Leadership Styles

42 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

Lord, R. G., De Vader, C. L., & Alliger, G. M . (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures.]oumal of Applied Psychology, 71, 402--410.

Mann, R. D. (1959). A review of the relationship between personality and perfonnance in small groups. Psychological Bulletitl, 56, 241-270.

Marlowe, H. A. (1986). Social intelligence: Evidence for multidjmensiona!ity and construct independence.]ounzn/ of Educational Psychology, 78, 52-58.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2000). Selecting a measure of emotional intelligence: The case for ability scales. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligenu (pp. 320--342). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mayer, ] . D., & Salovey, P. (1995). Emotional intelligence and the construction and regulation of feelings. Applied & Prevrmtive Psychology, 4, 197- 208.

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3

Skills Approach

DESCRIPTION - ------------

Like the trait approach we discussed in Chapter 2, the skills approach takes a leader-centered perspective on leadership. However, in the s~ll~ appro~ch we shift our thinking from a focus on personality charactens~1cs, wh1ch usually are viewed as innate and largely fixed, to an emphasis on skills and abilities that can be learned and developed. Although personality certainly plays an integral role in leadership, the skills approach suggests that knowl- edge and abilities are needed for effective leadership.

Researchers have studied leadership skills directly or indirectly for a number of years (see Bass, 1990, pp. 97-109). However, the ~mpetus for researc~ on skills was a classic article published by Robert Katz m the Harvard Busmess Review in 1955, titled "Skills of an Effective Administrator." Katz's article appeared at a time when researchers were trying to identifY a definitive s:t of leadership traits. Katz's approach was an attempt to transcend the trait problem by addressing leadership as a set of developable skills. ~o~e re~ently, a revitalized interest in the skills approach has emerged. Begmnmg m the early 1990s, a multitude of studies have been published that contend that a leader's effectiveness depends on the leader's ability to solve complex orga- nizational problems. This research has resulted in a compreh~nsive skill- based model ofleadership that was advanced by Mumford and h1s colleagues (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000; Yammarino, 2000).

In this chapter, our discussion of the skills approach is divide~ into two par~s. First, we discuss the general ideas set forth by Katz regardmg three. bas1c administrative skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Second, we d1scuss

m Leadershio Skills

44 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

the recent work of Mumford and colleagues that has resulted in a new skills- based model of organizational leadership.

Three-Skill Approach

Based on field research in administration and his own firsthand observations of executives in the woikplace, Katz (1955, p. 34) suggested that effective administration (i.e., leadership) depends on three basic personal skills: tech- nical, human, and conceptual. Katz argued that these skills are quite different from traits .or qualities of leaders. Skills are what leaders can accomplish, whereas tm:ts are who leaders are (i.e., their innate characteristics). Leader- ship skills are defined in this chapter as the ability to use one's knowledge and competencie.s to accomplish a set of goals or objectives. This chapter shows that these leadership skills can be acquired and leaders can be trained to develop them.

Technical Skill

Technical skill is knowledge about and proficiency in a specific type of work or acti~ty. It includes competencies in a specialized area, analytical ability, and ~e ability to use appropriate tools and techniques (Katz, 1955). For example, m a computer software company, technical skill might include knowing sbft- ware language and programming, the company's software products, and how to make these products function for clients. Similarly, in an accounting firm, technical skill might include understanding and having the ability to apply generally accepted accounting principles to a client's audit. In both these examples, technical skills involve a hands-on activity with a basic product or pro~ess within an organization. Technical skills play an essential role in pro- ducmg the actual products a company is designed to produce.

As illustrated in Figure 3.1, technical skill is most important at lower and middle levels of management and less important in upper management. For leaders at the highest level, such as CEOs, presidents, and senior officers, tech~cal competencies are not as essential. Individuals at the top level depend on skilled followers to handle technical issues of the physical operation.

Human Skill

~uman skill is knowledge about and ability to work with people. It is quite dtfferent from technical skill, which has to do with working with things

0 Applying Katz's Skills a \R1 Technical Skills

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 45

(Katz, 1955). Human skills are "people skills."They are the. abilities that h~lp a leader to work effectively with followers, peers, and supenors to accomplish the organization's goals. Human skills allow a leader to assist group membe~s in working cooperatively as a group to achieve common goals. For Ka~z, 1t means being aware of one's own perspective on issues and, at the same ttme, being aware of the perspective of others. Leaders with human skills adapt their own ideas to those of others. Furthermore, they create an atmosphere of trust where employees can feel comfortable and secure and where they can feel encouraged to become involved in the planning of things that will affect them. Being a leader with human skills means being sensitive to the needs and motivations of others and taking into account others' needs in one's decision making. In short, human skill is the capacity to get along with oth- ers as you go about your work.

In Figure 3.1, human skills are important in all three levels of management. Although managers at lower levels may communicate with a far greater number of employees, human skills are equally important at middle and upper levels.

Conceptual Skill <I I '-

Broadly speaking, conceptual skills are the ability to work with id.eas and concepts. Whereas technical skills deal with things and human skills deal with people, conceptual skills involve the ability to work with ideas. A leader with conceptual skills is comfortable talking about the ideas that shape an organization and the intricacies involved. He or she is good at putting t~e company's goals into words and can understand and express the econom1c principles that affect the company. A leader with conceptual skills works easily with abstractions and hypothetical notions.

Conceptual skills are central to creating a vision and s~rategic plan fo~ an organization. For example, it would take ~onceptual. s.kills for a .CEO m a struggling manufacturing company to articulate a VlSlOn for a lme of new products that would steer the company into profitability. Similar!~, it :vould take conceptual skill for the director of a nonprofit health orgamzatwn to create a strategic plan that could compete successfully with for-profit health organizations in a market with scarce resources. The point of t~ese examples is that conceptual skill has to do with the mental work of shapmg the mean- ing of organizational or policy issues-understanding what a company stands for and where it is or should be going.

In Figure 3.1, conceptual skill is most important at the top management levels. In fact, when upper-level managers do not have strong conceptual

CJD Outdoor Leadership Skills

46 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

Figure 3.1 Mana~em_ent Skills Necessary at Various Levels of an Organrzatron

SKILLS NEEDED

TOP Management HUMAN CONCEPTUAL

TECHNICAL

MIDDLE )

Management TECHNICAL HUMAN CONCEPTUAL

SUPERVISORY Management TECHNICAL HUMAN

CONCEPTUAL

SOURCE: " . Adapted from Skills of an Effective Administr " b Busmess Review, 33(1), pp. 33-42. ator, YR. l. Katz, 1955, Harvard

~kills, they .can j.eopardize the whole organization. Conceptual skill al Important m middle management· as we s are so levels, conceptual skills becom 1 ' . move down to lower management

e ess Important.

Summary of the Three-Skill Approach

To summarize, the three-skill approach includes tech . al h ceptuhal skillhs. It is i_mportant for leaders to have all ~:ee' s~~~~eapned ~~n­ on w ere t ey are m the m ' o mg more important than others ana . agement structure, however, some skills are

, te.

Katz's work in the mid-1950s set h terms of skills, but it was not untir t~;t~~=~~~ooncehptualizing !~adership in

I s t at an empmcally based

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 47

skills approach received recog nition in leadership research. In the next sec- tion, the comprehensive skill-based model ofleadership is presented.

