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Women Organization Commitment: Role of the Second Career & Their Leadership Styles

Preeti S. Rawat, Sanjay Kumar Rawat, Arfa Sheikh, Ankita Kotwal

Preeti S. Rawat is Professor, K J Somaiya Institute of Management Studies and Research, Mumbai.E- mail:[email protected]. Sanjay Kumar Rawat is Director, The Employee Connect, Mumbai. E-mail:sanjayr [email protected]. Arfa Sheikh is Senior Consultant, Great Place to Work® Institute, India, .E-mail: arfa.shaikh@greatplaceto work.com. Ankita Kotwal is Assistant Manager (HR), SBI Life Insurance,India. E- mail:ankita.kotwal@ yahoo.co.in

Thepaper focuses on two issues of ca- reer women. First, the challenges of the second career which is often filled with uncertainty and stagnation. Second the perception that leadership style is based on gender. The paper is based on two short studies each addressing one of the problems mentioned above. In the first study, the perceived organization support is the independent variable and organi- zation commitment is the dependent vari- able. Results show that women who opted for the second career and got the sup- port of the organization also showed or- ganization commitment. In the second study, leadership style was the indepen- dent variable and commitment was the de- pendent variable. The results showed that gender did not influence leadership style pointing at the androgynous leadership style of women.

Introduction

The workplace gender gap in India is reinforced by the ex- tremely low participation of women in the economy and low w a g e s f o r t h o s e w h o w o r k (136th ranking for estimated earned income).On average, 66 percent of women’s work in In- dia is unpaid, compared to 12 percent of men’s. World Eco- nomic Forum (WEF) report 2017 1

Women in the workplace may face four issues: get-in, get-on, get-out and get-back to work. ‘Opting out’, which is a voluntary decision to discontinue one’s ca- reer, is the result of various hurdles that women face at work

1 PREDICAMENT OF RETURNING MOTHERS: A qualitative study on lived experiences of maternity and career. Purple Audacity Research & Innovation Pvt. Ltd. http://gcwl-ashoka.org/wp- content/uploads/2018/04/Final-Report- PREDICAMENT-OF-RETURNING- MOTHERs.pdf accessed 31/8/2018.

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and is one of the major causes for the dearth of women in corporate executive bodies. There were 4.4 lakh women in India who ‘opted out’ and want to return after a hia- tus, as per The India Skills report 2014 – Peoplestrong, CII, Wheebox. This is a huge pool of talented and skilled workforce that is underutilized. Professional women tak- ing a career break and later facing diffi- culties in career re-entry is a significant problem in India. Women who are re-en- tering face career punishments even for short timeout periods; long time-out peri- ods increase the risk of a downward move and reduce the chances of an upward move. The condition world over is not very promising either. The New York Times in 2003, mentioned a study at Harvard Busi- ness School that showed that out of the 93% of women who took career breaks and intended to get back to work, only 74% managed to do so and only 38% found full- time work. Therefore organizations need to equip themselves with policies, initiatives and facilities that facilitate an easier tran- sition for women who return to work after a career break. Organizations have started making efforts to rein the problem. Deloitte, for example, made efforts to retain women professionals and brought about a cultural change with focused initiatives for women in Deloitte. This led to a 7% drop in the firm’s annual turnover rate, helped save USD 250 million in hiring and training and provided impetus to its huge growth in the industry (McCracken, 2000).

Another related issue is women and their leadership styles. Women account for 49.6 percent (World Bank, 2014) of the population and 39.6 percent of the labour force(World Bank, 2014), but their repre- sentation at more senior corporate levels is significantly negligible in comparison. While leadership is a key ingredient for corporate success, one must be seen as a leader for achieving more senior positions. For this, the person must have and must be seen to have the potential for leadership, irrespective of gender. Studies performed in recent years have shown that women face more obstacles than men when they try to occupy positions of responsibility in organizations (Bass, 1990). It has been ob- served that men usually tend to have a higher social status and hence a greater access to power and resources as com- pared to women and consequently are ac- corded greater privilege (Ridgeway, 1992). The present study focuses on two research questions. First, are organizations perceived as supportive to women who opt for sec- ond careers thus leading to organizational commitment from women? Second, does the leadership of women lead to their or- ganization commitment? To address these question two independent studies were carried out. The study I focused on the is- sue of career break and experience of per- ceived organization support by women who joined back and their organization commit- ment as an outcome. Study II focused on leadership styles of women and their com- mitment to the workplace.

Women & Second Careers

The theoretical support for address- ing the issue of the second career is few.

