Social science
lazy808
lect17.pptxDisciplinary Approaches to Social Science Politology
SOSC 1000 6.0
Lecture 17
Jan Krouzil PhD
July 20, 2021
Agenda
Announcements
PART I Political ontology
PART II Politology of ethics
PART III Methodological issues
PART IV Political schools of thought
Keywords
Part I Political ontology (1)
What is political ontology about?
ontology – the study (or science) of being
two related senses of the term
the nature of ‘being’ itself—what is it to exist?
whether (and, if so, why) there exists something rather than nothing
whether (and, if so, why) there exists one logically contingent actual world
the (specific) set of assumptions
made about the nature, essence, and characteristics (in short, the reality) of an object or set of objects of analytical inquiry
What is the nature of the social and political reality to be investigated?
what exists that we might acquire knowledge of?
ontic/ontological
Political ontology (2)
for ‘ontological atomists’ - no appeal in political explanation to social interactions, processes or structures
convinced in Hobbesian terms that ‘basic human needs, capacities and motivations arise in each individual without regard to any specific feature of social groups or social interactions’ (Fay 1996)
for ‘ontological structuralists’ - the appeal to human needs and capacities is ruled inadmissible in the court of political analysis
those convinced of a separation of appearance and reality—such that we cannot trust our senses to reveal to us that which is real as distinct from that which merely presents itself to us as if it were real
political analysis is likely to be a rather more complex and methodologically exacting process than for those prepared to accept that reality presents itself to us in a direct and unmediated fashion
Political ontology (3)
Questions of political ontology
what is the polity made of?
what are its constituents and how do they hang together?
what kinds of general principles govern its functioning, and its
change?
what is the nature of political causation?
what drives political actors and what mental capacities do they
possess?
do individual preferences and social institutions exist, and in what
sense?
are (any of) these things historically and culturally invariant
universals, or are they relative to context?
Political ontology (4)
Analytical agenda for political ontology
no political analysis can proceed in the absence of assumptions about political ontology
the relationship between structure and agency, context, and conduct
the extent of the causal and/or constitutive role of ideas in the determination of political outcomes
the extent to which social and political systems exhibit organic qualities or are reducible in all characteristics to the sum of their constituent units/parts
the (dualistic or dialectical) relationship between mind and body
Political ontology (5)
whether we like it or not, and whether we choose to acknowledge it or not, we make ontological assumptions—in Wendt’s terms, we ‘do’ ontology.
assumptions profoundly shape our approach to political analysis and cannot simply be justified by appeal to an evidential base
… so, why is it important?
ontological assumptions - the subject of the political analyst’s attentions for their epistemological and methodological consequences
Epistemology
defined as the study (or science) of knowledge
refers ‘to the claims or assumptions made about the ways in which it is
possible to gain knowledge of reality’ (Blaikie1993)
Political ontology (6)
if the ontologist asks ‘what exists to be known?’ then the epistemologist asks ‘what are the conditions of acquiring knowledge of that which exists?
