Week 4 - Discussion Forum 2

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1.1 Leadership Explained At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is leadership? Scholars who study leadership have struggled with this question for many decades and have written a great deal about the nature of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Conger & Riggio, 2007). (See Box 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i727) .) In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader.

“Leadership Is a Trait”

First, leadership is thought of as a trait. A trait (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5270) is a distinguishing quality of an individual, and defining leadership as a trait means that each individual brings to the table certain qualities that influence the way he or she leads. Some leaders are confident, some are decisive, and still others are outgoing and sociable. Saying that leadership is a trait places a great deal of emphasis on the leader and on the leader’s special gifts. It follows the often-expressed belief that “leaders are born, not made”— that leadership is innate rather than learned. Some argue that focusing on traits makes leadership an elitist enterprise because it implies that only a few people with special talents will lead. Although there may be some truth to this argument, it can also be argued that all of us are born with a wide array of unique traits, many of which can have a positive impact on our leadership. It also may be possible to modify or change some traits.

Box 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership

Leadership has long intrigued humankind and has been the topic of extensive literature for centuries. The earliest writings include philosophies of leadership such as Machiavelli’s The Prince (1531/2005) and biographies of great leaders. With the development of the social sciences during the 20th century, inquiry into leadership became prolific. Studies on leadership have emerged from every discipline “that has had some interest in the subject of leadership: anthropology, business administration, educational administration, history, military science, nursing administration, organizational behavior, philosophy, political science, public administration, psychology, sociology, and theology” (Rost, 1991, p. 45).

As a result, there are many different leadership approaches and theories. While the words are often used interchangeably, approaches and theories are different conceptually. An approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5148) is a general way of thinking about a phenomenon, not necessarily based on empirical research. A theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5266) usually includes a set of hypotheses, principles, or laws that explain a given phenomenon. Theories are more refined and can provide a predictive framework in analyzing the phenomenon. For example, the spiritual leadership approach is a conceptualization of leadership that does not yet have a body of empirical research to validate it, while contingency leadership theory has a refined set of propositions based on the results of multiple research studies.

Not unlike fashion, approaches to and theories of leadership have evolved, changed focus and direction, and built upon one another during the past century. To understand this evolution, a brief historical view

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can be helpful:

Trait Theories The early trait approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5271) focused on identifying the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military leaders such as Catherine the Great, Mohandas Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Moses, and Joan of Arc. Also called “Great Man” theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5200) , these studies of leadership traits were especially strong from 1900 to the early 1940s and enjoyed a renewed emphasis beginning in the 1970s as researchers began to examine visionary and charismatic leadership. In the 1980s, researchers linked leadership to the “Big Five” personality factors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5154) while interest in emotional intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5186) as a trait gained favor in the 1990s. (For a discussion of emotional intelligence as a leadership skill, see Chapter 5, pages 101–113.)

Behavior Theories In the late 1930s, leadership research began to focus on behavior—what leaders do and how they act. Groundbreaking studies by researchers at The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan in the 1940s and 1950s analyzed how leaders acted in small group situations. The behavior approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5153) hit its heyday in the early 1960s with Blake and Moulton’s (1964) work exploring how managers use task (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5262) and relationship behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5241) in the organizational setting.

Situational Theories The premise of these theories is that different situations demand different kinds of leadership. Serious examination of the situational role in leadership began in the late 1960s by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) and Reddin (1967). Situational approaches continued to be refined and revised from the 1970s through the 1990s (Vecchio, 1987). One of these, path–goal theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5226) , examines how leaders use employee motivation to enhance performance and satisfaction. Another approach, contingency theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5178) , focuses on the match between the leader’s style and specific situational variables.

Relational Theories In the 1990s, researchers began examining the nature of relations between leaders and followers. This research ultimately evolved into the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5210) . LMX theory predicts that high-quality relations generate more positive leader outcomes than low-quality relations. Research in the relational approach

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5239) to leadership continues to generate moderate interest today.

“New Leadership” Approaches When these approaches began appearing in the mid-1980s—three decades ago—they were, and continue to be, called “new leadership” approaches (Bryman, 1992). Beginning with the work of Bass (1985, 1990), leadership studies generated visionary or charismatic leadership theories. From these approaches developed transformational leadership theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5272) , which describes leadership as a process that changes people and organizations.

Emerging Leadership Approaches A diverse range of approaches to leadership is emerging during the 21st century:

Adaptive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5146) examines how leaders help people address problems, face challenges, and adapt to change. Adaptive leadership stresses that the leaders don’t solve the problems but, rather, encourage others to do the problem solving and adapt to change.

Authentic leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5150) is an approach that looks at the authenticity of leaders and their leadership and is currently enjoying strong interest.

Spiritual leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5252) considers how leaders use values, a sense of “calling,” and membership to motivate followers.

