Lab 7: Greenhouse Gases and Sea Level Rise

Greenhouse Gases and Sea Level Rise

Investigation Manual

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Made ADA compliant by NetCentric Technologies using the CommonLook® software

GREENHOUSE GASES AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Overview In this investigation, students will conduct several activities that demonstrate two consequences of anthropogenic carbon emis- sions and climate change: sea level rise and ocean acidification. To complete this lab, students will first create a landform model based on a contour map. They will create models of sea level rise resulting from melting of sea ice and glacier ice and examine the effects of this potential consequence of climate change. The students will then model ocean acidification resulting from increased carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Students will critically examine the model systems used in the experiments.

Outcomes • Explain the causes of increased carbon emissions and their likely

effect on global climate. • Discuss positive and negative climate feedback. • Distinguish between glacial ice melt and oceanic ice melt. • Measure the effect of CO2 gas on seawater acidity. • Construct a 3-D model from a 2-D contour map. • Evaluate and improve a model system.

Time Requirements Preparation ........................................................................ 24 hours Activity 1: Building a Model from a Contour Map ............... 2 hours Activity 2: Sea Ice and Sea Level Rise .................................. 1 hour Activity 3: Glacier Ice and Sea Level Rise ........................ 2.5 hours Activity 4: Ocean Acidification ....................................... 30 minutes Activity 5: Improving the Model (Optional) .................... 45 minutes

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Key Personal protective equipment (PPE)

goggles gloves apron follow link to video

photograph results and

submit

stopwatch required

warning corrosion flammable toxic environment health hazard

goggles gloves apron follow link to video

photograph results and

submit

stopwatch required

warning corrosion flammable toxic environment health hazard

Table of Contents 2 Overview 2 Outcomes 2 Time Requirements 3 Background 9 Materials 10 Safety 10 Preparation 11 Activity 1 11 Activity 2 12 Activity 3 13 Activity 4 14 Activity 5 14 Disposal and Cleanup 15 Data Tables

Background For the last 30 years, controversy has surrounded the ideas of global warming/climate change. However, the scientific concepts behind the theory are not new. In the 1820s, Joseph Fourier was the first to recognize that, given the earth’s size and distance from the sun, the planet’s surface temperature should be considerably cooler than it was. He proposed several mecha- nisms to explain why the earth was warmer than his calculations predicted, one of which was that the earth’s atmosphere might act as an insulator. Forty years later, John Tyndall demonstrated that different gases have different capacities to absorb infrared radiation, most notably methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapor (H2O), all of which are present in the atmosphere. In 1896, Svante Arrhenius developed the first mathematical model of the effect of increased CO2 levels on temperature. His model predicted that a doubling of the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere would produce a 5 to 6 °C increase in temperature globally. Based on the level of CO2 production in the late 19th century, he predicted that this change could take place over thousands of years, if at all. Arrhenius used Arvid Högbom’s calculations of industrial CO2 emis- sions in his equations. Högbom thought that the excess CO2 would be absorbed by the ocean; others believed that the effect of CO2 was insignificant next to the much larger effect of water vapor.

It was not until the late 1950s, when the CO2 absorption capacity of the ocean was better understood and significant increases in CO2 levels were being observed by G. S. Callendar (a 10% increase from the 1850s to the 1950s), that Arrhenius’s calculations received renewed attention.

The Atmosphere Weather is the condition of the atmosphere in a given location at a specific time. Climate is the prevailing weather pattern over a longer period of time (decades or centuries).

The atmosphere is a thin shell (~100 km) of gases that envelops the earth. It is made up principally of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and argon (0.9%). Trace gases include methane (CH4), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and oxides of nitrogen (e.g., NO2) and sulfur (e.g., SO2). Water vapor is not usually included in the composition of gases in the atmosphere because its amount varies widely, from 0% to 4%, depending on location. The concentration of gases in the atmosphere is not uniform either; the atmosphere consists of several concentric layers. Some gases are concentrated at certain altitudes. Water is concentrated near Earth’s surface, for instance, and ozone is concentrated 20 to 30 kilometers above the surface. Energy transfer from the sun at and near the surface of the earth is respon- sible for weather and climate. Solar radiation heats land, the oceans, and atmospheric gases differently, resulting in the constant transfer of energy across the globe.

