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leadership3.pptxWeek Three
Leadership for SMEs
Personality
Personality
“any characteristic pattern of behaviour, thought or emotional experience that exhibits relative consistency across time and situations (Allport, 1937)
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Second definition is taken from Muillins,
Personality
What shapes our personality?
social factors: factors that influence personality that arise from interaction with other people
socialisation: the process of being taught how to behave and how to feel by other (influential) people within a social setting
cultural factors: wider social beliefs, values and motives that are absorbed by an individual and guide behaviour towards that which is acceptable within a particular social context
situational: the effect of a specific experience of situation on a person’s feelings and behaviour
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Personality
Nature/nurture debate
Is personality inherited or
Does personality develop over our lives?
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The Origins of Personality
There is a debate about whether or how far the factors of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence personality. There are two main approaches:
The Nomothetic (law setting) approach suggests that personality is more or less fixed and that various elements of personality (called traits) are the same from individual to individual. Individuals possess a selection of these traits which tend to go together in compatible trait clusters.
The Idiographic approach individualises and suggests that personality develops through experience and in accordance with how the individual sees themselves, ie personality is individual and can be shaped.
Analysing your own personality
The idiographic approach is based on the SELF CONCEPT
We are continually analysing our own personality and have our own perceptions of what our personality is
The self-concept can be thought of as the individual’s beliefs about his/her personality - how the individual perceives his/her personality.
This represents a rather special relationship that we have with ourselves, namely self-consciousness or self-awareness.
What is The Self ?
The self-concept is a general term that traditionally refers to three major components:
(i) self-image
(ii) self-esteem and
(iii) ideal-self.
Self Image
This refers to the way in which we would describe ourselves, the kind of person we think we are (whether we like what we are or not).
We can normally identify ourself in two ways:
Social/Responsibility Roles, eg a sister, mother, student, team leader etc
Physical/Personality Traits, eg shy, tall, blue eyed, friendly.
Physical/Personality traits are personal judgement.
Gordon Allport (1955) places great emphasis of self image on our bodily image or bodily self.
Self Esteem
While the self-image is essentially descriptive, self-esteem is essentially evaluative:
It refers to the extent to which we like and accept or approve of ourselves, how worthwhile a person we think we are.
Coopersmith (1967) defined it as, ‘a personal judgement of worthiness, that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds towards himself.’
Self Esteem
How much we like or value ourselves can be an overall judgment or it can relate to specific areas of our lives.
For example, we can have a generally high opinion of ourselves and yet not like certain of our characteristics or attributes, such as our wavy or curly hair (when we want it straight) or our lack of assertiveness (when we want to be more assertive).
Alternatively, it may be impossible or certainly very difficult to have high overall esteem if we are very badly disfigured or are desperately shy.
Ideal Self
If our self-image is the kind of person we think we are, then our ideal-self is the kind of person we would like to be.
Again, this can vary in extent and degree - we may want to be different in certain aspects or we may want to be a totally different person. (We may even wish we were someone else!)
We might be very dissatisfied with what we are like and want to be different for this reason, or we may basically like ourselves and want to develop and extend ourselves along essentially the same lines.
Generally, the greater the gap between our self-image and our ideal-self, the lower our self-esteem.
Factors Influence our Self Image
Argyle (1969, 1983) believes that there are factors which influence the development of the self-concept, namely:
(i) the reaction of others
(ii) comparison with others
Factors Influence our Self Image
Reaction of Others
The reactions of others are central in the formulation of our self-concept and there is considerable support for this theory (Mead. 1934 and Cooley, 1902).
Factors Influence our Self Image
Reaction of Others
We tend to develop our own self personality around the beliefs of others.
Various people become major shapers in our lives:
Parents
Teachers
Lecturers
Managers
Friends
The views of others shapes our own Self Esteem. We tend to develop our personality traits from those who have been part of our lives.
Factors Influence our Self Image
Comparison with Others
There are certain parts of our self-image which only take on any significance at all through comparison with others. For example, ‘tall’ and ‘fat’ are not absolute characteristics (like, say, ‘blue-eyed’), and we are only tall or fat in comparison with others who are shorter or thinner than ourselves. This is true of many other characteristics, including intelligence.
We therefore tend to compare ourselves with those around us.
Part of the reaction of parents and other adults to a child often takes the form of a comparison between the child and other siblings. If the child is told repeatedly that she is ‘less clever than your big sister’, she will come to incorporate this as part of her self-image and will probably have lower self-esteem as a result. This could adversely affect her academic performance so that she does not achieve in line with her true ability.
Nomothetic Theories
Another approach to Personality is the Nomothetic approach.
Trait theories fall into the Nomothetic category and have been developed by theorists such as Allport (1961) and Eysenck (1973).
Traits are individual characteristics of thought or feeling that give rise to tendencies to act or react in certain ways (Drever, 1964). This does not mean to say if someone has a particular trait it is a exact guide to their actions.
By ascertaining someone's traits, an employer can recruit or organise its staff to produce more productive, co-operative teams.
General Personality Traits of Effective Leaders (DuBrin 2010)
Leadership Effectiveness
Core Self evaluations
trustworthiness
authenticity
extraversion
humility
Assertiveness
Enthusiasm, optimism and warmth
Sense of humour
Self confidence
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Nomothetic Theories
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Scheme
Cattell (1965) has developed a model in which he claims includes the fundamental factors which make up personality. These are split into twelve Source Traits (Primary Factors) which he suggests everyone can be placed on a bi-polar scale.