Skills Model

Beginning in the early 1990s, a group of researchers, with funding from the U.S. Army and Department of Defense, set out to test and develop a comprehensive theory ofleadership based on problem-solving skills in organizations. The stud- ies were conducted over a number of years using a sample of more than 1,800 Army officers, representing six grade levels, from second lieutenant to colonel. The project used a variety of new measures and tools to assess the skills of these officers, their experiences, and the situations in which they worked.

The researchers' main goal was to explain the underlying elements of effec- tive performance. They addressed questions such as these: What accounts for why some leaders are good problem solvers and others are not? What specific skills do high-performing leaders exhibit? How do leaders ' indi- vidual characteristics, career experiences, and environmental influences affect their job performance? As a whole, researchers wanted to identify the leader- ship factors that create exemplary job performance in an actual org~nization.

Based on the extensive findings from the project, Mumford and colleagues formulated a skill-based model ofleadership. The model is characterized as a capability model because it examines the relationship between a leader's knowledge and skills (i.e., capabilities) and the leader's performance (Mum- ford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 12). L eadership capabilities can be developed over time through education and experience. Unlike the "great man" approach (discussed in this text, Chapter 2), which implies that leader- ship is reserved for only the gifted few, the skills approach suggests that many people have the potential for leadership. If people are capable oflearn- ing from their experiences, they can acquire leadership. The skills approach can also be distinguished from the leadership approaches we will discuss in subsequent chapters, which focus on behavioral patterns ofleaders (e.g., the style approach, transformational leadership, or leader-member exchange theory). Rather than emphasizing what leaders do, the skills approach frames leadership as the capabilities (knowledge and skills) that make effective leadership p ossible (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 12).

The skill-based model of Mumford's group has five components: competen- cies, individual attributes, leadership outcomes, career experiences, and envi- ronmental influences. A portion of the model, illustrating three of these components, appears in Figure 3.2. This portion of the model is essential to understanding the overall skill-based leadership model.

.l.llr. r r 0 _. .::ar.aor ... vnoru::.nrtllc: at) Leadership Development

48 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

Figure 3.2 Three Components of the Skills Model

INDIVIDUAL ATTRIBUTES

Genera l Cognitive Ability

Crystallized Cognitive

COMPETENCIES

Problem-Solving Skills

LEADERSHIP OUTCOMES

Effective Ability ---+ Social Judgment '---. Problem Solving

Skills Motivation Performance

Personality Knowledge

SOURCE: Ada pted fro "l rn eadershrp Skrlls fo r a Ch Problems," by M 0 Murnford S J Z ang rng World: Solving Cornplex Social

. • · • · · accaro F. 0 Hardi T 0 J Flershrnan, 2000, Leadership Quarterly, 77

( 1

J. 23

.· ng, · · acobs, a nd E. A.

Competencies

As can be observed in the middle box. F' social judgment skills and kn 1 d m lgure 3.2, problem-solving skills, Th , owe ge are at the heart of the kill d ese three competencies are th k f: s s mo el. performance. e ey actors that account for effective

Problem-Solving Sk 'II Wh M r d ' s. at are problem- solving skills~ A eli

umwr , Zaccaro Harding et al (2000) : ccor ng to leader's creative abili,'ty t 1 ' .. ' problem-solvmg skills are a

o so ve new and unus al ill d fi d problems. The skills include bein able · u ' - ~ m~ organizational gather problem information fc gul . to define significant problems,

bl ' orm ate new understandin b th pro em, and generate prototype pl £ bl . gs a out e do not function in a vacuum b t ans ~r pro :m solutions. These skills

, u are earned out m a · . text. Problem-solving skills d d h n organ.•zatJOnal con- leadership capacities as the emlan t ' bait leade~s understand their own l . . Y app Y poss1 e soluttons to th · .ems m the~r organization (Mum£ d z e uruque prob-

or ' accaro, Connelly, & Marks, 2000).

Being able to construct solutions la s a . al . considering solutions to organiz:tl.:nal s~~~l role 1~ problem solving. In attend to the time frame r . P ems, skilled leaders need to

· ror constructing and · 1 . short-term and long- term al . lmp ementmg a solution, external issues, all of which ~ul~ i~~~n~: and o:ganizational goals, and Harding, et al., 2000, p. 1S). e solutiOn (Mumford, Zaccaro,

j Conceptualizations of Skill

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 49

To clarifY what is meant by problem-solving skills, consider the following hypothetical situation. Imagine that you are the director of human resources for a medium-sized company and you have been informed by the president that you have to develop a plan to reduce the company's health care costs. In deciding what you will do, you could demonstrate problem-solving skills in the following ways. First, you identify the full ramifications for employees of changing their health insurance coverage. What is the impact going to be? Second, you gather information about how benefits can be scaled back. What other companies have attempted a similar change, and what were their results? Third, you find a way to teach and inform the employees about the needed change. How can you frame the change in such a way that it is clearly understood? Fourth, you create possible scenarios for how the changes will be instituted. How will the plan be described? Fifth, you look closely at the solution itsel£ How will implementing this change affect the company's mission and your own career? Last, are there issues in the organization (e.g., union rules) that may affect the implementation of these changes?

As illustrated by this example, the process of dealing with novel, ill-:-defined organizational problems is complex and demanding for leaders. In many ways, it is like a puzzle to be solved. For leaders to solve such ''puzzles, the skill-based model suggests that problem-solving skills are essential.

Social Judgment Skills. In addition to problem-solving skills, effective leadership performance also requires social judgment skills (see Figure 3.2). In general, social judgment skills are the capacity to understand people and social systems (Zaccaro, Mumford, Connelly, Marks, & Gilbert, 2000, p. 46). They enable leaders to work ~uith other'S to solve problems and to marshal support to implement change within an organization. Social judg- ment skills are the people skills that are necessary to solve unique organiza- tional problems.

Conceptually, social judgment skills are similar to Katz's (1955) early work on the role of human skills in management. In contrast to Katz's work, Mumford and colleagues have delineated social judgment skills into the fol- lowing: perspective taking, social perceptiveness, behavioral flexibility, and social performance.

Perspective taking means understanding the attitudes that others have toward a particular problem or solution. It is empathy applied to problem solving. Perspective taking means being sensitive to other people's perspectives and goals-being able to understand their point of view on different issues. Included in perspective taking is knowing how different constituencies in an

ft Emotional Intelligence Skills

50 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

or?anization view a problem and possible solutions. According to Zaccaro, Gilbert, Thor, and Mumford (1991), perspective-taking skills can be likened to social intelligence. These skills are concerned with knowledge about people, the social fabric of organizations, and the interrelatedness of each of them.

Social perceptiveness is insight and awareness into how others in the organiza- tion function. What is important to others? What motivates them? What problems do they face, and how do they react to change? Social perceptive- ness means understanding the unique needs, goals, and demands of different organizational constituencies (Zaccaro et al., 1991). A leader with social perceptiveness has a keen sense of how followers will respond to any pro- posed change in the organization. In a sense, you could say it allows the leader to know the pulse of followers on any issue at any time.

In addition to understanding others accurately, social judgment skills also involve reacting to others with flexibility. Behavioral .flexibility is the capacity to change and adapt one's behavior in light of an understanding of others' perspectives in the organization. Being flexible means one is not locked into a singular approach to a problem. One is not dogmatic but rather maintains an openness and willingness to change. As the circumstances of a situation change, a flexible leader changes to meet the new demands.