Several factors interact to cause areas of Earth’s surface and atmosphere to heat at different rates, called differential heating. The first is the angle at which the sun’s light hits the earth. When the sun is directly overhead, as it is at the equator, the light is direct. Each square mile of incoming sunlight hits one square mile of the earth. At higher latitudes, the sun hits at an angle, spreading the one square mile of sunlight

Figure 1.

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GREENHOUSE GASES AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Background continued

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over more of Earth’s surface. Thus, the intensity of the light is reduced and the surface does not warm as quickly (see Figure 1). This causes the tropics, near the equator, to be warmer and the poles to be cooler.

Different materials absorb heat and cool at different rates. Darker surfaces heat faster than lighter surfaces. Water has a high heat capacity, which is important on a planet with a surface of 72% water. Heat capacity is the number of heat units required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree. The heat capacity of water in liquid form is roughly 4 times that of air. Water is slow to warm and slow to cool in relation to land. This contributes to differential heating of the earth.

Differential heating causes circulation in the atmosphere and in the oceans. Warmer fluids are less dense and rise, leaving behind an area of low pressure. Air and water move laterally to

Figure 1.

equalize the change in pressure. This is critical in developing prevailing wind patterns and in cycling nutrients through the ocean.

The Role of the Oceans The oceans play an important role in regulating the atmosphere as well. The large volume of the oceans, combined with the high heat capacity of water, prevent volatile temperature swings in the atmosphere. When the percentage of a gas in the atmosphere increases, the rate of diffusion of the gas across the water/air inter- face increases. The relatively large surface area of the oceans, ~70% of the surface of Earth, means that the oceans can absorb large amounts of atmospheric CO2. When seawater absorbs CO2, chemical reactions take place that lower seawater pH by forming carbonic acid which further break down to bicarbonate and carbonate.

How long it takes the CO2 and its derivatives to diffuse throughout the oceans depends largely on ocean currents, which are in turn affected by the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Gases The greenhouse effect is a natural process; without it, the earth would be significantly cooler. The sun emits energy in a broad range of wavelengths. Most energy from the sun passes through the atmosphere. Some is reflected by the atmosphere and some by Earth’s surface

CO2(aq) + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+ CO2– + 2H+ 3 dissolved carbon dioxide

water carbonic acid

bicarbonate carbonate

hydrogen ions

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back into space, but much of it is absorbed by the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. Absorbed energy is converted into infrared energy, or heat. Oxygen and nitrogen allow incoming sunlight and outgoing thermal infrared energy to pass through. Water vapor, CO2, methane, and some trace gases absorb infrared energy; these are the greenhouse gases. After absorbing energy, the greenhouse gases radiate it in all directions, causing the temperature of the atmosphere and the earth to rise.

Greenhouse gases that contribute to the insula- tion of the earth can be grouped into 2 catego- ries: condensable and persistent. Persistent gases—such as CO2, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3)—exist in the environment for much longer periods of time than condens- able gases. These times can range from a few years to thousands of years. The longer residence allows them to become well-mixed geographically. The amount of a condensable gas is temperature dependent. Water is the primary greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, but because it is condensable, it is not considered a forcing factor as it typically cycles into and out of the atmosphere every 9 days. Forcing factors (forcings) are features of the earth’s climate system that drive climate change; they may be internal or external to the planet and its atmo- sphere. Feedbacks are events that take place as a result of forcings.

Carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases iden- tified by Tyndall as having high heat capacities make up a relatively minor fraction of the atmo- sphere, but they have a critical effect on the temperature of the earth. Without the

naturally occurring greenhouse effect, it is estimated that the earth’s average temperature would be approximately–18 °C (0 °F). The green- house effect also acts as a buffer, slowing both the warming during the day and the cooling at night. This is an important feature of the earth’s atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the temperature would drop below the freezing point of water and the amount of water in the atmosphere would plummet, creating a feed- back loop. A feedback loop is a mechanism that either enhances (positive feedback loop) or dampens (negative feedback) the effect that triggers it.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased from approximately 280 ppm to 379 ppm. This change is attributed to the burning of fossil fuels—such as coal, oil, and natural gas— and changes in land use, i.e., cutting down large tracts of old-growth forests. Old-growth forests, like fossil fuels, sequester carbon from the atmo- sphere. Burning of either releases that carbon into the atmosphere in the form of CO2. Clearing old-growth forests has an additional impact on the carbon cycle because trees actively remove CO2 from the atmosphere to convert it to sugar and carbohydrates. Removing long-lived trees and replacing them with short-lived crops and grasses reduces the time over which the carbon is removed from the atmosphere.

Determining the exact effect that the increase in CO2 concentrations will have on atmospheric temperature is complicated by a variety of inter- actions and potential feedback loops.

GREENHOUSE GASES AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Background continued Potential Feedback Loops Some examples of potential positive feedback loops that may increase the effects of global warming are:

1. Higher temperatures cause more ocean water to evaporate as water vapor enters into the atmosphere. More water vapor in the atmosphere traps more heat, further increasing temperature.

2. Melting of sea ice and glaciers, which are relatively light in color, to darker bodies of water decreases the albedo (the amount of energy reflected back into space) of Earth’s surface, increasing temperatures.

3. Warmer temperatures melt more of the arctic permafrost, releasing methane into the atmosphere, further raising temperatures.

4. Higher temperatures may result in greater rainfall in the North Atlantic, and melting of sea ice creates a warm surface layer of fresh water there. This would block formation of sea ice and disrupt the sinking of cold, salty water. It may also slow deep oceanic currents that carry carbon, oxygen, nutrients, and heat around the globe.

Other factors may work as negative feedbacks, dampening the effects of global warming:

1. An increase in the CO2 level in the atmosphere leads to an increase in CO2 in the oceans, stabilizing CO2 levels.

2. Increased atmospheric temperatures and CO2 promote plant and algae growth, increasing absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere, lowering the CO2 levels there and stabilizing temperature.

3. Warmer air, carrying more moisture, produces more snow at high latitudes. This increases the albedo of Earth’s surface, stabilizing temperature.

4. Warmer, moister air produces more clouds, which also increases the albedo of Earth’s surface, stabilizing temperature.

The relative impact of each of these potential effects is a subject of debate and leads to the uncertainty in models used to predict future climate change resulting from an increase in anthropogenic (human-caused) greenhouse gases.

Possible Consequences Consequences of an increase in average temperature are difficult to predict on a regional scale; some consequences, however, can be predicted with a relatively high degree of confi- dence. One of these is sea level rise. Sea level rise is the result of two processes. The first is the melting of glaciers and Antarctic continental ice. Although the melting of sea ice can have complex consequences due to the different densities of salt and fresh water, it will not cause sea level rise. Melting of glaciers and the deep ice over the Antarctic continent, however, can. The second cause of sea level rise, related to warmer temperatures, is that water slightly expands as it warms. As the oceans warm, the water rises farther up the shore. Countries and cities that have large portions of their land area at or just above sea level may be in jeopardy.

The loss of mountain glaciers is already causing changes in freshwater availability. As glaciers shrink, regions that depend on seasonal

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meltwater for either hydroelectric power or for irrigation and drinking water are increas- ingly affected. Whereas rainfall may increase in these regions (even as the amount of snowmelt decreases), rainwater is considerably more diffi- cult to control, because it does not occur at as predictable a rate as meltwater. River systems may be overwhelmed by increased runoff rates, which can cause flooding. One of the richest agricultural regions in the world, California, depends heavily on snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada. One of the world’s most populous river valleys, the Indus, is equally dependent on snowmelt from the Himalayas.

Ocean acidification is another potential con- sequence of increased atmospheric CO2 levels. Early climate researchers believed that the ocean would eventually absorb much of the anthropogenic CO2. How much it will ultimately be able to absorb is still a matter of debate, but CO2 absorption is not without consequences. As already discussed, absorption of CO2 by seawater results in lowering of seawater pH and changes in biologically important calcium carbonate minerals.

