear the air.
Chapter 14: Conflict management
Summary:
- Conflict: down and up sides
- Definitions
- Causes
- Conflict-handling styles
- The conflict spiral
- Conflict in organisations
- Approaches to managing conflict
- Conflict creation
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