Social science
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lect20.pptxSECTION IV Current Social Themes and Issues Migration and diaspora
SOSC 1000 6.0
Lecture 20
Jan Krouzil PhD
July 29, 2021
Agenda
Announcements
PART I Definitions, forms and patterns
PART II Causes and consequences
PART III Migration governance
PART IV State-diaspora relations
PART V Diaspora governance
Keywords
MRA3_Final Report_review
Part I Definitions, forms and patterns (1)
Global migration
refers to the movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily at a new location (geographic region)
the movement is often over long distances and from one country to another
internal migration also possible
people may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups
Major forms of migration
invasion, conquest, colonization and immigration (Caves 2004)
Definitions, forms and patterns (2)
Forced displacement and refugee
displaced person
a person who moves from their home due to forced displacement (such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance) may be described as a displaced person
or, if remaining in the home country, an internally displaced person
an estimated 67.2 million forced migrants globally - 25.9 million refugees displaced from their countries (by the end of 2018)
41.3 million internally displaced persons displaced within their countries for different reasons (IOM's World Migration Report 2020)
refugee
a person seeking refuge in another country can, if the reason for leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then described as an asylum seeker
if this application is successful this person's legal status becomes that of a refugee
Definitions, forms and patterns (3)
the distinction between involuntary (fleeing political conflict or natural disaster) and voluntary migration (economic or labor migration) is difficult to make and partially subjective
the motivators for migration are often correlated
Migration governance
associated with State sovereignty
States retain the power of deciding on the entry and stay of non-nationals because migration directly affects some of the defining elements of a State (1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, Article 1)
bilateral and multilateral arrangements as features of migration governance
global arrangements in the form of international treaties in which States have reached agreement on the application of human rights and the related responsibilities of States in specific areas
Definitions, forms and patterns (4)
Migration patterns
structural - South-South and North-North migration (Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016)
statistical estimates of worldwide migration patterns (Oiarzabal and Reips 2012)
internal migration can also take place within a country
seasonal human migration
mainly related to agriculture and to tourism to urban places
shifts of population into cities (urbanisation)
out of cities (sub-urbanisation)
studies of worldwide migration patterns limit their scope to international migration
almost half of these migrants are women
one of the most significant migrant-pattern changes in the last half century
(UNFPA 2013)
women migrate alone or with their family members and community
Definitions, forms and patterns (5)
Destination and origin
top ten immigration destinations (IOM 2019)
United States, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, France, Canada, Australia, Italy
top countries of origin (IOM 2019)
India, Mexico, China, Russian Federation, Syrian Arab Republic, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Philippines, Afghanistan, Indonesia
Growth of international labor migration
an important, yet underappreciated, aspect of globalization (Helms and Leblang 2019)
Definitions, forms and patterns (6)
Global migration flows
in 1970 just 78 million people or about 2.1% of the global population lived outside their country of birth
by 1990, that number had nearly doubled to more than 150 million people, or about 2.8% of the global population (United Nations Population Division, 2012)
the growth in global migration shows no signs of slowing down
nearly 250 million people living outside their country of birth as of 2015
despite the growth of populist political parties and restrictionist movements in key destination countries
34% of all global migrants live in industrialized countries (with the United States and Germany leading the way
38% of all global migration occurs between developing countries (World Bank, 2016)
Part II Causes and consequences (1)
International migration
multifaceted process with distinct stages and decision points
an initial decision to leave one’s country of birth may be made by the individual or the family unit
may reflect a desire to reconnect with friends and family
a need to diversify the family’s access to financial capital
a demand to increase wages
a belief that conditions abroad will provide social and/or political benefits
not available in the homeland
Causes and consequences (2)
Standard explanations of destination choice
physical costs associated with moving
moving shorter distances is often less expensive than moving to a destination far away
social, political, familial, and cultural dimensions
as part of the transaction cost associated with migrating
Arrival in a host country
does not mean that an émigré’s relationship with their homeland is over
migrant networks
an engine of global economic integration