epistemology concerns itself with such issues as
the degree of certainty we might legitimately claim for the conclusions we are tempted to draw from our analyses
the extent to which specific knowledge claims might be generalized beyond the immediate context in which our observations were made
how we might adjudicate and defend a preference between contending political explanations
epistemological assumptions as ontologically loaded
whether knowledge is transferable between different settings for political analysis and hence whether we can legitimately generalize between “cases” (an epistemological consideration) depends on (prior) assumptions about the ontological specificity of such settings
Political ontology (7)
the implications of ontological choices are not confined to epistemology; they are also methodological
Methodology
relates to the choice of analytical strategy and research design which underpins substantive research
methodology establishes the principles which might guide the choice of method
should not be confused with the methods and techniques of research themselves
the means by which we reflect upon the methods appropriate to realize fully our potential to acquire knowledge of that which exists
Political ontology (8)
Ontology, epistemology, and methodology
closely related, yet irreducible
ontology relates to the nature of the social and political world
epistemology to what we can know about it
methodology to how we might go about acquiring that knowledge
their relationship is also directional
ontology logically precedes epistemology which logically precedes methodology
cannot know what we are capable of knowing (epistemology) until such time as we have settled on (a set of assumptions about) the nature of the context in which that knowledge must be acquired (ontology)
cannot decide upon an appropriate set of strategies for interrogating political processes (methodology) until we have settled upon the limits of our capacity to acquire knowledge of such processes (epistemology) and the nature of such processes themselves (ontology)
Political ontology (9)
Illusory conception of impartiality
as disinterested and dispassionate observers of an external (political) reality existing independently of our conceptions of it
we are, at best, partisan participant observers
there is no neutral vantagepoint from which the political can be
viewed objectively
the ideas we fashion of the political context we inhabit influence
our actions and the unfolding dynamics of that political context
Political ontology (10)
Status of Ontological Claims
questions of ontology - the structure–agency and material–ideational relationships in political science
issue of structure and agency
claims as to the relative significance of structural and agential factors are founded on ontological assumptions as to the nature of a social and political reality
to insist that such claims can be resolved by appeal to the evidence is to conflate the empirical and the ontological
any given and agreed set of empirical observations can be accounted for in more or less agential, more or less structural terms
Political ontology (11)
if the relative significance of structural and agential, ideational, and material factors cannot be established empirically, then we must seek to avoid all claims which suggest that it might
Ontological Disputes in Political Analysis
questions of the relationship between individuals and social collectivities and between structure and agency
question of the relationship between the material and the ideational
Individual–Group Relationship
can collective actors (states, political parties, social movements, classes, and so forth) realistically, or just usefully, be said to exist?
Political ontology (12)
if so, is their character or nature reducible to the aggregation of the constituent units (generally individual actors) from which they are forged?
are such entities (if that is what they are) appropriate subjects of political analysis
Two mutually exclusive positions – ‘individualism’ and ‘holism’
ontological individualism - the doctrine that ‘social groups are nothing over and above the individuals who are their members’ (Gilbert 1989)
associated with ‘everyday collectivity concepts’ (states, classes, parties, and other groups) ‘are analysable without remainder in terms of concepts other than collectivity concepts, in particular, in terms of the concept of an individual person, his [sic] goals, beliefs and so on’ (Gilbert 1989)
Political ontology (13)
holism – the doctrine that ‘social groups exist in their own right’ (Fay 1989)
less a belief in the organic nature of social and political reality than the dogmatic assertion that the task of social and political analysts is exclusively to document the (causal) role of social, i.e. holistic, phenomena, processes, and dynamics (Ryan 1970)
‘rational choice theory’ as defence of methodological individualism
claim that ‘the elementary unit of social life is the individual human action’ (Elster 1989)
‘to explain social institutions and social change is to show how they arise as the result of the action and interaction of individuals’ (Elster 1989)
Political ontology (14)
contemporary rational choice theorists seem prepared to accept the ontological irrealism of rational choice assumptions
rational choice institutionalists move from an absolute towards a ‘bounded’ (context dependent) conception of rationality
if the stylized rational actor’s utility- and/or preference-function is a product of her context, role, or systemic function (as in much contemporary rational choice institutionalism), then to explain her behavior or to predict the consequences of her behavior in terms of such a utility/preference-function is no longer to subscribe to a methodological individualism
Political ontology (15)
Position between antagonistic extremes
adopted by a growing number of political analysts
a social whole is ‘not merely the sum of its parts’
there are ‘holistic properties’ of such social wholes
these ‘can sensibly be said to belong to the whole and not to any of the parts’
dismantle the whole and we are left with the parts and ‘some mysterious property which formerly held the whole thing together’ (Ryan 1970)
Part II Politology of ethics (1)
Politology begins with the question ‘what ought to be a person's relationship to society?’
