Leadership theories questions.

Leadership Theories

Lewin’s Big Three

Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) was the pioneering social psychologist credited with defining and

differentiating between the three classical leadership styles or behaviors. Lewin, considered by

many to be the founder of social psychology, made significant contributions to leadership

studies, organizational theory, and management theory. Based on extensive leadership and

group dynamics experiments, Lewin developed the concept of leadership climates. Lewin

characterized leadership climates as authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire. His classic study

observed the way children in groups completed art projects and how the leadership climate in

the groups influenced the project outcomes.

Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)

Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what

needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is

strongly focused on both the command of the leader and control of the followers. There is also a

clear division between the leader and the members. Authoritarian leaders make decisions

independently with little or no input from the rest of the group.

Generally decision-making is less creative under authoritarian leadership. Lewin also concluded

that it is harder to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice versa. Abuse

of this method is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial. Authoritarian leadership is

best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the

leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group.

Participative Leadership (Democratic)

Lewin found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is typically the

most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they

also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin’s study,

children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but

their contributions were of a much higher quality. Participative leaders encourage group

members to participate but retain the final say in the decision-making process. Group members

feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative. Democratic leaders tend to

make followers feel like they are an important part of the team, which helps foster commitment

to the goals of the group.

Delegative (Laissez-Faire) Leadership

Researchers found that children under delegative leadership, also known as laissez-fair

leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made

more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation and were unable to work

independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to

group members. While this style can be useful in situations involving highly qualified experts, it

often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation. Lewin noted that laissez-faire

leadership tended to result in groups that lacked direction where members blamed each other

for mistakes, refused to accept personality responsibility, and produced a lack of progress and

work.

1. Describe a boss or authority figure you experienced who used one of these leadership styles.

What is your impression of their leadership success?

The Transactional Leadership Style

The transactional leader views the leader-follower relationship as a transaction. By accepting a

position as a member of the group, the individual has agreed to obey the leader. In most

situations, this involves the employer-employee relationship, and the transaction focuses on the

follower completing required tasks in exchanged for monetary compensation.

One of the main advantages of this style is that it creates clearly defined roles. People know what

they are required to do and what they will be receiving in exchange for completing these tasks. It

also allows leaders to offer a great deal of supervision and direction if it is needed. Group

members may also be motivated to perform well to receive rewards. One of the biggest

downsides is that the transactional style tends to stifle creativity and out-of-the-box thinking.

Situational Leadership Styles

Situational Leadership stresses the significant influence of the environment and the situation on

leadership. Hershey and Blanchard's model is one of the best-known situational theories. First

published in 1969, this model describes four primary styles of leadership.

1. The telling style is characterized by telling people what to do.

2. The selling style involves leaders convincing followers to buy into their ideas and

messages.

3. The participating style is marked by allowing group members to take a more active role in

the decision-making process.

4. Finally, the delegating style involves taking a hands-off approach to leadership and

allowing group members to make the majority of decisions.

Later, Blanchard expanded upon the model emphasizing how the developmental and skill level

of the learners influences the style that should be used by leaders. Blanchard also described four

different learning styles.

1. The Directing style involves giving orders and expecting obedience, but offers little in the

way of guidance and assistance.

2. The Coaching style means giving lots of orders, but leaders also lots of supportive

behaviors.

3. The Supporting style, on the other hand, is an approach that offers plenty of help, but

very little direction.

4. Finally, the Delegating style is low in both direction and support.

Leadership and Maturity Levels

How do leaders and managers determine which style of leadership to use? The right style

depends a lot on the maturity level of the individuals or group.

Hershey and Blanchard's theory identifies four different levels of maturity

• M1: Group members lack the knowledge, skills, and willingness to complete the task.

• M2: Group members are willing and enthusiastic, but lack the ability.

• M3: Group members have the skills and capability to complete the task, but are unwilling

to take responsibility.

• M4: Group members are highly skilled and willing to complete the task.

The Hershey-Blanchard model suggests that the following leadership styles are the most

appropriate for these maturity levels:

• Low Maturity (M1) - Telling (S1)

• Medium Maturity (M2) - Selling (S2)

• Medium Maturity (M3) - Participating (S3)

• High Maturity (M4) - Delegating (S4)

The SLII Model

The Situational Leadership II (or SLII model) was developed by Kenneth Blanchard and builds on

Blanchard and Hershey's original theory. According to the revised version of the theory, effective

leaders must base their behavior on the developmental level of group members for specific

tasks. The developmental level is determined by each individual's level of competence and

commitment.

