Unit I Ess

Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022 1

Advancing Traditional Leadership Theories by Incorporating Multicultural and

Workforce Diversity Leadership Traits, Behaviors, and Supporting Practices:

Implications for Organizational Leaders

Chaunda L. Scott

Oakland University

Laura B. Klein

Oakland University

Well-known and respected traditional leadership theories such as Transformational Leadership Theory

(Bass 1985, 1989, Authentic Leadership Theory (Luthans & Avolio 2003), and Distributed Leadership

Theory (Lumby, 2013) offer insight into the ways that leadership can be applied and practiced in various

organizational contexts. These traditional leadership theories are known for underscoring the kinds of

traits and behaviors that prospective and current leaders should possess to enhance their leadership

abilities and overall effectiveness. However, one area that is absent from traditional leadership theories is

a focus on the kinds of multicultural and workforce diversity leadership knowledge, skills, and abilities that

organizational leaders should possess to manage human diversity effectively in a variety organizational

setting. The aim of this paper is to: 1) summarize the role of three well-known traditional leadership

theories; 2) share examples of existing multicultural and workforce diversity frameworks that offer insights

for advancing traditional leadership theories; and 3) highlight the benefits of incorporating multicultural

and workforce diversity leadership traits, behaviors and supporting diversity practices into traditional

leadership theories.

Keywords: workforce diversity, organizational leadership, traditional leadership theories, workforce

diversity leadership, multicultural leadership

INTRODUCTION

Changing demographic trends globally over the past decades, along with rising harassment and

discrimination cases and complaints in society (Banks, 1989; Thomas, 1992; Cox, 1993; West, 1993;

Wentling and Palma-Riva, 1997; Gilbert, 2005; Byrd & Scott, 2018; Kendi, 2019) continue to inform

organizational leaders of the need for welcoming, respectful, and inclusive environments for all individuals

to thrive in. In responding to this concern, many educational institutions and organizations have embraced

the benefits of human diversity by creating multicultural education and workforce diversity frameworks

along with policy and practices to help individuals develop the competencies and skills for effectively

educating, working with, and leading individuals from diverse backgrounds (Banks, 1989; Thomas, 1992;

2 Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022

Cox, 1993: Howard-Hamilton, 2000; Petryk, Thompson, & Boynton, 2013; Banks, 2014; Hughes, 2016,

Byrd and Scott, 2018; Kendi, 2019).

Yet, despite these efforts, research continues to confirm that numerous problems still confront many

minorities, women, the disabled and immigrants in seeking to fully integrate into today’s society. For

example, stories of discrimination, racism, sexism, harassment, discomfort, alienation, frustration, and

overall lack of success in fully integrating into communities, educational intuitions, and organizations

persists (Banks, 1989 Thomas, 1991; Cox, 1993, West, 1993; Heymann & Sprague, 2017; Tseis, 2017;

Kendi, 2019). In this paper, the roles of transformational leadership theory, authentic leadership theory and

distributed leadership theory will be summarized along with examples of multicultural and workforce

diversity frameworks that offer insights for advancing the utility of the aforementioned traditional

leadership theories. This paper will conclude by highlighting the benefits of incorporating multicultural and

workforce diversity leadership traits, behaviors and supporting diversity practices into traditional leadership

theories.

A SUMMARY OF THREE TRADITIONAL THEORETICAL LEADERSHIP THEORIES

THOUGH THE LENS OF THE TRIANGULAR LEADERHIP MODEL

In a dissertation by Klein (2016), entitled Understanding the Experiences of Non-traditional University

Leadership in Higher Education: A Qualitative Study Using a Triangular Theoretical Approach, the

Triangular Leadership Model, developed by Klein, is introduced and shown in Figure 1. This theoretical

“triangle” framework includes: 1) transformational leadership theory, 2) authentic leadership theory, and

3) distributed leadership theory. The author asserts that all three theories are equally relevant and essential

for effective leadership.