expatriates help expand trade and investment flows
they transmit skills and knowledge back to their homelands
they remit financial and human capital
home countries develop a range of policies that enable them to ‘harness’ their ‘diasporas’
Causes and consequences (3)
Labor migration theories
multiple causes impel migrants to move to another country
globalization has increased the demand for workers in order to sustain national economies
one category of economic migrants - generally from impoverished developing countries - migrates to obtain sufficient income for survival
such migrants often send some of their income home to family members in the form of economic remittances
an economic staple in a number of developing countries (de Parle 2007)
people may also move or are forced to move as a result of conflict
of human-rights violations, of violence, or to escape persecution
Causes and consequences (4)
people may move to gain access to opportunities and services or to escape extreme weather
this type of movement, usually from rural to urban areas, may class as internal migration
sociology-cultural and ego-historical factors play a major role
in North Africa emigrating to Europe counts as a sign of social prestige
many countries were former colonies
many have relatives who live legally in the (former) colonial metro pole, and who often provide important help for immigrants arriving in that metro pole
relatives may help with job research and with accommodation
geographical proximity of Africa to Europe and the long historical ties between Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries also prompt many to migrate (Fanack 2005)
Causes and consequences (5)
whether a person takes the decision to move to another country depends on the relative skill premier of the source and host countries
positive selection when the host country shows a higher skill premium than the source country
negative selection occurs when the source country displays a lower skill premium
the relative skill premia defines migrants selectivity (Baten and Stolz 2012)
Neoclassical economic theory
main reason for labor migration is wage difference between two geographic locations
wage differences are linked to geographic labor demand and supply
areas with a shortage of labor but an excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas with a high labor supply and a lack of capital have a low relative wage
labor tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas
best used to describe transnational migration
not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations
(Jennissen 2007)
Causes and consequences (6)
Dual labor market theory
migration is mainly caused by pull factors in more developed countries
assumes that the labor markets in these developed countries consist of two segments
the primary market
requires high-skilled labor
the secondary market
labor-intensive requiring low-skilled workers
assumes that migration from less developed countries into more developed countries is a result of a pull created by a need for labor in the developed countries in their secondary market
migrant workers are needed to fill the lowest rung of the labor market because the native laborers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility
this creates a need for migrant workers
the initial shortage in available labor pushes wages up, making migration even more enticing
(Jennissen 2007)
Causes and consequences (7)
Relative deprivation theory
awareness of the income difference between neighbors or other households in the migrant-sending community as an important factor in migration.
the incentive to migrate is higher in areas that have a high level of economic inequality
in the short run, remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may actually decrease it
stages of migration for workers
they invest in human capital formation and then they try to capitalize on their investments
successful migrants may use their new capital to provide for better schooling for their children and better homes for their families
successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for neighbors and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success (Jennissen 2007)
Causes and consequences (8)
World systems theory
looks at migration from a global perspective
interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change within societies
trade with one country which causes economic decline in another may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy
even after decolonization, the economic dependence of former colonies still remains on mother countries
this view of international trade is controversial
some argue that free trade can actually reduce migration between developing and developed countries
can be argued that the developed countries import labor-intensive goods, which causes an increase in employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers
export of capital-intensive goods from rich countries to poor countries also equalizes income and employment conditions, thus also slowing migration
Causes and consequences (9)
Sociology of immigration
attention to how immigration affects, and is affected by, matters of race and ethnicity, as well as social structure
main sociological perspectives
symbolic interactionism
aims to understand migration via face-to-face interactions on a micro-level
social conflict theory