• Enthusiastic Beginner (D1): High commitment, low competence.

• Disillusioned Learner (D2): Some competence, but setbacks have led to low commitment.

• Capable but Cautious Performer (D3): Competence is growing, but level of commitment

varies.

• Self-Reliant Achiever (D4): High competence and commitment.

SLII also suggests that effective leadership is dependent upon two key behaviors: supporting and

directing. Directing behaviors include giving specific directions and instructions and attempting

to control the behavior of group members. Supporting behaviors include actions such as

encouraging subordinates, listening, and offering recognition and feedback.

The theory identifies four basic leadership styles.

• Directing (S1): High on directing behaviors, low on supporting behaviors.

• Coaching (S2): High on both directing and supporting behaviors.

• Supporting (S3): Low on directing behavior and high on supporting behaviors.

• Delegating (S4): Low on both directing and supporting behaviors.

The main point of SLII theory is that not one of these four leadership styles is best. Instead, an

effective leader will match his or her behavior to the developmental skill of each subordinate for

the task at hand.

Important Situational Factors

Experts suggest that there are four key contextual factors that leaders must be aware of when

making an assessment of the situation.

First, leaders need to consider the relationship between the leaders and the members of the

group. Social and interpersonal factors can play a role in determining which approach is best. For

example, a group that lacks efficiency and productivity might benefit from a style that

emphasizes order, rules, and clearly defined roles. A productive group of highly skilled workers,

on the other hand, might benefit from a more democratic style that allows group members to

work independently and have input in organizational decisions.

Second, the leader needs to consider the task itself. Tasks can range from simple to complex, but

the leaders needs to have a clear idea of exactly what the task entails in order to determine if it

has been successfully and competently accomplished.

Third, the level of authority the leader has over group members should also be considered. Some

leaders have power conferred by the position itself, such as the capacity to fire, hire, reward, or

reprimand subordinates. Other leaders gain power through their relationships with group

members, often by gaining respect from group members, offering support to employees, and

helping workers feel included in the decision-making process.

Finally, as the Hershey-Blanchard model suggests, leaders need to consider the level of maturity

of each individual group member. Maturity level is a measure of both an individual's ability to

complete a task as well as their willingness to complete the task. Assigning a job to a member

who is willing but lacks the ability is a recipe for failure.

2. Describe a leader or authority figure you experienced who used a situational approach. What

were your impressions of their success?

3. Which type of situational leadership style do you think you embody?

Social Change Model of Leadership

Change means improving the status quo, creating a better world, and demonstrating a comfort

with transition and ambiguity in the change process.

Individual Values

Consciousness of self means being aware of the beliefs, values, attitudes, and emotions that

motivate one to take action. How well do I know myself? Do I now why I do what I do? How well

do I know my personal strengths and challenges?

Congruence refers to thinking, feeling, and behaving with consistency, genuineness, authenticity,

and honesty towards others. Congruent persons are those whose actions are consistent with

their most deeply-held beliefs and convictions. Clearly, personal congruence and consciousness

of self are interdependent. How well do my words and deeds match? When and where do I

abandon my self- professed standards or scruples?

Commitment is the psychic energy that motivates the individual to serve and that drives the

collective effort. Commitment implies passion, intensity, and duration. It is directed towards

both the group activity as well as it´s intended outcomes. Without commitment, knowledge of

self is of little value. And without adequate knowledge of self, commitment is easily misdirected.

Congruence, in turn, is most readily achieved when the person acts with commitment and

knowledge of self. When am I “all in” when it comes to a project? When do I let things go or

blow things off? When do I become cynical.

Group Values

Collaboration is to work with others in a common effort. It constitutes the cornerstone value of

the group leadership effort because it empowers self and others through trust. Collaboration

multiplies group effectiveness by capitalizing on the multiple talents and perspectives of each

group member and on the power of that diversity to generate creative solutions and actions.

Collaboration empowers each individual best when there is a clear-cut “division of labor.”

Common Purpose means to work with shared aims and values. It facilitates the group’s ability to

engage in collective analysis of the issues at hand and the task to be undertaken. Common

purpose is best achieved when all of the members in the group share in the vision and

participate actively in articulating the purpose and goals of the leadership development activity.

Recognizing the common purpose and mission of the group helps to generate the high level of

trust that any successful collaboration requires.

Controversy with Civility recognizes two fundamental realities of any creative group effort: that

differences in viewpoint are inevitable, and that such difference must be aired openly but with

civility. Civility implies respect for others, a willingness to hear each other’s views, and the

exercise of restraint in criticizing the views and actions of others. This is best achieved in a

collaborative framework and when a common purpose has been identified. Controversy

(conflict, confrontation) can often lead to new, creative solutions to problems, especially when it

occurs in an atmosphere of civility, collaboration, and common purpose.

