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The Language of Art and Architecture

Chapter 2

Learning Objectives

Define the basic units of visual language.

Define the terms of formal analysis.

Describe the basic principles of color theory.

Discuss the three kinds of space in relation to art.

Describe perspectival systems.

Identify various architectural orders.

Given a work of art, describe the role that formal elements play in communicating the content.

Give examples from various cultures of the structural systems in architecture.

Introduction

We communicate ideas through languages: oral and written, numbers, music, and art.

For the language of art and architecture, the grammar consists of:

formal elements.

principles by which those elements are composed or structured.

Figure 2.1 (1 of 2)

2.1 Interior of dome of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain. Umayyad caliphate (Moorish), Spain, 961–966 CE.

Figure 2.1 (2 of 2)

Traditional architectural structures can be simple or highly complex, as in the Interior of the Dome of the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

FORMAL ELEMENTS

line

light and value

color

texture and pattern

shape and volume

space

time and motion

Some works also contain elements of:

chance

improvisation

spontaneity

engagement of senses other than sight

Line (1 of 5)

In art, a line is a moving point, having both length and width.

Actual lines made with drawing or writing materials can be broad, thin, straight, jagged.

Implied lines do not physically exist, but appear to be real to the viewer.

Figure 2.2a

2.2a Actual and implied lines.

Line (2 of 5)

A line’s direction describes spatial relationships.

Horizontal lines imply inactivity.

Vertical lines imply aspiration, the potential of action.

Diagonal lines suggest movement, like falling trees.

Curving lines suggest flowing movement.

Figure 2.2b

2.2b Direction.

Line (3 of 5)

Line quality can express a range of emotions:

fragility

roughness

anger

whimsy

vigor . . .

Figure 2.2c

2.2c Line quality.

Figure 2.3

2.3 Utagawa Kunisada. Shoki the Demon Queller, c. 1849–1853. Woodblock print, 1' 2" × 9 1⁄2". Burrell Collection, Glasgow.

Line (4 of 5)

The overall context of Kunisada’s artwork affects the understanding of the line.

Most lines in this print are bold and calligraphic, except for those in the hair and beard, where fine lines depict texture.

Figure 2.4

2.4 Paul Klee. Bounds of the Intellect, 1927. Oil on canvas, 1' 2" × 1' 10". State Gallery of Modern Art, Munich.

Compare

Line (5 of 5)

Lines that compare 3-D objects:

Gesture lines: rapid, sketchy marks mimicking the movement of human eyes when examining a subject

Outline: follows the edges of a silhouette of a 3-D form with uniform line thickness

Contour lines: mark the edges of a 3-D object with varying line thickness and with some internal detail

Cross-contours: repeated lines around an object and express its three-dimensionality

Hatching: lines that produce tones or values using parallel lines

Cross-hatching: many thin, parallel lines create the illusion of a light gray tone; parallel lines layered on top of each other create darker gray tones

Figure 2.2d

2.2d Lines that compare three-dimensional objects.

Figure 2.5

2.5 Albrecht Durer. Artist Drawing a Model in Foreshortening through a Frame Using a Grid System, from Unterweysung der Messung (Instructions for Measuring). Woodcut.

Figure 2.6 (1 of 2)

2.6 Linguist’s staff (okyea mepoma). Akan artist. 19th–20th C. Wood and gold leaf, 5' 1" × 8 7/16" × 1 5/8". Princeton University Art Museum, New Jersey.

Figure 2.6 (2 of 2)

A long, thin, 3-D object such as a linguist’s staff can act like a line in space.

Light and Value (1 of 3)

Light is electromagnetic energy that stimulates the eyes and brain required to for vision:

Natural light: sun, moon, stars, lightning, and fire

Artificial light: Incandescent, fluorescent, neon, and laser

Ambient light: Most art does not emit light but reflects ambient light (the light all around us)

Figure 2.7 (1 of 2)

2.7 Dan Flavin. Untitled (To Donna) 6, 1971. Fluorescent lights, 8' × 8'. Albright-Knox Art Gallery. George Cary Fund, 1972.

Figure 2.7 (2 of 2)

In art and architecture, light might be an actual element.

In buildings, the control of light is an essential design element, whether with skylights, windows, or artificial lights.