Social performance includes a wide range of leadership competencies. Based on an understanding of followers' perspectives, leaders need to be ·able to communicate their own vision to others. Skill in persuasion and communi- ~ating change is es~ential to do this. When there is resistance to change or mterpersonal confl1ct about change, leaders need to function as mediators. To this end, skill in conflict resolution is an important aspect of social per- formance competency. In addition, social performance sometimes requires that leaders coach followers, giving them direction and support as they move toward selected organizational goals. In all, social performance includes many related skills that may come under the umbrella of communication.

To _revi~w, social judgment skills are about being sensitive to how your ideas fit m wtth others. Can you understand others' perspectives and their unique needs and motivations? Are you flexible, and can you adapt your own ideas to others? Can you work with others even when there is resistance and con- ~ict? Social_ ju~gment skills are the people skills needed to advance change m an orgamzatwn.

Knowledge. _As _shown in the model (see Figure 3.2), the third aspect of competene1es 1s knowledge. Knowledge is inextricably related to the

Flexibility

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 51

application and implementation of problem-solving skills in organ_iza~ons . It directly influences a leader's capacity to define complex orgaruzanonal problems and to attempt to solve them (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000). Kttow!edge is the accumulation of information and the me~tal struc- tures used to organize that information. Such a mental structure lS called a schema (a summary, a diagrammatic representation, or an outline). Knowledge results from having developed an assortment of complex schemata for

learning and organizing data.

For example, all of us take various kinds of facts and information into our minds. As we organize that information into categories or schemata, the information becomes more meaningful Knowledge emerges from the facts and the organizational structures we apply to them . People with ~ lot of knowledge have more complex organi7..ing structures than those With less knowledge. These knowledgeable people are called experts.

Consider the following baseball example. A baseball expert knows a lot of facts about the game; the expert knows the rules, strategies, equipment, players, and much, much more. The expert's knowledge about baseball includes the facts, but it also includes the complex mental stru..c~res used in organizing and structuring those facts. That person knows ?ot ~n1y the season and lifetime statistics for each player, but also that players quu:ks and injuries, the personality of the manager, the strengths and weaknesses of available substitutes, and so on. The expert knows baseball because she or he comprehends the complexities and nuances of the game. The same is true for leadership in organizations. Leaders with knowledge know much about the products, the tasks, the people, the organization, and all the dif- ferent ways these elements are related to each other. A knowledgeable leader has many mental structures with which to organize the facts of orga-

nizationallife.

Knowledge has a positive impact on how leaders engage in proble~ solving. It is knowledge and expertise that make it possible for people to thmk about complex system issues and identify possible strategies for appropr~at~ chan~e. Furthermore, this capacity allows pt:ople to use prior cases and mctdents m order to plan for needed change. It is knowledge that allows people to use the past to constructively confront the future.

To summarize, the skills model consists of three competencies: problem- solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. Collectively, these three components are positively related to effective leadership performance (see

Figure 3.2).

Cl) Evidence-Based Practice

52 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

Individual Attributes

Returning to Figure 3.2, the box on the left identifies four individual attri- butes that have an impact on leadership skills and knowledge: general cogni- tive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality. These attributes play important roles in the skills model. Complex problem solving is a very difficult process and becomes more difficult as people move up in the organization. These attributes support people as they apply their leader- ship competencies.

General Cognitive Ability. General cognitive ability can be thought of as a person's intelligence. It includes perceptual processing, information pro- cessing, general reasoning skills, creative and divergent thinking capacities, and memory skills. General cognitive ability is linked to biology, not to experience.

General cognitive ability is sometimes described as fluid intelligence, a type of intelligence that usually grows and expands up through early adulthood and then declines with age. In the skills model, intelligence is described as having a positive impact on the leader's acquisition of complex problem- solving skills and the leader's knowledge.

Crystallized CognWve Ability. Crystallized cognitive ability is intellectual ability that is learned or acquired over time. It is the store of knowledge we acquire through experience. We learn and increase our capacities over a lifetime, increasing our leadership potential (e.g., problem-solving skills, conceptual ability, and social judgment skills). In normally functioning adults, this type of cognitive ability grows continuously and typically does not fall off in adulthood. It includes being able to comprehend complex information and learn new skills and information, as well as being able to communicate to· others in oral and written forms (Connelly et al., 2000, p. 71) . Stated another way, crystallized cognitive ability is acquired intelli- gence: the ideas and mental abilities people learn through experience. Because it stays fairly stable over time, this type of intelligence is not dimin- ished a people get older.

Motiva t ion. Motivation is listed as the third attribute in the model. Al.though the model does not purport to explain the many ways in which motivation may affect leadership, it does suggest three aspects of motivation that are essential to developing leadership skills (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000, p. 22): First, leaders must be willing to tackle complex organizational problems. This first step is critical. For leadership to occur, a

jl Role of Emotions

Chapter 3 I Skills Approach 53

person wants to lead. Second, leader~ must ~e willing to ex~ress don:i- nance-to exert their influence, as we discussed m Chapter 2. In mfluencmg thers the leader must take on the responsibility of dominance because the

? flue~ce component of leadership is inextricably bound to dominance. ~hird, leaders must be committed to the social good of the organization. T~e

t ·atgood is a broad term that can refer to a host of outcomes. However, m

~ h . the skills model it refers to the leader's willingness to take on t e respons~- bility of trying to advance the overall human good and value of the orgam- zation. Taken together, these three aspects of motivation (willingness, dominance, and social good) prepare people to become leaders.

Personality. Personality is the fourth individual attribute in the skills mo~el. Placed where it is in the model, this attribute reminds us that our personality has an impact on the development of our leadership skills. For .exam~le, ?pen- ness tolerance for ambiguity, and curiosity may affect a leaders mot1vat10n to try ;

0 solve some organizational problems. Or, in c?nflict situati~ns, traits

such as confidence and adaptability may be benefbal to a leaders perfor- mance. The skills model hypothesizes that any personality characteristic th~t helps people to cope with complex organizational si~ations ,Pr?bably 1s related to leader performance (Mumford, Zaccaro, Hardmg, et af., 2000).

Leadership Outcomes

In the right-hand box in Figure 3.2, effective problem solving and perfor- mance are the outcomes of leadership. These outcomes are strongly influenced by the leader's competencies (i.e., problem-solving skills, so~ial judgment skills, and knowledge). When leaders exhibit these competencieS, they increase their chances of problem solving and overall performance.

Effective Problem Solving. As we discussed earlier, the skills model is a capaoility model, designed to explain why some leaders are go.od probl~m solvers and others are not. Problem solving is the keystone rn the skills approach. In the model (see Figure 3.2), problem-sol~ing skills, as comp~­ tencies, lead to effective problem solving as a leadershtp o~t~o~e. The cn- teria for good problem solving are determined by the ongm~ty ~d the quality of expressed solutions to proble~s. Good ~roblem solvmg mvolves creating solutions that are logical, effecttve, and untque, and that go beyond

given information (Zaccaro et al., 2000).