Societal/Community Values

Citizenship is the process whereby the individual and the collaborative group become responsibly

connected to the community and the society through the leadership development activity. To be

a good citizen is to work for positive change on behalf of others and the community. Citizenship

thus acknowledges the interdependence of all who are involved in or affected by these efforts. It

recognizes that the common purpose of the group must incorporate a sense of concern for the

rights and welfare of all those who might be affected by the group’s efforts. Good citizenship

thus recognizes that effective democracy involves individual responsibility as well as individual

rights.

4. Have you ever worked under a leader who embodied social change leadership? Describe your

experiences.

5. Could you see yourself embodying this kind of leadership? Why or why not?

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

Psychologist, Robert House, developed Path-Goal Theory in 1971, and then redefined and

updated it in a 1996 article in The Leadership Quarterly. Let's look at some of the elements of

the theory.

Leadership Responsibilities

According to it, if you want your people to achieve their goals, you need to help, support, and

motivate them. You can do this in three ways:

1. Helping them identify and achieve their goals.

2. Clearing away obstacles, thereby improving performance.

3. Offering appropriate rewards along the way.

To do this, you can use four different types of leadership:

• Supportive leadership – Here, you focus on relationships. You show sensitivity to

individual team members' needs, and you consider your team members' best interests.

This leadership style is best when tasks are repetitive or stressful.

• Directive leadership – With this, you communicate goals and expectations, and you

assign clear tasks. This style works best when tasks or projects are unstructured, or when

tasks are complex and team members are inexperienced.

• Participative leadership – With participative leadership, you focus on mutual

participation. You consult with your group, and you consider their ideas and expertise

before making a decision. This approach works best when your team members are

experienced, when the task is complex and challenging, and when your team members

want to give you their input.

• Achievement-oriented leadership – Here, you set challenging goals for your team. You

have confidence in your team's abilities, so you expect your team to perform well, and

you maintain high standards for everyone. This style works best when team members are

unmotivated or unchallenged in their work.

Path–goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as

situations require. The theory proposes two contingency variables, such as environment and

follower characteristics, that moderate the leader behavior-outcome relationship. Environment

is outside the control of the follower-task structure, authority system, and work group.

Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior required if the follower outcomes

are to be maximized. Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience, and perceived

ability. Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment and leader are

interpreted. Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve goals and make the

journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls. Employee performance and satisfaction are

positively influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee

or the work setting. According to Northouse, the theory is useful because it reminds leaders that

their central purpose as a leader is to help subordinates define and reach their goals in an

efficient way.

Transformational Leadership

James Burns and Bernard Bass define transformational leadership as a leadership approach

geared to change both individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and

positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders. Enacted

in its authentic form, transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale and

performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include connecting the

follower's sense of identity and self to the mission and the collective identity of the organization;

being a role model for followers that inspires them; challenging followers to take greater

ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the

leader can align followers with tasks that optimize their performance.

Burns established two concepts: "transforming leadership" and "transactional leadership". The

transforming approach creates significant change in the life of people and organizations. It

redesigns perceptions and values, and changes expectations and aspirations of employees.

Unlike in the transactional approach, it is not based on a "give and take" relationship, but on the

leader's personality, traits and ability to make a change through example, articulation of an

energizing vision and challenging goals. Transforming leaders are idealized in the sense that they

are a moral exemplar of working towards the benefit of the team, organization and/or

community. Burns theorized that transforming and transactional leadership were mutually

exclusive styles. Transactional leaders usually do not strive for cultural change in the organization

but they work in the existing culture while transformational leaders can try to change

organizational culture.

The extent to which leaders are transformational, is measured first, in terms of their influence on

their followers. The followers of such a leader feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect for the

leader and because of these qualities, are willing to work harder than originally expected. These

outcomes occur because the transformational leader offers followers something more than just

working for self gain; they provide followers with an inspiring mission and vision and give them

an identity. The leader transforms and motivates followers through his or her idealized influence,

intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. In addition, this leader encourages

followers to come up with new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and to alter the

environment to support being successful. Finally, in contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that

leadership can simultaneously display both transformational and transactional leadership.

Breaking it down, transformational leaders generally demonstrate four traits:

1 Individualized Consideration –the degree to which the leader attends to each follower,

acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and

needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and places

challenges before the followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and

celebrates the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The

followers have a will and aspirations for self development and have intrinsic motivation

for their tasks.