Flavin's work is made of nothing but fluorescent lights in a corner. The light fixtures form a frame and create a glowing, ethereal space.

Light and Value (2 of 3)

In 2-D art, value represents various levels of light.

Value: one step on a gradation from light and dark

Tone: another word for value

Achromatic value scale: white to black and the gray tones in between

Value is also associated with color: any color can be lighter or darker

Shading or modeling: manipulating gradations in values creating the appearance of natural light

Figure 2.8

2.8 Value and intensity diagram.

Light and Value (3 of 3)

Renaissance Italians used the term chiaroscuro to describe light-dark gradations (Fig. 2.9).

Figure 2.9

2.9 Rosso Fiorentino. Recumbent Female Nude Figure Asleep, 1530–1540. 5" × 9 1/2". British Museum, London.

Color (1 of 6)

Color is visible in refracted light when a prism breaks a light beam into a spectrum of color.

Properties of color:

hue: pure color, the color’s name

value: lightness and darkness within a hue

intensity: brightness or dullness of a hue

intensity synonyms: chroma and saturation

Shade: when black is added to a hue

Tint: when white is added to a hue

Figure 2.10 (1 of 2)

2.10 Louise Nevelson. Mirror Image I, 1969. Painted wood, 9' 9 3/4" × 17' 6 1/2" × 1' 9". Collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.

Figure 2.10 (2 of 2)

This is a completely black sculpture, but we see a range of dark gray values, caused by light hitting and reflecting off the raised areas.

Color (2 of 6)

High-intensity colors are seen in the spectrum.

Neutral colors include low-intensity colors such as cream, tan, beige.

Local colors are normally found in the objects around us.

Figure 2.11 (1 of 2)

2.11 Thomas Gainsborough. Mr. and Mrs. Andrews, 1750. Oil on canvas, 2' 3 1/2" × 3' 11". National Gallery, London.

Figure 2.11 (2 of 2)

In Gainsborough’s painting, we see:

saturated color in the blue in Mrs. Andrew’s dress.

neutral color in the tree trunk.

local colors in the yellow hay and gray-and-white clouds.

Color (3 of 6)

Additive color system refers to mixing color with light-emitting media.

Theater lighting, performance art, light displays, and computer and video monitors use this color system.

Subtractive color system: refers to mixing color pigments to control the light that is reflected from them.

Pigments are powdered substances ground into oil, acrylic polymer, or other binders to create paints.

Figure 2.12a

2.12a Diagram showing the additive color system.

Figure 2.12b

2.12b Diagram showing the subtractive color system.

Figure 2.12c

2.12c Diagram showing the color wheel for mixing pigments.

Color (4 of 6)

Primary: combine to produce the largest number of new colors:

red, yellow, and blue in subtractive system

red, green, and blue in additive system

Secondary: result from mixing two primary colors

Tertiary: result from mixing one primary color with one of its neighboring secondary colors

Analogous: similar in appearance, next to each other on the color wheel

Complementary: opposites on the color wheel

Color (5 of 6)

Color perception is relative, we see colors differently depending on their surroundings.

Natural light is constantly changing, so, color is constantly changing.

Stare at the white dot at the center of the flag in Fig. 2.14 for 30 seconds and then look at a white area. It will appear to be red, white, and blue. Color perception shifts due to eye fatigue.

Figure 2.14

2.14 Relativity of color perception.

Color (6 of 6)

Colors associated with the sun and fire (yellows, reds, and oranges) are considered warm.

Colors associated with plant life, sky, and water (greens, blues, and violets) are cool.

Warm and cool colors can affect an audience both physically and emotionally.

Certain colors can be associated with ideas or events (flags, holidays) and vary from culture to culture.

Texture and Pattern (1 of 3)

Texture is a surface characteristic that is tactile or visual.

Tactile texture consists of physical surface variations that can be perceived by touch.

Simulated textures mimic reality.

Abstracted texture is based on existing texture but has been simplified and regularized.

Invented textures are products of human imagination.

Figure 2.15 (1 of 2)

2.15 Lion Capital of column erected by Ashoka at Sarnath, India, c. 250 BCE. Polished sandstone, approx. 7' high. Archeological Museum, Sarnath, India.