Performance. In the model, performance outcomes reflect how well the leader has done her or his job. To measure performance, standard external

4lb Managerial Leadership

54 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

criteria are ust'!d. If the leade.r has done well a d b evaluations will be posi••ve Lead h n cr ee~ successfu~ the leader's

u . ers w o are euecttv . d performance reviews, get merit raises and ~ receJve goo annual followers a competent leader . In tb' dare recoglll'.ted ~y superiors and 1 ·ch 1 e en , performance 15 th d w u a eader has successfully perro d h . e egrce to 11 rmc t e ass1gned duties.

Taken together, effective problem solvln and fc to assess leadership effectiveness us· ! ~cr ormance are the two ways problem solving and good pcrformamg e ~ s_model. Furthermore, good the comprehensive skills model a nee ~° F~nd m hand. A full depiction of components, not depicted in Figu~~~a;s :~ lgure _3.3. It contains two other performance: career experiences and . ' . at contrih~te to overall leadership

enV1fonmental mfl.uences.

Career Experiences

As you can see in Figure 3.3, career ex erie . b . acteristics and competencies of 1 d p Thnces. ave an Lmpact on the dtar-

. ea ers. e skills model s h th expenences acquired in the course of 1 d . ' . uggests t at e edge and skills to solve complex probl:~s~~~::;~~uence their ~owl­ ~b (20~0, p. 24) pointed out that leaders can be helped t~::~ ~~din~, et JO assignments, mentoring, appropriate traini g engmg in solving new and unusual p bl In ??• and hands-on experience

ro ems. addJtion the a th .. t..: k career experiences can o . ti 1 ffi ' u ors uvn that ers. For example certapt·n Sol vcthy a_ ebct t~e individual characteristics of lead-

' n- e-Jo assJgnm t ld h motivation or intellectual ability. en s cou en ance a leader's

In the first section of thi h . notes that conceptual s~ car aepter, w~aldfc1Scussed Katz's (1955) work, which . essentJ or upper-level d . . T 1s consistent with Mumfo 1 z · H . a mm1strators. his which contends that leadersrcd, aclcaro, arding~ et al.'s (2000) skills model,

eve op competenoes o · C ence helps leaders to improve th . skill d kn ver tJme. areer experi- leam and develop higher lev l e; s anal ow ledge over time. Leaders !ems they confront are prog e s ~ elconceptu capacity if the kinds of prob- h ressJv y more complex d I

t ey ascend the organizational hierarch (M an more ong term as et al . 2000). Similarly upper-level! d y umford, Zaccaro, Connelly, sors, develop new cot~petencies b ea er~ as opposed to first-line supervi- lems that are more novel th t ecause ey are required to address prob- more human interaction As ~ . are more poorly defined, and that demand levels of problem-solvil;g and e;e ~~o~l~ move thr~ugh their careers, higher important (Mumford & Connel1~~~9~~).gment skills become increasingly

j Mentoring and Coaching

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 55

So the skills and knowledge ofleaders are shaped by their career experiences as they address increasingly complex problems in the organization. This notion of developing leadership skills is unique and quite different from other leadership perspectives. If we say, "Leaders are shaped by their experi- ences," then it means leaders are not born to be leaders (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000). Leaders can develop their abilities through experience, according to the skills model.

Environmental Influences

The final component of the skills model is environmental influences, which is illustrated at the bottom of Figure 3.3. Environmental influences represent factors that lie outside the leader's competencies, characteristics, and experi- ences. These environmental influences can be internal and external.

Internal environmental influences affecting leadership performance can include such factors as technology, facilities, expertise of subordinates, and communication. For example, an aging factory or one lacking in high-speed technology could have a major impact on the nature of pro~leJU-solving activities. Another example might be the skill levels of followers: "If a leader's followers are highly competent, they will definitely improve the group's problem solving and performance. Similarly, if a task is particularly complex or a group's communication poor, the leader's performance will be affected.

External environmental influences, including economic, political, and social issues, as well as natural disasters, can provide unique challenges to leaders. In March 2011, a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated large parts of Japan, crippling that nation's automobile manufacturing industry. Toyota Motor Corp. alone had more than 650 of its suppliers and component man- ufacturers wiped out, halting worldwide production ofToyota vehicles and devastating the company's sales. At the same time, this disaster was a boon to American carmakers, which increased shipments and began outselling Toyota, which had dominated the market. Leaders of these automobile com- panies, both Japanese and American, had to respond to unique challenges posed by external forces completely beyond their control.

The skills model does not provide an inventory of specific environmental influences. Instead, it acknowledges the existence of these factors and recog- nizes that they are indeed influences that can affect a leader's performance. In other words, environmental influences are a part of the skills model but not usually under the control of the leader.

B Veterans and Leadership

56 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

Figure 3.3 Skills Model of Leadership

INDIVIDUAL ATTRIBUTES

General Cognitive Ability

Crystallized Cognitive Ability

Motivation

Personality

l

COMPETENCIES

Problem-Solving Skills - Social Judgment Skills

Knowledge

i Career Experiences

- }>

Environmental Influences

LEADERSHIP OUTCOMES

Effective Problem Solving

Performance

SOURCE: Adapted from "Leadership Skills for a Changing World: Solving Complex Social Problems," by M.D. Mumford, 5. J. Zaccaro, F. D. Harding, T. 0. Jacobs, and E. A. Fleishman, 2000, Leadership Quarterly. 77(1), 23.

Summary of the Skills Model

In summary, the skills model frames leadership by describing five compo- nents ofleader performance. At the heart of the model are three competen- cies: problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. These three competencies are the central determinants of effective problem solving and perfmmance, although individual attdbutes , career ex-periences, and envimn- mental influences all have impacts on leader competencies. Through job experience and training, leaders can become better problem solvers and more effective leaders.

HOW DOES THE SKILLS APPROACH WORK? - --

The skills approach is primarily descriptive: I t describes leadership from a skills perspective. Rather than providing prescriptions for success in leader- ship, the skills approach provides a structure for understanding the nature of effective leadership. In the previous sections, we discussed the skills perspective based on the work of Katz (1955) and Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al. (2000). What does each of these bodies of work suggest about the structure and functions ofleadership?

Chapter 3 1 Skills Approach 57

The three-skill approach of Katz suggests that the importance of certain leadership skills varies depending on where leaders are in a management hierarchy. For leaders operating at lower levels of management, technical and human skills are most important. When leaders move into middle manage- ment, it becomes important that they have all three skills: technical, human, and conceptual. At the upper management levels, it is paramount for leaders to exhibit conceptual and human skills.

This approach was reinforced in a 2007 study that examined the skills needed by executives at different levels of management. The researchers used a four- skill model, similar to Katz's approach, to assess cognitive skills, interpersonal skills, business skills, and strategic skills ofl,OOO managers at the junior, mid- dle, and senior levels of an organization. The results showed that interpersonal and cognitive skills were required more than business and strategic skills for those on the lower levels of management. As one climbed the career ladder, however, the execution of higher levels of all four of these leadership skills became necessary (Mumford, Campion, & Margeson, 2007).

.. In their skills model, Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al. (2000) provided a more complex picture of how skills relate to the manifestatioi\. of effective leadership. Their skills model contends that leadership outcomes are the direct result of a leader's competencies in problem-solving skills, social judg- ment skills, and knowledge. Each of these competencies includes a large repertoire of abilities, and each can be learned and developed. In addition, the model illustrates how individual attributes such as general cognitive abil- ity, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality influence the leader's competencies. And finally, the model describes how career experi- ences and environmental influences play a direct or indirect role in leader- ship performance.