A criticism of this approach is that it over simplifies matters.
| Low Score | Factor | High Score |
| Reserved | A | Outgoing |
| Less Intelligent | B | More Intelligent |
| Affected by feelings | C | Emotionally Stable |
| Humble | E | Assertive |
| Sober | F | Happy Go Lucky |
| Expedient | G | Conscientious |
| Shy | H | Venturesome |
| Tough Minded | I | Tender Minded |
| Trusting | L | Suspicious |
| Practical | M | Imaginative |
| Forthright | N | Shrewd |
| Self Assured | O | Apprehensive |
| Conservative | Q1 | Experimenting |
| Group Dependent | Q2 | Self Sufficient |
| Undisciplined | Q3 | Controlled |
| Relaxed | Q4 | Tense |
Nomothetic Theories
The Big Five Personality Traits
The "Big five" personality traits are five broad factors or dimensions of personality
These factors are often called Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN)
Nomothetic Theories
The Big Five Personality Traits
Openness – This is the extent to which you are open or closed to new experiences.
Conscientiousness – This is the extent to which you are hard working, reliable and/or strive for perfection. People who are low on conscientiousness are not necessarily lazy or immoral, but they tend to be more laid back, less goal oriented, and less driven by success
Nomothetic Theories
The Big Five Personality Traits
Extraversion – Extroverts are gregarious, assertive, and generally seek out excitement. Introverts, in contrast, are reserved, deep in thought, and self-reliant. They are not necessarily asocial, but they tend to have few true friends, and are less likely to thrive on making new social contacts.
Nomothetic Theories
The Big Five Personality Traits
Agreeableness - is a tendency to be pleasant and accommodating in social situations. People who score high on this dimension are empathetic, considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and generally likable.
People scoring low on agreeableness place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally less concerned with others' well-being, and therefore less likely to go out of their way to help others (Graziano, Habashi, Sheese, & Tobin, 2007).
Nomothetic Theories
The Big Five Personality Traits
Neuroticism - Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than the average to experience such feelings as anxiety, anger, guilt. They respond more poorly to environmental stress, and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. They are often self-conscious and shy.
| Big 5 personality traits | Specific traits |
| Surgency (Extraversion – energy seeking/sources) | Extroversion (outgoing) |
| Energy /Activity level | |
| Need for Power (assertive) | |
| Conscientiousness | Dependability |
| Personal Integrity | |
| Need for achievement | |
| Agreeableness | Cheerful and Optimistic |
| Nurturance (sympathetic/helpful) | |
| Need for affiliation | |
| Adjustment (Neuroticism, emotional stability) | Emotional Stability |
| Self esteem | |
| Self Control | |
| Intellect (Openness to experience) | Curious and inquisitive |
| Open minded | |
| Learning orientated |
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Nomothetic Theories
Jung
Carl Jung also identifies three key areas of personality:
Introversion and Extroversion
Sensing and Intuition
Thinking and Feeling
Nomothetic Theories
Jung – Introversion and Extroversion
Are you the type of person who gets energy from interacting with people and activities? Yes/No
Do you like to talk your ideas through with other people in the early stages? Yes/No
Do you often/regularly seek the company of others? Yes/No
Do you prefer time to reflect and think things through before making a commitment? Yes/No
Do you prefer your own office and working without the involvement of others until the final stages? Yes/No
Are you happier entertaining close friends at home rather than attending larger parties? Yes/No
Nomothetic Theories
Quiet Observant Inward focus Depth Intimate Reserved Reflective Thoughtful Cautious
Energetic Involved Outward focus Breadth Quick Action oriented Outspoken Bold
EXTRAVERSION
INTROVERSION
Nomothetic Personality
Thinking and Feeling
Thinking and Feeling: Jung’s
Formal, Impersonal, Analytical, Detached, Objective Strong-minded, Competitive, Correct, Task, Systems,
Informal, Personal, Considerate, Involved, Subjective, Caring, Accommodating, Harmonious, Relationships, Morale
Feeling Preference
Thinking Preference
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How do people make decisions- evaluations and judgements ? RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
HEAD’- Thinking focus on LOGIC and prepared to criticise , offer an impartial view
HEART’ Feeling focus on IMPACT of decisions on others, use friendly persuasion and , prefer tact to blunt truth
Question- If you had a job to be done through a group of people. Would you say:
A) ‘Let’s get the job done and then go for a drink’
OR
B) ‘Let’s go for a drink and then we’ll discuss the best way to get the job done’
Jung says they are mutually exclusive- only one can be in use at any given time
Nomothetic Personality
Sensing and Intuition
Exercise - Look at the image. The image will be displayed for two minutes, use this time to see what thoughts come into your mind
Sensation and Intuition: Jung’s
Specific Present-oriented Realistic Persistent Down-to-earth Practical Precise Factual Step by step
Global Future-oriented Imaginative Catalytic Process Conceptual Possibilities Abstract Indirect Generalities
Intuition
Sensation
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Sensing preference- systems and order are priorities, likes specifics, conservative, traditional
Intuitive preferences – may appear to others to be innovative, inventive and seek meanings and relationships between concepts and ideas