seeks the application of ethical concepts to the social sphere and deals with the
variety of forms of government and social existence that people could live in
provides a standard by which to analyze and judge existing institutions and relationships
generates visions of the ‘good social life’ - of what ought to be the ruling set of values and institutions that combine men and women together
distinguished from political science
Political science deals with existing states of affairs
seeks a positive analysis of social affairs
for example, constitutional issues, voting behavior, the balance of power, the effect of judicial review, and so forth
Politology of Ethics (2)
Ethical foundations
political thought has its beginnings in ethics
questions such as what kind of life is the good life for human beings
since people are by nature sociable – the question is ‘what kind of life is proper for a person amongst people?’
ethical utilitarians claim that the good is characterized by seeking (that is, attempting to bring about) ‘the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number’
in the political realm they support the erection of those institutions whose purpose is to secure the greatest happiness for the greatest number
Politology of ethics (3)
ethical deontologists claim that the highest good is served by our application of duties (to the right or to others) and acknowledge the justification of those institutions that best serve the employment of duties
a stance that merges with human rights theorists’ emphasis on the role of rights (to or from actions and/or things)
ethical relativists advocate a plurality of institutions (within a nation or around the world)
ethical objectivists condemn those seen as lacking a universally morally proper purpose (for example, those that support certain inalienable rights)
Politology of ethics (4)
Ethics in political thought - theorizing about
the nature of reality
how we know things
how we do things
how we interact with others
status of the individual - the ethical ‘person’
Schools of thought
those who deem the individual person as sacrosanct ethically and thus politically
those who consider the individual to be a member of a group and for whom the group takes on a sacred status
Part III Methodological issues (1)
Key question - should the group or the individual be the political unit of analysis?
the language used by the opposing thinkers to describe the political primacy of their entity (that is, individual or group)
alters throughout history depending on other competing or complementing concepts
today the division is best characterized by the ‘rights of the individual’ versus the ‘rights of the group’
other terms include: the dignity of the individual; the duties and obligations owing to the group; the autonomy or self-determination of the group or individual
these in turn resolve into particular and applied issues concerning the role of cultural, racial, religious, and sexual orientations
Methodological issues (2)
Debate between communitarians and liberals
debate the middle ground of rights and obligations as they stretch between groups and individuals
political thought deals with social institutions since people are sociable
both seek to examine and evaluate the social-ethical realms of
selfhood, friendship, family, property, exchange, money (that is, indirect exchange), community, tribe, race, association, and the state (and its various branches) – and accordingly the individual’s relationship with each
Methodological issues (3)
Metaphysical division on the appropriate unit of study
methodological individualists
seek to explain social actions and behavior in terms of individual action – and politically are known as individualists
claim that a society (or culture, people, nation) is no more than the sum of its living members
methodological holists
seek to explain behavior by considering the nature of the group
argue that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts
in the political realm is translated into the state being greater than the citizenry, or the race, folk, or people being greater than the individual
politically, holism translates into the general theory known as ‘collectivism’
all collectivist theories deny or lessen the value and authority of the individual in relation to the higher status accorded a collective entity
Methodological issues (4)
theological-political thought
denies any primacy to the individual or to the group in favor of the supreme status of the divine realm
also split between individualist and holist conceptions of the individual (or of the soul)
Role of reason in social affairs
political rationalism
emphasizes the employment of reason in social affairs - individuals ought to submit to the logic and universality of reason rather than to their own subjective or cultural preconceptions
rationalists argue that reason unifies humanity politically and hence is a conducive vehicle to peace
Methodological issues (5)
irrationalists
downplay the efficacy of reason in our human affairs or more particularly in our social affairs
range of alternatives are put forward in reason’s stead: emotions; cultural, religious, or class expectations; atavistic symbols; or mystical forms of intuition or knowledge
criticize rationalists for ignoring the subtle wisdom of intellectual and social heritage that lies beneath contemporary society or which is deemed necessary for the reasoning mind
politically, they consider the demands of reason to be ‘rationalizations’ of a particular culture (usually the criticism is leveled against the West) rather than demands that are universal or universalizable claiming that political solutions that appear rational to one group cannot necessarily be translated as solutions for another group
translates into conservativism, a philosophical stance that is skeptical of rationalist designs (say to overthrow all political institutions so as to begin ‘afresh’ according to some utopian blueprint) and which emphasizes the continuity of wisdom – as contained in institutions and the language of politics – over the generations and in specific localities
Part III Political ideologies (1)
Key questions
any (implied) connections to ethics?