Figure 2.15 (2 of 2)

The Lion Capital has gleaming smooth sandstone on the legs which contrasts with the rough texture of the mane, examples of tactile textures.

Figure 2.16 (1 of 2)

2.16 Detail of Deesis Mosaic in Hagia Sophia, believed to be 1185–1204. Mosaic tile.

Figure 2.16 (2 of 2)

A medium may have inherent texture (mosaic, marble, wood, cloth, etc.).

A mosaic is a picture created out of small colored glass or stone pieces affixed to a surface.

Each mosaic piece reflects ambient light in a slightly different direction and has a texture that is particular to this process.

Texture and Pattern (2 of 3)

Pattern: a configuration with a repeated visual form

Natural patterns: occur all around us (leaves, flowers, clouds, crystal formations, waves)

Geometric patterns: have regular elements spaced at regular intervals.

Figure 2.17 (1 of 2)

2.17 Blanket. Tlingit people, Chilkat style. Mountain goat wool and cedar bark, 2' 7" × 5' 11", excluding fringe. The Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey.

Figure 2.17 (2 of 2)

The black and yellow patterns of this Tlingit blanket are abstracted from human or animal features and have a geometric quality.

Texture and Pattern (3 of 3)

Patterns in architecture create visual interest.

Patterns can function to direct your eye to certain features of a building, like entrances or domes.

Patterns help organize ideas into visual diagrams that make relationships clear.

Patterns can function as decoration (wrapping paper, wallpaper, fabric design).

Figure 2.18 (1 of 2)

2.18 Great Mosque of Cordoba, interior, Spain, 786 CE.

Figure 2.18 (2 of 2)

Patterns can have symbolic value, as in the Islamic Great Mosque of Cordoba where the amazing, rich patterns express the idea that all the wonder of creation originates in Allah.

Shape and Volume (1 of 2)

Shape: 2-D visual entity.

Regular shapes are geometric:

circle

square

triangle

hexagon

teardrop

Irregular shapes are organic or biomorphic.

Shapes can be defined by outlines or by an area of color surrounded by a contrasting area.

Shape and Volume (2 of 2)

Volume is 3-D (versus 2-D) and can also be:

regular or irregular.

geometric or biomorphic.

Volumes may or may not have physical bulk, or mass.

Figure 2.19 (1 of 2)

2.19 Car. Wire child’s toy, Africa.

Figure 2.19 (2 of 2)

Car’s wireframe structure has a large volume, but little mass.

Space (1 of 8)

There are three kinds of space in relationship to art:

the space in 2-D artwork (planar space)

the space of sculpture and architecture (its area and its voids)

the space of performance art and installation

Space (2 of 8)

Complex illusions of space are created through perspective, creating the illusion of depth on a flat plane.

Atmospheric perspective (or aerial perspective): the light, bleached-out, fuzzy handling of distant forms to make them seem far away

Linear perspective: the theory that parallel lines appear to converge as they recede. They seem to meet on the horizon line. The horizon line corresponds to the viewer’s eye.

Space (3 of 8)

Three types of linear perspective:

One-point perspective: the frontal plane of a volume is closest to the viewer, and all other planes appear to recede to a single vanishing point.

Two-point perspective: a single edge of a volume is closest to the viewer, and all planes appear to recede to one of two vanishing points.

Three-point perspective: only a single point of a volume is closest to the viewer, and all planes seem to recede to one of three vanishing points.

Space (4 of 8)

One-point perspective: the frontal plane of a volume is closest to the viewer, and all other planes appear to recede to a single vanishing point

Figure 2.20a

2.20a One-point perspective.

Space (5 of 8)

Two-point perspective: a single edge of a volume is closest to the viewer, and all planes appear to recede to one of two vanishing points

Figure 2.20b

2.20b Two-point perspective.

Space (6 of 8)

Three-point perspective: creates the illusion of forms that receded to the left, to the right, and downward

Figure 2.20c

2.20c Three-point perspective.

Figure 2.21 (1 of 2)

2.21 Ronald W. Davis. Cube and Four Panels, 1975. Acrylic on canvas, support: 9' 2 1⁄2" × 10' 10 3⁄4". Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York.

Figure 2.21 (2 of 2)

Cube and Four Panels is an example of three-point perspective.

