Parenthood & Children Multi-media Presentation

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Chapter 9

Raising Children in a Diverse Society

Chapter Outline

Parenting in Twenty-First Century America
Gender and Parenting
What Do Children Need?
Experts Advise Authoritative Parenting
Social Class and Parenting

Chapter Outline

Parenting and Diversity: Sexual Identity, Racial/Ethnicity, and Religion
Grandparents as Parents
Parenting Young Adult Children
Toward Better Parenting

Family Groups with Children under 18, 2014

Parents in the Twenty-First Century America

Multipartnered fertility: a person’s having children with more than one partner.

Regardless of living arrangements, today’s parents face questions not considered by parents several decades ago.

Parenting Challenges and Resilience

Positive factors influencing parenting:
Parents have higher level of education today than in the past, including formal knowledge about child development and child-raising techniques.
Fathers are more emotionally involved than several decades ago.

Parenting Challenges and Resilience

Positive factors influencing parenting:
Fewer children exposed to violent crime than in the past.
The Internet provides information for parents regarding just about any situation.
Communication technologies allow for more contact and engagement.

Parenting Challenges and Resilience

Parents face challenges and difficulties, and can make mistakes.
Children, however, are resilient—that is, they can demonstrate the capacity to recover from or rise above adverse situations and events.

Ways that the Social Environment Makes Parenting Difficult

Parenting role conflicts with the working role, with work taking precedence.
A pluralistic society characterized by diverse and conflicting values.
Anxiety about the influence of parenting via increased parenting advice.
Sandwich generation: Caring for young children and for older family members
Support for parents has diminished a parenting has become just one lifestyle choice among many.
Parental authority is often questioned.

A Stress Model of Parental Effectiveness

Stress that parents experience—from sources such as job demands, financial worries, concerns about neighborhood safety, feeling stigmatized due to stereotypes—causes:
parental frustration
anger and depression
increasing likelihood of household conflict

A Stress Model of Parental Effectiveness

This leads to poorer parenting practices:
inconsistent discipline
limited parental warmth or involvement
lower levels of trust and communication
Poorer child outcomes result.
Having social support diminishes this adverse relationship.

Stress Model of Effective Parenting

The Transition to Parenthood

In a classic analysis, social scientist Alice Rossi wrote that the transition to parenthood is very difficult for several reasons:
Abrupt change to 24-hour duty
Interruptions in sleep, work, leisure time
Less time together as a couple
May not have adequate supports
Declines in emotional/sexual relationship

The Transition to Parenthood

Employed mothers with established egalitarian relationships with husbands may find their role becoming more traditional.
If relationship was high quality prior to parenthood, however, the transition was easier.

The Transition to Parenthood

Transition to parenthood can be difficult for a number of reasons, including upset schedules and lack of sleep.
New parents feel overwhelmed while inspiration to overcome their stress is provided by the stressor itself—the child as a source of profound delight.

Selecting a Childcare Facility

Children in nonrelative quality day care may actually benefit in terms of cognitive and linguistic skills when compared with low-income children cared for by their parents.
State laws establish minimal standards, and professional organizations have guidelines for quality child care.

Gender and Parenting

According to cultural tradition, mothers assume primary responsibility for child rearing.
Psychological Parent: Holds major emotional responsibility for safety and upbringing
Historically, fathers have been breadwinners, not expected to be engaged in daily activities/responsibilities.

Gender and Parenting

Today, fathers are expected to also actively participate in the child’s care.
Family members adapt culturally understood roles to their own situations.
Individuals “do” family.

Doing Motherhood

Mothers engage in more hands-on parenting than do fathers.
Take primary responsibility for children’s upbringing.
Mothers define quality time as having heart-to-heart talks or engaging in child-centered activities.
Fathers define quality time as being at home, and being available if needed.

Single Mothers

About 44% of births occur to unmarried women.
Single mothers are aware that to be married is the cultural ideal.
A private safety net is associated with children’s better adjustment.
Many single mothers choose further education. However, the stresses of single parenthood often result in less effective parenting behaviors.

Time with Children

Finding time for themselves can be difficult for all mothers.
One way that mothers cope with time pressures is by taking their babies to exercise classes.

Doing Fatherhood

Fathers’ involvement leads to positive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral outcomes
Fathers’ absence leads to adverse effects on children’s cognitive, moral, and social development
Social Fathers: Nonbiological fathers in the role of fathers, such as stepfathers
Does not improve the adolescents’ outcomes when compared with living in a single-mother household

Doing Fatherhood

Fathers more typically play with and participate in more leisure activities with children.
Better educated fathers with more satisfying jobs showed a higher level of parenting engagement.
Experiencing workplace stressors adds to fathers’ stress, resulting in less effective parenting.