Professional women taking a ca- reer break and later facing difficul- ties in career re-entry is a signifi- cant problem in India.

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The probable reason is that career coun- seling theories evolved at a time when the typical career client was young, male, white, able-bodied, publicly heterosexual, and ethnically homogenous individual p o p u l a t i o n ( C o o k , H e p p n e r & O’Brian,2002). Some of the common assumptions about male population and work were that work was central to men andtheir identity, paid role was more im- portant than other life roles like care of the family, and career development is progressive, rational and linear. Accord- ing to Crozier (1999) and Cook et al. (2002), these assumptions about work did not address the challenges of women and career since women’s career develop- ment is often non-linear, both comple- mented and frustrated by multiple-role fulfillment and shaped by the structure of opportunity.

Digging the issue a little deeper one realizes that the problem of the second career is a gendered problem and that gender is a multidimensional and multi- level phenomenon with many different facets (Korabik, 1999). These dimensions include intra-psychic aspects such as gender schemas and stereotypes, gender- role identity, and gender-role traits, atti- tudes, and values (Bem, 1993). They also include the manner in which men and w o m e n i n t e r a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r (Deaux& Major, 1987) and the social roles they are expected to enact in a so- ciety (Eagly, 1987).

Research shows that women who interrupt their careers experience down- ward mobility in salary and status. This is a function of employer discontinuity;

career redirection towards lower status, lower paid sectors of the economy and part-time work and skill obsolescence (Lovejoy &Pamela Stone, 2012). Many employers hold negative and stereotyped beliefs about married women or women with children (Hewlett, Luce, Shiller &Southwell, 2005).Therefore the second careers of women should be seen in the larger individual and environmental con- texts and organizations need to mitigate the challenges and create avenues for women to join work again as second ca- reers. This approach is also in line with Bronfenbrenner ’s ecological model (1979). Ecological interventions help in understanding and affirming women’s life options, in managing multiple roles, in ob- taining quality childcare, in creating healthy working environments, in improv- ing access to role models and mentors, and equalizing salaries (Cook, et al, 2002).In this study, the organizational inclusion of women opting for second careers is mea- sured through the construct of Perceived Organizational support (POS).

Perceived Organization Support

Perceived Organizational Support (POS) refers to employees’ perception concerning the extent to which the orga- nization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. POS has been found to have important conse- quences on employee performance and well-being.

Women who interrupt their ca- reers experience downward mobil- ity in salary and status.

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Research on POS began with the observation that if managers are con- cerned with their employees’ commit- ment to the organization, then employ- ees are focused on the organization’s commitment to them (Eisenberger, Hun- tington, Hutchinson & Sowa, 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Shore & Shore, 1995). According to organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Shore & Shore, 1995), employees who receive valued resources (e.g. pay raises, devel- opmental training opportunities) develop their POS and feel obligated, based on the reciprocity norm (Gouldner, 1960), to strive to repay the organization by help- ing it reach its objectives. Since this is an expression of commitment, we took organization commitment as the outcome variable.

Organizational Commitment

Organization commitment is the relative strength of an individual’s iden- tification with and involvement in a par- ticular organization (Mowday, Steers & Porter, 1979). It entails three factors: 1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values, 2) a willingness to exert considerable ef- fort on behalf of the organization and 3) a strong desire to maintain member- s h i p i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( M o w d a y, Steers & Porter, 1979).Meyer and Allen (1991) defined organizational commit- ment as reflecting three broad themes: Affective, Continuance, and Norma- tive. Thus, commitment is viewed as reflecting an affective orientation to-

ward the organization, recognition of the costs associated with leaving the organization, and a moral obligation to remain with the organization. Common to all conceptualizations, they argued was the belief that commitment binds an individual to an organization and thereby reduce the likelihood of turnover. The key difference is in the mind-set pre- sumed to characterize the commitment. The mindset reflected three distinguish- able themes: Affective attachment to the organization, labeled Affective commit- ment, the perceived cost of leaving, la- beled Continuance commitment and obli- gation to remain at the organization, la- beled Normative commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Employees with high POS have been found to reciprocate with in- creased in-role and extra-role perfor- mance (Eisenberger et al., 2001). Since POS incorporates the belief that the or- ganization is concerned with one’s well- being and values one’s contributions, we expect that employees with high POS may t r u s t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s h o w commitment.Therefore we hypothesized that:

H1a: Perceived organizational support leads to the experience of organiza- tion commitment among women opt- ing for second careers.

H1b: Perceived organization leads to the experience of Affective, Normative and Continuance dimensions of or- ganization commitment.

