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Campbell Essential Biology, Seventh Edition, and Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Sixth Edition

Chapter 16

The Evolution of Plants and Fungi

PowerPoint® Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko, Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and Jane B. Reece

We’re Surrounded by Ancient Atoms. Burning Coal Releases CO2 Captured by Plants that Lived more than 300 Million Years Ago

Biology and Society: The Diamond of the Kitchen

•Truffles are subterranean reproductive bodies of certain fungi and are highly prized by gourmets for their powerful earthy scent.

•Truffles represent a mutually beneficial relationship between plants and fungi. The roots of most plants are surrounded by a finely woven web of fungal filaments.

– The ultrathin fungal filaments absorb water and inorganic nutrients and pass them to the plant.

– The plant supplies the fungus with sugars and other organic molecules.

Black Truffles Ready to be Thinly Sliced or Grated for Some Lucky Diner

Colonizing Land

• A plant is a multicellular eukaryote that carries out photosynthesis and has a set of adaptations for living on land.

– Photosynthesis distinguishes plants from the animal and fungal kingdoms, which are also made up of eukaryotic, multicellular organisms.

– Algae lack terrestrial adaptations and thus are classified as protists rather than plants.

– Some plants live in water, but these aquatic plants evolved from terrestrial ancestors.

Terrestrial Adaptations of Plants

• Living on land requires a special set of adaptations.

– Bodies that were upright in the buoyant water go limp on land and soon shrivel in the drying air.

– In addition, algae are not equipped to obtain carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis from the air.

Adaptations of the Plant Body (1 of 4)

• Resources on land are found in different places: – Carbon dioxide is mainly available in the air and – Mineral nutrients and water are found in the soil.

• Thus, the complex bodies of plants have organs specialized to function in these two environments.

– Subterranean organs called roots anchor the plant in soil and absorb minerals and water from the soil.

– Above ground, shoots are organ systems that consist of photosynthetic leaves supported by stems.

Structural Adaptations of Algae and Plants

Adaptations of the Plant Body (2 of 4)

• Roots typically have many fine branches that thread among the grains of soil, providing a large surface area that maximizes contact with mineral- bearing water in the soil—just one example of how plant organ systems exemplify the relationship between structure and function.

• Most plants have symbiotic fungi associated with their roots. These root-fungus combinations, called mycorrhizae (“fungus roots”), enlarge the root’s functional surface area. Mycorrhizae are key adaptations that made it possible for plants to live on land.

Mycorrhizae: Symbiotic Associations of Fungi and Roots

Adaptations of the Plant Body (3 of 4)

• Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of most plants, utilizing

– stomata, microscopic pores found on a leaf’s surface, for the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen with the atmosphere,

– a waxy layer coating on the leaves and other aerial parts of most plants called the cuticle, helping the plant body retain water, and

– vascular tissue, a network of tube-shaped cells that branch throughout the plant, for the transport of vital materials between roots and shoots.

Adaptations of the Plant Body (4 of 4)

• There are two types of vascular tissue. 1. One type is specialized for transporting water

and minerals from roots to leaves. 2. The other distributes sugars from the leaves to

the roots and other nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant.

• The cell walls of many of the cells in vascular tissue are hardened by a chemical called lignin. The structural strength of lignified vascular tissue, otherwise known as wood, is amply demonstrated by its use as a building material.

Network of Vascular Tissue in a Leaf

Identifying Major Themes (1 of 3)

Roots typically have many fine branches that thread among the grains of soil, providing a large surface area that maximizes contact with mineral- bearing water in the soil.

Which major theme is illustrated by this action? 1. The relationship of structure to function

2. Information flow

3. Pathways that transform energy and matter

4. Interactions within biological systems

5. Evolution

Identifying Major Themes (2 of 3)

Vascular tissue was an adaptation that allowed ferns to colonize a greater variety of habitats than mosses.