Doing Fatherhood

Married-Couple Families with Stay-at-Home Father
In 2010, about 154,000 married-couple families had a stay-at-home father
This situation is largely seen as a norm violation, despite gender role changes
Experiences speak to joys and challenges of parenting

Doing Fatherhood

Single Fathers
Among families with children under age 18, about 4.7 percent are single-father families
Typically assumed role because they “stepped up”
Often do not rely on extended family support, preferring to “make it” on their own
Resist and challenge stereotypes of masculinity and parenting

Doing Fatherhood

Nonresident Fathers
Biological or adoptive fathers who do not live with one or more of their children
Majority maintain some presence in their children’s lives, though it declines over children’s lifetimes, especially for daughters
Involvement largely depends on relationship with the mother

What Do Children Need?

Encouragement
Adequate nutrition and shelter
Parental interest in their schooling
Consistency in rules and expectations
Guidance congruent with the child’s age or development level

The children in this family have different needs that correspond with their varied ages. Meanwhile all children need encouragement along with consistent parental expectations and rules. Authoritative parents are emotionally involved with their children, setting limits while encouraging them to develop and practice their talents.

Experts Advise Authoritative Parenting

Parenting Style: A general manner of relating to and disciplining children, generally combining parental warmth and parental expectations
Authoritarian
Permissive
Authoritative

Authoritarian Parenting Style

Low on emotional warmth and nurturing
High on parental direction and control
More likely to spank children or use otherwise harsh punishment

Permissive Parenting Style

Low on parental direction or control
High on emotional nurturing
Characterized as indulgent and leading to a “spoiled” child
Emotional neglect—low on both parental direction and emotional support

Authoritative Parenting Style

Positive Parenting
Warm, firm, and fair
Combines emotional nurturing and support with conscientious parental direction
Children do better in school and are socially competent.

Parenting Styles

Low parental warmth and High parental monitoring characterizes authoritarian parenting.
Low parental warmth and Low parental monitoring characterizes permissive-emotional neglect parenting parenting.

Parenting Styles

High parental warmth and High parental monitoring characterizes authoritative/positive parenting.
High parental warmth and Low parental monitoring characterizes permissive-indulgent parenting.

A Closer Look at Diversity: Straight Parents and LGBT Children

How might the stress model of effective parenting be applied to this situation of a LGBT child’s coming out to her or his parents?
How might an authoritarian parent’s reaction to their child’s coming out differ from the response of an authoritative parent?

Spanking

Spanking refers to hitting a child with an open hand without causing physical injury.
Analysis of data from the 13,000 respondents in the National Survey of Families and Households show that about one-third of fathers and 44% of mothers had spanked their children during the week prior to being interviewed.
Recent research shows that corporeal punishment has generally negative effects.

Spanking

Mothers spank more often than fathers.
Younger, less-educated parents in households with more children and less social support, parents who argue a lot with their children, sociopolitical conservatives, and parents who live in violent neighborhoods are more likely to spank.
Some experts advise against EVER spanking; others believe these experts overstate the case.
The American Academy of Pediatrics advises that children less than 2 years old and adolescents never be spanked.

Social Class and Parenting

Socioeconomic Status (SES): One’s position in society, measured by educational achievement, occupation, and/or income
All decisions are influenced by social conditions that expand or limit one’s options.
Family education and income have more influence on parenting behaviors and children’s outcomes than do race/ethnicity or family structure.

Social Class and Parenting

Middle- and Upper-Middle-Class Parents
Can better afford to provide for their children’s needs and wants
Have fewer children
Emphasize concerted cultivation of their child’s talents and development

Social Class and Parenting

Middle- and Upper-Middle-Class Parents
Concerted Cultivation
Often praise their children, play with them, read to them, create and enforce rules about watching TV, engage their children in extracurricular activities, take them on outings, enroll them in private or charter schools, and say there are people in their neighborhood they can count on.

Social Class and Parenting

Middle- and Upper-Middle-Class Parents
Volunteer at the children’s school, thus securing educational advantages for their child.
Likely to get parenting information from professional sources.
Negotiate with their children in ways meant to foster language and critical thinking skills–self-direction, initiative, and self-advocacy.

Social Class and Parenting

Hyperparenting: Intensive Parenting the “Hurried Child” and “Helicopter Parents”
Hyperparenting or intensive parenting: Hovering above and meddling excessively in their children’s lives.
The over-scheduled or “hurried child” is forced to assume too many challenges and responsibilities too soon.

Social Class and Parenting

Hyperparenting: Intensive Parenting the “Hurried Child” and “Helicopter Parents”
Hurried children may achieve in adult ways at a young age, but they also suffer the stress induced by the pressure to achieve.
Or they may “drop out” and abandon goal-directed academic and/or extracurricular activity.

Social Class and Parenting

Working-Class Parents
View concerted development parenting model as negative, creating demanding children.
Tend to follow the accomplishment of natural growth parenting model, according to which children’s abilities are allowed to develop naturally.

