Topic: Autobiographical Psychosocial History

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LEARNING

PSYCH 150

Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioral change.

Learning is the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior.

Conditioning

A simple form of learning in which a specific pattern of behaviors is learned in the presence of well-defined stimuli.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s method of conditioning in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus.

Classical conditioning involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus. There are four basic elements to this transfer: The unconditioned stimulus (US), often food, invariably causes an organism to respond in a specific way. The unconditioned response (UR) is the reaction (such as salivation) that always results from the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus (such as a bell) that does not initially bring about the desired response; over the course of conditioning, however, the CS comes to produce the desired response when presented alone. Finally, the conditioned response (CR) is the behavior that the organism learns to exhibit in the presence of a conditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning is concerned with involuntary behavior that invariably follows a particular event. The behavior in operant conditioning is voluntary, rather than triggered by outside events. A number of phenomena characterize both classical conditioning and operant conditioning, and there are several terms and concepts common to both kinds of learning.

In classical conditioning, responses occur naturally and automatically in the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. During the phase of the learning process called response acquisition, these naturally occurring responses are attached to the conditioned stimulus by pairing that stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. Intermittent pairing reduces both the rate of learning and the final level of learning achieved.

Stimulus generalization occurs when a response spreads from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble the original (responding to any bell sound, no matter what pitch)

If stimulus generalization had occurred with someone who had learned to be afraid of the ocean, what other things could cause a fear response in that person? (a lake, river, bathtub, pool)

Discrimination is the ability to respond differently to distinct stimuli. (only responding to one type of bell)

In classical conditioning, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.

Extinction the gradual loss of an association over time. The conditioned response (CR) will gradually die out

In psychology, extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing.

In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone without an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will eventually cease. For example, in Pavlov's classic research, a dog was conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell. When the bell was presented repeatedly without the presentation of food, the salivation response eventually became extinct.

Little Albert experiment conducted by John Watson proved that conditioning of emotions to neutral objects is possible

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a little boy, Albert, to fear white rats by making a loud, frightening noise every time the boy was shown a rat. Using much the same principle,

Watson showed that fear can be learned through classical conditioning (ex. Sound of a gun shot can cause fear in war vets)

Albert was shown a white rat and several other animals. At first Albert was not afraid. Then, the experimenter began making a loud noise behind Albert every time he saw the white rat. Eventually Albert feared the rat without the loud noise. Soon Albert feared all the animals = stimulus generalization.

Mary Cover Jones developed a method for unlearning fears: She paired the sight of a caged rat, at gradually decreasing distances, with a child's pleasant experience of eating candy. This method evolved into desensitization therapy, a conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND ADVERTISING

Before we have heard of a product, it is Neutral. If we associate the product (N) with pleasant images (UCS), which produce pleasant feelings (UCR), the product (CS) will later create pleasant feelings (CR).

Ways in which classical conditioning helps sell…

Pairing popular music together with products in ads to generate positive feelings

Consistently advertising a product on an exciting game show may result in the product itself generating excitement

Christmas music played in a story may trigger happy memories in a consumer’s mind persuading them to enter the store.

Let’s say you have a beverage commercial that includes barely clothed models drinking the product. Conditioning is taking place.

Neutral: beverage product

UCS: barely clothed models

UCR: pleasant feelings

CS: the product

CR: pleasant feelings

Generate a list of 5 – 10 things that they have learned through classical conditioning in their lives. Pick one and try to identify the UCS, UCR, CS, CR.

Food and Classical Conditioning

Taste-aversion - associating a (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular (smell, taste, sound, or sight) in the future.

Helps rats learn not to eat poison.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in behavioral change

Imagine the last time you made a mistake; you most likely remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation comes up again. In that sense, you’ve learned to act differently based on the natural consequences of your previous actions

Operant Conditioning involves learned voluntary responses (ones we control)

B.F. Skinner is best known for his work with the operant conditioning theory.

Believed that how we turn out is a direct result of what we learn from all of the operations (operant) that we make over the years

Skinner

Box

In operant conditioning, response acquisition refers to the phase of the learning process in which desired responses are followed by reinforcers. A Skinner box is often used to limit the range of available responses and thus increase the likelihood that the desired response will occur. To speed up this process and make the occurrence of a desired response more likely, motivation may be increased by letting the animal become hungry; the number of potential responses may also be reduced by restricting the animal's environment.