Which major theme is illustrated by this action? 1. The relationship of structure to function

2. Information flow

3. Pathways that transform energy and matter

4. Interactions within biological systems

5. Evolution

Reproductive Adaptations (1 of 2)

• Adapting to land also required a new mode of reproduction.

– For the protist algae, water ensures that gametes (sperm and eggs) and developing offspring stay moist.

– Water also provides a means of dispersing the gametes and offspring.

Reproductive Adaptations (2 of 2)

• Plants, however, must keep their gametes and developing offspring from drying out in the air and produce their gametes in a structure that allows them to develop without dehydrating.

– The egg remains within tissues of the mother plant and is fertilized there.

– In plants, but not algae, the zygote (fertilized egg) develops into an embryo while still contained within the female parent, which protects the embryo and keeps it from dehydrating.

The Protected Embryo of a Plant

The Origin of Plants from Green Algae

• The algal ancestors of plants carpeted moist fringes of lakes or coastal salt marshes more than 500 million years ago.

– Charophytes are a modern-day lineage of green algae and may resemble early plant ancestors.

– Plants and present-day charophytes probably evolved from a common ancestor.

– Adaptations making life on dry land possible had accumulated by about 470 million years ago, the age of the oldest known plant fossils.

– The evolutionary novelties of these first land plants opened the new frontier of a terrestrial habitat.

Two Species of Charophytes, the Closest Algal Relatives of Plants

Plant Diversity: Highlights of Plant Evolution

• The history of the plant kingdom is a story of adaptation to diverse terrestrial habitats.

• The fossil record chronicles four major periods of plant evolution, which are also evident in the diversity of modern plants. Each stage is marked by the evolution of structures that opened new opportunities on land.

Checkpoint: Name some adaptations of plants for living on land.

Highlights of Plant Evolution (1 of 3)

Highlights of Plant Evolution (2 of 3)

1. About 470 million years ago, early diversification gave rise to nonvascular plants called bryophytes, which lack lignified walls, true roots, and true leaves. Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

2. About 425 million years ago, the presence of conducting tissues hardened with lignin allowed vascular plants to grow much taller, rising above the ground to achieve significant height. The earliest vascular plants lacked seeds. Today, this seedless condition is retained by ferns and a few other groups of vascular plants.

Highlights of Plant Evolution (3 of 3)

3. About 360 million years ago, gymnosperms evolved with seeds that consisted of an embryo packaged along with a store of food within a protective covering, but were not enclosed in any specialized chambers. Today, the most widespread and diverse gymnosperms are the conifers, consisting mainly of cone-bearing trees, such as pines.

4. At least 140 million years ago, angiosperms evolved with complex reproductive structures called flowers that bear seeds within protective chambers called ovaries. Most living plants, at least 250,000 species, are angiosperms.

The Major Groups of Plants

Bryophytes (1 of 2)

• Mosses display two key terrestrial adaptations that made the move onto land possible:

1. a waxy cuticle that helps prevent dehydration and

2. the retention of developing embryos within the female plant’s body.

• Mosses need water to reproduce because their sperm swim to reach eggs within the female gametangium.

A Peat Moss Bog in Scotland

Bryophytes (2 of 2)

• Mosses have two distinct forms: 1. The green, spongelike plant that is the more obvious

is called the gametophyte.

2. The other, called a sporophyte, grows out of a gametophyte as a stalk with a capsule at its tip.

• This life cycle is called alternation of generations. – Gametophytes produce gametes that unite to form

zygotes, which develop into new sporophytes.

– Sporophytes produce spores that give rise to new gametophytes.

The Two Forms of a Moss

Alternation of Generations

Animation: Moss Life Cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campb ell-moss-life-cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-moss-life-cycle

Identifying Major Themes (3 of 3)

Gametophytes produce gametes that unite to form zygotes, which develop into new sporophytes. Sporophytes produce spores that give rise to new gametophytes, transmitting DNA through an alternation of generations.