Leadership Styles & Gender

Leadership style is defined as rela- tively stable patterns of behavior that are

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m a n i f e s t e d b y l e a d e r s ( E a g l y & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001) or the alter- native ways that leaders pattern their in- teractive behavior to fulfill their role as leaders (Bass, 1990). Leadership leads to higher subordinate performance and satisfaction (Dumdum, Lowe, Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Judge & Piccolo, 2 0 0 4 ; L o w e , K r o e c k & S i v a s u b r a - maniam, 1996). This can therefore also increase the commitment of the leaders. Therefore it is hypothesized that:

H2a: Leadership style leads to the expe- rience of organization commitment by leaders

H2b: Leadership style leads to the expe- rience of affective, normative and continuance commitment by the lead- ers.

Since the 1970s, the need to differ- entiate between genders was brought to light by researchers (Bem, 1974; Spence, Helmreich& Stapp, 1975). These re- searchers have defined gender (that is, whether someone is a man or a woman) as pertaining to the psychosocial ramifi- cations of biological sex (that is, whether they are male or female, Unger, 1979). Gender, however, consists of much more than just the biological attributes.

Linking Gender and Leadership: It is observed that stereotypical mascu-

line behaviors are still considered impor- tant for leadership. This is one of the rea- sons for the under-representation of women in leadership roles in organiza- tions. This can possibly lead to male and female leaders using different leadership styles (Cuadrado, Morales &Recio, 2008; Eagly & Carli, 2003a, 2003b; Eagly & J o h a n n e s e n - S c h m i d t , 2 0 0 1 ; Wo o d &Eagly, 2010). Studies carried out with the MLQ (Dumdum, Lowe, &Avolio, 2002; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996) have consistently shown that transformational leadership leads to higher subordinate performance and satisfaction levels than transactional leadership. Transactional leaders also produce positive effects on these variables, but such effects are al- ways lower than those achieved by trans- formational leaders (Molero, Cuadrado, Navas & Morales, 2007).The dimension of consideration, leading democratically, and being interpersonally oriented are often referred to as feminine leadership styles, whereas being instrumental, task- oriented, and autocratic are considered masculine leadership styles (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Gardiner &Tiggemann, 1999; Klenke, 1996). The meta-analyti- cal results (Eagly et al., 2003; Eagly& Johnson, 1990; van Engen &Willemsen, 2004) show that women adopt demo- cratic and transformational leadership styles to a greater extent than men. This points at the androgynous approach to leadership styles. Although masculinity still appears to have a significant rela- tionship with leader emergence, a pos- sible relationship between androgyny and leader emergence indicates that the pos-

Employees with high POS have been found to reciprocate with in- creased in-role and extra-role per- formance

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session of feminine characteristics, in balance with masculine ones, also may be important in perceptions of leadership (Kolb, 1997). According to Kent and Moss, (1994) contrary to previous find- ings that identify “female deficiencies’’ as a reason why few women have made it to the top, the emergence of androgy- nous leaders suggests that the posses- sion of feminine characteristics does not decrease an individual’s chances of emerging as a leader as long as the indi- vidual also possesses masculine charac- teristics. If women are more likely to be androgynous, they may have a better chance of rising to leadership status.

If women are more likely to be an- drogynous, they may have a bet- ter chance of rising to leadership status.

Therefore it is hypothesized that:

H3: Leadership style of women is not dif- ferent from men in organizations

H4: There is no difference in the experi- ence of organization commitment and its sub-dimension among women and men leaders.

To test the above hypotheses we conducted two separate studies. These are mentioned below followed by a dis- cussion linking together the outcome of both the studies.

Study I

The purpose of this study is to in- vestigate the effect of perceived orga-

nizational support on organizational commitment among women with sec- ond careers. The study was conducted o n w o m e n w h o h a d t a k e n c a r e e r breaks due to reasons like marriage, maternity, care for children or depen- dent parents, and higher studies. The age ranged from 25 to 40 years and the break in service varied from 3 months to 5 plus years. Most of the respon- d e n t s w e r e g r a d u a t e s t h o u g h t h e r e were some post-graduates also. Per- ceived organizational support was mea- sured through the abridged Perceived O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S u p p o r t s c a l e (Eisenberger et al., 1986). A seven- point Likert scale (1-strongly disagree, 7- strongly agree) was used to rate the responses. Organization commitment was measured through the Organiza- tional Commitment Scale (Allen & Meyer, 1990) and the responses were obtained on a 7 point Likert scale. The questionnaire was sent out to a sample of 100 women and 54 filled responses were received. Data were analyzed us- ing the SPSS (version 21).