FIGURE 1

THEORETICAL TRIANGULAR LEADERSHIP MODEL KLEIN (2016)

The Role of Transformational Leadership Theory

One of the most prevalent leadership theories researched over the past several decades is

transformational leadership. Transformational leadership stems from the work of political scientists and

sociologists and gained momentum as an approach to studying leadership when Burns introduced the term

transforming leadership in 1978. Transformational leadership is the process in which one person engages

another and elevates the level of motivation and morality in both parties (Burns, 1978; Northouse, 2004).

Distributed Leadership Theory Authentic Leadership Theory

Transformational Leadership Theory

Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022 3

Burns argues by raising the conduct and ethical aspirations, both leaders and followers are transformed

(1978). As such, the leader and the follower are connected and reliant on each other to raise performance.

According to Burns, “power bases are linked not as counterweights but as mutual support for a common

purpose” (p. 20). In turn, transformational leaders are able to identify the needs of followers by satisfying

higher ethical and motivational needs in order to engage the whole individual (Burns, 1978). As such,

transformational leaders can inspire, motivate, and encourage employees (and themselves) to achieve

beyond expectations toward a common goal. Leaders and followers are also able to transcend to an optimal

level of achievement based on the greater good of the organization.

According to Bass (1985, 1989), four tenants directly relate to transformational leadership: idealized

influence/attributed charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual

consideration. Specifically, idealized influence/attributed charisma, defines the level of power, confidence,

ideas the leader exudes, and sense of mission. This influence has a strong emotional appeal and can move

followers from self-interest to focusing on the common good beyond a level of expectation. It also

highlights leadership behaviors and alignment to vision, mission, and purpose, and is consistent with ethical

and moral expectations. Inspirational motivation, encourages followers to think beyond common

expectations and motives to achieve at exceptional levels. Leadership has the ability to instill confidence in

followers that the heightened level of achievement is achievable. Intellectual stimulation, encourages

followers to challenge or question ideas, think innovatively, look for creative ways to solve problems, and

ignites intellectual curiosity. Individual consideration, allows leaders to identify strengths and needs in

individual followers and encourage development, empowerment, and ultimately self-actualization

(Walumbwa & Wernsing, 2013).

Research Findings

Recent empirical studies in various fields and context have revealed mostly expected results. Chief

Executive Officers (CEOs), who hold the top-leadership role within organizations, are commonly studied

with relation to transformational leadership. A 2008 study conducted by Jung, Wu, and Chow, used a

sample of 50 Taiwanese telecommunication and electronics companies to explore how the CEO’s

transformational leadership abilities impacted innovation within the organization. The results demonstrated

a direct and positive effect on the CEO’s leadership style and level of innovation (Diaz-Saenz, 2011). In

addition to senior leadership research, middle manager studies also reveal similar results. According to

Singh and Krishnan, who studied the role of “altruism in the relationship between self-sacrifice” in India

in 2008, transformational leadership positively related to follower’s collective identity and perception of

organizational performance (Diaz-Saenz, 2011, p. 303). In a military context, Eid, Johnsen, Bartone, and

Nissestad (2008), explored the role of personal hardiness in initiating change or growth in a military training

activity. Their study found a “significant increase in transformational and transactional leadership styles

after the exercises” (as cited in Diaz-Saenz, 2001, p. 303). Additionally, it was discovered the

transformational leadership style increased six months after the completion of the exercise.

Research conducted by Basham (2012), addresses the significance and broad appeal of transformational

leadership in a business environment and specifically addresses a climate of change within an institution.

With reduced government funding and the necessity to adapt to economic and organizational shifts,

transformational leaders can instill a sense of encouragement and motivation for change.

Application of Transformational Leadership Theory to the Role of Business Leader

When applying transformational leadership theory to the role, responsibilities, and ‘best fit’

characteristics of business leaders, identifying those leaders who can embrace and drive higher order change

is essential. Recognizing the need for change is transactional; institutions and companies that require a new

direction, shift in organizational culture, or need to foster performance excellence, benefit from a

transformational leader. Those leaders who demonstrate the ability to engage their constituencies beyond

the transactional exchange relationship can heighten awareness of the need for fundamental, directional,

and process changes (Bass, 1985). According to Bass, “This heightening of awareness requires a leader

with vision, self-confidence, and inner strength to argue successfully for what he sees is right or good, not

4 Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022

for what is popular or is acceptable according to the established wisdom of time” (p. 17). Transformational

leaders can inspire, motivate, and captivate their followers and provide the direction necessary to enhance

organizational performance. With an emphasis on intrinsic motivation and employee development placed

in today’s business environment, a charismatic and visionary leader can inspire constituencies, and in this

case, internship students, to exceed performance even in a time of uncertainty (Northouse, 2013).