Which major theme is illustrated by this action? 1. The relationship of structure to function

2. Information flow

3. Pathways that transform energy and matter

4. Interactions within biological systems

5. Evolution

Ferns (1 of 2)

• The evolution of vascular tissue allowed ferns to colonize a greater variety of habitats than mosses.

– Ferns are by far the most diverse seedless vascular plants, with more than 12,000 known species.

– The sperms of ferns, like mosses, have flagella and must swim through a film of water to fertilize eggs.

• During the Carboniferous period, from about 360 to 300 million years ago, ancient ferns were part of a much greater diversity of seedless plants that formed swampy tropical forests over much of what is now Eurasia and North America.

Ferns (Seedless Vascular Plants)

Ferns (2 of 2)

• As the seedless plants died, they fell into stagnant wetlands and did not decay completely. Their remains formed thick organic deposits that were gradually converted to coal.

– Fossil fuels formed from the remains of long-dead organisms and include coal, oil, and natural gas.

– The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other gases that contribute to global climate change.

Checkpoint: Why are ferns able to grow taller than mosses?

A “Coal Forest” of the Carboniferous Period

Animation: Fern Life Cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campb ell-fern-life-cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-fern-life-cycle

Gymnosperms

• Near the end of the Carboniferous period, the climate turned drier and colder, favoring the evolution of seed plants, which can

– complete their life cycles on dry land and – withstand long, harsh winters.

• The descendants of early gymnosperms include the conifers, or cone-bearing plants.

Conifers

• Conifers – cover much of northern Eurasia and North

America, – are usually evergreens, which retain their leaves

throughout the year, – include the tallest, largest, and oldest organisms

on Earth, and – form highly productive forests that provide much

of our lumber for building and wood pulp for paper production.

A Coniferous Forest in Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska

Terrestrial Adaptations of Seed Plants (1 of 3)

• Compared with ferns, most gymnosperms have three additional adaptations that make survival in diverse terrestrial habitats possible:

1. The first adaptation is an even greater development of the diploid sporophyte compared with the haploid gametophyte generation. A pine tree or other conifer is actually a sporophyte with tiny gametophytes living in cones.

Three Variations on Alternation of Generations in Plants

Terrestrial Adaptations of Seed Plants (2 of 3)

2. A second adaptation of seed plants to dry land came with the evolution of pollen.  A pollen grain is actually the much-reduced

male gametophyte and houses cells that will develop into sperm.

 In the case of conifers, pollination, the delivery of pollen from the male parts of a plant to the female parts of a plant, occurs via wind.

A Pine Tree, the Sporophyte, Bearing Two Types of Cones Containing Gametophytes

Terrestrial Adaptations of Seed Plants (3 of 3)

3. The third terrestrial adaptation was the development of the seed, consisting of a plant embryo, packaged along with a food supply, within a protective coat.  Seeds develop from ovules, structures that contain the

female gametophytes. In conifers, the ovules are located on the scales of female cones.

 Once released from the parent plant, the seed can remain dormant for days, months, or even years.

 Under favorable conditions, the seed can then germinate, or sprout, and its embryo emerges through the seed coat as a seedling.

From Ovule to Seed

Animation: Pine Life Cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbe ll-pine-life-cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-pine-life-cycle

Angiosperms

• Angiosperms dominate the modern landscape and are represented by about 250,000 species, compared to about 700 species of gymnosperms.

• Their success is largely due to – refinements in vascular tissue that make water

transport more efficient in angiosperms than in gymnosperms and

– the evolution of the flower.

Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (1 of 6)

• Flowers are the site of procreation. – This showiness helps to attract insects and other

animals that transfer pollen from one flower to another of the same species.

– Angiosperms that rely on wind pollination  include grasses and many trees,  have much smaller, less flamboyant flowers, and  allocate the plant’s reproductive energy to making

massive amounts of pollen for release into the wind.

