personality

Because learning changes everything.®

Chapter 4

Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology

© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 2

Theoretical Issues • Meaningful differences among individuals. • Stability over time. • Consistency across situations. • Person–situation interaction. • Aggregation.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 3

Meaningful Differences among Individuals

There are meaningful differences among individuals (trait psychology is also called differential psychology). People differ in the number of traits they possess. • Differences can be accurately measured.

According to trait psychologists, every personality is the product of a combination of a few basic and primary traits.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 4

Stability over Time Research indicates a degree of stability in personality over time. Although a trait might be stable over time, its manifestation in behavior may change considerably. How can there be stability in a trait if it is known to change with age (for example, impulsivity)? • Focus should be on the rank order differences among

people. • People in general can show a decrease in impulsiveness

as they get older, yet those individuals who were the most impulsive at an earlier age are still the ones who are most impulsive at a later age.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 5

Consistency across Situations 1

Trait psychologists traditionally assumed cross-situational consistency. If situations mainly control how people behave, then the existence or relevance of traits is questionable. Hartshorne and May (19 28) reported low cross-situational correlations for the traits of honesty, helpfulness, and self-control. Mischel (19 68) suggested that personality psychologists should abandon their efforts to explain behavior with traits and focus on situations instead. • Situationism: If behavior varies across situations, then

situational differences, and not personality traits, determine behavior.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 6

Consistency across Situations 2

Mischel’s (19 68) critique encouraged the debate about the importance of traits in comparison to situations in causing behavior. Both sides have modified their views. • Trait psychologists acknowledged the importance of situations. • Situationists acknowledged the importance of traits.

Debate led to two lasting changes. • Focus on person–situation interaction. • Practice of aggregation.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 7

Person–Situation Interaction 1

Two possible explanations for behavior. • Behavior is a function of personality traits. • Behavior is a function of situational forces.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 8

Person–Situation Interaction 2

• Interaction. • Personality and situation interact to produce behavior. • Differences among people make a difference only under

certain circumstances. • Situational specificity: Certain situations can provoke

behavior that is out of character for an individual. • Strong situation: Situations in which most people react in

similar ways (for example, grief following the loss of a loved one).

• When situations are weak or ambiguous, personality has its strongest influence.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 9

Person–Situation Interaction 3

Three additional ways in which personality and situation interact to produce behavior. Situational selection. • Tendency to choose or select situations in which one finds

oneself.

Evocation. • Certain personality traits may evoke specific responses

from the environment.

Manipulation. • Various means by which people influence the behavior of

others; tactics of manipulation vary with personality.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 10

Aggregation • Longer tests are more reliable than shorter ones and are

better measures of traits. • Any single behavior or occasion may be influenced by

extenuating circumstances unrelated to personality. • Aggregation implies that traits are only one influence on

behavior. • Aggregation also implies that traits refer to the person’s

average level.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 11

Measurement Issues 1

Trait approach relies on self-report surveys to measure personality. Personality psychologists assume that people differ in the amounts of various traits they possess. • Key measurement issue is determining how much of a

particular trait a person possesses.

Traits are often represented as dimensions along which people differ. Trait psychologists are aware of and address circumstances that affect accuracy, reliability, validity, and utility of self- report trait measures.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 12

Measurement Issues 2

Carelessness. Embedding an infrequency scale in a test can help detect problems related to carelessness. • Infrequency scale contains items that most people

answer in a particular way. • If a participant answers differently than most, this suggests

carelessness.

Another method for detecting carelessness is to include duplicate items spaced far apart in the survey. • If a person answers the same item differently, this

suggests carelessness.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 13

Measurement Issues 3

Faking on questionnaires. “Fake good.” • Attempting to appear better off or better adjusted than one

is.

“Fake bad.” • Attempting to appear worse off or less adjusted than one

is.

Detected by devising a scale that, if answered in particular way, suggests faking. Beware of Barnum statements in personality test interpretations. • Barnum statement: Generality that could apply to anyone.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 14

Personality and Prediction Whether someone does well in an employment setting may be determined, in part, by whether a person’s personality traits mesh with the job requirements. Personality traits may predict who is likely to do well in a particular job, so it makes sense to select people for employment based on measures of these traits. Integrity tests are surveys designed to assess whether a person is generally honest or dishonest. • Replaced polygraphs in the private sector.

Using tests to select employees has limitations and potential liabilities. • Lawsuits have challenged the use of tests on the grounds of

discrimination, invasion of privacy, and freedom of religion.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 15

Personnel Selection: Choosing the Right Person for the Job

Personality tests are frequently used to screen out “wrong” individuals from a pool of applicants for police officers. Frequently used tests. • Revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (M M

P I 2). • California Personality Inventory (C P I). • 16 Personality Factor (16 P F) questionnaire.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 16

Selection in Business Settings: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (M B T

I) 1

M B T I is the most widely used personality assessment device in business settings. Assesses eight fundamental preferences, which are reduced to four scores. • Extraverted or introverted. • Sensing or intuitive. • Thinking or feeling. • Judging or perceiving.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 17

Selection in Business Settings: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (M B T

I) 2

• Four scores are combined to yield 16 types. • M B T I is used widely to select applicants for leadership

positions. • Criticized regarding its reliability and predictive validity.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 18

Social Desirability Tendency to answer items in such a way so that one comes across as socially attractive or likable. Two views on social desirability. • Represents distortion and should be eliminated or reduced. • Valid part of other desirable personality traits, such as

agreeableness, and should be studied.

© McGraw Hill LLC. 19

Summary and Evaluation • Hallmark of trait perspective is the emphasis on the differences among

people. • Trait psychology assumes that people will be relatively consistent over

time in their behavior because of the various traits they possess. • Traits are more likely to influence a person’s behavior when situations

are weak and ambiguous and don’t push for conformity from all people.

• Personality trait scores refer to average tendencies in behavior. • Trait psychologists are interested in the accuracy of measurement. • Interest in measurement and prediction has led trait psychologists to

apply these skills to the selection or screening of job applicants and other situations where personality might make a difference.

Because learning changes everything.®

www.mheducation.com

End of Main Content

© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.