Servant leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5244) emphasizes the “caring principle” with leaders as “servants” who focus on their followers’ needs in order to help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and like servants themselves.

Gender-based studies (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5198) , which have gained much momentum as women continue to become more dominant in the workforce, especially on a global level, view how one’s gender affects and differentiates one’s leadership.

Ethical leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5191) has been thought about for millennia in terms of a leader’s character, duties, decision making, and decision outcomes. It has recently come to center stage out of concern about dishonest or unethical behavior occurring within organizations and professions.

Connective leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5174) , developed by Lipman-Blumen (2000), recognizes that there are connections and interdependence between individuals and groups with diverse—and potentially conflicting—backgrounds, talents, and agendas. Connective leaders identify the mutual concerns and needs of diverse groups and help them to come together to develop understanding of one another and work toward mutual goals using a productive, collaborative approach.

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The historical timeline in Figure 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i757) is not intended to represent these approaches as separate and distinct eras, only to disappear from the picture when a new theory appears. Instead, many of these theories and approaches occur concurrently, building upon one another. Even when a certain approach’s period of popularity has waned, the theory continues to influence further study and the development of new leadership approaches.

Description (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 20#s9781544351636-fig-1-1-longdesc) Figure 1.1 Development of Leadership Theories Through History

Source: Adapted from Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2004). The nature of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 7.

Through the years, researchers have identified a multitude of traits that are associated with leadership. In Chapter 2 (s9781544351636.i929.xhtml) , we will discuss some key leadership traits, and in Chapter 6, we will explain how strengths-based leadership is a variation of trait leadership. Although there are many important leadership traits, what is most important for leaders is having the required traits that a particular situation demands. For example, a chaotic emergency room at a hospital requires a leader who is insightful and decisive and can bring calm to the situation. Conversely, a high school classroom in which students are bored demands a teacher who is inspiring and creative. Effective leadership results when the leader engages the right traits in the right place at the right time.

“Leadership Is an Ability”

In addition to being thought of as a trait, leadership is conceptualized as an ability. A person who has leadership ability (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5142) is able to be a leader—that is, has the capacity to lead. While the term ability frequently refers to a natural capacity, ability can be acquired. For example, some people are naturally good at public speaking, while others rehearse to become comfortable speaking in public. Similarly, some people have the natural physical ability to excel in a sport, while others develop their athletic capacity through exercise and practice. In leadership, some people have the natural ability to lead, while others develop their leadership abilities through hard work and practice.

An example of leadership as ability is the legendary University of California at Los Angeles basketball coach John Wooden, whose teams won seven consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association titles. Described

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first as a teacher and then as a coach, Wooden implemented four laws of learning into his coaching: explanation, demonstration, imitation, and repetition. His goal was to teach players how to do the right thing instinctively under great pressure. Less visible or well known, but also an example of leadership as ability, is the unheralded but highly effective restaurant manager who, through years of experience and learning, is able to create a successful, award-winning restaurant. In both of these examples, it is the individuals’ abilities that create outstanding leadership.

“Leadership Is a Skill”

Third, leadership is a skill. Conceptualized as a skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5247) , leadership is a competency developed to accomplish a task effectively. Skilled leaders are competent people who know the means and methods for carrying out their responsibilities. For example, a skilled leader in a fund-raising campaign knows every step and procedure in the fund-raising process and is able to use this knowledge to run an effective campaign. In short, skilled leaders are competent—they know what they need to do, and they know how to do it.

Describing leadership as a skill makes leadership available to everyone because skills are competencies that people can learn or develop. Even without natural leadership ability, people can improve their leadership with practice, instruction, and feedback from others. Viewed as a skill, leadership can be studied and learned. If you are capable of learning from experience, you can acquire leadership.

“Leadership Is a Behavior”

Leadership is also a behavior. It is what leaders do when they are in a leadership role. The behavioral dimension is concerned with how leaders act toward others in various situations. Unlike traits, abilities, and skills, leadership behaviors are observable. When someone leads, we see that person’s leadership behavior.

Research on leadership has shown that leaders engage primarily in two kinds of general behaviors: task behaviors and process behaviors. Task behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5262) are used by leaders to get the job done (e.g., a leader prepares an agenda for a meeting). Relationship (process) behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-78#s9781544351636.i5241) are used by leaders to help people feel comfortable with other group members and at ease in the situations in which they find themselves (e.g., a leader helps individuals in a group to feel included). Since leadership requires both task and process behaviors, the challenge for leaders is to know the best way to combine them in their efforts to reach a goal.

“Leadership Is a Relationship”

Another, and a somewhat unusual, way to think about leadership is as a relationship. From a relational perspective, leadership is centered on the communication between leaders and followers rather than on the unique qualities of the leader. Thought of as a relationship, leadership becomes a process of collaboration that occurs between leaders and followers (Rost, 1991). A leader affects and is affected by followers, and both leader and followers are affected in turn by the situation that surrounds them. This approach emphasizes that leadership is not a linear one-way event, but rather an interactive event. In traditional leadership, authority is often top

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down; in the interactive type of leadership, authority and influence are shared. When leadership is defined in this manner, it becomes available to everyone. It is not restricted to the formally designated leader in a group.