The Role of Authentic Leadership Theory

Introduced initially by Luthans and Avolio (2003), authentic leadership theory merged concepts from

positive organizational behavior, transformational/full-range leadership, and ethical leadership theories, to

depict the type of leadership needed to survive and thrive in contemporary organizational environments.

Defining authentic leadership is somewhat complex as scholars accept multiple interpretations or

definitions of the term. Most widely accepted is the definition of authentic leadership from a developmental,

rather than simply interpersonal, perspective. According to Northouse (2013), authentic leadership

emphasizes the ability to demonstrate resiliency and ethical transparency, while engaging constituencies

across all levels. Authentic leadership is viewed as something that can evolve within an individual and is

developed over the lifetime of a leader’s career. In organizations where change is imminent, the authentic

leader can provide a foundation of trust and inspiration for followers.

According to Luthans and Avolio (2003), authentic leadership “draws from both positive psychological

capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and

self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development”

(p. 243). A highly developed organizational context provides a clear organizational framework and culture

of transparency. In those contexts, leaders and followers feel less vulnerable and are able to pursue the

organization’s vision, goals, and objectives. Authentic leaders are “confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient,

transparent, moral/ethical, future-oriented, and give priority to developing associates to be leaders” (p. 243).

Additionally, authentic leaders can engage followers by demonstrating actions and behaviors that reflect

their values (2003). Leadership can exhibit behaviors and model the way that followers can embrace and

promote throughout an organization. They are guided beyond self-interest and operate from deeper values.

Building on this definition, Kernis (2003), who looks at authenticity and its relationship to optimal self-

esteem, claims, “authenticity can be characterized as reflecting the unobstructed operation of one’s true, or

core self in one’s daily enterprise” (p. 13). He argues authenticity has four key components which include

awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relationship orientation (2003). Most authentic leadership

models draw from the work of Kernis and part of his larger theory on self-esteem.

The following tenants are identified as characteristic of authentic leaders: 1) transparency, present

themselves as genuine and real – showing one’s true self; fostering open communication and relationships

with others in doing so 2) curiosity, includes a desire to learn, understand, and explore 3) vulnerability,

which includes self-awareness of strengths, weakness, feelings, and can express these with others; also

leads to compassion for others 4) openness, possessing the quality of being straightforward in actions and

words 5) honesty, driven by honorable intentions and moral code. 6) trustworthiness, inspiriting trust and

reliability 7) humility, displays humbleness and lack of ego in leadership role; leaders can be confident and

humble at the same time, and 8) ‘hot’ relationships, which encourages the establishment of key

relationships where individuals share genuine, real aspects of themselves to each other.

Research Findings

Although the previous decade has prompted an increase in authentic leadership discourse, empirical

studies are limited. Most research discussions focused on business environments and explored leadership

behaviors and individual perceptions of those behaviors. Qualitative research conducted by George, Sims,

McLean, & Mayer (2007) explored how people become and remain authentic leaders. Researchers

interviewed 125 leaders, primarily from business backgrounds (half were Chief Executive Officers) and

nonprofit organizations. Participants were selected based on their reputations for authenticity. Results from

the study did not uncover a consistent trait or characteristic from these leaders, but rather their authenticity

evolved from their life stories and real-world experiences (2007). The limited research available also

Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022 5

suggests, “leadership authenticity is in fact a relevant and potentially important issue for followers” (Caza

& Jackson, 2011, p. 356). With an ongoing interest in authentic leadership from the academic and business

communities, the research environment is primed for more empirical studies relevant to various types of

organizations.