Video: Bee Pollinating

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-bee-pollin ating

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-bee-pollinating

Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (2 of 6)

• A flower is a short stem, bearing modified leaves that are attached in concentric circles at its base.

– Sepals form the outer layer, are usually green, and enclose the flower before it opens.

– Next inside are petals, which are often colorful and help to attract pollinators.

– Stamens, the male reproductive structures, are below the petals. Pollen grains develop in the anther, a sac at the top of each stamen.

Structure of a Flower

Video: Flower Blooming (time lapse)

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-flower-blo oming

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-flower-blooming

Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (3 of 6)

• Carpels are the female reproductive structure at the center of the flower. The carpel includes

– the ovary, a protective chamber containing one or more ovules in which the eggs develop, and

– the sticky tip of the carpel, the stigma, which traps pollen.

• The basic structure of a flower can exist in many beautiful variations.

A Diversity of Flowers

Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (4 of 6)

• In angiosperms, as in gymnosperms, the sporophyte generation is dominant and produces the gametophyte generation within its body.

• Figure 16.19 highlights key stages in the angiosperm life cycle.

1. The flower is part of the sporophyte plant. As in gymnosperms, the pollen grain is the male gametophyte of angiosperms. The female gametophyte is located within an ovule, which in turn resides within a chamber of the ovary.

The Angiosperm Life Cycle

Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (5 of 6)

2. After a pollen grain lands on the stigma, a pollen tube grows down to the ovule.

3. The pollen tube releases a sperm nucleus that fertilizes an egg within the embryo sac.

4. This produces a zygote.

5. The zygote develops into an embryo. Tissue surrounding the embryo develops into nutrient-rich endosperm, which provides a food supply for the growing plant.

6. The whole ovule develops into a seed, which can germinate and develop into a new sporophyte to begin the cycle anew.

Video: Flowering Plant Life Cycle (time lapse)

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-flowering- plant-life-cycle

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-flowering-plant-life-cycle

Animation: Plant Fertilization

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell- sexual-reproduction-in-angiosperms

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-sexual-reproduction-in-angiosperms

Animation: Seed Development

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell- seed-fruit-development

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-seed-fruit-development

Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (6 of 6)

• Fruit – is a ripened ovary, – helps protect the seed, – increases seed dispersal, and – is a major food source for animals.

Checkpoint: What are the four main parts of a flower? Where do pollen grains develop? Where do eggs develop?

Fruits and Seed Dispersal

Angiosperms and Agriculture

• Gymnosperms supply most of our lumber and paper.

• Angiosperms provide nearly all of our food and supply fiber, medications, perfumes, and decoration.

• Agriculture probably developed gradually as people began sowing seeds and cultivating plants to have a more dependable food source. And as they domesticated certain plants, artificial selection produced the diversity of plants we enjoy today.

Plant Diversity as a Nonrenewable Resource (1 of 2)

• The increasing human population is extinguishing plant species at an unprecedented rate. The problem is especially critical for forest ecosystems, which are home to as many as 80% of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species.

• Why does the loss of tropical forests matter? – In addition to forests being centers of biodiversity,

millions of people worldwide depend on these forests for their livelihood.

– More than 120 prescription drugs are made from substances derived from plants.

Cultivated Land Bordering a Tropical Forest in Uganda

A Sampling of Medicines Derived from Plants

Plant Diversity as a Nonrenewable Resource (2 of 2)

• Scientists are now working to slow the loss of plant diversity in part by researching sustainable ways for people to benefit from forests.

– The goal of such efforts is to encourage management practices that use forests as resources without damaging them.

– We need to appreciate the rain forests and other ecosystems as living treasures that can regenerate only slowly. Only then will we learn to work with them in ways that preserve their biological diversity for the future.

Fungi

• Fungi are eukaryotes; most are multicellular, but many have body structures and modes of reproduction unlike those of other organisms.