2. Intellectual Stimulation – the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes

risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in

their followers. They nurture and

develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and

unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The followers ask questions, think

deeply about things and figure out better way to

execute their tasks.

3. Inspirational Motivation – the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is

appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge

followers with high standards, communicate optimism

about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a

strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the

energy that drives a group forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by

communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging.

The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks, they are encouraged and

optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities.

4. Idealized Influence – Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains

respect and trust. As a development tool, transformational leadership has spread already in

all sectors of western societies, including

governmental organizations.

Research evidence shows that groups led by transformational leaders have higher levels of

performance and satisfaction than groups led by other types of leaders. The reason is that

transformational leaders believe that their followers can do their best, leading members of the

group to feel inspired and empowered. Other researchers discovered that employees who

identified a higher level of transformational leadership in their employers also had higher

reported levels of well-being. The effect stayed significant even after researchers controlled for

factors that are linked to well-being such as job strain, education, and age. Transformational

leadership, which both conveys a sense of trust and meaningfulness and individually challenges

and develops employees, also has a positive effect on employee well-being

Here are some steps toward making your leadership transformational.

Step 1: Create an Inspiring Vision People need a compelling reason to follow your lead, and this

is why you need to create and communicate an inspiring vision of the future. Your vision sets out

your team or organization's purpose – why you all get up in the morning to do what you do. You

develop this partly by understanding the values of the people you lead, partly by understanding

the capabilities and resources of your organization, and partly by conducting an intelligent

analysis of your environment, and selecting the best way forward within it.

Step 2: Motivate People to Buy Into and Deliver the Vision Now, starting with your mission

statement, you need to appeal to your people's values, and inspire them with where you're

going to lead them, and why. Use storytelling as part of your call to action: this will help people

appreciate the positive impact of your vision on the people you're trying to help.Then, talk about

your vision often. Link it to people's goals and tasks to give it context, and help people see how

they can contribute to it. Transformational leaders also know that nothing significant happens

unless they encourage their people. So, make sure that you know about the different kinds of

motivation, and use these to inspire your people to deliver their best.

Step 3: Manage Delivery of the Vision A vision is no use on its own: it needs to become reality.

However, many leaders make the mistake of developing a vision, but of not putting in the hard

and often mundane work of delivering it. To manage the delivery of your vision, you'll need to

combine effective project management with sensitive change management. This will help you

deliver the changes you need with the full support of your people. Communicate each person's

roles and responsibilities clearly, and connect these to your plans. Everyone should fully

understand what they're responsible for, and know how you will measure their success. Next, set

clear, SMART goals for everyone, including some short-term goals that will help people achieve

quick wins and stay motivated. You may need to build your self-discipline and stamina, so that

you don't let yourself down. And, set a good example to your people – especially if they're

affected by delays or difficulties – by being a model of hard work and persistence. Also, stay

visible by practicing management by walking around. This is an ideal technique for

transformational leaders, because it helps you stay connected with daily activities, and allows

you to answer questions as they arise.

Step 4: Build Ever-Stronger, Trust-Based Relationships With Your People As a transformational

leader, you need to focus your attention on your people, and work hard to help them achieve

their goals and dreams. It also underlines the fact that leadership is a long-term process, and

that, as a leader, you need to work constantly to build relationships, earn trust, and help your

people grow as individuals. Meet your people individually to understand their developmental

needs, and help them to meet their career goals. What do they want to achieve in their role?

Where do they see themselves five years from now? How can you help them reach this goal?

Lastly, set aside time to coach your people. When you help them find their own solutions, you

not only create a skilled team, but you also strengthen their self-confidence and their trust in

you.

Criticisms of Transformational Leadership

The biggest criticism of transformational leadership is also its strength – a leader may use their

ability to influence and motivate others for immoral and self-centered gains. The biggest

challenge for a transformational leader is to live up to the standards they set for their followers –

they cannot use their charisma and influence for self-gain, nor can they afford to live by any

double standards. Doing so would destroy the trust and faith they have built up in their

followers. Transformational leadership works best in a broken or poorly running system or

organization. If everything is running well – there is little need to transform anything. It also has

less value in new organizations with no structure or developing structures. Finally,

transformational leadership is not the best fit for crisis management (too slow) or highly

bureaucratic systems that require stricter rules and chain of command.

6. Have you ever worked under a leader or authority figure who embodied this kind of

leadership? Describe your experiences.

7. How do you think a transformative approach would work in your organization?

REFERECES

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