Most organisms are adapted to a narrow range of pH, and any shift can cause stress to entire ecosystems. For instance, an increase in ocean acidity will have a negative effect on production of shells made of calcium carbonate.

Less predictable consequences are the shifting of global weather patterns and the subsequent changes in natural populations. Areas previously ideal for agriculture may become too arid for crop growth. Climates that are more northerly

may experience an increase in productivity. These shifts will put stress on ecosystems as well. How resilient each community is to the change will vary with location and other pres- sures.

Modeling The atmosphere and climate are highly complex systems that are often challenging to under- stand and predict. To explore complex systems, scientists frequently employ models. A model is a simplification of a complex process that isolates certain factors likely to be important. Sometimes a model can be a physical represen- tation of something too big or too small to see, such as a model solar system. Frequently, scien- tists use mathematical equations derived from observed data to predict future conditions. With the addition of computers, these mathematical equations can be linked together in increasingly sophisticated ways to model multiple factors in 3 dimensions. Even with advanced computing power, some factors within the model may be simplified. How they are represented within the model can lead to a degree of error in the outcome predicted by the model. Ultimately, the quality of a model is determined by its success in predicting events.

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Figure 3.

GREENHOUSE GASES AND SEA LEVEL RISE

Background continued Contour Maps To determine potential flood risks, scientists, engineers, and insurance companies use a number of tools, including historic river flow, storm tide and rainfall data, hydrological anal- ysis, and topographic surveys.

Topographic surveys can be represented graph- ically as maps with contour lines (see Figure 2). Each contour line represents an elevation on the terrain. Figure 2B shows the contour map from Figure 2A overlaid on the terrain it was mapped from. Elevations are marked on the map at set intervals, depending on the scale of the map. Small-scale maps might have a contour interval of 5 feet. Maps of a continent may have an interval of thousands of feet. All points connected by a given contour line are at the same elevation. Depressions in the landscape, such as craters and basins, are marked with a hatched line, as seen in Figure 3.

In the following activities, you will be asked to use a contour map to generate a landform model. You will use this model to examine the consequences of sea level rise.

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A.

B.

Figure 2.

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Materials Needed from the materials kit:

Modeling clay, 2 pieces

2 Medicine cups

Plastic container with lid

Alka-Seltzer® effervescent tablet

Beaker, 250 mL

Universal Indicator pH Color Chart

Plastic cup, 10 oz

Sharpie® marker

Bogen Universal Indicator Solution

Ruler

2 Incense cones

Food coloring

Needed from the equipment kit:

Reorder Information: Replacement supplies for the Greenhouse Gases and Sea Level Rise investigation can be ordered from Carolina Biological Supply Company, item number 580801.

Call: 800.334.5551 to order.

Needed but not supplied: • Blank white paper • Water • Printout of page 16 • Freezer • Salt, 3 tsp • Scissors

• Pencil • 2 Coins (dimes or

pennies) • Timer • Teaspoon

Safety Goggles, gloves, and an apron are required when handling the Bogen Universal Indicator Solution and the Alka- Seltzer® effervescent tablet.

Read all the instructions for this laboratory activity before beginning. Follow the instruc- tions closely and observe established labo- ratory safety practices, including the use of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) described in the Safety and Activity sections.

Bogen Universal Indicator Solution is a flammable liquid and vapor, and causes damage to organs if ingested.

Do not eat, drink, or chew gum while performing this activity. Wash your hands with soap and water before and after performing the activity. Clean the work area with soap and water after completing the investigation. Keep pets and children away from lab materials and equipment.

Preparation 1. Read through the activities.

2. Obtain all materials.

3. At least 24 hours before Activity 2, prepare 2 colored ice cubes: a. Fill each medicine cup with tap water to

the 20-mL mark. b. Add approximately 5 drops of food

coloring to each cup. c. Place the cups inside the plastic container

to contain spills, and place the container in the freezer.

d. Allow the mixture to freeze for at least 24 hours.

e. Once the mixture is frozen, the cups may be removed from the plastic container.