– A mushroom is more closely related to you than it is to any plant! Molecular studies indicate that fungi and animals arose from a common ancestor more than 1 billion years ago.

– Fungi recycle vital chemical elements back to the environment in forms other organisms can assimilate and form mycorrhizae, fungus-root associations that help plants absorb mineral and water from the soil.

A Gallery of Diverse Fungi

Characteristics of Fungi: Fungal Nutrition

• Fungi are heterotrophs that acquire their nutrients by absorption.

• A fungus digests food outside its body by secreting powerful digestive enzymes into the food that decompose complex molecules to simpler compounds that the fungus can absorb.

Fungal Structure

• The bodies of most fungi are constructed of threadlike filaments called hyphae.

– Fungal hyphae are minute threads of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane and cell walls usually composed of chitin, a strong but flexible polysaccharide also found in insect skeletons.

– Hyphae branch repeatedly, forming an interwoven network called a mycelium (plural, mycelia), the feeding structure of the fungus.

Checkpoint: Describe how the structure of a fungal mycelium reflects its function.

The Fungal Mycelium

Animation: Fungal Reproduction and Nutrition

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell- fungal-reproduction-nutrition

https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/secs-campbell-fungal-reproduction-nutrition

Fungal Reproduction

• Mushrooms arise from an underground mycelium and mainly function in reproduction. A mushroom pops up above ground to disperse its spores on air currents.

• Fungi typically reproduce by releasing haploid spores that are produced either sexually or asexually. Puffballs, which are the reproductive structures of certain fungi, can spew clouds containing trillions of spores.

The Process of Science: What Killed the Pines? (1 of 2)

• Background: Pine trees were planted in Puerto Rico on worn-out farmland. These trees sprouted, and the seedlings grew to about four inches high. Then they died. There were no signs of disease or insect damage, but none of the trees made it past the seedling stage, and no one knew why.

• Method: In 1955, researchers planted slash pine seedlings in an experimental field in Puerto Rico. They treated one group of pines with mycorrhizal fungi collected from soil in a North Carolina pine forest. The rest of the pines served as controls.

The Process of Science: What Killed the Pines? (2 of 2)

• Results – Only 36% of the control trees survived, and none

of the control trees grew much during the four- year experiment.

– In contrast, 85% of the pines treated with mycorrhizae survived and these trees grew well.

– Today, pine forests grown with the help of mycorrhizae thrive in Puerto Rico, providing habitat for wildlife, protection from erosion and storms, and economic benefits.

An Experiment to Test the Benefit of Mycorrhizae on Pine Growth

The Ecological Impact of Fungi: Fungi as Decomposers

• Fungi and bacteria are the principal decomposers that keep ecosystems stocked with the inorganic nutrients essential for plant growth.

– This vital role of decomposers is an example of interactions within biological systems. Without decomposers, carbon, nitrogen, and other elements would accumulate in nonliving organic matter.

– Fungi are well adapted as decomposers of organic refuse. Their invasive hyphae enter the tissues and cells of dead organisms and digest polymers, including the cellulose of plant cell walls.

Parasitic Fungi

• Parasitism is a relationship in which two species live in contact and one organism benefits while the other is harmed. Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from the cells or body fluids of living hosts.

– Of the 100,000 known species of fungi, about 30% make their living as parasites.

– About 500 species of fungi are known to be parasitic in humans and other animals, causing vaginal yeast infections, ringworm, and athlete’s foot.

– The great majority of fungal parasites infect plants.

Parasitic Fungi that Cause Plant Disease

Commercial Uses of Fungi

• Most of us have eaten mushrooms. Enthusiasts gather edible fungi from fields and forests. But only experts should eat wild fungi, because some poisonous species resemble edible ones.

• Fungi are commercially important. Humans use them to produce antibiotics, decompose wastes, and produce bread, beer, wine, and cheeses.