The skills approach works by providing a map for how to reach effective leadership in an organization: Leaders need to have problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. Workers can improve their capabili- ties in these areas through training and experience. Although each leader's personal attributes affect his or her skills, it is the leader's skills themselves that are most important in addressing organizational problems.

STRENGTHS ---------------------------

In several ways, the skills approach contributes positively to our under- standing about leadership. First, it is a leader-centered model that stresses

Leadership Skills Development

58 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

the importance of developing particular lead hi . . approach to conceptualize and cr t ers P skills. It Is the first around skills. Whereas the earl ea e a ~ucture of the process of leadership tance of skills and the value of killY. resear on skills highlighted the impor- 1 s s across different ater work placed learned skill h . · management levels, the

s at t e center of effecti 1 d hi mance at all management levels. . ve ea ers p perfor-

Second, the skills approacll is intuitive! a . . . terms of skills makes leadershi ailabl y ppealing. To describe leadership in kill P av e to everyone Unllk ali'

s s are competencies that peo le 1 . e person ty traits, sport such as tennis or 0101£ Ene P 'tlcan earn or develop. It is like playing a

o · •· n WJ lOut natural bili · th can improve their games with practice . d . a . ty m ese sports, people leadership. When leadership ·s r. dan mstrucllon. The same is true with th t. Ita me as a set of skills . t b at people can study and practi b ' J ecomes a process

ce to ecome better at performing th . . b elf JO S.

Third, the skills approach provides an ex . . incorporates a wide variety of ~ansJve VIew of leadership that

. . . components tncluding b1 1 . soCial JUdgment skills knowled . d' .d' pro em-so. vmg skills,

d . ' ge, m 1Vt ual attribut . an environmental influences E h f h es, career expenences, bdi 'd · ac o t esc compo fi su VI ed into several subcom T1 nents can . unher be

h ponents. 1e result is a · tu fl d r at encompasses a multitude of fi B p•c re o ea ership bl 1 kill

. actors. ecause it includ a es, t le s . s approach can ca ture . . . es so many vari- ties of leadership not r.ou d . pth many of the mtncaCJes and complexi-

l' n m o er models. .

Las~, the skills approach provides a struc l . . curncu.la of most leadersh' d . ture t lat lS vety consistent with the grams throughout the c lp etryuhcatton pr~~rams. Leadership education pro-

. oun ave traditionally t h 1 problem solving conflict resoluti li . aug t c asses in creative Th , on, stenmg and teamwo k, ~ e content of iliese classes closel . ' . r to name a Aew. s.kills model. Clearly, the skill y mJrhrors m~ny of the components in the fr '

5 approac proVIde arne the curricula of leaders hi d . s a structure that help to

p e ucatJOn and development p.rogranls.

CRITICISMS-------------

Like all other approaches to 1eadershi th kills weaknesses. First, the bi·eadth of the s~ e s approach also bas certain the boundaries of leadership. For ' ls a~r~acll s~ems to extend beyond thinking, per$onality, and conflict ~~:r:t ~· ~clud_mg motivation, critical more than just leadership Anoth . u o~, t e skills approach addresses inclusion of two types of i~t lli er ex(. amp e of the model's breadth is its _,,, e gence l.e. general cogn't• bili'

t<llllzed cognitive ability) Alth h b h ' . t tve a ty and crys- . oug . ot areas are studied widely in the field

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 59

of cognitive psychology, they are seldom addressed in leadership research. By including so many components, the skills model of Mumford and others becomes more general and less precise in explaining leadership performance.

Second, related to the first criticism, the skills model is weak in predictive value. It does not explain specifically how variations in social judgment skills and problem-solving skills affect performance. The model suggests that these components are related, but it does not describe with any precision just how that works. In short, the model can be faulted because it does not explain how skills lead to effective leadership performance.

In addition, the skills approach can be criticized for claiming not to be a trait model when, in fact, a major component in the model includes individual attributes, which are trait-like. Although Mumford and colleagues describe cognitive abilities, motivation, and personality variables as factors contribut- ing to competencies, these are also factors that are typically considered to be trait variables. The point is that the individual attributes component of the skills model is trait driven, and that shifts the model away from being strictly a skills approach to leadership. ,, ,

.,

The final criticism of the skills approach is that it may not be suitably or appropriately applied to other contexts of leadership. The skills model was constructed by using a large sample of military personnel and observing their performance in the armed services. This raises an obvious question: Can the results be generalized to other populations or organizational settings? Although some research suggests that these Army findings can be general- ized to other groups (Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, et al., 2000), more research is needed to address this criticism.

APPLICATION - -------------

Despite its appeal to theorists and academics, the skills approach has not been widely used in applied leadership settings. For example, there are no training packages designed specifically to teach people leadership skills from this approach. Although many programs have been designed to teach leadership skills from a general self-help orientation, few of these programs are based on the conceptual frameworks set forth in this chapter.

Despite the lack of formal training programs, the skills approach offers valu- able information about leadership. The approach provides a way to delineate the skills of the leader, and leaders at all levels in an organization can use it.

~ ,ac~n - __ J "' ··~~- --- a _.a.._ u~-----

60 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

!n addition, this approach helps us to identify our strengths and weaknesses ~n regard to these technical, human, and conceptual skills. By taking a skills mvento~y ~ch ~ the on_e provided at the end of this chapter, people can gain further Insight mto their own leadership competencies. Their scores allow them to learn ~bout areas in which they may want to seek further training to enhance theu overall contributions to their organization.

From a wider perspective , the skills approach may be used in the future as a template for ~e design ~f extensive leadership development programs. This ~ppr~ach pro':des the CV!denc~ for teachi ng leade~s the important aspects of listerung, creattve problem solvmg, conflict resolution skills, and much more.

CASE STUDIES -----

The following three case studies (Cases 3 1 3 2 and 3 3) de "b 1 d h · · . · ' · ' · sen e ea er-

s. Ip S1tuat1ons that can be analyzed and evaluated from the ski lls pers ec- tlve. T he first case involves the principal investigator of a federally fu:ded rese~ch grant. The second case takes place in a military setting and descnbes how. a lieutenant colonel handles the downsizing of a military base. In the third case, we learn about how the owner of an Italian restau- rant has created his own recipe for success.

As you read each case, try to apply the principles of the skills approach to t~e lea~ers and their situations. At the end of each case are questions that Will assist you in analyzing the case.

CASE 3.1

A Strained Research Team

Dr. Adam Wood is the principal investigator on a 3-year, $1 mill ion feder- ally fun~ed research g rant to study health education prog rams f or ol der po~u lat 1 ons, ca lled th e Elder Care Proj ect. Unlike previous p rojects, In Whlc~ Dr. ":food worked alone or with one or two oth er investigato rs, on th1s pr~Ject D_r. Wood h~s 11 co lleagues. His proj ect team is m ade up of two co -mvest1 gators {With PhDs),. f our intervent ion staff (w fth MAs), and f1ve general staff members (w ith BAs) . One yea r into the project it has become apparent to Dr. Wood and the team that t he projec; is un~erbu.dgeted a~d has too few resources. Team members are spending 20 Yo-30 Yo more t1me on the project than has been budgeted to pay

e Training Skills

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 61

them. Regardless of the resource strain, all team members are committed to the project; they believe in its goals and the importance of its out- comes. Dr. Wood is known throughout the country as the foremost scholar in this area of health education research. He is often asked to serve on national review and advisory boards. His publication record is second to none. In addition, his colleagues in the university know Dr. Wood as a very competent researcher. People come to Dr. Wood for advice on research design and methodology questions. They also come to him for questions about theoretical formulations. He has a reputation as someone who can see the big picture on research projects.