Results

The results were tabulated in the fol- lowing tables 1-3.

Organization commitment is corre- lated significantly with its sub-dimensions (Affective commitment r= 0. 74*, Con- tinuance commitment r=0.66** , Norma- tive commitment r= 0.70** ) and also with p e r c e i v e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s u p p o r t (r=0.45**). Perceived organization sup- port is not correlated with continuance and normative commitment.

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Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Values of Perceived Organization Support and Organization Commitment and Its Sub-dimensions

Descriptive correlation Statistics

Mean Std. N Organization Affective Continuance Normative Perceived Devia- commit- commit- commitment commit- organiza-

tion ment ment ment tion sup port

Organization 4.24 0.64 54 1 commitment Affective 4.66 1.10 54 .74** 1 commitment Continuance 3.88 0.89 54 .66** .13 1 commitment Normative 4.19 0.75 54 .70** .28* .33* 1 commitment Perceived 5.13 1.13 54 .45** .62** .16 .06 1 organization support

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

Table 2 Regression Results

DV IV Standardized beta value R2

Organizational commitment Perceived organizational support .45*** 0.19*** Affective organizational Perceived organizational support .62*** .37*** commitment

***. Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level

Table 3 t-Test for Reasons for Opting for a Career Break and Experience of Organizational Commitment & Perceived Organization Support

Mean score

Career break for marriage Career break for higher study t-test and maternity

Organizational 4.27 4.17 0.43** commitment Perceived 4.76 5.16 1.15* organization support

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

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The regression results show that 19% of perceived organization support explains organization commitment and 37% of affective commitment among women opting for second careers. Con- tinuance and normative commitment did not explain commitment.

19% of perceived organization sup- port explains organization commit- ment and 37% affective commit- ment among women opting for sec- ond careers.

The t-test compares the organization commitment and perceived organization support experience among women classi- fied on the basis of the reasons for taking the career break. Higher commitment is experienced when the break in a career is for marriage and maternity reasons (Mean = 4.27) than for study break and sabbatical (mean = 4.17). At the same time perceived organization support is experienced more when the break is for

study and sabbatical (mean = 5.16) than for marriage and maternity (mean = 4.76).

Study II

The purpose of this study is to inves- tigate the effect of leadership styles on organizational commitment in women and men.The age of the respondents ranged from 30 to 60 years. Most of them were graduates though there were some post- graduates also.

L e a d e r s h i p s t y l e w a s m e a s u r e d through the Multifactor Leadership Ques- tionnaire (Bas, 1985).Organization com- mitment was measured through the Or- ganizational Commitment Scale (Allen & Meyer, 1990) and the responses were obtained on a 7 point Likert scale.The questionnaire was sent out to a sample of 100 respondents and 93 filled re- sponses were received. Data were ana- lyzed using the SPSS (version 21).

The results are tabulated in tables 4-6

Table 4 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Values of Organization Commitment and Its Sub-dimension& Leadership Style

Descriptive Statistics Correlations

Mean Std. N Leadership Organiza- Affective Continua- Norma- Devia- tion Com- Commit- nce Com- tive Com-

tion mitment ment mitment mitment

Leadership 3.32 .801 93 1 Organization 3.12 .572 93 .29** 1 Commitment Affective 3.42 .783 93 .39** .71** 1 Commitment Continuance 2.96 .804 93 -.11 .61** .02 1 Commitment Normative 2.99 .806 93 .34** .83** .52** .27** 1 Commitment

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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Table 5 Regression Results

DV IV Standardized beta value R2

Organizational commitment Leadership style 0.29*** 0.07*** Affective commitment 0.39*** 0.14*** Normative commitment 0.34*** 0.11***

Continuancecommitment not significant ***. Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level

Organization commitment is corre- lated significantly with its sub -dimensions (Affective commitment r= 0 .71**, Con- tinuance commitment r=0.61**, Norma-

tive commitment r= 0.83**) and also with p e r c e i v e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s u p p o r t (r=0.45**). Leadership is not correlated with continuance commitment.

The regression results show that Leadership style explains 29% of orga- nization commitment, 14% of affective commitment and 34% of Normative com- mitment. Continuance commitment val- ues were not significant.

Leadership style explains 29% of organization commitment, 14% of affective commitment and 34% of Normative commitment.