Space (7 of 8)

Other perspective systems:

Isometric perspective: used in architectural drafting, renders planes on a diagonal that does not recede in space. The side planes are drawn at a thirty-degree angle to the left and right.

Oblique perspective: a three-dimensional object is rendered with the front and back parallel. The side planes are drawn at a forty-five-degree angle from the front plane.

Multipoint perspective: various sections conform to different perspective systems.

Figure 2.22

2.22 An example of an isometric projection (A), an example of an oblique projection (B).

Figure 2.23 (1 of 2)

2.23 Festivities, detail of a screen depicting the popular festivities that took place at Shijo-gawa, Kyoto. Late Muromachi period, 16th century. Seikado Library, Tokyo.

Figure 2.23 (2 of 2)

In Festivities, the artist has used oblique perspective to give a sense of space going back from the lower left to the upper right.

Figure 2.24 (1 of 2)

2.24 Giorgio de Chirico. Gare Montparnasse (The Melancholy of Departure), 1914. Oil on canvas, 4' 7" × 6'. The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Figure 2.24 (2 of 2)

Amplified or distorted perspective gives dramatic emphasis. In Gare Montparnasse, the perspective gives the painting the fractured space of a dream or a memory.

This example of multipoint perspective shows an unreal or illogical depiction of space.

Space (8 of 8)

Space in sculpture and architecture consists of the footprint occupied by the structure and the voids and solids within each piece and surrounding it.

Space in installation or performance art can be particularly significant because part of the meaning comes from its location and environment.

Figure 2.25 (1 of 2)

2.25 Yong Ping. Bat Project I (Shenzhen), China, 2001. Replica of an American spy plane from middle of body to tail. Barbara Gladstone Gallery, New York.

Figure 2.25 (2 of 2)

Ping’s installation was too politically charged to remain in China, so was relocated to an amusement park in the U.S., thus reducing its impact.

Time and Motion (1 of 2)

Time is the period that viewers study and absorb an artwork.

Motion is implied by the repetition of similar shapes.

Motion marks the passage of time.

Motion is integral to film/video, interactive digital art, kinetic sculpture, and performance. In these works, time and motion are related, as motion cannot exist without time and motion marks the passage of time.

Some artwork moves and changes in time and is not in fixed form.

Figure 2.26 (1 of 2)

2.26 Marcel Duchamp. The Passage from Virgin to Bride, 1912. Oil on canvas, 1' 11 1⁄2" × 1' 9". The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Figure 2.26 (2 of 2)

In Duchamp’s painting, motion is implied by:

rhythmic repetition of abstracted forms.

the fading in and out of the image on the left and on the right.

Figure 2.27 (1 of 2)

2.27 Cai Guo-Qiang. Black Rainbow: Explosion Project for Valencia, Spain, 2005.

Figure 2.27 (2 of 2)

Some artists allow for chance, improvisation, or spontaneity to add something unexpected such as Cai Guo-Quiang’s piece Black Rainbow exploding into the sky.

Time and Motion (2 of 2)

With architecture and large sculpture, viewers cannot grasp all their features in an instant.

These works unfold in time as we move through around them.

In Figs. 2.28 and 2.29, travelers first see the 29 Ajanta Caves as doorways and porches carved into a hillside. This modest view does not prepare the viewer for the amazing Ceiling of Cave 26.

Even more unfolds in time and with the viewer’s motion as they walk around the cave.

Figure 2.28

2.28 View of the Ceiling of Cave 26 at Ajanta Caves, Parinirvana between the columns in Chaitya Hall, late fifth century, Maharashtra, India.

Figure 2.29

2.29 A second view of Cave 26 at Ajanta Caves, Parinirvana between the columns in Chaitya Hall, late fifth century, Maharashtra, India.

Engaging All the Senses

Some artworks appeal to senses other than visual:

Film, video, and performance art usually add sound components.

The Ajanta Caves stimulate smell, tactile, and sound sensations.

African masquerades (as in Fig. 2.30) incorporate art objects, singing, dancing, and community celebrations and rituals. Note that masks are not considered static sculptures but are integral parts of the larger masquerade art form.

Figure 2.30

2.30 Bwa Masqueraders, Burkina Faso.

PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION

Composition: the arrangement of formal elements in a work of art.