Despite his research competence, there are problems on Dr. Wood's research team. Dr. Wood worries there is a great deal of work to be done but that the members of the team are not devoting sufficient time to the Elder Care Project. He is frustrated because many of the day-to-day research tasks of the project are falling into his lap. He enters a research meeting, throws his notebook down on the table, and says, "I wish I'd never taken this project on. It's taking way too much of my time. The rest of you aren't pulling your fair share." Team members feel exasperated at Dr. Wood's comments. Although they respect his competence, they find his leadership style frustrating. His negative comments at zt~ff meet- ings are having a demoralizing effect on the research team. Despite their hard work and devotion to the project, Dr. Wood seldom compliments or praises their efforts. Team members believe that they have spent more time than anticipated on the project and have received less pay or credit than expected. The project is sucking away a lot of staff energy, yet Dr. Wood does not seem to understand the pressures confronting his staff.

The research staff is starting to feel burned out, but members realize they need to keep trying because they are under time constraints from the federal government to do the work promised. The team needs to develop a pamphlet for the participants in the Elder Care Project, but the pamphlet costs are significantly more than budgeted in the grant. Dr. Wood has been very adept at finding out where they might find small pockets of money to help cover those costs.

Although team members are pleased that he is able to obtain the money, they are sure he will use this as just another example of how he was the one doing most of the work on the project.

Questions

1. Based on the skills approach, how would you assess Dr. Wood's leader- ship and his relationship to the members of the Elder Care Project team? Will the project be successful?

(Continued)

62 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

(Continued)

2. Does Dr. Wood have the skills necessary to be an effective leader of this research team?

3. The skills model describes three important competencies for leaders: problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. If you were to coach Dr. Wood using this model, what competencies would you address with him? What changes would you suggest that he make in his leadership?

CASE 3.2

A Shift for lieutenant Colonel Adams

Lt. Col. John Adams was an aeronautical engineer in the Air Force who was recognized as an accomplished officer; he rose quickly through the ranks of lieutenant, captain, and major. In addition, he successfully com- pleted a number of professi onal development courses in t he Air Force and received a master's degree in engineering. In the earlier part of his service, his career assignments required overseeing 15- to 20-person shifts that were responsible for ro utine maintenance schedules for squadron and base aircraft. As he progressed in rank, he moved to engi- neering projects, which were supported by small technical staffs . .

Based on his strong performance, Major Adams was promoted to lieuten- ant colone l earlier than his peers. Instead of moving him into another engineering position, the personnel bureau and his assignment officer decided that Lieutenant Colonel Adams would benefit from a t our in which he could expand his professional background and experience. Consequently, he was assigned to Base X as the comma nding officer of the administration branch. Base X was an airbase with approximately 5,000 military and civilian personnel.

As the admin istration officer, Adams was the senior human resource officer and th e principal adviser to the base commander on all human resource issues. Adams and his staff of 135 civilian and military personnel were responsible for personnel issues, food services, recreation, family support, and medica l services. In addition, Lieutenant Colonel Adams was assigned to chair the Labor-Management Relations Committee for the base.

At the end of the Cold War, as part of the declared peace dividend, the government decided to reduce Its defense budget. In February, barely 6 months after Adams took over command of t he administration branch, the federal government announced a signiflcant reduction in the size of the military and the closure of many bases. Base X was to be closed as an air base and reassigned to the Army. The closure was to take place within 1 year, and the base was to be prepared for the arrival of the first Army troops in 2 years. As part of the reduction program, the federal

Chapter 3 I Skills Approach 63

f · T n and government initiated volunta~y retirem.en~~~o~~~i~~p~~ ~~;~ ~~ecide. military personnel. Those wanting to retire

Orders for the conversion of the airbase included the following:

• The base will continue normal operations for~ months. . . • The squadrons-complete with aircrews, equipment, and .fam;li~s

(1,000)-must be relocated to their new bases and operatlona y

• ~~;~:~1~ining base personnel strength, both civilian and military, must be reduced by 30%. . . ·

• The base must continue to provide personnel for .operatlo~:~ ~:~~~;j • The reduction of personnel must be consistent WI

voluntary early-retirement programs. t 2 000 • The base must be prepared with ~ support structure to accep '

new soldiers, expected to arrive In 2 years.

Adams was assigned to develop a human resou_rce plan _that would meet the imposed staff levels for the entire base whll.e en~u~mg th~:~h~:;:~ was still able to perform the operational tasks It ha . een ~IV o.f all of