GREENHOUSE GASES AND SEA LEVEL RISE

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1. Print the Contour Map Template (Figure 5, page 16), and cut out the island represented along the lowest contour line. This will eventually serve as the base of the island.

2. Take out a package of clay and knead the clay to soften it.

3. Using your hand, flatten the clay into a thin, round layer.

4. Place the flattened round on a piece of scrap paper or a plastic bag to prevent it from sticking to the work surface, and work or roll the clay into a thin 2- to 3-mm layer that is large enough to place the cutout on. (Try using the Sharpie® marker as a rolling pin.)

5. Place the island template on the clay and, using a pencil, trace around it, cutting into the clay.

6. Remove the template from the clay. 7. Peel the clay off the work surface and place

the inner, template-shaped piece into the plastic container. Gently press down on any ridges formed on the layer by the cutting, making the layer as flat as possible.

8. Work the remaining clay into a ball. 9. Trim the outer contour off the template. 10. Repeat steps 3–9 for the second and third

contours, placing each subsequent contour on top of the previous one, building the island model.

11. Roll out the fourth layer of clay. Place the template on the clay and cut the fourth contour in the clay. This time, however, do not place the cutout contour on top of the previous one, but leave it on your work space.

12. Trim the paper along the hatched line. 13. Place the ring paper template that you just

cut out on the clay. 14. Trace the template with a pencil, cutting into

the clay. This will form a ring from the fourth layer of clay.

15. Remove the thin ring of clay from your work paper and place it on the island model in the plastic container, completing your hill. You will use this container and landform in subsequent activities.

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ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 1 A Building a Model from a

Contour Map

Note: Although the clay is nontoxic, care should be taken when working with it because the color will frequently transfer to your hands, clothes, and work surface. You may want to wear gloves and an apron while working.

ACTIVITY 2

1. Fill the beaker with 150 mL of water, and then pour the water into the plastic cup.

2. Add 1 tsp of salt and stir until the salt is completely dissolved to prepare saltwater.

3. Remove 1 colored ice cube from its cup (from the Preparation section), and place it in the container away from the island so that no

A Sea Ice and Sea Level Rise

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part of the ice rests on the clay (See Figure 4). Leave the other colored ice cube in the freezer to use with Activity 3.

4. Pour the saltwater into the container, being careful not to pour water on the ice, until the bottom 2 layers of the island are completely covered. (You may not need all of the saltwater.)

5. Estimate the depth of the water in meters (m) represented in the model based on the contours. Record that depth in Data Table 1. Measure the actual depth with a ruler. Record that depth in centimeters (cm) in Data Table 1.

6. Place a coin on the north side of the island along the steepest slope, so that the edge of the coin barely touches the edge of the water.

7. Place the other coin on the south side of the island, also just touching the water, along a more gradual slope. These represent coastal cities with very different topography.

8. At 10-minute intervals, observe the model from above and from the sides. You may see a layer of colored water developing. Estimate the depth of the water in meters, and measure the depth with the ruler in centimeters. Write your observations in Data Table 1.

9. When the ice has completely melted, record the depth of the water in Data Table 1.

10. Record your observations of how much of each coin is underwater in Data Table 1. Take a photograph of your completed model showing the locations of the coins relative to the water.

ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 3

11. Remove the coins from the model. Without disturbing the island, gently pour the water out of the container into a sink. Flush the dyed water with running water for 30 seconds.

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1. Fill the beaker with 150 mL of water, and pour it into the plastic cup.

2. Add 1 tsp of salt and stir until the salt is completely dissolved to prepare saltwater.

3. Remove the remaining colored ice cube from its cup and place it on top of the island.

A Glacier Ice and Sea Level Rise

Figure 4.

Note: In order to view the water layers as they are forming, it may be helpful to view the water through the side of the container with a piece of white paper behind it.

ACTIVITY 2 continued

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4. Pour the saltwater into the container, taking care not to pour water over the ice or the island, until the bottom 2 layers are completely covered. (You may not need all of the saltwater.)