does the ideology emphasize the primacy of reason in social affairs?
or does it underplay the role of reason in political affairs in favor of the forces of history, heritage, emotional or tribal predispositions?
Liberalism
classical_ pro-individualist theory of people and government
reform_a pro-statist or a ‘social democratic’ conception
Political ideologies (2)
Conservatism
downplays the unifying or omniscient implications of liberalism and its unifying rationalism
accords institutions or modes of behavior that have weathered the centuries a greater respect than liberals
politically cautious in tampering with forms of political behavior and institutions
skeptical of whole scale reforms
err on the side of tradition, but not for tradition’s sake, but from a skeptical view of our human ability to redesign whole ranges of social values that have evolved over and adapted to many generations
Political ideologies (3)
Socialism
the public ownership and control of the means of production
either because central ownership is deemed more efficient and/or more moral
capitalism (free-market conservativism or liberalism) as morally and politically flawed
socialists of the Marxist persuasion argue that socialism is the final historical era that supplants capitalism before proper communism emerges (a ‘historicist’ conception)
Political ideologies (4)
Environmentalism
does not concern itself with the rights of people or of society, but of the rights of the planet and other species
considers our place on earth to be of secondary importance to that of the natural world
calls to stop pillaging the earth’s resources by either prohibiting further exploitation or at least slowing its rate - sustainable resource management
in its ‘weaker’ forms - claims that human beings are custodians of nature, to whom we must show respect and have even ethical and political obligations
obligations akin to those some theological positions hold of people to their God and to the natural world
implies that humans are accorded an equal ethical status as that of other living species – as a primus inter pares
Political ideologies (5)
its ‘stronger’ form condemns the very existence of humanity as the perennial destroyer of all that is good
people are the source of unending ‘evils’ committed against the world
applied issues include pollution, vivisection, hunting, the domestication of animals, the eating of meat, and the desecration of the landscape
ethical intrinsicism – the theory that all species possess an intrinsic/innate value independent of any other entity’s relationship to them
criticisms against this argument asking what the moral relationship between a predator and its victim is or ought to be
does the mouse have a right not to be caught by the cat and is the cat a murderer for killing the mouse?
Political ideologies (6)
Post-modernism
claims that situations considered political in nature can not be adequately discussed in traditional realist and liberal approaches
argues that there are no fixed categories, stable sets of values, or common sense meanings to be understood in their scholarly exploration
people resist realist concepts of power they see as repressive in order to maintain a claim on their own identity
claims the aspects of power resisted is that which forces individuals to take a single (‘autonomous’) identity or to be subject to a particular interpretation
meaning and interpretation is always uncertain; arbitrary in fact
Political ideologies (7)
deconstructionism attempts to reveal the ambiguity of texts
especially Western texts, how the texts themselves can be seen as "sites of conflict" within a given culture or worldview
attempts to uncover evidence of ancient cultural biases, conflicts, lies, tyrannies, and power structures
such as the tensions and ambiguity between peace and war, lord and subject, male and female
seek to achieve their vision for the West by dismantling the present socio-political-economic system
replacing the foundational ideas of individual liberty and the rule of law based on God’s moral order with postmodern politics -- the concepts of identity politics and social justice
Keywords
ontological assumptions
ontological individualism
ontological holism
ethical foundations
methodological individualists
methodological holists
irrationalists
conservatism
environmentalism
deconstructionism