. k Ad ms conducted an extensive reVI'2W ;i:~:~~~a~~uo~~:~ ~~~~erni~g the base transformation, an~ he famili~~- ized himself with all of the rules concerning the ear~-re~rem~n:h;efs­ gram . After a series of initial meetings wi~h the oth~ ase b~.a~c d dead~ he laid out a plan that could be accomplished by t e ~sta ~~the his own

~~~~·a~~~~~~:~~!::~ ~hee ~:~~:t:dn~e~~~~~s:~:~;~~~s: 1 wn branch.

After considering the target figures for the early-ret~ement:r~g~~:,;li; I that the mandated numbers could not e reac e .

was c ear r d f arly retirement to leave was ~~~;~~;i:;:~~~eo;~~nh~~c:~~e

1

~oin°~ :o ~odul:n~e~~~~:: ~~~r~:~~ tions of the base. More job cut~ we~edr~nq~~:t· areas. Adams met stiff made as to who would stay, w y, a · ld bear the resistance in the meetings to determine what sections wou brunt of the additional cutbacks.

Adams conducted ~is o~n independent ~na~~:~~f h h~:aor:~a~i~~~~

tb~fo~:t~on~~~~~~:::dh~~~~~~~ ~=~~~t~~n~ 1 ~nt his se~tions. Specificadlly

e ' b h · single person accommo a- ~~~:t~~~;::r~~~s~~~~l r:cre:~~on~~:~di~.ns . He-also mandated a fur- ther 10% cut of military positions in his sections.

After meeting the mandated reduction targets, Lieutenant Colonel Adam~ . f d that the federal government would accept all pers~~ne

was 1n orme h. h n unexpected dec1s1on. who applied. for eseadrlyo~e~i~::~r:~d~ ~an~=~e~ reductions, this move When supenmpo

(Continued)

64 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

(Continued)

caused critical shortages in key area w· h. the plan, the base commander wa s. ~~ .rn weeks o.f implementation of both civilian and military memb s recelvm~ mountmg complaints from

. ers over the Implementation of the plan . Incidents of stress, frustration and d ' trying to move found support' . . rscontent rose dramatically. Families of the transition staff were fservlcdes cut back or nonexistent. Members F .1 orce to work evenin d amr y support services were swamped a d k' f gs an .. weekends.

. n as lng or add1tronal help Desprte spending a large amount of . . . diverse issues both base-wide and 'th'ov~;trme trytng to address the self struggling to keep his head abo:~~: . IS branch, Adams found him- ~ase was having difficulty meetin its ter. ;o mak: ~atters w~rse, the ttons were critica lly understaffed ~h ~perattonaf miSS ton, and VItal sec- When pressed, Adams stated th~t h .e ~se commander wanted answers. lines and targets and the pi f IS p an met all of the required dead-

'

. • an con ormed to all of th 'd 1 ear y retr rement programs " Ma be so " . e gur e ines ofthe ''but you forgot about the bigge; pictu~e . ~ephed the base com mander,

Questions

1. Based on the skills model how would ability to meet the chall:nges of th :ou asses~ ~t. Col. John Adams's H e ase admrnrstration position?

2· ow would you assess his abilit t . . · regarding the conversion of th~ ~a~~et the addtttonal tasks he fated

3. If you were to coach Adams on how h . what would you tell him? e could Improve his leadership,

CASE 3.3

Andy's Recipe Andy Garafallo owns an Italian re . . cornfie ld near a farge Midwe t s~aurant that srts tn the middle of a elaborate mural of thE• canafssoefr~ ctt_y. On the restaurant's far wall is an . · ventce. A gondola h

Site wall, up by the ceiling Alo h angs on the oppo- lemon trees "My ancesto. nfg anot er wall is a row of real potted

· rs are rom Sicil~ " A d .. remember seeing my grandfather tak b: says n Y· In fact, I can the ones hanging on those trees." e a lte out of a lemon, just like

Andy is very confident about h. should be, because the restauran~sisapproac~ to .this restaurant, and he darned sure of what I want t d celebrattng Its 25th anniversary. "I'm

o o I'm not t · d'ff people to come here Peopl . h rylng ' erent fads to get get great food. They ~lso wa~t ~orne ere because they know they will

o support someone with whom they can

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 65

connect. This is my approach. Nothing more, nothing less." Although other restaurants have folded, Andy seems to have found a recipe for success.

Since opening his restaurant, Andy has had a number of managers. Currently, he has three: Kelly, Danielle, and Patrick. Kelly is a kitchen (food prep) manager who is known as very honest and dependable. She loves her work, and is efficient, good with ordering, and good with preparation. Andy really likes Kelly but is frustrated with her because she has such dif- ficulty getting along with the salespeople, delivery people, and waitstaff.

Danielle, who works out front in the restaurant, has been with Andy the longest, 6 years. Danielle likes working at Garafallo's-she lives and breathes the place . She fully buys into Andy's approach of putting cus- tomers first. In fact, Andy says she has a knack for knowing what custom- ers need even before they ask. Although she is very hospitable, Andy says she is lousy with numbers. She just doesn't seem to catch on to that side of the business.

Patrick, who has been with Andy for 4 years, usually works out front but can work in the kitchen as well. Although Patrick has a strong work ethic and is great with numbers, he is weak on the people side. For some rea- son, Patrick treats customers as if they are faceless, coming ac-ross as very unemotional. In addition, Patrick tends to approach problems with an either-or perspective. This has gotten him into trouble on more than one occasion. Andy wishes that Patrick would learn to lighten up. "He's a good manager, but he needs to recognize that some things just aren't that important," says Andy.

Andy's approach to his managers is that of a teacher and coach. He is always trying to help them improve. He sees part of his responsibility as teaching them every aspect of the restaurant business. Andy's stated goal is that he wants his managers to be "A" players when they leave his business to take on jobs elsewhere. Helping people to become the best they can be is Andy's goal for his restaurant employees.

Although Andy works 12 hours a day, he spends little time analyzing the numbers. He does not think about ways to improve his profit margin by cutting corners, raising an item price here, or cutting quality there. Andy says, "It's like this: The other night I got a call from someone who said they wanted to come in with a group and wondered if they could bring along a cake. I said 'yes' with one stipulation .... I get a piece! Well the people came and spent a lot of money. Then they told me that they had actually wanted to go to another restaurant but the other place would not allow them to bring in their own cake." Andy believes very strongly in his approach. "You get business by being what you should be." Compared with other restaurants, his restaurant is doing quite well . Although many places are happy to net 5%-7% profit, Andy's Italian restaurant nets 30% profit, year in and year out.

(Continued)

66 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

(Continued)

Questions

1. What accounts for Andy's success in the restaurant business ?

2. From a skills perspective, how would you describe the three manag- ers, Kell y, Da nielle, and Patrick? What does each of them need to do to improve his or her sk ills?

3. How wo uld you describe Andy's competencies? Does Andy's leader- ship suggest that one does not need all three skills in order to be effective?

LEADERSHIP INSTRUMENT---------

Many questionnaires assess an individual's skills for leadership. A quick search of the Internet provides a host of these questionnaires. Almost all of them are designed to be used in training and development to give people a feel for their leadership abilities. Surveys have been used for years to help people understand and improve their leadership style, but most question- naires are not used in research because they have not been tested for reli- ability and validity. Nevertheless, they are useful as self-help instruments because they provide specific information to people about their leadership skills.

In this chapter, we present a comprehensive skills model that is bas~d on many empirical studies of leaders' skills. Al.though the questionnaires used in these studies are highly reliable and are valid instruments, they are not suitable for our more pragmatic discussion of leadership in this text. In essence, they are too complex and involved. For example, Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al. (2000) used measures that included open- ended responses and very sophisticated scoring procedures. Though critically important for validating the model, these complicated measures are less valuable as self- instruction questionnaires.

A skills inventory is provided in the next section to assist you in understand- ing how leadership skills are measured and what your own skills might be. Your scores on the inventory will give you a sense of your own leadership competencies. You may be strong in all three skills, or you may be stronger in some skills than in others. The questionnaire will give you a sense of your own skills profile. If you are stronger in one skill and weaker in another, this may help you determlne where you want to improve in the future .

Chapter 3 I Skills Approach 67

Skills Inventory . and decide whether the item descnbes

Instructions: Read each item carefulze to each item by circling one of the five ou as a person. Indicate your ~espo

y t the right of each Item. numbers o

h t 5 =Very 3 = Occasionally 4 = Somew a

Key: 1 =Not true

2 =Seldom true true true

. etting into the details of how things work. 1. I enJOY g le's needs is easy for me. 2. As a rule, adapting ideas to pe.op

. k·ng with abstract Ideas. 3. I enJOY wor I 4 Technical things fascinate me. . t 5·. Being able to understand others is the most lmportan

part of my work.