Social Class and Parenting

Working-Class Parents
Tend to be authoritarian, emphasizing obedience and conformity
More likely to tell children what to do rather than persuade them with reason
Encourage children to keep their thoughts and questions to themselves
Nevertheless, many are involved in their children’s schools and promote academics

Social Class and Parenting

Working-Class Parents
Working-class children likely to grow up with feelings of discomfort, constraint, and distrust regarding school and work experiences.
This sense of not fitting in can persist into professional careers.

Social Class and Parenting

Low-Income and Poverty-Level Parents
Difficult to establish support systems
Hinders children’s chances for educational success
Struggle to give children a few “extras”
Less likely to live in neighborhoods that value education or high achievement
Parental control more difficult
Decreased mental and physical health

Social Class and Parenting

Homeless Families
Families with children are among the fastest-growing segments of the homeless population.
Families benefit from shelters, but these too can be stressful.
Regulations regarding bedtimes, mealtimes, keeping children quiet; requirement that children be kept with parent at all times

Parenting and Diversity: Sexual Identity, Race/Ethnicity, and Religion

There is considerable overlap among class and racial/ethnic categories.
There is considerable ethnic diversity within racial/ethnic categories.

Same-Sex Parents

Emphasize their similarity to heterosexual parents.
Their children are as well-adjusted as children with heterosexual parents.
However, their children sometimes experience prejudice from friends, classmates, or teachers. Such stigmatization is associated with certain psychological problems, though close friendships can lessen this association.

African American Parents

As with other race/ethnic minorities, African-Americans’ parental attitudes and behaviors are similar to other parents in their socioeconomic status.
The intersection of gender and race with SES means this father, expected to be an effective breadwinner, also risks race discrimination as he navigates a job search in a minimum-wage economy.

Native American Parents

Exercise a permissive parenting style
Demonstrate resilience
Extended family serves as an instrument of group solidarity by reinforcing cultural standards and lending practical assistance

Hispanic Parents

Hierarchical Parenting combines warm emotional support for children with a demand for significant respect for parents, older extended-family members, and other authority figures, may more aptly apply to Hispanic parents.
Intergenerational conflicts may arise as the younger generation becomes more assimilated into U.S. culture.

Asian American Parents

Characterized as authoritarian
Confucian training doctrine: Blends parental love, concern, involvement, and physical closeness with strict and firm control
Conflict can arise with children when they assimilate into American culture and no longer adhere to “traditional” behavioral guidelines.

Parents of Multiracial Children

Nearly 9 million Americans are of mixed race.
Tension over cultural values and attitudes
Multi-racial/ethnic families that foster an explicit identity as multicultural, multiracial, or multiethnic have happier, better-adjusted children.

Parents in Transnational Families

Due to emigration of one or more individuals, family members in different countries maintain relationships across national borders.
In the first half of 2011, according to the Department of Homeland Security, the United States deported approximately 46,500 parents with at least one child who is an American citizen. This has been termed multigenerational punishment.

Religious Minority Parents

Recent studies suggest that regardless of the particular religion, children in families who adhere to a religious belief system tend to be better adjusted.
Families with faith traditions outside the dominant Judeo-Christian culture can experience problems.

Raising Children of Minority Race/Ethnic Identity in a Racist and Discriminatory Society

Fear or discrimination due to racism exacerbates already difficult parenting process for many.
Race socialization: Developing children’s pride in their cultural heritage while warning and preparing them about the possibility of encountering discrimination.

Grandparents As Parents

Grandfamilies: Grandparent families
More than 3.6 million children under 18 are living in a grandparent’s household.
About 11% of U.S. grandparents are raising grandchildren.
Formal kinship care systems can help grandfamilies.

Facts about Families: Foster Parenting

About 402,500 children are in foster care in the United States.
A significant portion of foster care takes place in a trained and licensed foster parent’s home.
Some specialized foster family homes are available for children with specific and complex emotional or medical needs.
Children stay in foster care for an average of two years; the mean age of children in foster care is about eight years.

Facts about Families: Foster Parenting

From the structure-functional perspective, discussed in Chapter 2, foster parents are functional alternatives to biological or adoptive parents.
What are some ways that the foster parent system is functional?
What are some instances in which it could be dysfunctional?

Parenting Young Adult Children

Parent-child relationships often grow closer and less conflicted as adolescents make the transition to adult roles.
More young adult children either do not leave the home, or return as “boomerangers” after college, divorce, or upon finding first jobs unsatisfactory.
Residence-sharing agreements are suggested.

Toward Better Parenting

Optimal parenting involves:
Supportive family communication
Involvement in a child’s life and school
Private safety nets
Adequate economic resources
Workplace policies that facilitate a healthy work-family balance
Safe and healthy neighborhoods
Society-wide policies that bolster all parents