Application of Authentic Leadership Theory to the Role of Business Leader

Business leadership and executive development programs were the first to embrace the applicability of

authentic leadership. With uncertain and challenging times across most industries, authentic leadership is

relevant to organizations that need to foster meaningful relationships and genuinely relate with key

constituencies (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). This ongoing priority within organizations can provide followers

with a “renewed focus on restoring confidence” (p. 316). As companies continue to compete for the best

talent, authentic leaders can open the doors to providing the organizational climate and environment for

sustained success.

As financial and ethical scandals have surfaced throughout various industries over the past several

decades – constituencies are demanding open and honest leadership (Northouse, 2013). Identifying those

candidates who are trustworthy and genuine becomes a clear priority for selecting the best-fit leaders.

Additionally, those serving in the role need to communicate and demonstrate authenticity and transparency

through their actions. According to George (2003), authentic leaders must possess the following

characteristics – passion, behavior, connectedness, consistency, and compassion. Not only should leaders

possess these characteristics, but continually need to develop in each of those areas. With the demands

facing business leaders in today’s unpredictable economic climate, the need to exceed performance with

numerous constituencies is necessary and can challenge the leader’s personal authenticity (Bornstein,

2004). Those business leaders who exhibit authentic leadership characteristics can model resiliency for their

employees and continue to inspire them during new or challenging times.

The Role of Distributed Leadership Theory

Distributed leadership has gained prominence within educational management research throughout the

past decade and acknowledges leading an organization involves multiple individuals who exert power or

influence, transcending formal leadership roles (Spillane & Diamond, 2007; Gosling, Bolden & Petrov,

2009; Lumby, 2013). Occasionally referred to as shared leadership, shared governance, collaborative

leadership, or democratic leadership, distributed leadership has taken a prominent hold on framing

leadership research in complex organizational environments (Spillane & Diamond, 2007). Distributed

leadership tenants include: 1) collaboration, 2) open culture, 3) reflective practice, 4)

leadership/engagement at all levels, and 5) flexibility. Distributed leadership theory identifies that no “one

individual” leader can be solely responsible for success in vast corporate or institutional contexts.

Research Findings

Those leaders who embrace distributed leadership, must understand the tenants and adapt their

leadership style accordingly. According to Gosling et al. (2009), “Distributed leadership is not a

replacement for individual leadership” (p. 300). Virtual internship leaders who can engage and foster

distributed leadership within their organizations have greater opportunities for succeeding in the role.

According to research conducted by Jones et al. (2014), distributed leadership relies on endorsement and

support from formal leadership. With a distributed leadership model, “achieving the engagement of a wider

group of staff is more effective in implementing change, and…in a more complex world, the skills and

expertise of more diverse people are necessary to create successful leadership” (Lumby, 2013, p. 583). The

appeal of the distributed leadership model resides in today’s desire for greater collaboration and collegiality,

along with the need for collective input and leadership throughout institutions (Bolden, Petrov, & Gosling,

2009).

6 Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022

Application of Distributed Leadership Theory to the Role of Business Leader

Although transformational leadership theory and authentic leadership theory can provide frameworks

for understanding the individual leadership characteristics of business professional, using a distributed

leadership perspective is also relevant and necessary as a means for identifying leadership success. Leaders

who embrace distributed leadership characteristics can provide employees with a sense of increased

ownership and engagement in the work process.

Triangle Framework Summary

The triangular framework leadership model that includes transformational leadership theory, authentic

leadership theory, and distributed leadership theory, can provide contemporary and practical knowledge to

educate business leaders who are interested in application in their workplace environment. These theories

can also be enriched with discussion of multicultural and workforce diversity frameworks.