examines migration through the prism of competition for power and resources
structural functionalism (based on the ideas of Émile Durkheim)
examines the role of migration in fulfilling certain functions such as the decrease of despair and aimlessness and the consolidation of social networks
Causes and consequences (10)
perspectives on processes of security (Faist 2006), citizenship (Shachar et al eds 2017), and international relations (Brettell and Hollifield 2014)
the political importance of diasporas
questions of diaspora activism (Bauböck 2006)
state-diaspora relations (Délano and Gamlen 2014)
out-of-country voting processes (Lafleur 2014)
states' soft power strategies (Tsourapas 2018)
Albert Hirschman's framework on ‘voice’ vs. ‘exit’ - how emigration affects the politics within countries of origin (Hirschman January 1993)
Causes and consequences (11)
Lee's laws
factors causing migrations (Everett 1966)
‘push’ factors - things that are unfavourable about the area that one lives in
not enough jobs, few opportunities, Inadequate conditions, desertification, famine or drought, political fear or persecution, slavery or forced labor, poor medical care, loss of wealth, natural disasters, death threats, desire for more political or religious freedom, pollution, poor housing, landlord/tenant issues, bullying, mentality, discrimination, poor chances of marrying, war, radiation, disease
‘pull’ factors are things that attract one to another area
job opportunities, better living conditions, the feeling of having more political or religious freedom, enjoyment, education, better medical care, attractive climates, security, family links, industry, better chances of marrying
Part III Migration governance and diaspora (1)
International migration and displacement
transnational issues concerning origin and destination States
as well as States through which migrants may travel (often referred to as ‘transit’ States)
or in which they are hosted following displacement across national borders majority of migration governance remains with individual States
policies and regulations on migration typically made at the national level
(McAuliffe and Goossens 2018)
State sovereignty
States retain the power of deciding on the entry and stay of non-nationals
migration directly affects some of the defining elements of a State
(The 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, Article 1)
Migration governance and diaspora (2)
The Global Compact for Migration
not legally binding
adopted by consensus in December 2018 at a United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) conference
by a vote among the Member States of 152 to 5 (with 12 abstentions)
(IOM. 2018. Chapter 11)
Realm of state–diaspora relations
when and why states engage their diasporas – and why their practices converge or diverge?
multiple factors at various levels and stages (Délano and Gamlen 2015)
Migration governance and diaspora (3)
Internal factors
States’ positions are constantly changing, depending on
the characteristics of the diaspora (including its economic and political importance)
the nature of the origin-country regime (including its perceptions of emigration
the citizenship laws and state capacities (such as consular infrastructures and budgets)
External factors
the nature of the destination state and the way it accommodates immigrants and relates to their origin states
the role of relevant international organisations and norms
Migration governance and diaspora (4)
Comparing state–diaspora relations
focus less on the uniqueness of specific country policies but on the commonalities and contrasts among them
Key questions
what historical, geographic, ideological, political or economic factors explain the variations and patterns in diaspora policy design, implementation and timing?
what are the effects of these policies both on the home state and the host state and on the populations that they target?
how are these diaspora policies transforming the nation-state and the international system as a whole?
Migration governance and diaspora (5)
qualitative comparisons
based on ethnographic methods
vital to understanding how different actors matter in the design and implementation of diaspora policies
quantitative comparisons
necessary to measure and evaluate the drivers of diaspora policies and their effects
important to triangulate available sources and methods
mixed-method and multi-disciplinary studies
Migration governance and diaspora (6)
The role of origin states
in shaping (even in creating) diasporas’ home- and host-country ties
how and why does the state matter in shaping these relations and what motivates the states, institutions and elites carrying out the policies?
does the momentum come from states themselves, from diasporas, or from other actors such as international organisations?
how do diasporas react to state influence?
Research priorities
comparing the roles of both origin and destination contexts in shaping state–diaspora relations
Migration governance and diaspora (7)
comparing the experiences of migrants with non-migrants
evaluating and comparing costs and benefits to migrants and non-migrants to provide perspective
the scale and the success of state investments in diaspora policies
comparing the experiences of groups included and excluded in official conceptions of diasporas
what do these patterns of inclusion and exclusion say about the wider legitimacy of these forums and discourses about diaspora engagement?