• Fungi are medically valuable as well. Some fungi produce antibiotics used to treat bacterial diseases.

Fungi Eaten by People

Fungal Production of an Antibiotic

Evolution Connection: A Pioneering Partnership

• Relationships between species are also an evolutionary product.

• Symbiotic relationships with fungi helped early nonvascular plants colonize land.

– The mycorrhizal fungus receives food from its photosynthetic partner.

– The fungus in turn helps the liverwort absorb water and minerals.

Liverworts

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Slide 1
Slide 2
Biology and Society: The Diamond of the Kitchen
Slide 4
Colonizing Land
Terrestrial Adaptations of Plants
Adaptations of the Plant Body (1 of 4)
Structural Adaptations of Algae and Plants
Adaptations of the Plant Body (2 of 4)
Mycorrhizae: Symbiotic Associations of Fungi and Roots
Adaptations of the Plant Body (3 of 4)
Adaptations of the Plant Body (4 of 4)
Network of Vascular Tissue in a Leaf
Identifying Major Themes (1 of 3)
Identifying Major Themes (2 of 3)
Reproductive Adaptations (1 of 2)
Reproductive Adaptations (2 of 2)
The Protected Embryo of a Plant
The Origin of Plants from Green Algae
Slide 20
Plant Diversity: Highlights of Plant Evolution
Highlights of Plant Evolution (1 of 3)
Highlights of Plant Evolution (2 of 3)
Highlights of Plant Evolution (3 of 3)
The Major Groups of Plants
Bryophytes (1 of 2)
A Peat Moss Bog in Scotland
Bryophytes (2 of 2)
The Two Forms of a Moss
Alternation of Generations
Animation: Moss Life Cycle
Identifying Major Themes (3 of 3)
Ferns (1 of 2)
Ferns (Seedless Vascular Plants)
Ferns (2 of 2)
A “Coal Forest” of the Carboniferous Period
Animation: Fern Life Cycle
Gymnosperms
Conifers
A Coniferous Forest in Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska
Terrestrial Adaptations of Seed Plants (1 of 3)
Three Variations on Alternation of Generations in Plants
Terrestrial Adaptations of Seed Plants (2 of 3)
Slide 44
Terrestrial Adaptations of Seed Plants (3 of 3)
From Ovule to Seed
Animation: Pine Life Cycle
Angiosperms
Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (1 of 6)
Video: Bee Pollinating
Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (2 of 6)
Structure of a Flower
Video: Flower Blooming (time lapse)
Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (3 of 6)
A Diversity of Flowers
Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (4 of 6)
The Angiosperm Life Cycle
Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (5 of 6)
Video: Flowering Plant Life Cycle (time lapse)
Animation: Plant Fertilization
Animation: Seed Development
Flowers, Fruits, and the Angiosperm Life Cycle (6 of 6)
Fruits and Seed Dispersal
Angiosperms and Agriculture
Plant Diversity as a Nonrenewable Resource (1 of 2)
Cultivated Land Bordering a Tropical Forest in Uganda
A Sampling of Medicines Derived from Plants
Plant Diversity as a Nonrenewable Resource (2 of 2)
Fungi
A Gallery of Diverse Fungi
Characteristics of Fungi: Fungal Nutrition
Fungal Structure
The Fungal Mycelium
Animation: Fungal Reproduction and Nutrition
Fungal Reproduction
The Process of Science: What Killed the Pines? (1 of 2)
The Process of Science: What Killed the Pines? (2 of 2)
An Experiment to Test the Benefit of Mycorrhizae on Pine Growth
The Ecological Impact of Fungi: Fungi as Decomposers
Parasitic Fungi
Parasitic Fungi that Cause Plant Disease
Commercial Uses of Fungi
Fungi Eaten by People
Fungal Production of an Antibiotic
Evolution Connection: A Pioneering Partnership
Liverworts
Copyright