For example, a team marketing project may involve a designated team leader, but all the idea generation, planning, problem solving, and decision making might be made jointly, with active input from all members. When the final proposal is presented to the client, everyone’s contribution is reflected.

Thinking of leadership as a relationship suggests that leaders must include followers and their interests in the process of leadership. A leader needs to be fully aware of the followers and the followers’ interests, ideas, positions, attitudes, and motivations. In addition, this approach has an ethical overtone because it stresses the need for leaders to work with followers to achieve their mutual purposes. Stressing mutuality lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that are forced or unethical. It also increases the possibility that leaders and followers will work together toward a common good (Rost, 1991).

The premise of working toward a common good is embodied in the work of Susan R. Komives and her colleagues (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2013; Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2016), particularly in the area of civic engagement. Komives et al.’s work is geared toward student leaders and how to empower them to make a difference. She and her coauthors envision leadership as a relationship among multiple partners, but with the additional goal of attempting to accomplish positive change in an ethical manner.

According to Komives, Lucas, and McMahon (2013), civic engagement entails “the sense of personal responsibility individuals should feel to uphold their obligations, as part of any community” (p. 24). This can include watching out for elderly or vulnerable neighbors, creating a positive climate in the workplace, cleaning up roadsides with a group of friends, confronting unjust treatment of others when you observe it, and just generally contributing to the public good.

The concept of civic engagement is also at the heart of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development developed in the mid-1990s (Astin, 1996; Bounous-Hammarth, 2001; HERI, 1996). The model depicts leadership as a connective and collaborative process based on seven values, each of which begins with the letter C (Table 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint-13#s9781544351636.i776) ). The “seven Cs” are values that enable people to get to the goal, to accomplish positive change. “Change means improving the status quo, creating a better world, while demonstrating a comfort with transition and ambiguity during the process” (Komives et al., 2016, p. 21).

“Leadership Is an Influence Process”

A final way of thinking about leadership is as an influence process. This is the perspective that will be emphasized in this book.

Leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Northouse.6443.20.1/sections/navpoint- 78#s9781544351636.i5211) is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.

Defining leadership as an influence process means that it is not a trait or an ability that resides in the leader, but rather an interactive event that occurs between the leader and the followers. Influence is central to the process of leadership because leaders affect followers. Leaders direct their energies toward influencing individuals to achieve something together. Stressing common goals gives leadership an ethical dimension because it lessens the possibility that leaders might act toward followers in ways that use coercion or are unethical.

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The Urban Farming Guys (2019) in Kansas City took this approach when moving into and revitalizing a run- down neighborhood in their city. They began with urban gardening, converting overgrown yards to food production; started aquaponics in their limited space; invited neighbors into the process; then started rehabbing houses, teaching gardening and construction skills to people, and creating community. No single individual is responsible; it is a collective effort and is making a difference.

Leadership vs. Management

Finally, in explaining what leadership is, it is important to make a distinction between leadership and management. Leadership and management are not the same. Management emerged out of the industrialization of work in the early 20th century, and its purpose is to structure and coordinate various functions within organizations (Northouse, 2019). In contrast, leadership has been studied for thousands of years, across multiple contexts—politics, the military, religion, and more.

Frederick Taylor was a key figure in the development of management theory. At the turn of the 20th century, Taylor pioneered the concept of the scientific management of labor. This involved measuring every detail of a worker’s tasks to make work more efficient, consistent, and predictable. According to Taylor, the responsibility of workers was to provide the labor, and the responsibilities of managers were to design the “one best way” for each task to be done, and then train, monitor, and evaluate each worker. This approach was applied to many U.S. industries in the first half of the 20th century and is still in use today in assembly lines, fast-food restaurants, and other industries (Modaff, Butler, & DeWine, 2017).

Management theory was further developed by Chester Barnard, whose work in the areas of cooperation and authority helps us understand how management and leadership can sometimes overlap. Barnard (1938) conceptualized two types of authority: authority of position, and authority of leadership. Authority of position is the power to direct the work of an individual, by someone in a higher position in an organization’s structure. Authority of leadership is based not on position, but ascribed to those in the organization who have the knowledge and ability needed for a task. Barnard argued that both types were necessary for organizations to function well (Modaff et al., 2017).

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Both leadership and management involve influence, but leadership is about seeking constructive change, and management is about establishing order. For example, it is often said that “managers are people who do things right, and leaders are people who do the right thing.” Since both leaders and managers are engaged in influencing people toward goal accomplishment, our discussion in this book will treat the roles of managers and leaders similarly and not emphasize the differences between them.