An operant conditioning chamber permits experimenters to study behavior conditioning (training) by teaching a subject animal to perform certain actions (like pressing a lever) in response to specific stimuli, such as a light or sound signal. When the subject correctly performs the behavior, the chamber mechanism delivers food or another reward. In some cases, the mechanism delivers a punishment for incorrect or missing responses.

Reinforcement is something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency to repeat that response

PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS

Primary reinforcement is something that is necessary for survival. Ex: food or water

Secondary reinforcement is a stimulus that we have learned to value (linked to a primary reinforcer)

There are several kinds of reinforcers; all of them strengthen behavior just as steel rods reinforce or strengthen concrete.

When a contractor reinforces something, he is strengthening it.

In operant conditioning, neutral stimuli can become reinforcers by being paired or associated with other reinforcers. A primary reinforcer is one that, like food and water, is rewarding in and of itself. A secondary reinforcer is one whose value is learned through its association with primary reinforcers or with other secondary reinforcers. Money is an example of a secondary reinforcer---in and of itself, it is not rewarding; it is valuable only for what it can buy.

Primary Reinforcement Examples:

Dessert as a reward for eating vegetables

Dolphin gets a fish for performing trick

A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced. In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all. Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal of reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.

In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every time they occur. For situations where you are purposely trying to train and reinforce an action, such as in the classroom, in sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a specific reinforcement schedule. As you'll see below, some schedules are best suited to certain types of training situations. In some cases, training might call for starting out with one schedule and switching to another once the desired behavior has been taught.

Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction.

There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:

Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after it presses a bar five times.

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. In a lab setting, this might involved delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and a third pellet after two bar presses.

Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of this in a lab setting would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the first bar press after a 30 second interval has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response. An example of this would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a one minute interval, another pellet for the first response following a five minute interval, and a third food pellet for the first response following a three minute interval.

Choosing a Schedule

Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. In cases where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Once the behavior has been learned, switching to a partial chedule is often preferable.

Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs can be difficult and requires a great deal of attention and resources. Partial schedules not only tend to lead to behaviors that are more resistant to extinction, they also reduce the risk that the subject will become satiated. If the reinforcer being used is no longer desired or rewarding, the subject may stop performing the desired behavior. For example, imagine that you are trying to teach a dog to sit. If you are using food as a reward, the dog might stop performing the action once he is full. In such instances, something like praise or attention might be a more effective reinforcer.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement is more successful when it DOES NOT follow every desired behavior

INTERVAL SCHEDULES deal with the amount of TIME that elapses

RATIO SCHEDULES deal with BEHAVIORS or a certain # OF CORRECT RESPONSES

In operant conditioning, response contingencies are usually referred to as schedules of reinforcement. We rarely receive reinforcement every time we do something. Interestingly, it turns out that partial reinforcement, in which rewards are given for some correct responses but not for every one---results in behavior that persists longer than that learned by continuous reinforcement. The schedule of reinforcement specifies when a reinforcer will be delivered. Reinforcers may be provided on the basis of time since the last reinforcement (the interval between reinforcements). Or reinforcement may depend on the number of correct responses since the last reinforcement (the ratio of reinforcement per correct response).

Variable ratios schedule is when an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained. Ex. slot machines.

In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement follows a varying number of correct responses.

Fixed ratio schedule a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained. Ex. Buy 10 haircuts get 1 free.

In a fixed-ratio schedule, behavior is rewarded each time a fixed number of correct responses is given

Variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time. Ex. Fishing and catching a fish after varying amounts of time

A variable-interval schedule reinforces the learner for the first correct response that occurs after various periods of time, so the subject never knows exactly when a reward is going to be delivered.

Fixed interval schedule is when the reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time has passed. Ex. You get allowance or paid every other Friday.

Intervals are dealing with time.

A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement of the first correct response after a fixed, unchanging period of time.

Shaping is the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer versions of it. (teach animals tricks) or (learn a new skill)

Negative reinforcement is when something that is unpleasant is stopped or taken away when something is done

Reinforcement always strengthens a response, rather than weakening it.

Headache stops when you take Tylenol so you strengthened the behavior of taking Tylenol

Punishment involves decreasing the frequency of a behavior.

Punishment always weakens a response, rather than strengthening it.

Although all reinforcers (both positive and negative) increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again, punishment is any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur. Reinforcement always strengthens behavior; punishment weakens it.