S ·ng the big picture comes easy for me.

6. eel k" things work. k"ll . being good at ma mg 7 0 of my S I S IS .

true

2 3 4

2 3 4

2 3 4

2 3 4

2 3 4

2 3 4

2 3 4

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

. ne . . to have a supportive communicatiOn 8. My mam concern IS

climate. 1 . . d by complex organizational prob ems.

"1 ..' 2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

9 1 am mtngue 1;. Following directions and filling out forms comes 1 2 3 4 5 easily for me. . . ·

. . I fabric of the organization IS 11 . Understandmg the socla 2 3 4 5

important to me.

ld ·oy working out strategies for my

12. I wou en) organization's growth .

d at completing the things I've been

13. 1 am goo

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

assigned to do . . . t work together is a challenge I enJoy.

14. Getting all partieS o .

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5 . ·ssion statement is rewardmg work.

15 Creatmg a ml · f . d h to do the basic things reqUired o me.

2 3 4 5

16 1 understan ow . . d "th how my decisions affect the hves

17 . 1 am concerne WI 2 3 4 5

of others. . h . tiona\ values and phllosop y

18. Thinking about orgamza 2 3 4 5

appeals to me.

Scoring d h. . . to measure three broad types o! lea ers. IP

The skills inventory IS designed tual Score the questionnaire by domg . h n and concep ·

skills: techmcal, uma '

68 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

t he fo llowing . First sum the r is h , esponses o n items 1 4 7

your tee nica l skill sco re. Second h • , ' 10, 13, a nd 16. This 14, and 17. This is yo ur human k" ll • sum t e responses o n items 2 5 8 11 3 s 1 sco re Th · d • • • • , 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18. This is your . If ' ~um the responses on it em s

conceptua l skil l score. Total scores: Technical skill Hu .

-- man skill __ Conceptual skill

Scoring Interpretation

23-30 High Range

14-22 Moderate Range

6-13 Low Range

The scores you received on the skills In . . your leadership skills in t hre ventory provide mformation about Y e areas. By comparin t h d"u o ur scores, you ca n determine h . 9 e IHerences between where you have leadership w kw ere you have leadersh ip strengths and lev I f ea nesses Yo ur sco I e o management for wh · h . . res a so po int t oward the

IC you mig ht be most suited.

Chapter 31 Skills Approach 69

SUMMARY---------------

The skills approach is a leader-centered perspective that emphasizes the competencies of leaders. It is best represented in the early work of Katz (1955) on the three-skill approach and the more recent work of Mumford and his colleagues (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al. 2000), who initiated the development of a comprehensive skills model of leadership. In the three-skill approach, effective leadership depend on three basic per- sonal skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Although all three skills are important for leaders, the importance of each skill varies between manage- ment levels. At lower management levels, technical and human skills are most important. For middle managers, the three different skills are equally important. At upper management levels, conceptual and human skills are most important, and technical skills become less .important. Leaders are more effective when their skills match their management level.

In the 1990s, the skills model was developed to explain the capabilities (knowledge and skills) that make effective leadership possible. Far more com- plex than Katls paradigm, this model delineated five componer,1t~· of effective leader performance: competencies, individual attributes, leadership outcomes, career experiences, and environmental influences. The leader competencies at the heart of the model are problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. These competencies are directly affected by the leader's individual attributes, which include the leader's general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality. The leader's competencies are also affected by his or her career experiences and the environment. The model postulates that effective problem solving and performance can be explained by the leader's basi competencies and that these competencies are in turn affected by the leader's attributes, experience, and environment.

There are several strengths in conceptualizing leadership from a skills per- spective. First, it is a leader-centered model that stresses the importance of the leader's abilities, and it places learned skills at the center of effective leadership performance. Se ond, the skills approach describes leadership in such a way that it makes it available to everyone. Skills are competencies that we all can learn to develop and improve. Third, the skills approach provides a sophisticated map that explains how effective leadership pel"formance can be achieved. Based on the model, researchers can develop complex plans for studying the leadership process. Last, this approach provides a structure for leadership education and development programs that include creative prob- lem solving, conflict resolution, listening, and teamwork.

In addition to the positive features, there are also some negative aspects to the skills approach. First, the breadth of the model seems to extend beyond the boundaries ofleadership, including, for example, conflict management,

70 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

critical thinking, motivation theory, and personality theory. Second, the skills model is weak in predictive value. It does not explain how a person's compe- tencies lead to effective leadership performance.

Third, the skills model claims not to be a trait approach; nevertheless, indi- vidual traits such as cognitive abili6es, motivation, and personality play a large role in the model . Finally, the skills model is weakln general applica- tion because it was constructed using data only from military personnel. Until the model has been tested with other populations, such as small and large organizations and businesses, its basic tenets must still be questioned.

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REFERENCES-------------

Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill~ brmdbook ofleaders,~ip: Theory, research, and man- agerial applitatioll (3rd ed.). New York: Free Press.

Connelly,M. S., Gilbert,]. A., Zaccaro, S.J.. Threlfall, K. V., Marks, M.A., &Mum~ ford, M .D. (2000). Exploring the relationship of leadership skills and knowledge to leader performance. Lendership Quarterly, 11(1), 65-86.

Katz, R. L. (1955). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, JJ(1), 33-42.

Mumford, M.D., & Conndly,M. S. (1991). Leaders as creators: Leader performance and problem solving in ill-defined domains. Leadership Qumterly, 2, 289- 315.

Mumford, M.D., Zaccaro, S.J., Connelly, M.S., &Marks, M.A. (2000). Leadership skills: Conclusion and future directions. Leadership QuarterfJ!, 11(1), 155-170.

Mumford, M . D., Zaccaro, S. ]., Harding, F. D., Jacobs, T. 0., & Fleishman, E. A. (2000). Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems. Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 11- 35.

Mumford, T. V., Campion, M. A., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). The leadership skills strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels. Leadership Quarterly,JB, 154-166.

Yam marino, F.]. (2000). Leadership skills: Introduction and overview. Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 5-9.

Zaccaro, S.]., Gilbert,]., Thor, K. K., &Mumford, M.D. (1991). Leadership and social intelligence: Linking social perceptiveness and behavioral flexibility to leader effectiveness. Leadership Quarterly, 2, 317-331.

Zaccaro, S.J.,Mumford,M.D., Conncily,M. S.,Marks,M. A.,&Gilbert,].A. (2000). Assessment ofleader problem-solving capabilities. Leadmbip Quarterly, 11(1), 37-64.

4

Behavioral Approach

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d This distinguishes . s the behavior of the lea er. .. . The style approach emphastze 2) which emphasizes the person~ty it from the. trait approach (C::~t~e ;kills approach (Chap er 3), which characteristics of the leader, bili . The behavioral approach focuses emphasizes the leader's capa . tldehs. th . act. I n shifting the study of

h t 1 aders do an · ow ey d d the exclusively on w a e . the behavioral approach expan e . leadership to Jead~r be~a~o~, the actions of leaders toward followers ill research of leaderslup to m u e various contexts. . .

. ch determined that leadershlp ~s Researchers studying the b~h~vlo~~:~~:~:s: task behaviors and relatiomhtp composed of two general kin .. s. o oal accomplishment: They help group behaviors. Task behavio~ fa~t~te g Relationship behaviors help foll?w~s members to achieve theu obJectives.' ch ther and with the situatlon m feel comfortable with themselves, wlth :a urpoose ~f the behavioral approach which they find themselves. T~e centr p kinds of behaviors to influence . 1 . how leaders comblnc these two 1s to exp am ch goal followers in their efforts to rea a .

. . ate the behavioral approach . Many studies have been conducted to mvesti~nducted at The Ohio State Some of the first studies to be donethwefire ~ngs of Stogdill's (1948) work,

h la 1940s based on e n d ' 't in University in t e te ' . d . ng more than lea ers tra1 s which pointed to the importance of con_st er~nother group of researchers at leadership research . At about the sa~e t:e, a series of studies that explored the University of Michigan ':as con uc g A third line of research was

how leadership functio ned 1~ s:~e:~ouf;6os; it explored how managers begun by Blake an~ M~utobn :viors in the organizational setting. used task and relationship e

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