EXAMPLES OF MULTICULTURAL AND WORKFORCE DIVERSITY FRAMEWORKS THAT

COULD BE UTILIZED TO ENHANCE TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORIES

In a dissertation by Scott (2003), entitled Giving Voice to Experiences of Adults Participating in a

Multicultural Immersion Program, a literature review of multicultural and workforce diversity frameworks

provided examples of their utility in organizational settings. In the focus areas of multicultural and

organizational diversity practices examined by Scott in 2003, Thomas (1992), Cox, (1993), Wentling and

Palma -Rivas (1997) and Maltbia, (2001) were highlighted as being recognized researchers who have

studied extensively contemporary and evolving organizational diversity and multicultural leadership efforts

and supporting workforce diversity practices. In Table 1 below the current and evolving organizational

practices in the areas of diversity and multicultural leadership, and management are offered by Thomas

(1992); Cox (1993); Wentling and Palma -Rivas (1997) and Maltbia, (2001) from distinct perspectives. A

discussion of each organizational diversity practice will follow highlighting the core elements and critiques

of some of the practices.

TABLE 1

ORGANIZATIONAL DIVERSITY:

CONTEMPORARY AND EVOLVING PRACTICES DEFINED

Author (s) Key Concepts Definition/Description

Thomas

(1991)

Managing Diversity “Managing diversity [a form of leadership for diversity] in

organizations] is a comprehensive managerial process for

developing an environment that works for all employees” (p. 10). Cox (1993) Creating the

Multicultural

Organization and

Leadership – A

Focus on Diversity

Leadership

“Leadership refers to the need for champions of the cause of

diversity who will take strong personal stands on the need for

change, and assist with the work of moving the organization

forward”

(p. 230).

Wentling

and Palma-

Rivas (1997)

Diversity in the

Workforce: A

Literature Review

Diversity in the

Workforce Series

Report # 1

“The main focus of this report is to describe in detail the

literature on diversity in the workforce to bring about an

understanding of the complexity and breadth of workplace

diversity issues. The report also intends to provide insights on the

trends that have emerged in the field of diversity, and

information that can be used to develop new and unique

approaches that fit the needs of particular organizations” (p. v).

Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022 7

Maltbia

(2001)

The Diversity

Practitioners Study

“The researcher was interested in understanding not only the

“what” and “how”, “but also the “why” behind the approach that

the selected sample of diversity practitioners used to help the

organizations address diversity in the workplace” (p. 2).

The Role of Diversity Management

As corporations continue to become more diverse and global, and diversity remains a core business

issue, as previously highlighted, effective diversity management in organizations will also be necessary.

According to Roosevelt Thomas (1992), diversity management is a strategy designed to assist organizations

in creating “steps for generating a mutual capability to tap the potential of all employees” (p. 10). For

Thomas (1992), diversity management is a “new” organizational management strategy that “approaches

diversity from three levels simultaneously: individual, interpersonal, and organizational” (p. 12), thus

making diversity a core issue of concern within organizations (p. 12). Thomas (1992) views the strategy of

diversity management as not only focusing on issues of “race and gender, but all other dimensions of

diversity” such as social class, age, disabilities, ethnicity, and military experience (p. 12).

Thomas (1992) also believes that diversity management “is not a quick fix management program” or a

group of coordinated objectives aimed to give the appearance that organizational diversity concerns are

being addressed (p. 12). Instead, he maintains that diversity management is; 1) a strategy that “calls for

more than changing the corporation’s way of life; 2) implementing it takes many years” (p. 12); and 3) the

effectiveness of diversity management “depends on the ability [of managers at all levels] to empower the

total workforce” (p. 10).

The Role of Diversity Leadership in the Multicultural Organization

According to Cox (1993, p. 241) a multicultural organization is one that seeks to assist all of its workers,

regardless of their varying backgrounds in reaching their personal and professional goals, while

contributing to the success of the organization. The exclusive characteristics of multicultural organizations

offered by Cox (1993, p. 229) consist of the following:

• “a culture that fosters and values cultural differences

• pluralism as an acculturation process

• full structural integration

• full integration of the informal networks

• an absence of institutionalized cultural bias in human resource management systems and

practices

• a minimum of intergroup conflict due to the proactive management of diversity”

In addition to the above, Cox (1993) stated that effective “leadership, is needed to convert established

organizations into multicultural organizations (p. 231). Below, a summary is provided on Cox’s leadership

component needed to effectively guide multicultural organizations.