Table 6 t-Test for Mean Difference between Gender for Leadership Style and Organization Commitment & Its Sub-dimensions

Gender N Mean Std. Std. t value signifi- Deviation Error cance

Mean

Leadership Women 74 3.33 .812 .094 .260 0.80 M e n 19 3.28 .777 .178

Organization commitment Women 74 3.12 .610 .071 -.053 0.96 M e n 19 3.13 .400 .092

Affective commitment Women 74 3.45 .848 .099 .688 0.49 M e n 19 3.31 .445 .102

Continuance commitment Women 74 2.95 .825 .096 -.249 0.80 M e n 19 3.00 .735 .169

Normative commitment Women 74 2.97 .826 .096 -.531 0.60 M e n 19 3.08 .740 .170

t-test to understand the mean difference between gender for leadership style and organization commitment and its sub-dimen- sions did not show any significant results.

Discussion

The study was aimed at understand- ing the challenges of women in the work-

place. The study focused on two broad challenges. The first was whether orga- nizations encourage re-entry of women to active worklife after a break in ca- reer. This was studied through the expe- rience of perceived organization support by the women who returned to active career (re-join work again). The outcome variable was measured through organi-

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zation commitment and its sub-dimen- sions.

The results show that perceived or- ganizational support leads to the expe- rience of organization commitment among women opting for second careers thus supporting the hypothesis 1a. At the same time from the sub-dimensions of organization commitment only affective commitment was explained by perceived organization support thus the hypothesis 1b was partially supported. The results also showed that though the experience of perceived organization support among women opting for career break due to family reasons (marriage and maternity) was low but their commitment was higher than those opting for study and sabbatical break. It also showed that or- ganizations were treating career breaks differentially when it was for family rea- sons than for a study break. This also showed that organizations need to go a long way in making the workplace more inclusive for women aiming to create a work-life balance by opting for a career break.

Organizations were treating ca- reer breaks differentially when it was for family reasons than for a study break.

The second challenge was to under- stand whether leadership style led to an experience of organization commitment and if gender played a role in explaining the leadership styles of men and women. The result showed that leadership style explained organization commitment

(thus hypothesis 2 a was supported). Leadership explained affective commit- ment and not normative and continuance commitment. Therefore hypothesis 2b was partially supported. The result showed that the leadership style of women did not differ from men thus h y p o t h e s i s H 3 w a s s u p p o r t e d . T h i s showed that leadership style is influ- enced by the role expectation and not gender differences. It also points at the androgynous leadership style (Kolb, 1997).The study also showed that com- mitment to an organization does not dif- fer based on gender (thus hypothesis H4 was supported).

Theoretical Implication

The implications from the study I is relevant for it lends support to the career counseling theories pointing at n o n - l i n e a r c a r e e r n e e d s o f w o m e n (Cook, Heppner& O’Brian,2002). The s t u d y i s a l s o i n l i n e w i t h Bronfenbrenner ’s ecological model (1979) in affirming women’s life op- tions in managing multiple roles. It ex- plains the interconnected and recipro- cally influencing the nature of women’s personal, academic, and career needs. The implications of study II strengthen the androgynous approach to leadership as a potent approach to understand feminine leadership. It breaks the myth of gender differences in leadership styles.

Leadership style is influenced by the role expectation and not gen- der differences.

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Managerial implication

The study I is relevant to the or- ganizations because it provides an ex- planation to the policy makers and in- t e r v e n t i o n i s t s w h y w o m e n d o n o t reach the senior rungs of the organi- zational hierarchy. It also shows that organizations view career breaks for higher studies more positively than that for family and childcare. This means that organizations should make efforts at making the place more gender neu- t r a l . S t u d y I I h a s s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e belief in the androgynous leadership style. This will remove the inhibitions in making childcare available and af- fordable in organizations.

Limitations & Future Direction

The study has some important limi- tations. First, the sample size is very small and therefore it can be seen only as a dipstick study of the issues examined. With such a small sample size it will be difficult to draw conclusions for the popu- lation at large. Second, the study is lim- ited as the data is collected from only one state in India and therefore is not repre- senting the trend on a country-wide scale. Third, cross-sectional self-reported data are prone to methodological bias, consequently, future investigations should incorporate other research methodolo- gies, such as interview and repeated cross-section designs. Despite these limi- tations, the study opens doors for exam- ining contemporary issue like second ca- reers and androgynous leadership styles as it will go a long way in enabling orga- nizations design inclusive policies and

strategies to manage diversity in the workplace.

Conclusion

The findings are beneficial not only for theory, practitioners and businesses but also for broader policy-making con- cerning diversity management. This will also pave the way for future investiga- tions in to further examining gender is- sues in the workplace.

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