Theorising state–diaspora relations
debates about de-territorialisation and re-territorialisation in order to theorise
the spatialities of power involved in state–diaspora relations
governmentality theory as an approach to frame the decentralised, marketized approach to global migration governance that engaging diasporas represents
Part IV State-diaspora relations (1)
Etymology of ‘diaspora’
refers to populations that originate from the same place but disperse to different locations (Murray 2014)
such as members of an ethnic or religious group
the word ‘diaspora’ comes from the ancient Greek dia speiro, meaning ‘to sow over’
the concept of ‘diaspora’ refers to the Greeks in the Hellenic world and to the Jews after the fall of Jerusalem in the early 6th century BCE
with reference to the African diaspora in the 1950s and 1960s
and extended further in the following decades
no set definition today as the modern meaning has evolved over time
State-diaspora relations (2)
As a social and cultural phenomenon
sense of displacement - the population so described finds itself for whatever reason separated from its national territory
a hope or a desire to return to their homeland at some point if the ‘homeland’ still exists in any meaningful sense
a loss of nostalgia for a single home as people seek to ‘re-root’ in a series of meaningful implacements
diasporic cultural development often assumes a different course from that of the population in the original place of settlement
over time remotely separated communities tend to vary in culture, traditions, language and other factors
vestiges of cultural affiliation in a diaspora can be found in community resistance to language change and in maintenance of traditional religious practice
State-diaspora relations (3)
How to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities?
six ‘rules’ (Safran 1991)
maintain a myth or collective memory of their homeland
regard their ancestral homeland as their true home to which they will eventually return
being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland
relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity
Diaspora populations on the Internet
web-based news portals and forum sites dedicated to specific diaspora communities often organized on the basis of an origin characteristic and a current location characteristic
mobile applications such as China's WeChat create de facto online diaspora communities when used outside of their home markets.
large companies from the emerging countries are looking at leveraging diaspora communities to enter the more mature market
State-diaspora relations (4)
Kinds of diaspora
based on its causes - such as imperialism, trade or labor migrations
by the kind of social coherence within the diaspora community and its ties to the ancestral lands
Characteristics
political ties with their homeland
thoughts of return
relationships with other communities in the diaspora
lack of full integration into the host countries
ties to the country of their historical affiliation and influence the policies of the country where they are located
Part IV Diaspora governance (1)
spatialities of power intersecting with processes of identification and belonging in relations between states and diasporas
links between transnational governmentalities and processes of constructing migrant identity and citizenship
citizenship as a lived experience and not just a legal institution
spaces and contexts in which multiple citizenship is practiced and enacted
beyond the formal granting of dual citizenship or external voting
debates about defining ‘diasporas’
the term ‘diaspora’ adopted by policy makers in municipal, provincial and national governments, as well as think tanks, NGOs and international organisations
the meaning of the word ‘diaspora’ is shifting and stretching
Diaspora governance (2)
Further research
rather than seeking definitional consensus research should interrogate
how and why the term is used by political actors and to what effect?
where do working definitions used by state actors originate?
how have these definitions travelled and changed over time?
what do spatial and temporal differences in diaspora definitions reveal about
the actors that use them, about their diaspora policies
the groups included and excluded by these policies
the consequences for everyone involved
role of international norms
what kinds of development are being pursued
what kinds of diaspora policy ‘best practices’ are being promoted
Diaspora governance (3)
work on the short- and long-term impacts of diaspora engagement policies
short- and medium-term effects of state-driven policies
their contribution to integration in the host state
the longer term as with all forms of transnationalism
whether the current expansion in state–diaspora relations is leading to durable changes, what is new about them
Keywords
forced displacement
refugee
migration governance
migration patterns
State sovereignty
migration theories
economic remittance
neoclassical economic theory
sociology of immigration
State-diaspora relations