Principles of composition:

balance

rhythm

proportion and scale

emphasis

unity and variety

Balance

Balance: placing elements so that their visual weights seem evenly distributed

Symmetrical balance: visual weight is distributed evenly

Asymmetrical balance: careful distribution of uneven elements

Radial balance: elements in the composition visually radiate outward from a central point

Figure 2.31 (1 of 2)

2.31 Angkor Wat, Central Temple Complex, Cambodia, c. 1113–1150 CE.

Figure 2.31 (2 of 2)

Symmetry and radial balance add to the grandeur of the Angkor Wat’s enormous temple complex.

Rhythm

Rhythm: the repetition of carefully placed elements separated by intervals

Regular rhythm: smooth, systematically repeated

Alternating rhythm: different elements repeatedly placed side by side

Eccentric rhythm: irregular, but not so much so that the visuals do not connect

Figure 2.32 (1 of 2)

2.32 Churning of the Ocean of Milk, Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Bas-relief. National Geographic Image Collection/Alamy.

Figure 2.32 (2 of 2)

In this bas-relief, we see examples of regular rhythm (the heads), alternating rhythm (the legs), and eccentric rhythm (the dancing spirits overhead).

The visual repetition is a fitting expression for the rhythmic physical struggle.

Proportion and Scale

Proportion and scale are expressive devices.

Proportion: the size of one part in relation to another within a work of art

Scale: the size of something in relation to what we assume to be normal

Hieratic scaling points to the highest-ranking person in the scene

in Parinirvana (Fig. 2.28), the reclining Buddha is enormous compared to all other figures showing hieratic scaling.

Emphasis

Emphasis is the result of one or more focal points in an artwork.

When there are several focal points, lesser ones are called accents.

Figure 2.33 (1 of 2)

2.33 Claes Oldenburg, Coosi van Bruggen, and Frank O. Gehry. The Binocular-Entrance to the Chiat Building, Venice, California, 1985–1991.

Figure 2.33 (2 of 2)

Emphasis in architecture means that one part of a building becomes a focal point.

Architects often use ornamentation for emphasis.

The Binocular Entrance is the obvious focal point on the Chiat Building.

Unity and Variety

Unity: overall cohesion within an artwork

Variety: the element of difference within an artwork

In The Passage from Virgin to Bride (Fig. 2.26), unity is achieved with the brown palette and shapes, simplified geometric versions of the human body. Variety is introduced with the varying angles of the shapes and the changes in lighting.

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS IN ARCHITECTURE

Structural systems enable buildings to stand up an enclose space.

Load-Bearing Construction: all areas of the walls support the structure above them, and the walls have few openings.

Post-and-Lintel Construction: ancient method of constructing walls, making openings, and supporting a roof. The basic module is two upright posts supporting a cross beam or lintel.

Load-Bearing Construction

In load-bearing architecture, all areas of the walls support the structure above them, and the walls have few openings.

An extreme example of a load-bearing structure is El Castillo, a Mayan pyramid and temple in Mexico (Fig. 2.34).

The pyramid’s small temple on top has uninterrupted walls except for a few small doors, a necessity given the weight of the roof above.

Figure 2.34

2.34 El Castillo, elevated view, Chichén Itzá, Mexico, ninth–tenth centuries.

Post-and-Lintel Construction (1 of 3)

Two upright posts support a crossbeam or lintel.

Post-and-lintel systems may consist of:

Columns: refined and decorated cylindrical posts.

Colonnade: row of columns supporting lintels.

Hypostyle: a grid of posts and lintels supporting the roof of a large interior space.

Figure 2.35

2.35 Diagram showing post-and-lintel construction.

Post-and-Lintel Construction (2 of 3)

The Temple of Athena Nike (Fig. 2.36, right) shows post-and-lintel construction in its two porches, and load-bearing construction in the solid wall between.

Figure 2.36

2.36 Mnesicles. The Temple of Athena Nike (right) and the corner of Propylaea (left), 437–432 BCE. Athens.

Post-and-Lintel Construction (3 of 3)

Subcategories of post-and-lintel architecture:

Classical Greek order

Roman architectural orders

An order consists of the following, all exhibiting standardized proportions and decorative ornamentation:

column with a base

shaft

capital

entablature

Figure 2.37

2.37 Diagram of Greek and Roman orders.

Wood Construction

The Chinese developed a wood frame architecture based on the post-and-lintel model.