The Role of Leadership Practices in the Multicultural Organization

Effective leadership is critical in transforming existing organizations into multicultural organizations

(1993, p. 230). For Cox (1993), leadership in this context suggests that organizational leaders must become

change agents so they can “model” the passion, attitude, and professional conduct needed to transform

established organizations in multicultural organizations (p. 229). For example, Cox (1993, p. 230) noted

that organizational leaders and change agents of workforce diversity must also demonstrate the following:

• [A]” ommitment of resources (financial and human and resources) towards workforce diversity

initiatives.

• Inclusion of managing diversity as a component of the mission and vision of the organization.

• A willingness to change (develop if necessary) corporate-wide human resource management

practices, such as performance appraisal and compensation systems.

8 Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022

• A willingness to keep mental energy and financial support focused on managing and valuing

diversity for a period of years, rather than months or weeks.

• The establishment of valuing diversity as a core objective of the organization that receives the

same priority as other core values such as safety, integrity, and total quality”.

Cox (1993) further highlighted that in addition to having top leadership’s commitment and support for

a workforce that is diverse, support and commitment for workforce diversity is also needed at the mid and

lower manager levels of the organizations, to ensure that human diversity and supporting efforts are

integrated throughout the organization and that human diversity is being managed effectively at all levels

of the organization (p. 232).

The Role of Diversity in the Workforce: A Literature Review

In December of 1997, researchers Wentling and Palma-Rivas published a literature review entitled

Diversity in the Workforce Series Report 1: Diversity in the Workforce: A Literature Review (p. 4) to

highlight existing research on the practice of workforce diversity “and bring about understanding of the

complexity and breath of workplace diversity issues” (p. v). Their literature review explored the following

themes that relate to this paper: 1) “why organizations are valuing and managing diversity”, and 2)

“strategies for managing diversity” (p. 11).

Theme One Why Organizations are Valuing and Managing Diversity. The reasons why organizations

are valuing and managing diversity according to Wentling and Palma Rivas findings (1997) is because it

will allow them to be more competitive by: 1) appealing to diverse employee groups and drawing on their

creative talents; and 2) appealing to a diverse customer base (p. 70) which is an advantage needed to succeed

in the today’s diverse marketplace.

Theme Two: Managing Diversity. In this section Wentling and Palma-Rivas (1997) identified that

diversity in organizational settings is being managed in a variety of ways (p. 71). Therefore, their research

on this topic concluded that there is “no single initiative that is comprehensive enough to solve all diversity

issues or to successfully manage diversity in organizations” (p. 71). The also highlighted several diversity

management barriers that have hindered the practice of managing diversity in organizations. These barriers

include: “stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, harassment, difficulty in balancing work and family, poor

career planning and development, lack of organizational political savvy, unsupportive work environments,

exclusion and isolation, [having their] qualifications and performance questioned, lack of mentors and

backlash” (p. 71).

Lastly, Wentling and Palma-Riva’s (1997) uncovered in their research that diversity initiatives in

organizations locally, nationally and globally will continue to thrive due to the fact that society in general

is becoming more diverse (p. 71). The authors’ inquiry additionally revealed that diversity training will

remain a necessary initiative in organizations of the future at all levels due to the complexities surrounding

human diversity issues in general (p. 71).

The Role of Diversity Practitioners

Similar to Wentling and Palma-Rivas’s (1997) study Maltbia’s (2001) research sheds light on what is

known about workplace diversity from the perspectives of twelve external and internal diversity

practitioners including diversity managers, diversity leaders and chief diversity officers (p. 371) and from

his review of literature on workplace diversity (p. 401). An important theme that Maltbia (2001) uncovered

was that many of the diversity practitioners stated that gaining and sustaining the personal commitment for

organizational diversity efforts from senior leadership was a key factor as it relates to the overall results

that diversity efforts will have within the organization (p. 396). Moreover, Maltbia’s (2001) literature

review on workplace diversity revealed that the factors supporting the inclusion of diversity efforts in

organizations include: 1) having a clear vision and rationale for engaging in the diversity process and 2) the

courage to transform the people and organizational systems needed to realize the vision” (p. 401). However,

the barriers found in this review of literature that hinder the employment of diversity efforts in organizations

include: 1) fear, resistance to change at the individual level and 2) organizational barriers related to systems

and practices that are not aligned with the aim of diversity (p. 401).

Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022 9

In Maltbia’s (2000) earlier research on this topic he also discovered that diversity practitioners need to

engage in self-work, a concept similar to self-awareness in order to develop and maintain the ability to

effectively direct others through “the personal and organizational transformation needed to productively

work with diversity” (Maltbia, 2000, p.109). The process of self-work can be further understood and applied

using two of the learning domains that Mezirow (1991) discussed: instrumental learning and

communicative learning.

First, instrumental learning is helpful as it relates to self-work and managing diversity. For example,

monitoring the planning and controlling processes related to learning, how to conduct cultural programs for

adults, organizational readiness assessment, and training needs assessment generally are used to set the

groundwork in the early phases of the diversity process in a specific context. Next, communicative learning

is appropriate for understanding diversity, valuing diversity, and leveraging diversity because the emphasis

is on the dynamics of learning to understand others.

Maltbia (2000) as well revealed that the concept of self-work parallels Goleman’s (1995, 1998) work

on emotional intelligence. Goleman explained that personal competence influences how people manage

themselves; specifically, self-awareness, self-regulation, and motivation that are at the core of this idea of

personal competence. Therefore, according to Maltbia (2000), diversity practitioners must have a high level

of emotional awareness with respect to how various primary, secondary, and organizational dimensions of

diversity affect their performance and how their collective set of values guides what they pay attention to

in organizations and, as a result, the interventions they select in the process of doing diversity work.

Diversity practitioners also must have the ability to assess their own strengths and weaknesses related to

general and specific diversity work (Maltbia, 2000). Lastly, Maltbia (2000) asserted that diversity

practitioners must possess the knowledge, skills, self-confidence, and courage to help employees (adult

learners) challenge unconstructive assumptions, which often serve as obstacles to accomplishing the goals

they seek to meet.

THE BENEFITS OF INCORPORATING MULTICULTURAL AND WORKFORCE DIVERSITY

LEADERSHIP TRAITS AND SUPPORTING DIVERSITY PRACTICES INTO TRADITIONAL

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

In this last section of this paper, the authors and workforce diversity researchers agree and assert that

diversity and multicultural leadership and management knowledge, skills and abilities are core

competencies that all organizational leaders should possess. (Hughes, 2016; Byrd and Scott, 2018). In the

last section it is underscored that organizational leaders need to continuously engage in self work including

diversity training, reading workforce diversity articles, and attending workforce diversity seminars, to be

informed stay and prepared to lead an emergent diverse workforce. Moreover, it was noted that

organizational leaders need to know that they have to build accountability into their policy and practices

with regard to addressing the lingering issues of discrimination, racism, stereotyping, sexism, sexual

orientation and ageism to name a few for the propose of creating a safe diverse and inclusive work

environment for employees at all ranks to thrive in.

While a plethora of renowned traditional leadership theories have introduced us to the fundamental

attributes, traits, and behaviors relevant for organizational leaders, the majority of them lack the mention

of essential organizational diversity attributes that all organizational leaders should also possess. Therefore,

as society and the workforce continue to become more diverse, it is critical that all traditional, current and

emerging leadership theories incorporate diversity and multicultural leadership practices into their models

and frameworks. This must be considered for the purpose of introducing current and emerging

organizational leaders to the types of knowledge, as well as skills, and abilities they will need to acquire to

effectively lead and manage an evolving diverse workforce.

Comprehending what this review of literature highlighted above makes us aware that creating an

organizational “cultural that fosters and values cultural differences” (Cox, 1993, p. 229) requires a

commitment from key organizational leaders. This review of literature also provided several perspectives

on why the concept of diversity leadership and related issues and concerns should be understood and

10 Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics Vol. 19(3) 2022

managed by organizational leaders today and beyond in our global society. By building upon traditional

leadership theories by incorporating diversity and multicultural leadership traits, behaviors, and practices

offers organizational leaders a new leaning opportunity to enhance their organizational leadership and

management practices.

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