	POSITIVE (ADDED)	NEGATIVE (SUBTRACTED)
REINFORCEMENT (STRENGTHENS)	Clean the house and earn $5 a coach pats you on the back after a good play a paycheck for working $10 for getting an “A” on your report card Senior privilege for maintaining good grades	You buy your child ice cream so they stop nagging You leave early for school to avoid traffic You take Tylenol to remove back pain
PUNISHMENT (WEAKENS)	You get your mouth washed out with soap when you curse Touch and hot stove and get burned Getting a ticket for speeding	You lose your driving privileges for breaking curfew Time out, or the loss of freedom to combat bad behavior You pay money for a speeding ticket

Extinction

In operant conditioning, extinction can occur if the trained behavior is no longer reinforced or if the type of reinforcement used is no longer rewarding.

In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced following a discriminative stimulus. B. F. Skinner described how he first observed this phenomenon:

"My first extinction curve showed up by accident. A rat was pressing the lever in an experiment on satiation when the pellet dispenser jammed. I was not there at the time, and when I returned I found a beautiful curve. The rat had gone on pressing although no pellets were received. ... The change was more orderly than the extinction of a salivary reflex in Pavlov's setting, and I was terribly excited. It was a Friday afternoon and there was no one in the laboratory who I could tell. All that weekend I crossed streets with particular care and avoided all unnecessary risks to protect my discovery from loss through my accidental death."

Social Learning

The process of altering behavior by observing and imitating others. Includes cognitive learning & Modeling

Cognitive Learning – involves mental process and may involve observation and imitation

Social learning theory argues that we learn not just from firsthand experience, but also from watching others or by hearing about something.

Modeling – learning by imitating/copying

Bobo-Doll Experiment

Bandura demonstrated that children learn aggressive behaviors by watching an adult’s aggressive behaviors.

Albert Bandura contends that observational (or vicarious) learning accounts for many aspects of human learning. His highly influential theory of learning holds that although reinforcement is unrelated to learning itself, reinforcement may influence whether learned behavior is actually displayed. Such observational learning stresses the importance of models in our lives. To imitate a model's behavior, we must (1) pay attention to what the model does; (2) remember what the model did; and (3) convert what we learned from the model into action. The extent to which we display behaviors that have been learned through observation can be affected by vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment. Social cognitive theory emphasizes that learning a behavior from observing others does not necessarily lead to performing that behavior. We are more likely to imitate behaviors we have seen rewarded.

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."

-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

Remember: Social learning theory argues that we learn not just from firsthand experience, but also from watching others or by hearing about something.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mhe6p3Xkzt0

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

Basic Social Learning Concepts

Learning through Observation

Internal Mental States are essential

Just because something is learned does not mean a change in behavior

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

People can learn through observation.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.

A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.

A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.

In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement…

Internal rewards such as…

Pride

Satisfaction

Sense of Accomplishment

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories.

It is important to note that while many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling Process

Attention:

In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

Retention:

The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

The Modeling Process

Reproduction:

Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation:

Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. **

**For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important implication in the field of eduction. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.

Questions to Ponder

When facing a challenge, do you feel like you can rise up and accomplish your goal or do you give up in defeat? Are you like the famous little train engine from the classic children's book ("I think I can, I think I can!), or do you doubt your own abilities to rise up and overcome the difficulties that life throws your way?

According to Bandura, a person’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy plays is an essential part of this self-system.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjrEdiodxuE

What is Self-Efficacy?

According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is:

“The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations."

In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (1994).

Since Bandura published his seminal 1977 paper, "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change," the subject has become one of the most studied topics in psychology.

Question

Why has self-efficacy become such an important topic among psychologists and educators?

As Bandura and other researchers have demonstrated, self-efficacy can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behavior to motivation.

The Role of Self Efficacy

Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would like to change, and things they would like to achieve.

However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action is not quite so simple.

Bandura and others have found that an individual’s self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.

People with a strong sense of self-efficacy

View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered

Develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate

Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities

Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments

People with a weak sense of self-efficacy

Avoid challenging tasks

Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities

Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes

Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities

Sources of Self-Efficacy

How does self-efficacy develop?**

According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy

These beliefs begin to form in early childhood as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and situations. However, the growth of self-efficacy does not end during youth, but continues to evolve throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding.

Mastery Experiences

"The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences," Bandura explained.

Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy.

However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy.

Social Modeling

Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy.

According to Bandura, "Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed."

Social Persuasion

Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed.

Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal.

Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand.

Psychological Responses

Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self-efficacy.

Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. **

**For example, a person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations.

However, Bandura also notes "it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted."

By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-efficacy.

Your turn….

Do you have a high or low level of self efficacy?

We will take a brief in-class self efficacy inventory. You will be able to see from your score, what your self efficacy level is.