The complete frame system contains these innovations:

non-load-bearing walls

brackets

cantilevers

Figure 2.38

2.38 Chinese wood frame structural system, showing brackets and cantilevers.

Arches, Vaulting, and Domes (1 of 4)

Because of its weight and brittle nature, stone would have limited use as a building material were it not for the arch.

The arch consists of:

voussoirs: wedge-shaped stones

keystone: placed in the center for support

piers or columns: on which the arch rests

Figure 2.39a

2.39a Diagram showing types of arches.

Arches, Vaulting, and Domes (2 of 4)

A straight row of arches placed side by side is called an arcade.

Figure 2.39b

2.39b Diagram showing types of arcades.

Arches, Vaulting, and Domes (3 of 4)

Multiple arches create entire roofs made of stone called vaults or vaulting.

Types of vaults include:

barrel

groin or cross

ribbed

gothic

Arches need outside support from buttresses (Fig. 2.39d) to prevent movement.

Figure 2.39c

2.39c Diagram showing types of vaults.

Figure 2.39d

2.39d Diagram showing types of buttresses.

Arches, Vaulting, and Domes (4 of 4)

A dome is theoretically an arch rotated on its vertical axis to form a hemispheric vault.

Domes can rest on:

drums

pendentives

Figure 2.39e

2.39e Diagram showing types of domes.

Figure 2.40 (1 of 2)

2.40 Andrea Buffalini. Cathedral of Dubrovnik: Nave Groin Vault, Croatia, construction finished in 1713.

Figure 2.40 (2 of 2)

In the Cathedral of Dubrovnik, plain, bright, airy vaults contrast with the gray, heavy-looking arcade.

Groin vaults cover the ceiling, except for the dome at the top of the page.

Recent Methods and Materials

New materials, especially steel and steel-reinforced concrete, resulted in structures taller than ever before.

Many modern buildings feature an internal skeletal support system, and the outer surface of the wall acts like its skin.

Expectations of comfort have increased so buildings contain more operating systems for air, electricity, plumbing, etc.

Steel Frame Construction

expands the post-and-lintel grid vertically as well as laterally

floors are usually poured concrete with embedded metal reinforcing bars

Figure 2.41

2.42 Diagram of steel frame construction and reinforced concrete.

Figure 2.42 (1 of 2)

2.42 Seagram Building at Night, New York City, 1954–1958.

Figure 2.42 (2 of 2)

Steel Frame construction allowed for much taller buildings, which gave rise to the popular 20th-century International Style shown in the Seagram Building.

Architectural features include:

stripped-down facade

glass-covered surface

rectangular boxes

Reinforced Concrete

Also known as ferroconcrete, reinforced concrete has steel reinforcing bars embedded while the concrete is wet, giving the surface tensile strength.

Reinforced concrete was used for the floors of skyscrapers from their earliest days.

Truss and Geodesic Construction (1 of 2)

truss: a skeletal structure based on a frame made of a series of triangles

Truss benefits:

rigidity

can be used to span great spaces

can be used to support other structures

Truss and Geodesic Construction (2 of 2)

geodesic dome: a skeletal frame based on triangles that are grouped into very stable, strong polyhedrons

Geodesic dome benefits:

can be scaled to large size

requires no interior supports

easy to assemble from prefabricated modular parts

can be sheathed in many materials

Figure 2.43

2.43 (A) Truss structural system and (B) geodesic dome structural system.

Suspension and Tensile Construction

consists of steel cables attached to vertical pylons or masts that can support structures like bridges, exhibition tents, or sport arenas

suspended steel cables hold up the roof mesh providing shade over a large area

Figure 2.44

2.44 Gunter Behnisch with Otto Frei. Olympic Stadium, Munich. Munich, Germany, 1972.

Discussion Questions

What role does color play in your daily life? How are you affected by certain colors? How do artists use chance in their art? Do you think that unpredictability in an artwork enhances or diminishes the work?

How does a mediated viewing experience differ with a direct one? What are the ramifications?