5. Estimate the depth of the water based on the contours. Record that depth in Data Table 2. Measure the depth with a ruler. Record that depth in Data Table 2.

6. Place a coin on the north side of the island along the steepest slope, so that the coin edge barely touches the edge of the water.

7. Place the other coin on the south side of the island, also just touching the water, along a more gradual slope. These represent coastal cities with very different topography.

8. At 30-minute intervals, observe the model from above and from the side. You may see a layer of colored water developing. Estimate the depth of the water in meters, and measure the depth with the ruler in centimeters. Write your observations in Data Table 2.

9. When the ice has completely melted, estimate the depth of the water using the contours, and measure the depth of the water with a ruler. Record your results in Data Table 2.

10. Record your observations of how much of each coin is underwater in Data Table 2. Take a photograph of your completed model showing the location of the coins relative to the water.

11. Without disturbing the island, gently pour the water out of the container into a sink. Flush the dyed water with running water for 30 seconds.

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ACTIVITY 4

In this activity, you will create an atmosphere with a high concentration of CO2 by submerging an effervescent tablet, such as an Alka-Seltzer® tablet, in water. In the presence of water, the components of effervescent antacid tablets— citric acid (C6H8O7) and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda, NaHCO3)—react to form sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7), water, and carbon dioxide (CO2).

1. Rinse 1 medicine cup thoroughly before beginning this activity.

2. Fill the beaker with 150 mL of water, and pour the water into the plastic cup.

3. Add 1 tsp of salt and stir until the salt is completely dissolved to prepare saltwater.

4. Add 20 drops (~1 mL) of Bogen Universal Indicator Solution to the saltwater. Gently swirl the cup to mix the solution into the water.

5. Pour this mixture into the container until the bottom 3 layers of the island model are covered. Take a photograph of your model showing the color of the water.

6. Using the Universal Indicator pH Color Chart, record the pH of the saltwater by matching the color of the mixture to the corresponding pH colors in the chart.

7. Add 10 mL of water to the clean medicine cup.

8. Place the medicine cup on top of the landform.

9. Unwrap an Alka-Seltzer® tablet, and place it in the medicine cup. Quickly cover the

A Ocean Acidification

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container with the lid, ensuring that the container is closed and that the CO2 bubbling out of the medicine cup is contained.

10. Start the timer. Observe the surface layer of water from the side. At 1, 2, 5, and 10 minutes, note the color of the surface layer, and make observations. Record your data in Data Table 3.

11. Leave the model undisturbed for 1 hour. Observe the layers again, and record your observations. Take a photograph of your model showing the color of the water.

ACTIVITY 5 Improving the Model (Optional) Use the materials provided and the results of Activity 4 to improve or expand the model. For an additional option, 2 incense cones are included in the investigation materials. Incense cones, when lit, will release carbon dioxide into the closed container. Consider the following questions to help redesign your model:

1. Were there any areas where the model differed from reality?

a. Could you create a more realistic model? b. What factors would you change? 2. What factors might affect the outcome of the

model experiment? a. Can you design an experiment to test the

effects of one of those factors? b. How would you control factors not being

tested?

ACTIVITY

Disposal and Cleanup 1. Dispose of solutions down the drain with the

water running. Allow the faucet to run for a few minutes to dilute the solutions.

2. Rinse and dry the lab equipment, and return the materials to your equipment kit.

3. Dispose of the rinsed clay in a trash can. 4. Clean the work space.

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ACTIVITY 4 continued

A

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Observations Data Table 1. Sea Ice

Time (min)

Estimated Depth (m)

Measured Depth (cm) Observations

0

10

20

30

40

50 melted

Time (min)

Estimated Depth (m)

Measured Depth (cm) Observations

0

30

60

90

120

150 melted

Data Table 2. Glacier Ice

Data Table 3. Ocean Acidification

Time (min) Color Observations

1

2

5

10

60

ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 1 continued

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Kilometers

Contour interval = 25 m

Figure 5. Contour Map Template

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NOTES

NOTES

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Greenhouse Gases and Sea Level Rise

Investigation Manual

www.carolina.com/distancelearning 866.332.4478

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